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= Operation Whirlwind =
Operation Whirlwind ( Croatian : Operacija Vihor ) was a failed Croatian Army ( HV ) offensive in the Banovina region of Croatia , fought from 11 – 13 December 1991 , during the early stages of the Croatian War of Independence . The offensive employed a single infantry brigade as the main attacking force , supported by a bridging unit and a handful of tanks and armoured personnel carriers . Although the offensive met hardly any resistance in its initial stage , achieving tactical surprise , the operation was poorly planned , supported and executed as a result of limited training and combat experience . The offensive established a short @-@ lived bridgehead , evacuated in panic two days after the operation commenced , under tank and mortar fire from the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) deployed north of Glina .
The operation was criticised for its poor planning and execution , insufficient preparation , reconnaissance and training , and inappropriate command and control methods applied by the Sisak Operational Group in charge of the offensive . It also lacked clear objectives . Afterwards , Croatian military authorities investigated the offensive , but found that there was very little written documentation , including written unit @-@ level orders , pertaining to the operation . That led Admiral Davor Domazet @-@ Lošo to conclude that the offensive was not formally authorised . The formal investigation did not specifically charge anyone with the failures , simply specifying the problems observed instead .
= = Background = =
In 1990 , following the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia , ethnic tensions worsened . The Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) confiscated Croatia 's Territorial Defence ( Teritorijalna obrana - TO ) weapons to minimize resistance . On 17 August , the tensions escalated into an open revolt by Croatian Serbs , centred on the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around Knin , parts of the Lika , Kordun , Banovina and eastern Croatia . This was followed by two unsuccessful attempts by Serbia , supported by Montenegro and Serbia 's provinces of Vojvodina and Kosovo to obtain the Yugoslav Presidency 's approval for a JNA operation to disarm Croatian security forces in January 1991 .
After a bloodless skirmish between Serb insurgents and Croatian special police in March , the JNA itself , supported by Serbia and its allies , asked the Federal Presidency to give it wartime authorities and declare a state of emergency . The request was denied on 15 March , and the JNA came under the control of Serbian President Slobodan Milošević . Milošević , preferring a campaign to expand Serbia rather than to preserve Yugoslavia , publicly threatened to replace the JNA with a Serbian army and declared that he no longer recognized the authority of the Federal Presidency . By the end of the month , the conflict had escalated into the Croatian War of Independence . The JNA stepped in , increasingly supporting the Croatian Serb insurgents , and preventing Croatian police from intervening . In early April , the leaders of the Croatian Serb revolt declared their intention to integrate the area under their control , known as SAO Krajina , with Serbia . The Government of Croatia viewed this declaration as an attempt to secede .
In May , the Croatian government responded by forming the Croatian National Guard ( Zbor narodne garde - ZNG ) , but its development was hampered by a United Nations ( UN ) arms embargo introduced in September . On 8 October , Croatia declared independence from Yugoslavia , and a month later the ZNG was renamed the Croatian Army ( Hrvatska vojska - HV ) . Late 1991 saw the fiercest fighting of the war , as the 1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia culminated in the Siege of Dubrovnik , and the Battle of Vukovar . In western Slavonia , the HV managed to push back the JNA at several points , and secure Papuk Mountain in early December in Operation Otkos 10 .
= = Order of battle = =
The principal force committed to the offensive , planned by the HV Sisak Operational Group ( OG ) , was the 102nd Infantry Brigade , attached to the Sisak OG by the Zagreb Operational Zone command , as the single combat unit deployed as a reserve in the Sisak OG area of responsibility ( AOR ) .
Besides the 102nd Brigade , commanded by Captain Franc Ferenčak , the Zagreb Operational Zone deployed an armoured @-@ mechanised unit , attached directly to the Zagreb Operational Zone , into the Sisak OG AOR . The unit consisted of eight tanks and two armoured personnel carriers .
The Sisak OG assigned the 10th Brigade of the Croatian TO to support the right flank of the 102nd Infantry Brigade . Protection of the left flank was assigned to the 2nd Battalion of the 2nd Guards Brigade , supported by the 2nd Battalion of the 144th Infantry Brigade .
To reinforce the 102nd Infantry Bridade and the independent armoured @-@ mechanised unit , ten soldiers from the Glina Battalion were attached to each battalion of the 10th and 102nd brigades ; two soldiers were assigned to serve as guides for each tank . In addition , the Glina Battalion was tasked with reconnaissance , harassment of JNA 's rear and securing captured infrastructure .
Sisak special police were assigned to support the Glina Battalion , and indirectly the main offensive force . The 36th Engineering @-@ Pontoon Battalion was tasked with the Kupa River crossing by the 102nd Infantry Brigade . The Sisak OG was commanded by Major General Božo Budimir .
The Croatian Serb TO and JNA defences immediately west of the city of Sisak and north of Glina were positioned along the right ( southern ) bank of the Kupa River , largely consisting of the JNA 592nd and the 622nd Mechanised Brigades . On the opposite bank , the HV 100th Infantry Brigade held positions west of Sisak , flanked by the 145th Infantry Brigade to its right , and the 10th brigade of the Croatian TO further to the west . The planned main axis of the Operation Whirlwind extended across the 592nd Mechanised Brigade AOR , commanded by Colonel Boško Džombić .
= = Timeline = =
The HV 102nd Infantry Brigade arrived at the Sisak OG AOR on 11 December 1992 , and was ordered to undertake the offensive on the same evening , at about 20 : 00 , leaving no time for any preparation or reconnaissance . A reconnaissance – sabotage detachment of the HV Glina Battalion and the special police force were ferried across the Kupa River on the night of 11 / 12 December , capturing the village of Stankovac and preparing to support the 102nd Infantry Brigade at the river crossing . The 36th Engineering @-@ Pontoon Battalion completed a crossing point in the village of Šišinec by 4 : 00 and the lead elements of the 102nd Infantry Brigade crossed the Kupa River a half @-@ hour later .
The river crossing was unopposed until 08 : 00 , when the defending force launched a mortar attack against the crossing point . Nonetheless , the 1st Battalion of the 102nd Infantry Brigade cleared the river by 09 : 00 that morning and reached Stankovac .
After spending three hours crossing the Kupa River , by 13 : 00 the independent armoured @-@ mechanised unit was headed for Mala Solina , 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 miles ) to the south . However , the unit was intercepted by JNA armour and forced to turn back to Stankovac . To further complicate the situation for the HV , the 10th Brigade did not even start to move south , while the 2nd Battalion of the 102nd Independent Brigade would not cross Kupa before its commander joined the unit at 16 : 00 .
The 3rd Battalion of the 102nd Infantry Brigade reached the village of Vratečko on the right ( southern ) bank of the Kupa River , but was unable to join the force south of Kupa . A bridge separating the battalion from the rest of the brigade remained out of HV 's control .
By the evening , the 2nd Battalion was ordered to separate from the main axis of the offensive and protect the right flank of the 1st Battalion of the 102nd Brigade — performing the task originally assigned to the 10th Brigade of the Croatian TO . At the same time , the 10th Brigade commanding officer was relieved of duty for failure to advance . Regardless , the unit remained inactive . The HV units that managed to cross the river on 12 December surprised the JNA and reported inflicting considerable casualties .
On the night of 12 / 13 December , the air temperature dropped to − 15 ° C ( 5 ° F ) , and HV troops sought shelter in Stankovac until the morning — shrinking the bridgehead held by the 102nd Infantry Brigade . In addition , the 36th Engineering @-@ Platoon Battalion removed engineering equipment from the Kupa crossing , leaving behind only four to six boats . The command post of the 102nd Infantry Brigade remained in Farkašić , detached from the main offensive force in Stankovac .
On 13 December , at approximately 07 : 00 , the independent HV armoured @-@ mechanised unit advanced northwest along the Kupa , towards Gračanica . During the advance , one of the tanks was captured and its crew killed after the capture . Nearly simultaneously , the JNA commenced a tank and mortar attack against Stankovac and the river crossing at Šišinec . The HV armoured @-@ mechanised unit and the 1st Battalion of the 102nd Infantry Brigade panicked , believing the crossing point was lost , and started to fall back to Šišinec in disarray , sustaining considerable casualties . Since there was no way to transport the remaining HV armour across the Kupa River , the tanks were destroyed by one of the force 's own tanks . That tank was then destroyed with explosives to prevent its capture . As there were too few boats at the river crossing to allow a quick retreat , some of the troops swam across the river , causing several to drown in very cold water . The command post of the brigade fell back to Galdovo , while the troops started to retreat to Zagreb . The entire brigade was back in Zagreb by 15 December .
= = Aftermath = =
While the JNA 's casualties are not known , the HV sustained a loss of 18 killed and 18 wounded , as well as a loss of eight tanks , two armoured personnel carriers and seven boats . The 2 @,@ 011 @-@ strong 102nd Infantry Brigade alone suffered 13 dead . Their names were later inscribed on a memorial plaque in Šišinec , at the Kupa River crossing point . In the aftermath of the offensive , there were speculations in Croatia that the casualties were much higher , possibly as many as 60 killed and 200 wounded .
A Croatian Serb paramilitary unit , " Šiltovi " , based in Glina , is suspected of killing HV troops taken as prisoners of war during the retreat . In addition , Croatian Serb forces killed 21 civilians in the Joševica massacre as retribution for the HV offensive . The killing was investigated by SAO Krajina authorities , which concluded that the killings were in revenge for the deaths of 21 Serb paramilitaries in the village of Gračenica in Operation Whirlwind . In 2010 , Croatian authorities charged six individuals with war crimes committed in the village of Joševica .
The failed offensive was investigated by the HV in 1991 and researched later by retired HV Brigadier Vlado Hodalj . He concluded that the offensive failed because of overall poor planning and preparation , specifically citing the lack of reconnaissance and reserves . Furthermore , Hodalj cited inadequate leadership by the Sisak OG as a cause of the failure , pointing to inaction in respect of the 10th Brigade 's failure to advance and improper employment of the 2nd Guards Brigade in an auxiliary role , protecting the flank of an inexperienced brigade that was committed to the offensive with little , if any , training . Finally , the offensive itself had no clear goal . Croatian Admiral Davor Domazet @-@ Lošo also criticised the offensive as an unnecessary , purely tactical and politically counterproductive move , likely unauthorised by appropriate authorities .
Hodalj praised the Sisak OG command for managing to keep the operation a secret until it was launched , making sure it would surprise the JNA . The secrecy was reflected in the apparent last @-@ minute rerouting of the 102nd Infantry Brigade to the offensive , although the Zagreb Operational Zone deployed it to Sunja , to the east of Sisak . Still , the Sisak OG failed to prepare detailed river crossing plans , or even issue maps and written brigade @-@ level commands for the crossings — relying on oral commands instead . Likewise , the troops were not equipped to endure the cold weather in the open , limiting their effectiveness . Hodalj concluded that the offensive exceeded needs and capabilities of the Sisak OG . Even though the 1991 HV investigation concluded that the offensive was prepared for ten days and was approved by Zagreb Operational Zone command , there are no documents pertaining to the preparations other than those issued by the Sisak OG itself . Regardless of the poor preparation of the offensive , the 102nd Infantry Brigade was subject to public criticism in Croatia for fleeing the battlefield in the aftermath of Operation Whirlwind .
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= Burnt Norton =
Burnt Norton is the first poem of T. S. Eliot 's Four Quartets . He created it while working on his play Murder in the Cathedral and it was first published in his Collected Poems 1909 – 1935 ( 1936 ) . The poem 's title refers to a Cotswolds manor house Eliot visited . The manor 's garden served as an important image within the poem . Structurally , the poem is based on Eliot 's The Waste Land with passages of the poem related to those excised from Murder in the Cathedral .
The central discussion within the poem is on the nature of time and salvation . Eliot emphasises the need of the individual to focus on the present moment and to know that there is a universal order . By understanding the nature of time and the order of the universe , mankind is able to recognise God and seek redemption . Many reviewers of Burnt Norton focused on the uniqueness and beauty of the poem . However , others complained that the poem does not reflect Eliot 's earlier greatness and that the use of Christian themes harmed the poem .
= = Background = =
The concept of Burnt Norton is connected to Eliot 's Murder in the Cathedral ; he worked on the poem while the play was being produced during 1935 . The connection between the poem and the play is deep ; many of the lines for the poem come from lines originally created for the play that were , on E. Martin Brown 's advice , removed from the script . Years later , Eliot recollected :
There were lines and fragments that were discarded in the course of the production of Murder in the Cathedral . ' Can 't get them over on the stage , ' said the producer , and I humbly bowed to his judgment . However , these fragments stayed in my mind , and gradually I saw a poem shaping itself round them : in the end it came out as ' Burnt Norton.'
Like many of Eliot 's works , the poem was compiled from various fragments that were reworked over many years . To structure the poem , Eliot turned to the organisation of The Waste Land .
In 1936 , the poem was included in Collected Poems 1909 – 1935 , of which 11 @,@ 000 copies were published ; the collection symbolically represented the completion of his former poems and his moving onto later works . " Burnt Norton " was Eliot 's only major poem to be completed during a six @-@ year period as he turned to writing plays and continued with his work on essays . The poem was re @-@ published as an independent work in 1941 , the same year " East Coker " and " The Dry Salvages " , two later poems of the Four Quartets , were published .
The actual Burnt Norton is a manor located near the village of Aston Subedge in Gloucestershire that Eliot visited with Emily Hale during 1934 . The original Norton House was a mansion burned down in 1741 by its owner , Sir William Keyt , who died in the fire . Even though Eliot was married , he spent a lot of time with Hale and might possibly have become involved with her had he not been married . Even after their time at Burnt Norton , Eliot stayed in close correspondence with her and sent her many of his poems . The actual manor does not serve as an important location within the poem . Instead , it is the garden surrounding the manor that became the focus .
= = Epigraphs = =
The poem begins with two epigraphs taken from the fragments of Heraclitus :
τοῦ λόγου δὲ ἐόντος ξυνοῦ ζώουσιν οἱ πολλοί
ὡς ἰδίαν ἔχοντες φρόνησιν
I. p . 77 . Fr . 2 .
ὁδὸς ἄνω κάτω μία καὶ ὡυτή
I. p . 89 Fr . 60 .
The first may be translated , " Though wisdom is common , the many live as if they have wisdom of their own " ; the second , " the way upward and the way downward is one and the same . "
= = Poem = =
The poem was the first of Eliot 's that relied on speech , with a narrator who speaks to the audience directly . Described as a poem of early summer , air , and grace , it begins with a narrator recalling a moment in a garden . The scene provokes a discussion on time and how the present , not the future or past , really matters to individuals . Memories connect the individual to the past , but the past cannot change . The poem then transitions from memory to how life works and the point of existence . In particular , the universe is described as orderly and that consciousness is not found within time even though humanity is bound by time . The scene of the poem moves from a garden to the London underground where technology dominates . Those who cling to technology and reason are unable to understand the universe or the Logos ( " the Word " , or Christ ) . The underworld is replaced by a churchyard and a discussion of death . This , in turn , becomes a discussion of timelessness and eternity , which ends the poem .
= = Themes = =
Eliot believed that Burnt Norton could benefit society . The poem 's narration reflects on how humankind is affected by Original Sin , that they can follow the paths of either good or evil , and that they can atone for their sins . To help the individual , the poem explains that people must leave the time @-@ bound world and look into their selves , and that poets must seek out a perfection , not bound by time in their images , to escape from the problems of language .
Peter Ackroyd believes that it is impossible to paraphrase the content of the poem ; the poem is too abstract to describe the events and the action that make up the poem 's narrative structure . However , the philosophical basis for the poem can be explained since the discourse on time is connected to the ideas within St. Augustine 's Confessions . As such , there is an emphasis on the present moment as being the only time period that really matters , because the past cannot be changed and the future is unknown . The poem emphasizes that memory must be abandoned to understand the current world , and humans must realize that the universe is based on order . The poem also describes that although consciousness cannot be bound within time , humans cannot actually escape from time on their own . The scene beneath London is filled with the time @-@ bound people who are similar to the spiritually empty populace of The Hollow Men ; they are empty because they do not understand the Logos or the order of the universe . The conclusion of the poem emphasizes that God is the only one that is truly able to exist out of time and have knowledge of all times and places , but humankind is still capable of redemption through belief in Him and His ability to save them from the bounds of the material universe .
Imaginative space also serves an important function within the poem . Part one contains a rose garden that allegorically represents potential within human existence . Although the garden does not exist , it is described in realistic manner and is portrayed as an imagined reality . Also , the narrator 's statement that words exist in the mind allows this imagined reality to be shared between the narrator and the reader . This is then destroyed by the narrator claiming that such a place has no purpose . The garden image has other uses within the poem beyond creating a shared imaginative space ; it serves to invoke memories within the poem , and it functions in a similar manner in other works by Eliot , including The Family Reunion .
= = Critical response = =
An early critic , D. W. Harding , viewed the poem as being part of a new concept within poetry . Similarly , Edwin Muir saw that the poem had new aspects to it and felt that there was beauty in the poem similar to that in The Hollow Men . Peter Quennell agreed and described the poem as " a new and remarkably accomplished poem " and " uncommon rhythmic virtuosity " . Marianne Moore stated that it was " a new poem which is concerned with the thought of control [ ... ] embodied in Deity and in human equipoise " . She argued that its " best quality " was " in its reminders of how severe , strenuous , and practical was the poet 's approach toward the present enlargement of his philosophical vision . " Rolfe Humphries declared , " How beautifully [ ... ] Eliot winds the theme , from the simple statement that perhaps any dialectical materialist would accept [ ... ] to the conclusion that any revolutionist might find difficulty in understanding [ ... ] How beautifully it is done ! "
However , George Orwell disapproved of Burnt Norton and stated that the religious nature of the poem coincided with Eliot 's poems no longer having what made his earlier works great . The later critic Russell Kirk agreed with Orwell in part , but felt that Orwell 's attacks on Eliot 's religiosity within the poems fell flat . In particular , he argued that " Over the past quarter of a century , most serious critics — whether or not they find Christian faith impossible — have found in the Quartets the greatest twentieth @-@ century achievements in the poetry of philosophy and religion . " Likewise , the 12 April 1941 Times Literary Supplement said that the poem was hard to understand . This was followed by another review on 4 September that attacked Eliot 's understanding of history .
Later critics varied in opinions . Bergonzi emphasised the " beautifully controlled and suasive opening " and claimed that " It contains some of Eliot 's finest poetry , a true musicalization of thought " . According to Peter Ackroyd , " ' Burnt Norton ' , in fact , gains its power and its effects from the modification , withdrawal or suspension of meaning and the only ' truth ' to be discovered is the formal unity of the poem itself . "
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= Malala Yousafzai =
Malala Yousafzai S.St ( Malālah Yūsafzay : Urdu : ملالہ یوسفزئی ; Pashto : ملاله یوسفزۍ [ məˈlaːlə jusəf ˈzəj ] ; born 12 July 1997 ) is a Pakistani activist for female education and the youngest @-@ ever Nobel Prize laureate . She is known mainly for human rights advocacy for education and for women in her native Swat Valley in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of northwest Pakistan , where the local Taliban had at times banned girls from attending school . Yousafzai 's advocacy has since grown into an international movement .
Her family runs a chain of schools in the region . In early 2009 , when she was 11 – 12 , Yousafzai wrote a blog under a pseudonym for the BBC Urdu detailing her life under Taliban occupation , their attempts to take control of the valley , and her views on promoting education for girls in the Swat Valley . The following summer , journalist Adam B. Ellick made a New York Times documentary about her life as the Pakistani military intervened in the region . Yousafzai rose in prominence , giving interviews in print and on television , and she was nominated for the International Children 's Peace Prize by South African activist Desmond Tutu .
On the afternoon of 9 October 2012 , Yousafzai boarded her school bus in the northwest Pakistani district of Swat . A gunman asked for her by name , then pointed a pistol at her and fired three shots . One bullet hit the left side of Yousafzai 's forehead , travelled under her skin through the length of her face , and then went into her shoulder . In the days immediately following the attack , she remained unconscious and in critical condition , but later her condition improved enough for her to be sent to the Queen Elizabeth Hospital in Birmingham , England , for intensive rehabilitation . On 12 October , a group of 50 Muslim clerics in Pakistan issued a fatwā against those who tried to kill her , but the Taliban reiterated their intent to kill Yousafzai and her father , Ziauddin Yousafzai . The assassination attempt sparked a national and international outpouring of support for Yousafzai . Deutsche Welle wrote in January 2013 that Yousafzai may have become " the most famous teenager in the world . " United Nations Special Envoy for Global Education Gordon Brown launched a UN petition in Yousafzai 's name , demanding that all children worldwide be in school by the end of 2015 ; it helped lead to the ratification of Pakistan 's first Right to Education Bill .
The 2013 , 2014 and 2015 issues of Time magazine featured Yousafzai as one of " The 100 Most Influential People in the World " . She was the winner of Pakistan 's first National Youth Peace Prize , and the recipient of the 2013 Sakharov Prize . In July that year , she spoke at the headquarters of the United Nations to call for worldwide access to education , and in October the Government of Canada announced its intention that its parliament confer Honorary Canadian citizenship upon Yousafzai . In February 2014 , she was nominated for the World Children 's Prize in Sweden . Even though she was fighting for women 's rights as well as children 's rights , she did not describe herself as feminist when asked on Forbes Under 30 Summit in 2014 . In 2015 , however , Yousafzai told Emma Watson she decided to call herself a feminist after hearing Watson 's speech at the UN launching the HeForShe campaign . In May 2014 , Yousafzai was granted an honorary doctorate by the University of King 's College in Halifax , Nova Scotia . Later in 2014 , Yousafzai was announced as the co @-@ recipient of the 2014 Nobel Peace Prize , along with Kailash Satyarthi , for her struggle against the suppression of children and young people and for the right of all children to education . Aged 17 at the time , Yousafzai became the youngest @-@ ever Nobel Prize laureate . She was the subject of Oscar @-@ shortlisted 2015 documentary He Named Me Malala .
Since March 2013 , she has been a pupil at the all @-@ girls ' Edgbaston High School in Birmingham . On 20 August 2015 , she achieved a string of A 's and A * s in her GCSE exams .
= = Early life = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Yousafzai was born on 12 July 1997 in the Swat District of Pakistan 's northwestern Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province , into a Sunni Muslim family of Pashtun ethnicity . She was given her first name Malala ( meaning " grief @-@ stricken " ) after Malalai of Maiwand , a famous Pushtu poetess and warrior woman from southern Afghanistan . Her last name , Yousafzai , is that of a large Pashtun tribal confederation that is predominant in Pakistan 's Swat Valley , where she grew up . At her house in Mingora , she lived with her two younger brothers , Khushal and Atal , her parents , Ziauddin and Tor Pekai , and two pet chickens .
Fluent in Pashto , English , and Urdu , Yousafzai was educated in large by her father , Ziauddin Yousafzai , who is a poet , school owner , and an educational activist himself , running a chain of private schools known as the Khushal Public School . She once stated to an interviewer that she would like to become a doctor , though later her father encouraged her to become a politician instead . Ziauddin referred to his daughter as something entirely special , permitting her to stay up at night and talk about politics after her two brothers had been sent to bed .
Yousafzai started speaking about education rights as early as September 2008 , when her father took her to Peshawar to speak at the local press club . " How dare the Taliban take away my basic right to education ? " Yousafzai asked her audience in a speech covered by newspapers and television channels throughout the region .
In 2009 , Yousafzai began as a trainee and then a peer educator in the Institute for War and Peace Reporting 's Open Minds Pakistan youth programme , which worked in schools in the region to help young people engage in constructive discussion on social issues through the tools of journalism , public debate and dialogue .
= = = As a BBC blogger = = =
In late 2008 , Aamer Ahmed Khan of the BBC Urdu website and his colleagues came up with a novel way of covering the Taliban 's growing influence in Swat . They decided to ask a schoolgirl to blog anonymously about her life there . Their correspondent in Peshawar , Abdul Hai Kakar , had been in touch with a local school teacher , Ziauddin Yousafzai , but couldn 't find any students willing to do so , as it was considered too dangerous by their families . Finally , Yousafzai suggested his own daughter , 11 @-@ year @-@ old Malala . At the time , Taliban militants led by Maulana Fazlullah were taking over the Swat Valley , banning television , music , girls ' education , and women from going shopping . Bodies of beheaded policemen were being hung in town squares . At first , a girl named Aisha from her father 's school agreed to write a diary , but then the girl 's parents stopped her from doing it because they feared Taliban reprisals . The only alternative was Yousafzai , four years younger than the original volunteer , and in seventh grade at the time . Editors at the BBC unanimously agreed .
" We had been covering the violence and politics in Swat in detail but we didn 't know much about how ordinary people lived under the Taliban , " Mirza Waheed , the former editor of BBC Urdu , said . Because they were concerned about Yousafzai 's safety , BBC editors insisted that she use a pseudonym . Her blog was published under the byline " Gul Makai " ( " cornflower " in Urdu ) , a name taken from a character in a Pashtun folktale .
On 3 January 2009 , Yousafzai 's first entry was posted to the BBC Urdu blog . She would hand @-@ write notes and then pass them on to a reporter who would scan and e @-@ mail them . The blog records Yousafzai 's thoughts during the First Battle of Swat , as military operations take place , fewer girls show up to school , and finally , her school shuts down .
In Mingora , the Taliban had set an edict that no girls could attend school after 15 January 2009 . The group had already blown up more than a hundred girls ' schools . The night before the ban took effect was filled with the noise of artillery fire , waking Yousafzai several times . The following day , Yousafzai also read for the first time excerpts from her blog that had been published in a local newspaper .
= = = = Banned from school = = = =
After the ban , the Taliban continued to destroy schools in the area . Five days later in her blog , Yousafzai wrote that she was still studying for her exams : " Our annual exams are due after the vacations but this will only be possible if the Taliban allow girls to go to school . We were told to prepare certain chapters for the exam but I do not feel like studying . "
In February 2009 , girls ' schools were still closed . In solidarity , private schools for boys had decided not to open until 9 February , and notices appeared saying so . On 7 February , Yousafzai and a brother returned to their hometown of Mingora , where the streets were deserted , and there was an " eerie silence " . " We went to the supermarket to buy a gift for our mother but it was closed , whereas earlier it used to remain open till late . Many other shops were also closed " , she wrote in her blog . Their home had been robbed and their television was stolen .
After boys ' schools reopened , the Taliban lifted restrictions on girls ' primary education , where there was co @-@ education . Girls @-@ only schools were still closed . Yousafzai wrote that only 70 pupils attended , out of 700 pupils who were enrolled .
On 15 February , gunshots could be heard in the streets of Mingora , but Yousafzai 's father reassured her , saying " don 't be scared – this is firing for peace " . Her father had read in the newspaper that the government and the militants were going to sign a peace deal the next day . Later that night , when the Taliban announced the peace deal on their FM Radio studio , another round of stronger firing started outside . Yousafzai spoke out against the Taliban on the national current affairs show Capital Talk on 18 February . Three days later , local Taliban leader Maulana Fazlulla announced on his FM radio station that he was lifting the ban on women 's education , and girls would be allowed to attend school until exams were held on 17 March , but they had to wear burqas .
= = = = Girls ' schools reopen = = = =
On 25 February , Yousafzai wrote on her blog that she and her classmates " played a lot in class and enjoyed ourselves like we used to before " . Attendance at Yousafzai 's class was up to 19 of 27 pupils by 1 March , but the Taliban were still active in the area . Shelling continued , and relief goods meant for displaced people were looted . Only two days later , Yousafzai wrote that there was a skirmish between the military and Taliban , and the sounds of mortar shells could be heard : " People are again scared that the peace may not last for long . Some people are saying that the peace agreement is not permanent , it is just a break in fighting " .
On 9 March , Yousafzai wrote about a science paper that she performed well on , and added that the Taliban were no longer searching vehicles as they once did . Her blog ended on 12 March 2009 .
= = = As a displaced person = = =
After the BBC diary ended , Yousafzai and her father were approached by New York Times reporter Adam B. Ellick about filming a documentary . In May , the Pakistani Army moved into the region to regain control during the Second Battle of Swat . Mingora was evacuated and Yousafzai 's family was displaced and separated . Her father went to Peshawar to protest and lobby for support , while she was sent into the countryside to live with relatives . " I 'm really bored because I have no books to read , " Yousafzai is filmed saying in the documentary .
That month , after criticising militants at a press conference , Yousafzai 's father received a death threat over the radio by a Taliban commander . Yousafzai was deeply inspired in her activism by her father . That summer , for the first time , she committed to becoming a politician and not a doctor , as she had once aspired to be .
By early July , refugee camps were filled to capacity . The prime minister made a long @-@ awaited announcement saying that it was safe to return to the Swat Valley . The Pakistani military had pushed the Taliban out of the cities and into the countryside . Yousafzai 's family reunited , and on 24 July 2009 they headed home . They made one stop first – to meet with a group of other grassroots activists that had been invited to see United States President Barack Obama 's special representative to Afghanistan and Pakistan , Richard Holbrooke . Yousafzai pleaded with Holbrooke to intervene in the situation , saying , " Respected ambassador , if you can help us in our education , so please help us . " When her family finally did return home , they found it had not been damaged , and her school had sustained only light damage .
= = = Early activism = = =
Following the documentary , Yousafzai was interviewed on the national Pashto @-@ language station AVT Khyber , the Urdu @-@ language Daily Aaj , and Canada 's Toronto Star . She made a second appearance on Capital Talk on 19 August 2009 . Her BBC blogging identity was being revealed in articles by December 2009 . She also began appearing on television to publicly advocate for female education .
In October 2011 , Archbishop Desmond Tutu , a South African activist , nominated Yousafzai for the International Children 's Peace Prize of the Dutch international children 's advocacy group KidsRights Foundation . She was the first Pakistani girl to be nominated for the award . The announcement said , " Malala dared to stand up for herself and other girls and used national and international media to let the world know girls should also have the right to go to school " . The award was won by Michaela Mycroft of South Africa .
Her public profile rose even further when she was awarded Pakistan 's first National Youth Peace Prize two months later in December . On 19 December 2011 , Prime Minister Yousaf Raza Gillani awarded her the National Peace Award for Youth . At the proceedings in her honour , Yousafzai stated that she was not a member of any political party , but hoped to found a national party of her own to promote education . The prime minister directed the authorities to set up an IT campus in the Swat Degree College for Women at Yousafzai 's request , and a secondary school was renamed in her honour . By 2012 , Yousafzai was planning to organise the Malala Education Foundation , which would help poor girls go to school .
= = Assassination attempt = =
As Yousafzai became more recognised , the dangers facing her increased . Death threats against her were published in newspapers and slipped under her door . On Facebook , where she was an active user , she began to receive threats and fake profiles were created under her name . When none of this worked , a Taliban spokesman says they were " forced " to act . In a meeting held in the summer of 2012 , Taliban leaders unanimously agreed to kill her .
On 9 October 2012 , a Taliban gunman shot Yousafzai as she rode home on a bus after taking an exam in Pakistan 's Swat Valley . The masked gunman shouted " Which one of you is Malala ? Speak up , otherwise I will shoot you all " , and , on her being identified , shot at her . She was hit with one bullet , which went through her head , neck , and ended in her shoulder . Two other girls were also wounded in the shooting : Kainat Riaz and Shazia Ramzan , both of whom were stable enough to speak to reporters and provide details of the attack .
= = = Medical treatment = = =
After the shooting , Yousafzai was airlifted to a military hospital in Peshawar , where doctors were forced to begin operating after swelling developed in the left portion of her brain , which had been damaged by the bullet when it passed through her head . After a five @-@ hour operation , doctors successfully removed the bullet , which had lodged in her shoulder near her spinal cord . The day following the attack , doctors performed a decompressive craniectomy , in which part of the skull is removed to allow room for the brain to swell .
On 11 October 2012 , a panel of Pakistani and British doctors decided to move Yousafzai to the Armed Forces Institute of Cardiology in Rawalpindi . Mumtaz Khan , a doctor , said that she had a 70 % chance of survival . Interior Minister Rehman Malik said that Yousafzai would be moved to Germany , where she could receive the best medical treatment , as soon as she was stable enough to travel . A team of doctors would travel with her , and the government would bear the expenditures of her treatment . Doctors reduced Yousafzai 's sedation on 13 October , and she moved all four limbs .
Offers to treat Yousafzai came from around the world . On 15 October , Yousafzai travelled to the United Kingdom for further treatment , approved by both her doctors and family . Her plane landed in Abu Dhabi for refuelling and then continued to Birmingham , England where she was treated at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital , one of the specialties of this hospital being the treatment of military personnel injured in conflict . According to the UK Government " The Pakistani government is paying all transport , migration , medical , accommodation and subsistence costs for Malala and her party " .
Yousafzai had come out of her coma by 17 October 2012 , was responding well to treatment , and was said to have a good chance of fully recovering without any brain damage . Later updates on 20 and 21 October stated that she was stable , but was still battling an infection . By 8 November , she was photographed sitting up in bed .
On 3 January 2013 , Yousafzai was discharged from the hospital to continue her rehabilitation at her family 's temporary home in the West Midlands . She had a five @-@ hour operation on 2 February to reconstruct her skull and to receive a cochlear implant to restore her hearing , and was reported in stable condition .
= = = Reaction = = =
The assassination attempt received worldwide media coverage and produced an outpouring of sympathy and anger . Protests against the shooting were held in several Pakistani cities the day after the attack , and over 2 million people signed the Right to Education campaign 's petition , which led to ratification of the first Right to Education Bill in Pakistan . Pakistani officials offered a 10 million rupee ( US $ 105 @,@ 000 ) reward for information leading to the arrest of the attackers . Responding to concerns about his safety , Yousafzai 's father said , " We wouldn 't leave our country if my daughter survives or not . We have an ideology that advocates peace . The Taliban cannot stop all independent voices through the force of bullets . "
Pakistan 's president Asif Ali Zardari described the shooting as an attack on " civilized people " . UN Secretary @-@ General Ban Ki @-@ moon called it a " heinous and cowardly act " . United States President Barack Obama found the attack " reprehensible , disgusting and tragic " , while Secretary of State Hillary Clinton said Yousafzai had been " very brave in standing up for the rights of girls " and that the attackers had been " threatened by that kind of empowerment " . British Foreign Secretary William Hague called the shooting " barbaric " and that it had " shocked Pakistan and the world " .
American singer Madonna dedicated her song " Human Nature " to Yousafzai at a concert in Los Angeles the day of the attack , as well had a temporary Malala tattoo on her back . American actress Angelina Jolie wrote an article about explaining the event to her children and answering questions like " Why did those men think they needed to kill Malala ? " Jolie later donated $ 200 @,@ 000 to The Malala Fund for girls education . Former First Lady of the United States Laura Bush wrote an op @-@ ed piece in The Washington Post in which she compared Yousafzai to Holocaust diarist Anne Frank . Indian director Amjad Khan announced that he would be making a biographical film based on Yousafzai .
Ehsanullah Ehsan , chief spokesman for the Pakistani Taliban , claimed responsibility for the attack , saying that Yousafzai " is the symbol of the infidels and obscenity , " adding that if she survived , the group would target her again . In the days following the attack , the Taliban reiterated its justification , saying Yousafzai had been brainwashed by her father : " We warned him several times to stop his daughter from using dirty language against us , but he didn 't listen and forced us to take this extreme step " . The Taliban also justified its attack as part of religious scripture , stating that the Quran says that " people propagating against Islam and Islamic forces would be killed " , going on to say that " Sharia says that even a child can be killed if he is propagating against Islam " .
On 12 October 2012 , a group of 50 Islamic clerics in Pakistan issued a fatwā – a ruling of Islamic law – against the Taliban gunmen who tried to kill Yousafzai . Islamic scholars from the Sunni Ittehad Council publicly denounced attempts by the Pakistani Taliban to mount religious justifications for the shooting of Yousafzai and two of her classmates .
Although the attack was roundly condemned in Pakistan , " some fringe Pakistani political parties and extremist outfits " have aired conspiracy theories , such as the shooting being staged by the American Central Intelligence Agency to provide an excuse for continuing drone attacks . The Tehrik @-@ i @-@ Taliban Pakistan and some other pro @-@ Taliban elements branded Yousafzai as an " American spy " .
= = = United Nations petition = = =
On 15 October 2012 , UN Special Envoy for Global Education Gordon Brown , a former British Prime Minister , visited Yousafzai while she was in the hospital , and launched a petition in her name and " in support of what Malala fought for " . Using the slogan " I am Malala " , the petition 's main demand was that there be no child left out of school by 2015 , with the hope that " girls like Malala everywhere will soon be going to school " . Brown said he would hand the petition to President Zardari in Islamabad in November .
The petition contains three demands :
We call on Pakistan to agree to a plan to deliver education for every child .
We call on all countries to outlaw discrimination against girls .
We call on international organisations to ensure the world 's 61 million out @-@ of @-@ school children are in education by the end of 2015 .
= = = Criminal investigation , arrests , and acquittals = = =
The day after the shooting , Pakistan 's Interior Minister Rehman Malik stated that the Taliban gunman who shot Yousafzai had been identified . Police named 23 @-@ year @-@ old Atta Ullah Khan , a graduate student in chemistry , as the gunman in the attack . As of 2015 he remained at large , possibly in Afghanistan .
The police also arrested six men for involvement in the attack , but they were later released for lack of evidence . As of 7 November 2012 , Mullah Fazlullah , the cleric who ordered the attack on Yousafzai , was confirmed to be hiding in Eastern Afghanistan by US sources there .
On 12 September 2014 , ISPR Director , Major General Asim Bajwa , told a media briefing in Islamabad that the 10 attackers belong to a militant group called " Shura " . General Bajwa said that Israrur Rehman was the first militant group member who was identified and apprehended by the troops . Acting upon the information received during his interrogation , all other members of the militant group were arrested . It was an intelligence @-@ based joint operation conducted by ISI , police , and military .
In April 2015 , the ten who were arrested were sentenced to life in prison by Judge Mohammad Amin Kundi , a counterterrorism judge , with the chance of eligibility for parole , and possible release , after 25 years . It is not known if the actual would @-@ be assassins were among the ten sentenced . In June 2015 , it was revealed that eight of the ten men tried in @-@ camera for the attack had in fact been secretly acquitted , insiders revealed one of the men acquitted and freed was the murder bid 's mastermind . It is believed that all other men who shot Yousafzai fled to Afghanistan afterwards and were never even captured . The information about the release of suspects came to light after the London Daily Mirror attempted to locate the men in prison . Senior police official Salim Khan stated that the eight men were released because there was not enough evidence to connect them to the attack .
= = Continuing activism = =
Yousafzai spoke before the United Nations in July 2013 , and met Queen Elizabeth II in Buckingham Palace . In September she spoke at Harvard University , and in October she met with US President Barack Obama and his family ; during that meeting , she confronted him on his use of drone strikes in Pakistan . In December she addressed the Oxford Union . In July 2014 Yousafzai spoke at the Girl Summit in London , advocating for rights for girls . In October 2014 , after receiving the World Children 's Prize for the rights of the child in Mariefred , Sweden , she announced donating $ 50 @,@ 000 through the UNRWA , to help rebuild 65 schools in Gaza .
= = = Representation = = =
Former British Prime Minister Gordon Brown arranged for Yousafzai 's appearance before the United Nations in July 2013 . Brown also requested that McKinsey consultant Shiza Shahid , a friend of the Yousafzai family , chair Malala 's charity fund , which had gained the support of Angelina Jolie . Google 's vice @-@ president Megan Smith also sits on the fund 's board .
In November 2012 the consulting firm Edelman began work for Yousafzai on a pro bono basis , which according to the firm " involves providing a press office function for Malala . " The office employs five people , and is headed by speechwriter Jamie Lundie . McKinsey also continues to provide assistance to Yousafzai .
= = = Malala Day = = =
On 12 July 2013 , Yousafzai 's 16th birthday , she spoke at the UN to call for worldwide access to education . The UN dubbed the event " Malala Day " . It was her first public speech since the attack , leading the first ever Youth Takeover of the UN , with an audience of over 500 young education advocates from around the world .
The terrorists thought they would change my aims and stop my ambitions , but nothing changed in my life except this : weakness , fear and hopelessness died . Strength , power and courage was born ... I am not against anyone , neither am I here to speak in terms of personal revenge against the Taliban or any other terrorist group . I 'm here to speak up for the right of education for every child . I want education for the sons and daughters of the Taliban and all terrorists and extremists .
Yousafzai received several standing ovations . Ban Ki @-@ moon , who also spoke at the session , described her as " our hero " . Yousafzai also presented the chamber with " The Education We Want " , a Youth Resolution of education demands written by Youth for Youth , in a process co @-@ ordinated by the UN Global Education First Youth Advocacy Group , telling her audience :
Malala day is not my day . Today is the day of every woman , every boy and every girl who have raised their voice for their rights .
The Pakistani government did not comment on Yousafzai 's UN appearance , amid a backlash against her in Pakistan 's press and social media .
= = = Nobel Peace Prize = = =
On 10 October 2014 , Yousafzai was announced as the co @-@ recipient of the 2014 Nobel Peace Prize for her struggle against the suppression of children and young people and for the right of all children to education . Having received the prize at the age of 17 , Yousafzai is the youngest Nobel laureate . Yousafzai shared the prize with Kailash Satyarthi , a children 's rights activist from India . She is the second Pakistani to receive a Nobel Prize , Abdus Salam being a 1979 Physics laureate , and the only Pakistani winner of the Nobel Peace Prize .
After she won the Nobel Peace Prize , there was praise , but also some disapproval of the decision to award it to her . A Norwegian jurist , Fredrik Heffermehl , commented on the winning of Malala 's Nobel Prize : " This is not for fine people who have done nice things and are glad to receive it . All of that is irrelevant . What Nobel wanted was a prize that promoted global disarmament . "
A young Mexican man interrupted Yousafzai 's Nobel Peace Prize award ceremony in protest for the 2014 Iguala mass kidnapping in Mexico , but was quickly taken away by security personnel . Yousafzai later sympathised , and acknowledged that problems are faced by young people all over the world , saying " there are problems in Mexico , there are problems even in America , even here in Norway , and it is really important that children raise their voices " .
= = = School for Syrian refugee girls = = =
On 12 July 2015 , her 18th birthday , Yousafzai opened a school in the Bekaa Valley , Lebanon , near the Syrian border , for Syrian refugees . The school , funded by the not @-@ for @-@ profit Malala Fund , offers education and training to girls aged 14 to 18 years . Yousafzai called on world leaders to invest in " books , not bullets " .
= = Works = =
Yousafzai 's memoir I Am Malala : The Story of the Girl Who Stood Up for Education and was Shot by the Taliban , co @-@ written with British journalist Christina Lamb , was published in October 2013 by Little , Brown and Company in the US and by Weidenfeld & Nicolson in the UK A reviewer for The Guardian called the book " fearless " and stated that " the haters and conspiracy theorists would do well to read this book " , though she criticised " the stiff , know @-@ it @-@ all voice of a foreign correspondent " that is interwoven with Yousafzai 's . A reviewer for The Washington Post called the book " riveting " and wrote that " It is difficult to imagine a chronicle of a war more moving , apart from perhaps the diary of Anne Frank . " Entertainment Weekly gave the book a " B + " , writing that " Malala 's bravely eager voice can seem a little thin here , in I Am Malala , likely thanks to her co @-@ writer , but her powerful message remains undiluted . "
The All Pakistan Private School 's Federation announced that the book would be banned in its 152 @,@ 000 member institutions , stating that it disrespected Islam and could have a " negative " influence . Pakistani investigative editor Ansar Abbasi described her work as " providing her critics something ' concrete ' to prove her as an ' agent ' of the West against Islam and Pakistan " .
A children 's edition of the memoir was published in 2014 under the title I Am Malala : How One Girl Stood Up for Education and Changed the World . The audio book edition , narrated by Neela Vaswani , won the 2015 Grammy Award for Best Children 's Album .
= = Reception in Pakistan = =
Reception of Yousafzai in Pakistan is mixed . Dawn columnist Huma Yusuf summarized three main complaints of Yousafzai 's critics : " Her fame highlights Pakistan 's most negative aspect ( rampant militancy ) ; her education campaign echoes Western agendas ; and the West 's admiration of her is hypocritical because it overlooks the plight of other innocent victims , like the casualties of U.S. drone strikes . " Another Dawn journalist , Cyril Almeida , addressed the public 's lack of rage against the Tehrik @-@ i @-@ Taliban Pakistan ( TTP ) , blaming the failing state government . Journalist Assed Baig described her as being used to justify Western imperialism as " the perfect candidate for the white man to relieve his burden and save the native " . Yousafzai was also accused on social media of being a CIA spy .
However , Yousafzai does have some support in Pakistani media ; Farman Nawaz ( editor Border Times Pakistan ) argues that Yousafzai would have gained more fame in Pakistan if she belonged to the province of Punjab . His opinion was not given importance by the mainstream media of Pakistan but his views in this regard were published by Daily Outlook Afghanistan .
= = Awards and honours = =
Yousafzai has been awarded the following national and international honours :
2011 : International Children 's Peace Prize ( nominee )
2011 : National Youth Peace Prize
Anne Frank Award for Moral Courage , January 2012
Sitara @-@ e @-@ Shujaat , Pakistan 's third @-@ highest civilian bravery award , October 2012
Foreign Policy magazine top 100 global thinker , November 2012
2012 : Time magazine Person of the Year shortlist
Mother Teresa Awards for Social Justice , November 2012
Rome Prize for Peace and Humanitarian Action , December 2012
2012 : Top Name in Annual Survey of Global English , January 2013
Simone de Beauvoir Prize , January 2013
Memminger Freiheitspreis 1525 , March 2013 ( conferred on 7 December 2013 in Oxford )
Doughty Street Advocacy award of Index on Censorship , March 2013
Fred and Anne Jarvis Award of the UK National Union of Teachers , March 2013
Vital Voices Global Leadership Awards , Global Trailblazer , April 2013
One of Time 's " 100 Most Influential People in the World " , April 2013
Premi Internacional Catalunya Award of Catalonia , May 2013
Annual Award for Development of the OPEC Fund for International Development ( OFID ) , June 2013
International Campaigner of the Year , 2013 Observer Ethical Awards , June 2013
2012 : Tipperary International Peace Award , Ireland Tipperary Peace Convention , August 2013
Portrait of Yousafzai by Jonathan Yeo displayed at National Portrait Gallery , London ( 2013 )
Ambassador of Conscience Award from Amnesty International
2013 : International Children 's Peace Prize , KidsRights Foundation
2013 : Clinton Global Citizen Awards from Clinton Foundation
Harvard Foundation 's Peter Gomes Humanitarian Award from Harvard University
2013 : Anna Politkovskaya Award – Reach All Women in War
2013 : Reflections of Hope Award – Oklahoma City National Memorial & Museum
2013 : Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought – awarded by the European Parliament
2013 : Honorary Master of Arts degree awarded by the University of Edinburgh
2013 : Pride of Britain ( October )
2013 : Glamour magazine Woman of the Year
2013 : GG2 Hammer Award at GG2 Leadership Awards ( November )
2013 : International Prize for Equality and Non @-@ Discrimination
2014 : Nominee for World Children 's Prize also known as Children 's Nobel Prize
2014 : Awarded Honorary Life Membership by the PSEU ( Ireland )
2014 : Skoll Global Treasure Award
2014 : Honorary Doctor of Civil Law , University of King 's College , Halifax , Nova Scotia , Canada
2014 : Nobel Peace Prize , shared with Kailash Satyarthi
2014 : Philadelphia Liberty Medal
2014 : One of Time Magazine " The 25 Most Influential Teens of 2014 "
2014 : Honorary Canadian citizenship
2015 : Grammy Award for Best Children 's Album
2015 : Asteroid 316201 Malala named in her honour .
2016 : Honorary president of the students union of the University of Sheffield
= = In popular culture = =
A documentary entitled He Named Me Malala by American filmmaker Davis Guggenheim was released on 2 October 2015 . National Geographic broadcast the film on 29 February 2016 .
A fictionalised version of Yousafzai appears at Herb Kazzaz 's funeral in " Still Broken " , an episode of the Netflix series BoJack Horseman . She is referred to as " That Pakistani girl who keeps winning Nobel Prizes . "
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= Seacology =
Seacology is a nonprofit 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) charitable organization headquartered in Berkeley , California , that works to preserve island ecosystems and cultures around the world . Founded in 1991 , it began with the work of ethnobotanist Paul Alan Cox , who researched tropical plants and their medicinal value in the village of Falealupo in Samoa during the mid @-@ 1980s . When the villagers were pressured into selling logging rights to their rainforest in 1988 to build a new school , Cox and his wife offered to help secure funds for the new school in return for an agreement with the villagers to protect their forest . With the help of his friends and family , Cox secured the funds within six months , later earning him and the village chief , Fuiono Senio , the Goldman Environmental Prize for their efforts . Word spread throughout the islands , and with increasing demand for similar projects , Cox , along with Bill Marré and Ken Murdock , decided to form Seacology and expand their work internationally . For the first few years , the organization operated on a volunteer basis . Duane Silverstein became the first employee in 1999 , and headquarters were relocated to Berkeley , not far from his residence .
Because of the high risk of extinction for island fauna and the decline in coral reef ecosystems , Seacology 's primary focus is projects in which villagers sign contracts under which they agree to help protect either terrestrial or marine habitat for a specified time in return for new buildings or services . The operations are low @-@ cost , averaging around US $ 20 @,@ 000 to $ 25 @,@ 000 . Construction is done with local labor and without the use of machinery . Seacology selects its projects by reviewing the recommendations of its field representatives and its scientific advisory board .
By mid @-@ 2016 , Seacology had initiated more than 275 projects globally , and helped preserve 753 @,@ 456 acres ( 3 @,@ 049 km2 ; 1 @,@ 177 sq mi ) of marine habitat and 615 @,@ 745 acres ( 2 @,@ 492 km2 ; 962 @.@ 1 sq mi ) of terrestrial habitat . At the same time , they had helped construct 104 new facilities and provided 36 programs , which included educational materials , vital medical services , and environmental training . In addition to helping local people on islands like Fiji , Kendhoo , and many others , their projects have helped protect mangrove forests , sea turtles , marine mammals called dugongs , and one of the rarest primates in the world : the Hainan black crested gibbon . Seacology also awards an annual Seacology Prize to indigenous islanders for their efforts in conservation and cultural preservation . The organization helps support island communities by fostering ecotourism , and has helped raise emergency funds following destructive tsunamis . Its budget is modest , and it does not compensate its board members . It has won awards from Yahoo ! and Travel + Leisure magazine , and has been featured in the music video " What About Now " by the American rock band Daughtry .
= = History = =
Seacology was founded in 1991 by ethnobotanist Paul Alan Cox in Hawaii using prize money and consulting fees resulting from his efforts to preserve 30 @,@ 000 acres ( 120 km2 ; 47 sq mi ) of rainforest outside the village of Falealupo on the island of Savai 'i in Samoa . He later recorded these events in his book , Nafanua : Saving the Samoan Rain Forest . Cox began his work in Samoa in 1973 during his first Mormon missionary service , at which time he learned from local people about the medicinal properties of the native plants . After working with local communities in other rainforests , Cox returned to Samoa in 1984 with his family . His aim was to find a cure for cancer , which had claimed the life of his mother earlier that year . In return for the help of the local healers ( called fofo ) , Cox offered to share the revenue generated by his research with the local villages . Over time , his research identified five new drugs , including the therapeutic agent prostratin , a potential treatment for HIV . Prostratin was isolated in a concoction made from the bark of the local mamala tree ( Homalanthus nutans ) and shared with him by a healer named Epenesa Mauigoa , who used it to treat hepatitis . Cox set up royalty agreements to ensure that the Samoans will share in the revenue .
In 1988 , his research was threatened when the Samoan government pressured the village of Falealupo to pay $ 65 @,@ 000 for a new school , warning that if the village did not provide a new school within a year , they would withdraw the teachers from the village , leaving the children without an opportunity for a formal education . Shortly after receiving this notice from government , a foreign @-@ owned logging company offered the village exactly $ 65 @,@ 000 to log the entire 30 @,@ 000 acres ( 120 km2 ; 47 sq mi ) surrounding Falealupo . Lacking a source of revenue , the villages eventually sold the logging rights to the forest , but when Cox learned of the situation and witnessed the logging for himself , he immediately sought an explanation from the village elders and then requested that they halt the logging so that he could raise money for the school . Despite initial skepticism , Cox convinced the high chief , Fuiono Senio , who then helped persuade the rest of the elders . Senio then drew his machete and raced 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) to halt the logging .
The new school was built after Cox and his wife , Barbara , were able to raise the money in six months partly by mortgaging their house . Cox also obtained financial support from others and took over payments on the mortgage for the school . Verne Read , a businessman and financial supporter of Bat Conservation International , took over payments on the mortgage for the school . Ken Murdock , founder of the herbal company Nature 's Way , and Rex Maughan , owner of Forever Living Products , funded the construction of the school and repaid the loggers for their $ 20 @,@ 000 advance . During a tribal ceremony held in February 1989 , Cox , along with the village chiefs ( matai ) signed the " The Falealupo Covenant " , which legally protected the forest for 50 years in exchange for their help . During the ceremony , the village chiefs also bestowed chief 's titles on Murdock and Maughan and proclaimed that Cox was a reincarnation of their god , Nafanua , because like Nafanua , he did not come from Samoa and both had fought to protect the village and the forest . The title bestowed upon him made Cox responsible for the well @-@ being of the village and obligated that he return to visit .
In 1992 , Cox and his friends had finished helping the Samoan villagers at Falealupo , as well as nearby Tafua , which encountered the same problem . Prior to that , Murdock , who later became Seacology 's President , suggested continuing their work by seeking out more villages with which they could exchange projects for marine and forest reserves . As demand among island villages grew , Bill Marré , a business consultant and executive coach who later became a member of the Board of Trustees and the Chairman 's Advisory Council , suggested establishing a nonprofit organization to continue their work . He suggested the name " Seacology " to reflect the organization 's focus on island conservation , and helped cofound the nonprofit in 1991 , along with Cox and Murdock . Using his own funds , Marré paid the costs of starting the organization and covered its administrative costs for the first three years . Together with his assistant , Marré helped advertise Seacology by giving lectures at schools and universities , visiting other island nations , and writing articles about the work for the local media .
In Falealupo , Seacology continued their work , funding projects with a total of $ 485 @,@ 000 as of 2005 . When cyclone Ofa destroyed the primary school at Falealupo in 1990 , Seacology helped raise funds to rebuild it . The school was completely rebuilt again in 1991 following Cyclone Val . Several years after completing the school , the organization helped establish trails and build a rainforest information center , followed in 1997 by an elevated canopy walkway as part of an ecotourism project to help generate income for the people and provide funds for a retirement system for the village elders . The walkway has since become one of Samoa 's leading tourist attractions , and was yielding an average of $ 1 @,@ 000 each month for the community in 2001 — bringing in more money than the villagers would have earned from selling their forest . Satisfied with the results , the villagers at Falealupo declared that they would honor the contract they had made with Cox to protect the forest forever , rather than just 50 years . In 1997 , both Cox and Senio , the village chief , shared the Goldman Environmental Prize for their work .
For the first six years of its existence , Seacology operated as a volunteer organization with no employees . Four years after being founded , Seacology 's administrative office moved to Ken Murdock 's office . The office moved again in 1999 to Berkeley , California after Cox offered a job to Duane Silverstein — then the Executive Director of the Goldman Fund , which had previously honored Cox with the Goldman Environmental Prize . Silverstein had been inspired by the work Cox had done in Samoa , and agreed to take the position of Executive Director of Seacology under the condition that the office be relocated to within walking distance of his house .
= = Activities = =
Seacology is a nonprofit organization that works to preserve both island habitats and cultures by exchanging services for local assistance and cooperation with conservation efforts . As of 2000 , it was reported to be the only conservation organization to focus entirely on island preservation . Seacology has 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) status ( providing federal income tax deductions for some donors ) because it is a charitable , non @-@ profit organization . According to its mission statement on its website , " Seacology searches for win @-@ win situations where both the local environment is protected and islanders receive some tangible benefit for doing so . "
Islands constitute a large portion of the world 's surface . Combined , the largest 125 islands cover an area the size of Europe , and if the economic zones that include marine resources ( found within a few miles of shore ) are included , islands make up one @-@ sixth of the Earth 's surface area and hold half of all marine species . Scientific surveys have shown that coral reefs are declining rapidly due to climate change , dynamite and cyanide fishing , and marine pollution . According to evolutionary biologist E. O. Wilson , bird species that are endemic to islands face a greater risk of extinction — 40 times greater than on the continents . At least 255 island bird species have become extinct since the appearance of humans , with 158 lost during prehistory and 97 lost between 1600 and 1994 . In comparison , between 17 and 20 species of continental birds became extinct between 1600 and 1994 . Because the small land area of islands can only support small populations , the biggest threat to endemic wildlife is habitat loss . Other threats include direct exploitation ( hunting and pet trade ) , disease , and invasive species .
To save island habitats around the world , Seacology staff initiate projects by first holding meetings with local villagers to determine their needs . These needs often include schools , a community center , solar energy , or freshwater delivery . Once their needs are determined , Seacology makes a deal with the local community , offering to provide the needed service in return for a forest reserve or a no @-@ take fishing area around a coral reef . Facilities such as schools and community centers are built using local labor , and Seacology provides approximately $ 20 @,@ 000 for supplies and to facilitate the construction . Seacology has field representatives stationed around the world who monitor and report the progress of the projects in their region , as well as seek new projects in their respective regions or islands . New project suggestions are reviewed by the Board of Directors . The Scientific Advisory Board provide additional recommendations , based on the latest research .
In addition to their projects , Seacology played an active role in the creation of the National Park of American Samoa through the work of their scientists and donors . In 2008 , Seacology started its Carbon Offset Fund , where donations of $ 40 @.@ 00 went directly towards renewable energy and reforestation projects . That same year , they collaboratively funded the creation of a nursery run by the non @-@ governmental organization ( NGO ) Azafady in Madagascar to raise 3 @,@ 000 seedlings of the endangered palm Dypsis saintelucei . The two organizations have also collaborated to protect the Manafiafy Forest in southeastern Madagascar . In Bunaken and Manado , Seacology was involved in testing a new method of restoring coral reef , which involved planting white ceramic modules that were shaped like 3 @-@ dimensional snowflakes to maximize the surface area for corals to grow .
In 2007 , Seacology became an international organization with greater visibility , despite their small staff . International affiliate programs , such as Seacology Germany and Seacology Japan were created to help raise funds to support island projects . The following year , Seacology U.K. was created , followed by Seacology Scandinavia in 2009 . For its global efforts , Seacology has received several awards , including the Global Vision Award in Travel + Leisure , the Blue Award in Islands Magazine , and Yahoo ! ' s Pick for Good in September 2006 .
= = = Projects = = =
According to their 2014 Annual Report , Seacology has funded over 250 projects globally . The island communities that have aided in these efforts have collectively received facilities , including schools , community centers , and other important structures . Educational materials , vital medical services , and environmental training have been provided in many programs .
When projects are agreed upon with an island community , local rituals often coincide with the start of the project , particularly in the Pacific Islands , where a common custom involves drinking kava , a mildly narcotic drink made from the ground @-@ up root of a pepper plant . The ritual is hundreds of years old , and has been described by the Seacology staff as being relaxing , especially because of the friendly environment . Seacology staff often dress in local attire . The villagers perform dances , and the staff are invited to join in , often to the amusement of the villagers .
When the projects begin , the work is done without machines , with supplies being shipped on small boats and then carried by hand from the beach . Project costs range between $ 5 @,@ 000 and $ 150 @,@ 000 , although the average is between $ 20 @,@ 000 and $ 25 @,@ 000 . The protected areas that result from these deals typically involve a 20- to 30 @-@ year commitment . Seacology hopes that during that time the local people grow to respect these resources and ideally progress to a point where they are less dependent on natural resources . According to marine biologist Mark Erdmann , in a worst @-@ case scenario , if the people violate the contract and destroy the habitat , Seacology will have still made a difference in their lives through its low @-@ cost investment , whereas larger conservation organizations might invest large sums of money but through not addressing the immediate needs of the people , if the project fails , both lose that investment and not have helped the community .
In one of Seacology 's projects , villagers in Fiji refused a $ 700 @,@ 000 offer by foreign businessmen to buy one of the islands and signed an agreement that prohibited development for 20 years and established a 10 @-@ year no @-@ take fishing reserve encompassing 80 square miles ( 210 km2 ) around the island . On the island of Kendhoo , part of the Baa Atoll in the Maldives , Seacology paid $ 30 @,@ 000 in 2003 to build a kindergarten in exchange for a ban on harvesting endangered sea turtle eggs , which the government did not prohibit . In the Trang Province of Thailand , another project helps protect the habitat of seagrass beds and mangrove forest to provide habitat for endangered marine mammals called dugongs ( Dugong dugon ) . In 2003 , Seacology and a Chinese organization worked together to form an agreement with the people of Hainan Island where in return for scholarships for nearly 200 middle @-@ school children , the people would stop cutting down the trees around Bawangling Reserve , home to one of the rarest primates in the world , the Hainan black crested gibbon ( Nomascus nasutus hainanus ) and the nearly extinct subspecies of Eld 's deer ( Panolia eldii ) found on Hainan . In a project on Cát Bà Island in Vietnam , the organization helped protect the golden @-@ headed langur , another one of the world 's most endangered primates , by paying cash and helping establish exclusive harvesting and fishing rights for the local people in return for their efforts in patrolling the beaches and forests for poachers . In 1999 , Seacology began work to establish a new national park around Mt . Angavokely , near Antananarivo in Madagascar . The mountain is home to 120 species of endangered orchids and several medicinal herbs , including Helichrysum gymnocephalum , which is used as an antiseptic and treatment for bronchitis ; Secneicia faujasiodides , which is used for healing wounds ; Psiadia altissima , which is used to treat eczema ; Bryophyllum proliferum , which is used to treat coughing ; and Brachylaena ramiflora , which is used to lower malarial fever .
= = = Sri Lanka Mangrove Conservation Project = = =
In 2015 , Seacology launched its largest @-@ ever project , a $ 3 @.@ 4 million initiative to protect all of Sri Lanka 's remaining mangrove forests and restore many degraded ones . Through Sri Lanka @-@ based NGO Sudeesa ( also known as the Small Fishers Federation of Lanka ) , Seacology is funding a significant expansion of that organization 's existing microloan and job @-@ training programs . In exchange , the beneficiaries of these programs must agree to assist in protecting their local mangrove habitats . The training is designed in part to give low @-@ income women in these communities alternatives to harvesting mangroves , a subsistence activity that has contributed to the forests ' degradation . The project also established three large nursery facilities to grow several species of mangroves , to be replanted in areas previously cleared for aquaculture and other unsustainable development , as well as several areas destroyed during the Sri Lankan Civil War .
The effort was endorsed by the government of Sri Lanka , which has agreed to assist with demarcating the country 's mangroves .
= = = Service awards = = =
Created by cofounder Bill Marré in 1992 and underwritten by Ken Murdock in honor of his mother , the Seacology Prize is awarded each year to an indigenous islander based on achievements in island conservation and cultural preservation . Many of the award recipients are people who risk their lives and wellbeing to preserve their culture and environment but receive little or no public recognition for their work . The prize includes a reward of $ 10 @,@ 000 .
In 2010 , it was awarded to Rabary Desiré from Matsobe @-@ Sud in Madagascar for his forest conservation efforts in Belaoka Marovato in northeastern Madagascar . Rabary , an ecotour and research guide , had created his own forest reserve , called Antanetiambo ( meaning " on the high hill " ) , and planned to use his prize money to fund reforestation efforts , develop tourist facilities , and expand the reserve . Another winner of the Seacology Prize was the Icelandic filmmaker and former reporter for RÚV Ómar Ragnarsson , who won the award in 2008 for his efforts in preserving the highlands of Iceland .
= = = Ecotourism = = =
In response to the growing demand for ecotourism , Seacology opened up its fundraising expeditions to the public in 2006 . These trips include destinations like Fiji , and offer both unusual travel opportunities and a means to help improve the quality of life for the indigenous people . The experiences have been described as " moving " because of the close personal interactions with the local people . Some tours visit locations seldom visited by Westerners . On the tours , Seacology encourages travelers to explore the culture and economy by trying local foods .
Following the 2002 Bali bombings , Silverstein reported that tourism fell by over 90 percent on the island of Bali , mostly due to sensational media reporting . He was in Bali a few days after the attack and reported that he saw little or no risk to tourists in the Muslim villages of the region .
= = = Tsunami relief funds = = =
Following the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami , Seacology established a tsunami relief fund to help four impacted communities with which the organization had previously completed projects . Following the model of their projects , the Seacology staff asked the local people what they needed to rebuild their economy and infrastructure . In Kiralakele , Sri Lanka , the people requested fishing nets and boats . The people of Kadachang Village in the Andaman Islands requested goats and chickens . On Kendhoo in the Maldives , the tsunami had destroyed the local plant life , so seedlings were needed in order to restore the environment . In Trang Province , Thailand , basic structural repair was requested . Seacology emphasized that it would repair and replace the projects that had been damaged or destroyed in the tsunami .
As of late 2005 , Seacology had raised $ 261 @,@ 716 for the relief work , with all of it going directly to fund the efforts . All donors received details of how the money was spent , as well as photos of the work . The California Association of Nonprofits later honored Seacology for the relief work with their Achievement in Innovation Award .
Previous work by Seacology in the region had helped minimize the damage caused by the tsunami . Seacology Prize recipient Anuradha Wickramasinghe from Sri Lanka noted that the mangrove forests that were preserved shielded the community , whereas nearby villages that had cleared their mangroves to create industrial shrimp farms had not fared so well . Mangroves also buffered Kadachang Village in the hard @-@ hit Andaman Islands ; the village suffered little loss of human life or structural damage compared to the nation 's capital city of Port Blair .
Following the 2009 Samoa tsunami , Seacology once again started a tsunami relief effort . They helped Samoan villages by providing new water tanks and pipelines , and also helped to clean up mangroves and inshore coral reefs that were littered with debris from nearby motels .
= = Finances = =
Seacology is a small nonprofit , with only seven full @-@ time staff , and as a result has little overhead costs and operates on a modest budget . Its tax identification number is 87 @-@ 0495235 . According to Silverstein , its annual budget for all of its staff and office expenditures is significantly lower than the median compensation for business chief executive officers ( CEOs ) alone . Board members receive no compensation and are not reimbursed for the costs of attending board meetings . Unlike other environmental groups , Seacology does not offer memberships , which further reduces its expenditures . Staff answer the phone instead of using automated answering services , and Seacology respects donor privacy and is compliant with the Children 's Online Privacy Protection Act ( COPPA ) .
In 2014 , Seacology reported $ 2 @,@ 309 @,@ 541 in donations and grants and a total of $ 2 @,@ 335 @,@ 266 when other revenue was included . Its expenses that year totaled $ 1 @,@ 656 @,@ 772 with $ 286 @,@ 981 going toward fundraising and $ 130 @,@ 329 supporting management and other general expenses . Financial support comes mostly from individuals , foundations , and companies such as Nu Skin Enterprises , which pays annual royalties for the plant @-@ based cosmetic formulas Cox developed for facial creams and other skincare products . Board members also contribute a sizable portion of the annual budget , donating a minimum of $ 10 @,@ 000 per year to the organization .
= = Leadership = =
Seacology is governed by its Board of Directors , which consists of corporate leaders who share a commitment to island conservation and the preservation of island cultures . Paul Alan Cox is the Chairman of Seacology . He received his PhD from Harvard University , and served as a professor at Brigham Young University , the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences , and Uppsala University . Cox served as the Director of the National Tropical Botanical Garden ( NTBG ) for seven years , and as of 2011 , he is the Executive Director of the Institute for Ethnomedicine , which is affiliated with the NTBG . His research interests include island plant ecology and ethnobotany of island cultures , and he has published more than 150 scientific papers and reviews . For his research on new medicinal plants , he was named one of eleven " Heroes of Medicine " by Time magazine . Cox is an advocate of indigenous peoples , and has learned several of island languages .
The Executive Director of Seacology is Duane Silverstein , who for 18 years prior to joining the organization acted as the Executive Director of the Goldman Fund and headed the Goldman Environmental Prize . He has written articles that have appeared in Asian Geographic as well as various scuba diving magazines , and he is a National Fellow of The Explorers Club . Silverstein has met with heads of state around the world , including several presidents of the United States , as well as several Secretaries @-@ General of the United Nations . In addition to having his work covered in newspapers and periodicals , including Time magazine , the Bangkok Post , and the San Francisco Chronicle , he was also selected as an " All @-@ Stars Among Us " in People magazine , for which he was honored at the 2009 Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game . In 2008 , Silverstein and Seacology were briefly featured alongside several organizations in the music video for " What About Now " by the American rock band Daughtry . In 2010 , Silverstein was awarded the one of the Jefferson Awards for Public Service and also was given the 2010 Coastal Hero Award by Sunset magazine .
The vice chair of Seacology is Ken Murdock , who also founded the herbal company Nature 's Way after his mother was cured of a serious illness with an herbal medicine . Murdock played a key role in the creation of Seacology , and Nature 's Way covered Seacology 's administrative costs for three years . Murdock has volunteered in Samoa , during which time he resided on Manu 'a and learned the local language .
The Scientific Advisory Board of Seacology includes island biodiversity specialists , whose research focuses on the conservation of oceanic and terrestrial island ecosystems . The Scientific Advisory Board generates recommendations for new conservation projects based on the latest research available . Among the eleven members are researcher and Pulitzer Prize winner Jared Diamond , entomologist and evolutionary biologist E. O. Wilson , and oceanographer Sylvia Earle . As the founder of Seacology , Cox is also a member of the advisory board .
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= Battle of Caishi =
The Battle of Caishi ( Battle of Ts 'ai @-@ shih ; Chinese : 采石之戰 ) was a major naval engagement of the Jin – Song Wars of China that took place on November 26 – 27 , 1161 . Soldiers under the command of Wanyan Liang ( the Prince of Hailing ) , the Jurchen emperor of the Jin dynasty , tried to cross the Yangtze River to attack Song China . Yu Yunwen , a civil official , commanded the defending Song army . The paddle @-@ wheel warships of the Song fleet , equipped with trebuchets that launched incendiary bombs made of gunpowder and lime , decisively defeated the light ships of the Jin navy .
Starting in 1125 the Jin had conquered all Song territories north of the Huai River . In 1142 , a peace treaty settled the border between the two states , putting the Jin in control of northern China and the Song in control of the south . Wanyan Liang was enthroned in 1150 , and was intent on uniting northern and southern China under a single emperor . In 1158 , he asserted that the Song had violated the 1142 treaty , a pretext for declaring war on the Song . He began preparations for the war in the following year . He instituted a draft in which all able @-@ bodied men were required to enlist . The draft was unpopular , precipitating revolts that were later suppressed . The Jin army left the capital of Kaifeng on October 15 , 1161 , and pushed through from the Huai to the Yangtze River without much resistance from the Song .
The Song were fortified along the Yangtze front . Wanyan Liang planned to cross the river at Caishi , south of modern @-@ day Nanjing . He embarked from the shore of the Yangtze on November 26 , and clashed with Song forces led by Yu Yunwen in a naval engagement . Wanyan Liang lost the battle and retreated to Yangzhou . Wanyan Liang was assassinated in a military camp by his own men shortly after the Caishi battle . A military coup had taken place in the Jin court while Wanyan Liang was absent , enthroning Emperor Shizong as the new emperor . A peace treaty signed in 1165 ended the conflict between Song and Jin .
Song sources likely inflated the number of Jin soldiers and casualties at Caishi , but the 18 @,@ 000 figure for the Song army is plausible . Modern studies suggest that the battle was smaller and that both sides were more evenly matched than traditional accounts suggest . Nonetheless , the victory boosted the morale of the Song infantry and halted the southern advance of the Jin army .
= = Background = =
The Song ( 960 – 1276 ) was a Chinese dynasty . To their north were the Jurchens , a confederation of semi @-@ agrarian tribes from Manchuria in northeast Asia . While the Song and Jurchen had once been military allies , the Jurchen tribes , unified under the rule of Wanyan Aguda , plotted a revolt in 1114 to end their vassalage under the Khitan @-@ led Liao dynasty . Aguda established the Jin dynasty in 1115 and adopted the title of emperor . The Jin negotiated a joint attack with the Song against the Khitans . They planned the attack for 1121 and then rescheduled to 1122 . In 1122 , the Jurchens captured the Liao Supreme and Western Capitals . The Song tried yet failed to capture the Liao Southern Capital of Yan ( modern Beijing ) , which fell later that year to the Jin . The military weakness of the Song gave the Jin more diplomatic leverage over the Song . Negotiations between the Song and Jin produced a treaty in 1123 , but bilateral relations deteriorated because of territorial disputes over the Sixteen Prefectures . In 1125 , the Jurchens invaded the Song .
By 1127 , Jin had conquered most of northern China and besieged the Song capital of Kaifeng twice . In the second siege of Kaifeng , Emperor Qinzong of the Song was captured . The Jurchens took him and the Song royal family to Manchuria as hostages . Members of the Song court who had evaded capture fled south , where they established a temporary capital , first in the Song southern capital ( modern Shangqiu ) , and then in Hangzhou in 1129 . The move of the Song capital south to Hangzhou signals the transition from the Northern Song era to the Southern Song . Qinzong 's younger brother , Prince Zhao Gou , was enthroned as Qinzong 's successor in the southern capital in 1127 ; he is known posthumously as Emperor Gaozong . The Jurchen general Wuzhu crossed the Yangtze River in 1130 and tried to capture Gaozong , but the emperor escaped . Wuzhu retreated north across the Yangtze , where he fought off a stronger Song fleet commanded by Han Shizhong .
The Jin persisted with their advance into the remaining Song territories south of the Yangtze . They faced an insurgency of Song loyalists in the north , the deaths of some important leaders , and military offensives by Song generals like Yue Fei . The Jurchens created the puppet government of Da Qi to serve as a buffer state between Song and Jin , but Qi failed to defeat the Song . The Jin abolished Qi in 1137 . As the Jin gave up on conquering the Southern Song , diplomatic talks for a peace treaty resumed . Signed in 1142 , the Treaty of Shaoxing established the boundary between the two states along the Huai River , which runs north of the Yangtze . The treaty forbade the Song from purchasing horses from the Jin , but smuggling continued in the border markets . The relations between the two states were mostly peaceful from 1142 to 1161 , the year Wanyan Liang went to war .
= = = Preparation for war = = =
Wanyan Liang was crowned Jin emperor in 1150 after killing his cousin and predecessor , Emperor Xizong , in a palace coup . Wanyan Liang considered himself more of a Chinese authoritarian ruler than a Jurchen leader who ruled through a tribal council . The History of Jin contends that Wanyan Liang told his officials that the three desires of his life were conquest , absolute power , and women . His ultimate ambition was to rule over all of China , not just the north . In his childhood , Wanyan Liang adopted Song practices like drinking tea by learning from Song emissaries , and once he had become emperor , he pursued a policy of sinicizing the state . His affinity for the culture of the Song earned him the Jurchen nickname of " aping the Chinese " . He moved the Supreme Capital of the Jin from Huining in Manchuria to Beijing and promoted Kaifeng to his Southern Capital in 1157 . He also moved government institutions south , tore down palaces of Jurchen chieftains in Manchuria , and constructed new palaces in Beijing and Kaifeng . He made plans to move the Jin capital further south to the center of China . Wanyan Liang 's construction projects drained the Jin treasury .
Plans for a war against the Southern Song began in 1158 . That year , Wanyan Liang claimed that the Song had broken the 1142 treaty that banned them from acquiring horses . In 1159 , he began building up his army in preparation for an invasion . He acquired weapons , which he stored in Beijing , as well as horses allegedly numbering 560 @,@ 000 . Wanyan Liang understood that an invasion of the Song would require a lot of men . He ensured that Han Chinese soldiers were drafted into the war effort alongside Jurchen soldiers . The recruitment drive lasted until 1161 . Naval confrontations were likely because the Jin planned on traveling by river . Ships were seized for the war and 30 @,@ 000 of the recruits were assigned to the Jin fleet . Wanyan Liang authorized the building of ships for the war in March 1159 , under the auspices of the Ministry of War . Construction began in the Tong ( 通 ) prefecture near Beijing . Wanyan Liang appointed himself head of the army and took personal command of the Jurchen forces . The draft was unpopular . Several revolts erupted against it , many of them in the Jin provinces neighboring the Song . But Wanyan Liang allowed no dissent . He had his stepmother executed after hearing that she was critical of the war effort .
In order to eliminate any challenge to his legitimacy as emperor of a united China , Wanyan Liang ordered the execution of all male members of the Song and Liao royal families residing in Jin territory . The execution of 130 members of the two royal clans in the span of a few months proved unpopular , and the Khitans soon revolted in Manchuria . They refused to be drafted into the army , maintaining that conscription would leave the homeland of the Khitans unprotected from rival tribes on the steppes . Wanyan Liang rebuffed their demands . The Khitan rebels killed several Jurchen officials . The rebellion was fragmented , and there were separate plans either to spread the revolt further by operating from Shangjing , the former Liao capital , or to move the Khitan people from Manchuria to Central Asia , where the Kara @-@ Khitan Khanate had formed after the demise of Liao . Wanyan Liang was forced to divert resources and men away from the war effort to suppress the rebellion .
Diplomatic exchanges between the Song and Jin did not stop during the period preceding the war . The History of Song claims that the Song realized that the Jin were planning for an invasion when they noticed the discourtesy of one of the Jin diplomats . Some Song officials foresaw the impending war , but Emperor Gaozong hoped to maintain peaceful relations with the Song 's northern neighbor . His reluctance to antagonize the Jin delayed the fortification of the Song border defenses . The Song quickly built just three military garrisons in 1161 . Wanyan Liang departed from Kaifeng on October 15 , 1161 . The offensive comprised four armies , and Wanyan Liang personally led the army that entered Anhui . The Jin passed the Huai River boundary on October 28 , advancing into Song territory . The Song resistance was minimal because they had fortified the southern shore of the Yangtze River and not the Huai .
= = Naval battle = =
Wanyan Liang 's army built its encampment near Yangzhou on the northern side of the Yangtze River . The Jin advance had been slowed by Song victories in the west , where the Song captured several prefectures from the Jin . Wanyan Liang commanded his forces to cross the Yangtze at Caishi , south of modern Nanjing . A naval battle between Jin and Song took place on November 26 and 27 , 1161 . The Song troops were led by Yu Yunwen – a scholar @-@ official – and his lieutenants Dai Gao , Jian Kang , Shi Zhun , and others . Yu , who was a Drafting Official of the Secretariat ( zhongshu sheren 中書舍人 ) , was at Caishi to distribute awards to Song soldiers who had been selected for their outstanding service ; it was by chance that his visit coincided with Wanyan Liang 's campaign . When he first arrived , the Song forces at Caishi were scattered and lacked a central leader . Yu took command and built a cohesive army . The Jin performed a ritual sacrifice of horses a day before the battle . On November 26 , Jin troops embarked from the shore of the Yangtze and engaged the Song fleet . Some of the ships they boarded were shoddily built . The Jin had lost several ships in Liangshan , where they were bogged down by the shallow depths of Liangshan Lake as they were being transported to the Grand Canal . Wanyan Liang had urgently requested the construction of more ships in 1161 to compensate for those still stuck in Liangshan . One account of the war contends that the Jin ships were constructed in a week with materials recycled from destroyed buildings . The shortage of vessels and the poor quality of those available prevented the Jin from ferrying more soldiers needed for fighting a naval battle with the Song .
The Song military response was likely stronger than Wanyan Liang had anticipated . The paddle @-@ wheel ships of the Song navy could move more rapidly and outmaneuver the slower Jin ships . The Song kept their fleet hidden behind the island of Qibao Shan . The ships were to depart the island once a scout on horseback announced the approach of the Jin ships by signalling a concealed flag atop the island 's peak . Once the flag became visible , the Song fleet commenced their attack from both sides of the island . Song soldiers operated traction trebuchets that launched incendiary " thunderclap bombs " and other soft @-@ cased explosives containing lime and sulphur , which created a noxious explosion when the casing broke . The Jin soldiers who managed to cross the river and reach the shore were assaulted by Song troops waiting on the other side . The Song won a decisive victory . Wanyan Liang was defeated again in a second engagement the next day . After burning his remaining ships , he retreated to Yangzhou , where he was assassinated before he could finish preparations for another crossing .
Estimates for the number of soldiers and casualties at the battle vary widely . A Song source reports that there were 18 @,@ 000 Song soldiers stationed in Caishi , a number that historian Herbert Franke considers plausible . However , Song estimates for the number of Jin troops are likely inflated . One document claims that 400 @,@ 000 Jin soldiers were present at the battle . This number is doubtful , bearing in mind that the Song had only 120 @,@ 000 soldiers fighting on the entire front . Song historians may have confused the total number of Jin personnel deployed on the front with the number of Jin combatants at Caishi . The inflated figure could have referred to the number of soldiers that the Jin army had before crossing the Huai River toward the Yangtze . The desertions and casualties from suppressing revolts while advancing southward would have shrunk that number by the time the Jin reached the Yangtze . The History of Jin , a document written from the perspective of the Jin , reports Jin casualties between one meng 'an ( a Jurchen unit of a thousand soldiers ) and a hundred men , and two meng 'an and two hundred men . The History of Song reports Jin casualties numbering four thousand soldiers and two commanders of wanhu ( ten thousand men ) rank . An account of the battle by a different Song source holds that 24 @,@ 000 Jin soldiers died and that 500 combatants and five meng @-@ an were taken as prisoners . A more conservative Song source estimates that the Jin only had 500 soldiers and 20 ships at Caishi . It is not certain which of these figures is more accurate ; Franke believes that the safest conclusion that can be drawn is that the number of Jin casualties was not greater than four thousand .
= = Military and naval technology = =
An account of the Song 's technological capabilities is given in the Hai Qiu Fu ( " Rhapsodic Ode on the Sea @-@ eel Paddle Wheel Warships " ) :
The men inside them paddled fast on the treadmills , and the ships glided forwards as though they were flying , yet no one was visible on board . The enemy thought that they were made of paper . Then all of a sudden a thunderclap bomb was let off . It was made with paper ( carton ) and filled with lime and sulphur . ( Launched from trebuchets ) these thunderclap bombs came dropping down from the air , and upon meeting the water exploded with a noise like thunder , the sulphur bursting into flames . The carton case rebounded and broke , scattering the lime to form a smoky fog , which blinded the eyes of men and horses so that they could see nothing . Our ships then went forward to attack theirs , and their men and horses were all drowned , so that they were utterly defeated .
There were up to 340 ships in the Song fleet during the battle of Caishi in 1161 . The Song fleet used trebuchets to bombard the Jin ships with incendiary bombs ( pili huoqiu 霹雳火球 or huopao 霹雳火砲 ; " thunderclap fire balls " ) that contained a mixture of gunpowder , lime , scraps of iron , and a poison that was likely arsenic . Reports that the bomb produced a loud sound suggests that the nitrate content of the gunpowder mixture was high enough to create an explosion . The powdered lime in the bombs at Caishi generated a cloud of blinding smoke similar to tear gas . The huoqiu released the smoke once the casing of the bomb shattered . Fuses activated the bombs after launching .
The Jin conscripted thousands of blacksmiths to build the armor and weaponry of the fleet , and workers to dig out the canal necessary for transporting the ships from Tong to the Grand Canal through the northern port of Zhigu ( 直沽 ) , modern Tianjin . The Jin armored their light ships with thick rhinoceros hides . The ships had two stories ; on the lower deck were the oarsmen responsible for rowing the ship , while soldiers on the upper deck could fire missile weapons . Three different variations of the warships were constructed . Several of the ships became bogged down in Liangshan , and the ships built to replace them were of an inferior quality . The Jin fleet were unable to defeat the larger and faster warships of the Song .
The battle is significant in the technological history of the Song navy . The technological advances of the Song navy ensured its access to the East China Sea , where they competed with the military forces of Jin and Mongol rivals . Although huopao launched by the ship @-@ mounted trebuchets had been invented decades earlier , the bombs did not become mandatory on Song warships until 1129 . Paddle @-@ wheel ships operated with treadmills were constructed continuously in various sizes between 1132 and 1183 . The engineer Gao Xuan devised a ship outfitted with up to eleven paddle wheels on each side , and Qin Shifu , another engineer , designed the iron plating for armoring the ships in 1203 . All these advances supported a rapid increase in the size of the force ; according to the 20th @-@ century historian Joseph Needham , " From a total of 11 squadrons and 3 @,@ 000 men [ the Song navy ] rose in one century to 20 squadrons totalling 52 @,@ 000 men " .
= = Aftermath = =
Traditional Chinese historiography celebrated the battle of Caishi as an important victory for China . Caishi was held in the same esteem as the Battle of Fei River in 383 , when the Eastern Jin defeated the northern invaders of the Former Qin . However , its portrayal as a victory against overwhelming odds , in which 18 @,@ 000 Song soldiers overcame an army of nearly half a million men , is likely an exaggeration . Modern historians believe that the number of Jin soldiers was far lower . The Song possessed multiple advantages , and the battle was more evenly matched than contemporaneous historians suggest . The Song had larger ships and ample time to prepare while the Jin army gathered supplies and ships for the crossing . It was also impossible for the Jin to use cavalry , the most important asset of the Jurchen military , during a naval engagement .
A modern analysis of the background of the conflict and the battlefield has also shown that it was a smaller engagement than traditionally believed . Its effects were more psychological than material . The battle was not solely responsible for dooming Wanyan Liang 's military campaign ; his own failings also led to his downfall . Wanyan Liang 's generals detested him , and his relationship with his men had deteriorated over the course of the war . His authoritarianism made him equally unpopular among his own people . There was a widespread disapproval of his reign in the empire , and Wanyan Liang 's policies had alienated the Jurchens , the Khitans , and the Han Chinese . Disaffected officers conspired to kill him , and he was assassinated on December 15 , 1161 . Emperor Shizong succeeded Wanyan Liang as ruler of the Jin . He had been enthroned weeks before the assassination , in a military coup that installed him as emperor while Wanyan Liang was absent from the court . Shizong eventually rescinded many of Wanyan Liang 's sinification policies .
The victory boosted the morale of the Song soldiers and increased dissatisfaction among the Jin army . News of the victory improved confidence in the government and bolstered the stability of the Song . The Jurchens gave up their ambitions of conquering the Southern Song and reunifying China . The Jin army withdrew in 1162 , and diplomatic relations between the two states resumed . Emperor Gaozong retired nine months after the conclusion of the battle . The reasons for his abdication are complicated , but Gaozong 's handling of the war with Wanyan Liang may have had a part in his decision to resign . He had ignored the warnings of a Jin attack and his hopes for conciliation held back plans for strengthening the Song defenses .
Military clashes continued in Huainan and Sichuan , but Jin incursions after Caishi had no intent of reaching the Yangtze . The Jin had discovered that southern China 's many lakes and river impeded their cavalry . They signed a peace treaty with the Song in 1165 , ending hostilities . The Huai River border remained the same and the Song continued to pay annual indemnities to the Jin , but the Song no longer recognized their state as a Jin vassal .
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= Flower ( video game ) =
Flower is a video game developed by Thatgamecompany and published by Sony Computer Entertainment . Flower , designed by Jenova Chen and Nicholas Clark , was released in February 2009 on PlayStation 3 , via the PlayStation Network . PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita versions of the game were ported over by Bluepoint Games , and released in November 2013 . The game was intended as a " spiritual successor " to Flow , a previous title by Chen and Thatgamecompany . In Flower , the player controls the wind , blowing a flower petal through the air using the movement of the game controller . Flying close to flowers results in the player 's petal being followed by other flower petals . Approaching flowers may also have side @-@ effects on the game world , such as bringing vibrant color to previously dead fields or activating stationary windmills . The game features no text or dialogue , forming a narrative arc primarily through visual representation and emotional cues .
Flower was primarily intended to arouse positive emotions in the player , rather than to be a challenging and " fun " game . This focus was sparked by Chen , who felt that the primary purpose of entertainment products like video games was the feelings that they evoked in the audience , and that the emotional range of most games was very limited . The team viewed their efforts as creating a work of art , removing gameplay elements and mechanics that were not provoking the desired response in the players . The music , composed by Vincent Diamante , dynamically responds to the player 's actions and corresponds with the emotional cues in the game . Flower was a critical success , to the surprise of the developers . Reviewers praised the game 's music , visuals , and gameplay , calling it a unique and compelling emotional experience . It was named the " best independent game of 2009 " at the Spike Video Game Awards , and won the " Casual Game of the Year " award by the Academy of Interactive Arts and Sciences .
= = Gameplay = =
Flower is divided up into six main levels and one credits level . Each level is represented by a flower in a pot on a city apartment windowsill , and upon selecting one the player is taken to the " dream " of that flower . Once inside a level , the player controls the wind as it blows a single flower petal through the air . Changes in the pitch and roll of the floating petal are accomplished by tilting the PlayStation 3 controller . Pressing any button blows the wind harder , which in turn moves the petal faster . The camera generally follows just behind the petal , though it sometimes moves to show a new objective or consequence of the player 's actions .
Groups and lines of flowers are present in each level ; approaching these with the petal causes them to bloom and a new petal to trail the first . When the player approaches certain flowers or groups of flowers , changes are made to the game world . These include opening new areas , transforming dead grassy areas to bright green fields , or activating wind turbines . These changes generally result in new flowers sprouting for the player to interact with . Flying through each flower results in a musical chime that harmonizes with the music . The music itself dynamically adjusts as changes are made to the world . The more flower petals the player has trailing the lead petal , the faster the petals move . It is impossible for the player to lose a level or any progress . The game features no enemies , hit points , or time limits . A single play @-@ through of the game takes approximately one hour .
Although no speech or text is used anywhere in the game aside from credits and interaction hints in the main menu , the six flower dreams follow a narrative arc . The player 's starting location in each stage appears to be near the ending location of the previous one , and through the course of the game the player approaches a distant city . The first levels focus on restoring life and color to the landscape . After activating a series of windmills , the player flies through a nighttime field , illuminating darkened strings of lights until they reach the city . The city is full of menacing metal structures , small arcs of electricity , and washed @-@ out buildings ; the player enlivens the city in the final two levels and transforms it into a bright and cheerful place .
As the player progresses through the different levels of the game , the city viewed through the apartment window in the level selection screen gradually becomes more vibrant and colorful . If the player triggers three secret flowers in each level , the cityscape is replaced with a bright field with mountains in the background . The music changes in scope as the game progresses , growing in scale and complexity and adding to the narrative arc . The credits level is played in a similar manner to the main levels , but as the player flies through each flower the name of a person involved in the game appears above it . Flower includes PlayStation Network trophies in keeping with the game 's feel . While some are objective @-@ based , many are centered on relaxing and watching the scenery .
= = Development = =
Flower was developed as a spiritual successor to Flow , a 2006 Flash game created by Jenova Chen and Nicholas Clark while the two were students at the University of Southern California . Flow was later developed into a PlayStation 3 game by Thatgamecompany in 2007 and a PlayStation Portable game by SuperVillain Studios in 2008 . Flower was Thatgamecompany 's " first game outside the safety net of academia " . It was first announced at the Tokyo Game Show on September 24 , 2007 , and was released on the PlayStation Network on February 12 , 2009 . Flower was intended primarily to provoke positive emotions in the player , and to act as " an emotional shelter " . Six to nine people were involved at varying stages of development . Chen , who co @-@ founded Thatgamecompany with game producer Kellee Santiago , was the creative director in charge of the game , while Clark was the lead designer . Chen described the game as " an interactive poem exploring the tension between urban and nature " . He decided on the " nature " theme early in the development process , saying that he " had this concept that every PlayStation is like a portal in your living room , it leads you to somewhere else . I thought ; wouldn 't it be nice if it was a portal that would allow you to be embraced by nature " .
Before beginning work , the development team commissioned two pieces of music that they felt would inspire the right emotional tone for the game to guide their efforts . They created a number of prototypes , including concepts focused on growing flowers and based around human consciousness . The team decided that a prototype centered on petals floating in the wind best captured the emotions they wanted to evoke . They made keeping the player in a peaceful emotional state their design focus , and removed elements that frustrated players such as petal collection requirements to unlock levels and game mechanics that were too traditional and made the players too excited . The team tried to not place any barriers in the levels , allowing the player to go anywhere in an open world , but realized that without a few guidelines , such as the camera focusing on new flowers or segmenting the levels , players became confused and frustrated . Chen described the process as " almost like we wanted to throw away the traditional game design , but we end up picking up all the pieces we threw away and putting them back because we know those are actually needed to deliver a good guided experience " . The overall development time was two years , but the team spent three quarters of that time in the prototyping stage . After deciding on the game elements , Flower was produced in only six months .
The game 's focus on emotions was sparked by Chen , who felt that the primary purpose of entertainment products like video games was the feelings that they evoked in the audience , and that the emotional range of most games was very limited . Chen tried to make the game focus more on emotions than on a message ; he specifically changed the design of Flower when early testers felt there was a message of promoting green energy in the game . To make Flower have the " emotional spectrum " that he wanted , Chen looked at the development process as creating a work of art , rather than a " fun " game , which would not provoke the desired emotions . He summarized this view by saying that the only gameplay mechanic is hitting a flower to trigger a new event . The team specifically cut out deeper gameplay elements because these would have added " challenge " to the game , which , while fun , would not have been relaxing . Sony Santa Monica contracted with Bluepoint Games to create ports of the game for the PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita , which were published in November 2013 to correspond with the release of the PlayStation 4 .
= = = Music = = =
The music for Flower was created by Vincent Diamante , a video game music composer and professor at the University of Southern California 's Interactive Media Division . He had previously scored the music for Cloud , Chen 's first game , and Dyadin when they were both at the University of Southern California . He worked directly with the development team to integrate the music into the game by adjusting the placements of flowers and the tones that each type played when they were reached . He did this by harmonizing the gameplay with the music , and adjusting the music dynamically to correspond to changes in the game world . Diamante used his music to influence the development team in adapting ideas he had for the game .
The music and instruments in each level were chosen to correspond to the game world and the level 's placement in the overall emotional arc . The music is composed of multiple layers of acoustic instrument tracks that rise and fall in correlation with the player 's actions . The instruments used include pianos , string instruments such as classical guitars , and woodwinds such as bass flutes and bassoons . The number of instruments playing increases in correlation with the amount of petals that the player gathers . The music is meant to suggest natural sounds like wind . The instrument tracks were intended to be able to stand on their own , even when used in a large orchestrated group as in levels three and six . Several times in the development process , Diamante became so attached to a piece of music that needed alteration that he composed a new piece to replace it . Diamante was long in talks with Sony to produce an album of music from the game . On April 8 , 2010 a soundtrack album was released by Sony for purchase on the PlayStation Network . The album , titled Flower : Original Soundtrack from the Video Game , contains 8 tracks with a total duration of 1 : 04 : 37 .
= = Reception = =
Flower was well received by critics . Alice Liang of 1UP.com applauded the game , saying that " the freedom of movement makes the game feel as relaxing as a gently wafting breeze " . She felt that " fun " did not fully describe the game experience , saying that it had a " well @-@ constructed movie 's emotional arc " and that the game 's music , visuals , and gameplay all drew the player into a compelling emotional experience . She also felt that it was very replayable , which offset its brevity . Ryan Clements of IGN agreed with Liang 's opinion , saying that it provided " more enjoyment , emotion and enlightenment than any game " he had played in years . Though he noted that the game would not appeal to everyone , he described it as " something very unique and very powerful " , referring to it as a " must @-@ play " . Michael Kontoudis of PALGN called it an " utterly unique , brave and moving game brimming with personality and intent " , though he noted that as it was closer to a work of art than a game , many players would not be interested in it . Gerard Campbell of The Press similarly described it as something more than a game , calling it a " perfect foil " to " ultra @-@ violent shoot- ' em @-@ up " games and summarizing it as " one of the most refreshing and relaxing games around " .
Eurogamer 's Tom Bramwell had similar praise , describing it as " pleasantly innocent and uplifting " , though he awarded it a lower score than other reviewers as he felt the US $ 9 @.@ 99 price was too high for the game 's length . This criticism was not universal , as reviewers such as Jason Hill of The Age called the A $ 13 Australian price " reasonable " and described the length as not " overstay [ ing ] its welcome " . Critics such as GamePro 's Terry Terrones and GameTrailers echoed the same praises as other reviewers for the game ; GameTrailers said that it was " less a game and more an experience . You don 't necessarily " play " Flower ; you interact with it , " while Terrones noted the music as the best part of the game 's presentation . Tom Hoggins of The Daily Telegraph felt that Flower would " reignite the ' video games as art ' debate " and was of the opinion that it was a " wonderful work of art " in addition to a game . The positive reception surprised the developers , as they had expected a mixed reaction .
Flower received the " Best Independent Game Fueled by Dew " award in the 2009 Spike Video Game Awards . It was similarly named the " Best Indie Game " of 2009 by Playboy . It was nominated for the 2009 " Outstanding Innovation in Gaming " , " Outstanding Achievement in Sound Design " , " Outstanding Achievement in Original Music Composition " , and " Outstanding Innovation Achievement in Game Direction " awards , and won the " Casual Game of the Year " award by the Academy of Interactive Arts and Sciences . It was nominated for the " Use of Audio " video game awards by the British Academy of Film and Television Arts and won the " Artistic Achievement " award . Its soundtrack was awarded the 2009 " Best Original Soundtrack " prize from G4 . The music was also nominated for the Game Audio Network Guild 's " Music of the Year " award and won the " Best Interactive Score " award . Its gameplay debut at the 2008 Electronic Entertainment Expo resulted in multiple awards , including " Best E3 Download Game " from 1UP.com , " Best Original Game " from UGO , and " Special Achievement for Innovation " from IGN .
In 2011 , Flower was chosen through a public vote out of an initial selection of 240 to be one of 80 games showcased in a 2012 exhibit at the Smithsonian American Art Museum titled " The Art of Video Games " . In 2013 , the museum acquired the game for its permanent collection . The game was showcased in the 2015 Smithsonian exhibition , Watch This ! Revelations in Media Art .
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= No. 486 Squadron RAAF =
No. 486 Squadron was a maintenance unit of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . It was formed in August 1946 as part of No. 86 ( Transport ) Wing , which operated Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas out of RAAF Station Schofields , New South Wales . The squadron transferred to RAAF Station Richmond in June 1949 . It relocated again to RAAF Base Canberra in April 1954 , before returning to Richmond in August 1958 to commence maintenance of No. 86 Wing 's newly delivered Lockheed C @-@ 130 Hercules . The squadron was disbanded between August 1964 and March 1966 . In the 1980s and 1990s , it was responsible for servicing the RAAF 's Boeing 707 tanker / transports , as well as the Hercules . No. 486 Squadron was again disbanded at Richmond in October 1998 , and its functions handed over to No. 86 Wing 's Hercules squadrons .
= = History = =
No. 486 ( Maintenance ) Squadron was established at RAAF Station Schofields , New South Wales , on 26 August 1946 . Commanded by Wing Commander Alexander Abicair , its allocated strength was 257 , including ten officers . The unit was part of No. 86 ( Transport ) Wing , which also controlled Nos. 36 , 37 , and 38 Squadrons , flying Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas , and No. 386 ( Base ) Squadron . No. 37 Squadron was disbanded in February 1948 and No. 386 Squadron in March 1949 . On 22 June 1949 , No. 86 Wing , comprising Nos. 36 , 38 and 486 Squadrons , relocated to the nearby RAAF Station Richmond . No. 486 Squadron 's role included servicing and replacing engines , and fitting long @-@ range fuel tanks and spraying equipment . It occasionally serviced CAC Wirraways in addition to its Dakota maintenance tasks .
On 20 April 1954 , No. 86 Wing was transferred to RAAF Base Canberra to help satisfy the Federal government 's VIP transport needs . There No. 486 Squadron maintained two Convair Metropolitans , as well as Dakotas . The squadron returned to Richmond on 29 August 1958 in anticipation of the entry into RAAF service of the Lockheed C @-@ 130A Hercules . The official history of the post @-@ war Air Force described the Hercules as " probably the biggest step @-@ up in aircraft capabilities " the RAAF had ever received , considering it roughly four times as effective as the Dakota , taking into account the improvements in payload , range , and speed . The Hercules was also the first turboprop aircraft operated by the RAAF . The arrival of the C @-@ 130 meant that for a time No. 486 Squadron was maintaining three types of transport aircraft : Hercules , Dakotas and Metropolitans . Heavier maintenance and upgrades to the Hercules were carried out by No. 2 Aircraft Depot , also based at Richmond . The availability of Lockheed spare parts from the US caused problems for No. 486 Squadron early in the C @-@ 130A 's Australian service , grounding one aircraft for almost a year .
No. 86 Wing was disbanded following the entry into service of the RAAF 's first de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 4 Caribou tactical transports in April 1964 . Because the Caribous were primarily for support of the Australian Army , an overarching wing headquarters for the Caribous and Hercules was considered inappropriate . On 3 August 1964 , No. 486 Squadron was also disbanded and its equipment , staff and records divided between Nos. 36 and 38 Squadrons . No. 37 Squadron was re @-@ established at Richmond in February 1966 , flying C @-@ 130E Hercules . Consequently , on 28 March , No. 486 Squadron was re @-@ formed under the auspices of RAAF Base Richmond to service both C @-@ 130 models . Four technicians from No. 486 Squadron were killed in a car accident near Windsor on 26 June 1968 . The unit 's maintenance program was reorganised in September 1973 . It played a significant role supporting relief efforts in the wake of Cyclone Tracy , which struck Darwin , Northern Territory , on Christmas Day 1974 . No. 486 Squadron had thirteen Hercules available by the night of 25 December , and a further six by New Years Day . These nineteen aircraft flew over 1 @,@ 250 hours , carrying more than 7 @,@ 000 passengers and over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 pounds ( 450 @,@ 000 kg ) of cargo . The C @-@ 130As operated by No. 36 Squadron were replaced by C @-@ 130H models in 1978 , having clocked up 147 @,@ 000 accident @-@ free flying hours .
No. 486 Squadron celebrated its 40th Anniversary on 26 August 1986 . No. 86 Wing re @-@ formed at Richmond on 2 February 1987 , under the newly established Air Lift Group ( ALG ) . As well as No. 486 Squadron , the wing controlled No. 33 Squadron flying Boeing 707 transports , Nos. 36 and 37 Squadrons flying C @-@ 130H and C @-@ 130E Hercules respectively , and Air Movements Training and Development Unit . No. 486 Squadron was responsible for operational and intermediate @-@ level maintenance of the 707s as well as the Hercules . It also managed flight simulators and all ground @-@ based equipment . The C @-@ 130Es operated by No. 37 Squadron achieved 200 @,@ 000 accident @-@ free flying hours in 1988 . Two years later , No. 36 Squadron achieved 100 @,@ 000 accident @-@ free flying hours on the C @-@ 130H . Some C @-@ 130 maintenance tasks were outsourced to commercial firms beginning in the late 1980s , and Air New Zealand won a four @-@ year depot maintenance contract in 1990 . Following conversion of four of No. 33 Squadron 's six aircraft to aerial tankers between 1988 and 1992 , No. 486 Squadron took on responsibility for servicing the 707s ' refuelling pods .
In 1989 , the Australian Government employed the Hercules and Boeing 707s for transport during the pilots ' dispute that curtailed operations by the two domestic airlines ; the resulting spike in operational hours necessitated No. 486 Squadron sending detachments to several locations throughout the country to cope with increased maintenance demands . In May 1993 , squadron personnel accompanied Hercules and 707s transporting Australian troops from Somalia after they had taken part in United Nations humanitarian operations . By the mid @-@ 1990s , No. 486 Squadron 's strength was over 400 personnel . One of its challenges was the availability of spare parts for the Boeing 's ageing Pratt & Whitney JT3D engines . Qantas undertook heavier maintenance of the 707s at its jet base in Mascot . Other depot @-@ level maintenance of No. 86 Wing aircraft was the responsibility of No. 503 Wing , which had been formed from No. 2 Aircraft Depot in July 1992 . No. 486 Squadron was disbanded in October 1998 , after transferring its functions to Nos. 36 and 37 Squadrons .
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= Oregon State Capitol =
The Oregon State Capitol is the building housing the state legislature and the offices of the governor , secretary of state , and treasurer of the U.S. state of Oregon . It is located in the state capital , Salem . The current building , constructed from 1936 to 1938 , and expanded in 1977 , is the third to house the Oregon state government in Salem . Two former capitol buildings were destroyed by fire , one in 1855 and the other in 1935 .
New York architects Trowbridge & Livingston conceived the current structure 's Art Deco , stripped classical design , in association with Francis Keally . Much of the interior and exterior is made of marble . The Oregon State Capitol was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1988 .
The Public Works Administration , part of the U.S. government , partially financed construction , which was completed during the Great Depression , in 1938 . The building was erected at a cost of $ 2 @.@ 5 million for the central portion of the building , which includes a dome of 166 feet ( 51 m ) . The wings , which doubled the floor space of the building to about 233 @,@ 750 square feet ( 21 @,@ 716 m2 ) , were added later for $ 12 @.@ 5 million . The grounds outside the capitol building contain artwork , fountains , and flora , including the state tree ( Douglas fir ) and state flower ( Oregon grape ) .
= = Early capitol buildings = =
Before the creation of the Oregon Territory in 1848 , the Oregon Country provisional government , through legislation on June 27 , 1844 and December 19 , 1845 , selected Oregon City as the capital . Thus Oregon 's first capitol was in Oregon City . One of the private buildings used by this government was constructed by John L. Morrison in 1850 ; it served as a capitol until the government moved to Salem . The designation of Oregon City as the seat of power was by proclamation of Governor Joseph Lane . In 1850 , the legislature passed an act designating Salem the capital . However , Governor John P. Gaines refused to relocate and remained in Oregon City along with the Oregon Supreme Court ( except justice Orville C. Pratt ) until an act of Congress on May 14 , 1852 settled the matter in Salem 's favor .
On January 13 , 1855 , the Oregon Territorial Legislature passed a bill moving the seat of government from Salem to Corvallis . Governor George Law Curry and many others objected to the move , since public buildings in Salem were already under construction . Curry sent the matter to the Secretary of the Treasury in Washington , D.C. , where Secretary James Guthrie declared the move invalid unless acted on by the United States Congress . Thereafter , Curry and Oregon Secretary of State Benjamin Harding moved back to Salem .
On December 3 , 1855 , the legislature convened in Corvallis and quickly introduced legislation to move the capital back to Salem . This bill passed on December 15 , 1855 . Three days later , the legislature re @-@ convened in Salem . However , the statehouse burned down on the 29th , and the legislature re @-@ opened debate about where to seat the capital . They decided to ask the people of the territory to vote on the question . A vote was to be held in June 1856 , after which the two cities receiving the most votes would have a runoff . The initial vote set up a runoff between Eugene and Corvallis , but after some ballots were invalidated due to not being cast in accordance with the law , the two winners were Eugene and Salem . An October runoff gave Eugene the most votes , but the earlier vote @-@ tossing led to a low turnout . With such low public participation , the election was ignored , and the capital remained in Salem .
A permanent resolution of the capital location issue came in 1864 . In 1860 , the legislature put the question once again to a popular vote . On a vote in 1862 , no city received the 50 percent minimum required by law . In an 1864 election , Salem received 79 percent and was declared the state capital . The Oregon Constitution lists the seat of state government in Article XIV as Marion County , of which Salem is the seat .
= = = First capitol = = =
The land developed for the permanent capitol buildings was Salem block 84 , sold to the state for this purpose by pioneer and Salem founder W. H. Willson . Construction of the first capitol building began in 1854 , shortly after Congress confirmed Salem as the capital city . However , with the capital moving to Corvallis the next year , construction was temporarily halted . After the capital 's return to Salem , the building was nearly completed by late 1855 . This territorial capitol , of Greek Revival @-@ style , stood 50 feet ( 15 m ) wide and 75 feet ( 23 m ) long ( 15 by 23 m ) , with a stone facade and a 10 @-@ foot ( 3 m ) portico . Built of native ashlar blocks , the exterior walls , two stories high , ranged in color from a deep sky blue to white . The first floor was 19 feet ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) tall and the second 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) tall with an eight @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) entablature . The building was decorated with four Ionic columns on the front ( west ) end . The building housed a variety of rooms , including a federal courthouse with a chamber measuring 20 by 27 feet ( 6 by 8 m ) and an executive office of 18 by 20 ft ( 5 @.@ 5 by 6 m ) on the first floor . Also on the first floor was the House chamber , measuring 36 by 46 feet ( 11 by 14 m ) and having three entrances . The first floor also held the main hall , which included an entrance 15 feet ( 5 m ) wide . On the second floor was the Senate chamber , 26 by 36 feet ( 8 by 11 m ) . Additionally , the Territorial Library was housed in a room that was 20 by 36 feet ( 6 by 11 m ) . The second story also had a gallery viewing area for the House , three committee rooms , and several rooms for government clerks . The capitol was designed by Captain Charles Bennet , who participated in the discovery of gold at Sutter 's Mill in 1848 , and construction supervised by William H. Richter at a total cost of $ 25 @,@ 000 .
= = = = Fire = = = =
On the evening of December 29 , 1855 , a fire destroyed the first capitol building and many of the territory 's public records . Starting in the unfinished northeast corner of the structure , still unoccupied by the government , the fire was not discovered until around 12 : 30 am . Arson was suspected , but no one was arrested .
The site of the burned @-@ out capitol building remained a pile of stones for several years after the fire . A downtown building , Nesmith 's Building ( later named the Holman Building ) , served as a temporary capitol from 1859 until 1876 . The legislature met on the second and third floors of that building , which also housed the other state offices .
= = = Second capitol = = =
Plans for a new building began to take shape in 1872 when the state legislature appropriated $ 100 @,@ 000 ( $ 2 million as of 2016 ) towards a new capitol building . This second capitol , built between 1873 and 1876 , was a two @-@ story structure with an additional first level that was partly underground ; the total cost was $ 325 @,@ 000 ( $ 7 @.@ 2 million as of 2016 ) . The cornerstone for the building was laid on October 5 , 1873 , during a ceremony that included a speech by Governor Stephen F. Chadwick and the music of several bands . Construction , on the same site as the 1855 building , was partly accomplished with convict labor from the Oregon State Penitentiary . Architects Justus F. Krumbein and W.G. Gilbert designed the building .
Built of stone and five million bricks , Oregon 's new capitol measured 275 by 136 feet ( 84 by 41 m ) with a dome of 180 feet ( 55 m ) . The ground story was of native Oregon sandstone from the Umpqua region . The structure had a square rotunda on the interior that was 54 feet ( 16 m ) tall . Also inside was a Senate chamber measuring 75 by 45 feet ( 23 by 14 m ) and a House chamber of 85 by 75 feet ( 26 by 23 m ) . On the top floor was the Oregon Supreme Court with a courtroom measuring 54 by 45 feet ( 16 by 14 m ) and the Oregon State Law Library , 75 by 70 feet ( 23 by 21 m ) . Also on the top floor was a viewing gallery for the House . On the exterior were ornamental pilasters and two @-@ story porticos on the east and west ends . The building included a lunch counter . Additionally , the building had mullion @-@ windowed wings . The large copper @-@ clad dome was constructed with an iron and steel framework . This dome rose 54 feet ( 16 m ) above the rest of the building and was 100 feet ( 30 m ) tall . The building was of Renaissance style with Corinthian columns on the front entrance and was patterned after the United States Capitol . At that time , the capitol faced west toward the Willamette River . The government began using the building in August 1876 , before the dome was built . Originally , plans called for towers on both sides of the dome ( a tower on both ends of the building with the dome in the middle ) , but they were left out to save money . Oregon 's second capitol building stood from 1876 to 1935 .
= = = = Fire = = = =
On April 25 , 1935 at 6 : 43 pm , a custodial engineer called the Salem Fire Department to report smoke . Citizens helped to remove items from the smoky building , but when firefighters arrived , they ordered everyone to leave the structure , which was soon engulfed in flame . Among the helping citizens was twelve @-@ year @-@ old Mark Hatfield , who later became governor . It was determined the fire started in the basement of the east wing and quickly spread to piles of old records . A strong updraft in the hollow columns enclosing the dome 's eight supporting steel lattice girders pulled the flames through the rotunda to upper stories . The intense heat burned even the copper dome and lit the night sky .
Flames could be seen as far away as Corvallis . One volunteer firefighter , Floyd McMullen , a student at Willamette University , died in the fire , which drew firefighters from as far away as Portland . Salem sent seven fire trucks to the scene ; three more came from Portland . Only the outer walls were left standing after the fire was extinguished . Losses were estimated at $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( $ 25 @.@ 9 million as of 2016 ) , and the state did not carry insurance . The losses , which included historic artifacts such as the portraits of all the governors , could have been worse had the state not used fire @-@ proof vaults in the basement to store valuables such as more than $ 1 million ( $ 17 @.@ 3 million as of 2016 ) in stocks and bonds . During the blaze , firefighters poured water on these vaults to help keep them cool and prevent the contents from disintegrating . Years earlier , the state had turned over many historical documents to the Oregon Historical Society in Portland for preservation , and those records were preserved . Although the Supreme Court had moved to the Oregon Supreme Court Building in 1914 , the two buildings were connected by underground tunnels used for electricity and heating . At the time of the fire , the Oregon State Library was in the basement and first floor of the Supreme Court Building . Many books in the basement suffered water damage when water used to fight the fire flooded underground tunnels and seeped into the Supreme Court Building . Offices previously housed in the capitol were moved to other government buildings and to leased space in downtown Salem until a new building was built .
= = = Third capitol = = =
Construction of the newest building began on December 4 , 1936 . The third state capitol was completed in 1938 and is the fourth @-@ newest capitol in the United States . The capitol was dedicated on October 1 , 1938 , with speeches from President Franklin D. Roosevelt , Leslie M. Scott , Robert W. Sawyer , and Oregon Governor Charles Henry Martin . Chosen from 123 entries in a countrywide competition , the design of the new building deviated from the normal design of state capitol buildings . The design was labeled a combination of Egyptian simplicity and Greek refinement . Overall it is Art Deco in style , and is one of only three state capitols in the United States constructed in that architectural style .
Controversy occurred before construction began when Governor Martin suggested the new building be sited on a hill south of downtown ( Candalaria Heights ) and away from the busy center of town . Another proposal called for the purchase of the Willamette University campus and relocation of the capitol to that site . However , downtown merchants were able to keep the capitol building in downtown at the original location , though some Victorian homes were subsequently leveled to make way for the building . Another early complaint about the structure was that the cupola resembled a " paint can " rather than traditional domes on other capitols , including the earlier Oregon structures . It was even called a " squirrel cage " , lacking in majesty . Additionally , the public was slow to admire the gold Oregon Pioneer atop the dome . Installation of the statue began on September 17 , 1938 , and took several days and heavy @-@ duty equipment .
The building cost $ 2 @.@ 5 million ( $ 43 million as of 2016 ) , of which the federal government paid 45 percent through the Public Works Administration . Upon completion , the new capitol was 164 feet ( 50 m ) wide , 400 feet ( 120 m ) long , and 166 feet ( 51 m ) tall ( 50 by 122 by 51 m ) and contained 131 @,@ 750 square feet ( 12 @,@ 240 m2 ) of usable space . The exterior was finished with Vermont marble . The lobby , rotunda , and halls were lined with a polished rose travertine stone quarried in Montana . The rotunda 's staircases and floor used Phoenix Napoleon marble quarried in Missouri and have borders of Radio Black marble that , like the exterior stone , is from Vermont . 158 names of notable Oregonians are inscribed on the walls of the legislative chambers ; of these , only six are women . The original cost estimate for the building was $ 3 @.@ 5 million ( $ 60 million as of 2016 ) , but the state legislature only appropriated $ 2 @.@ 5 million ; committee rooms were subsequently removed from the plans . These rooms were added in 1977 as part of a $ 12 @.@ 5 million ( $ 49 million as of 2016 ) expansion project to add new wings containing legislative offices , hearing rooms , support services , a first floor galleria , and underground parking . This addition doubled the space of the capitol building . In 2002 , the wings were remodeled at a cost of $ 1 @.@ 3 million ( $ 1 @.@ 7 million as of 2016 ) to upgrade items such as antiquated wiring and to install new carpeting and lighting .
On March 25 , 1993 , the magnitude 5 @.@ 6 Scotts Mills earthquake damaged the dome , requiring closure for repairs . The rotunda area remained closed for approximately two years for these repairs . This " Spring Break Quake " shook the building enough to shift the statue on top and crack the dome . Additionally , the quake created a three @-@ foot ( one @-@ meter ) bulge on the west end of the building . Repairs cost $ 4 @.@ 3 million ( $ 7 million as of 2016 ) and included reinforcing the structure with additional concrete and steel bars .
In April 2002 , the building became the first state capitol in the United States to produce solar power through the use of 60 photovoltaic panels generating 7 @.@ 8 kilowatts . One @-@ third of the power is used to light the Oregon Pioneer at night ; the remaining electricity is sent into the power grid .
On December 31 , 2007 , the Oregon State Capitol hosted its first authorized wedding between Oregon State Representative Tobias Read and Heidi Eggert . At Read 's encouragement , the Legislature created a policy authorizing up to four public events a year . On August 30 , 2008 , the building caught fire around 12 : 30 in the morning and was quickly extinguished with damage to the Governor 's offices on the second floor on the south side . The governor was forced to relocate some of his offices , including some time at the Oregon State Library across the street .
= = Exterior and interior = =
The Oregon State Capitol is home to both branches of the state legislature , the House and Senate , and has offices for the governor , treasurer , and the secretary of state . In its center , the floor of the prominent rotunda features an embedded Oregon State Seal sculpted in bronze by Ulric Ellerhusen . Ellerhusen also sculpted the Oregon Pioneer that rests atop the capitol dome 's exterior . The dome rises 106 feet ( 32 m ) above the state seal . The interior of the dome was painted by Frank H. Schwarz and features 33 stars , symbolizing Oregon 's place as the 33rd state to join the Union . Eight medallions are painted near the top of the walls of the rotunda that represent the eight objects in the state seal . Also encircling the interior of the rotunda are four murals depicting moments from Oregon history . One mural depicts Captain Robert Gray 's exploration of the Columbia River in 1792 , another shows the Lewis and Clark Expedition , and two others portray covered wagons from pioneer times . These four murals were painted by Schwarz and Barry Faulkner . Other murals include the Provisional Government of Oregon 's salmon and wheat seal , the Oregon Territory 's seal , and depictions of Oregon 's industries , all located in the rotunda 's wings along the grand staircase . The capitol 's galleria area on the first floor includes hearing rooms , display cases , and the visitor information area .
Oregon 's House chamber floor is covered with a custom carpet ; the carpet 's pattern incorporates a depiction of the state tree , Douglas @-@ fir , representative of forestry . The furniture and paneling of the chamber is made of golden oak . A large mural painted by Faulkner , depicting the 1843 Champoeg Meetings at which the provisional government was formed , is behind the desk of the Speaker of the House . The Senate chambers use black walnut for the paneling and furniture . Another custom carpet lines the floor , featuring Chinook salmon and wheat , representative of fishing and agriculture . The Senate 's large mural was painted by Schwarz and depicts a street scene showing news of statehood reaching Salem . Lining the walls of both chambers are 158 names , inscribed in friezes , of prominent people in Oregon 's history . On the second floor of the capitol is the Governor 's suite , consisting of a ceremonial office and private offices for the state 's chief executive . As in the Senate chamber , the paneling is of black walnut . The ceremonial office includes a fireplace with a painting by Faulkner . In the suite 's reception area is a table made of 40 tree species . This table is inlaid with a replica of Oregon 's second capitol building , the state flower ( Oregon @-@ grape ) , and the state bird ( western meadowlark ) .
A variety of artwork is displayed on the exterior of the building . Sculptor Leo Friedlander used Vermont marble for the large relief sculptures on both sides of the main entrance . One sculpture depicts Meriwether Lewis , William Clark , and Sacagawea , with a map of their expedition 's route on the reverse ; the other ( Covered Wagon ) shows pioneers and a covered wagon , with a map of the Oregon Trail on the reverse . Additionally , Ellerhusen created five marble relief sculptures on the exterior , and a metal sculpture by Tom Morandi sits above the south entrance . Ellerhusen also cast six bronze sculptures arranged above the building 's main entrance , three on the inside and three on the outside .
The building measures 693 by 259 @.@ 5 ft ( 211 @.@ 2 by 79 @.@ 1 m ) . The older main portion of the building is 53 @.@ 5 feet ( 16 @.@ 3 m ) tall , while the newer wings added in 1977 are 68 @.@ 7 feet ( 20 @.@ 9 m ) tall . Inside , the building has approximately 233 @,@ 750 square feet ( 21 @,@ 716 m2 ) of floor area and 3 @.@ 2 million cubic feet ( 90 @,@ 600 cubic meters ) of volume .
In 1997 , the Legislative Assembly established the non @-@ profit Oregon State Capitol Foundation in order to " create a living history , enhance the dignity and beauty of the Capitol , and foster cultural and educational opportunities . " In 2005 , the foundation completed the Walk of the Flags project , a display in Willson Park on the capitol grounds of all 50 flags of the U.S. states .
In 2007 , the capitol wings closed for a restoration project to upgrade items such as furniture , plumbing , and electrical systems . The $ 34 million project became an issue in the 2008 Senate campaign between Gordon Smith and Jeff Merkley when Smith used the price of the project in ads attacking Merkley who was the Speaker of the Oregon House when the remodel was approved . Part of the attack involved the cost of new desks for legislators and staff that were manufactured by Oregon prison inmates . Renovations were completed in November 2008 .
= = Grounds = =
The capitol grounds cover three city blocks and include Willson and Capitol parks . Near the west entrance of the capitol is a replica of Philadelphia 's Liberty Bell . This bell is one of 53 full @-@ sized replicas made in France and donated by the United States government to each state . Oregon received its copy on July 4 , 1950 . Throughout the grounds are native trees and shrubs , including blue spruce , Oregon @-@ grape ( the state flower ) , giant sequoia , coast redwood , Japanese maple , dogwood species , Bradford pear , cherry tree species , English holly , rhododendron , and magnolia tree species . One Douglas @-@ fir tree was grown using a seed that rode aboard Apollo 14 to the Moon in 1971 and was transplanted to the capitol in 1976 from Oregon State University .
On the east side of the building is Capitol Park , which includes a bronze equestrian statue by A. Phimister Proctor called The Circuit Rider , statues of John McLoughlin and Jason Lee by Gifford Proctor , and portions of the Corinthian columns of the second capitol building . Lee established the Methodist Mission and what would become Willamette University . McLoughlin , of the Hudson 's Bay Company , was proclaimed the Father of Oregon . The Circuit Rider was added in 1924 as a monument to early preachers . During the Columbus Day Storm in 1962 , this statue was knocked over and damaged but restored in 1963 . There is also a memorial to Oregon 's recipients of the Congressional Medal of Honor . This memorial , dedicated on September 18 , 2004 , has 13 pillars of granite and includes bronze plaques with images and medal citations for each recipient .
To the west of the building is Willson Park , named for Salem founder William H. Willson and sited roughly at the center of his former landholdings . From 1853 to 1965 it was a Salem city park . After the park was turned over to the state , Lloyd Bond and Associates were asked to redesign the park . Willson Park has the Waite Fountain , a gazebo built in 1982 , and a Parade of Animals sculpture , designed as a play structure and added in 1991 . Waite Fountain was donated in honor of Oregon businessperson E. M. Waite in 1907 by his wife . The Breyman Brothers Fountain , added in 1904 as a memorial to Werner and Eugene Breyman , is at the far west end of the park . It was originally decorated with a statue of a soldier from the Spanish – American War and also served as a lamp post and horse trough . Today the statue holds no water and is sometimes planted with flowers . In 2005 , a Walk of Flags feature was added that displays the flags of every state in the Union . In 2009 , the nine flags of Oregon 's federally recognized Native American tribes were added to the Walk of Flags .
Other features on the capitol grounds include Sprague Fountain and the Wall of Water . The Wall of Water is located across Court Street from the main entrance . It was added in 1990 and has 22 nozzles shooting water 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) into the air in a plaza that also has slabs of stone with information about Oregon 's history . Added in 1985 , the Capitol Beaver family represents the state animal . Additional features of the grounds include a peace pole donated by the Society of Prayer for World Peace , a large boulder that once lay along the Oregon Trail , a planter that spells out " Oregon " using shrubs , and a rose garden maintained by the Salem Rose Society .
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= 2008 Chino Hills earthquake =
The 2008 Chino Hills earthquake occurred at 11 : 42 : 15 a.m. PDT on July 29 in Southern California . The epicenter of the magnitude 5 @.@ 5 earthquake was in Chino Hills , approximately 28 miles ( 45 km ) east @-@ southeast of downtown Los Angeles . Though no lives were lost , eight people were injured , and it caused considerable damage in numerous structures throughout the area and caused some amusement park facilities to shut down their rides . The earthquake led to increased discussion regarding the possibility of a stronger earthquake in the future .
= = Earthquake = =
The Chino Hills earthquake was caused by oblique @-@ slip faulting , with components of both thrust and sinistral strike @-@ slip displacement . Preliminary reports cited the Whittier fault as the active cause , but the quake was later determined to have been generated by the " Yorba Linda trend , " as identified by Caltech seismologist Egill Hauksson . Its epicenter was within 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) of Chino Hills and its hypocenter was approximately 9 @.@ 1 miles ( 14 @.@ 6 km ) deep . Initial estimations of the moderate main shock reported it as magnitude 5 @.@ 8 , but this was later revised to magnitude 5 @.@ 4 and in later months to a 5 @.@ 5 . The main shock was reportedly felt as far south as San Diego , and Tijuana , Mexico , and as far east as Las Vegas , Nevada . It was the strongest earthquake to occur in the greater Los Angeles area since the 1994 Northridge earthquake .
As reported by The Orange County Register , three microearthquakes , all less than magnitude 3 @.@ 0 , occurred in Anaheim Hills , 7 miles ( 11 km ) southwest of Chino Hills , two months before the Chino Hills earthquake . There was an unusually low amount of seismic activity in Southern California in the week prior to the quake . Between July 20 and July 26 , 2008 , there were no earthquakes in Southern California exceeding magnitude 3 @.@ 0 , thus there was speculation that the wane in seismic activity was a precursor to a possible larger event .
= = = Impact = = =
The Chino Hills earthquake caused no deaths or significant damage due to the physical location of its epicenter . Most of the infrastructure in the Chino Hills area is relatively new and well suited to withstand a large quake . Unlike previous earthquakes in the region — such as the 1994 Northridge earthquake and the 1987 Whittier Narrows earthquake , which caused serious structural damage and fatalities — this quake caused only minor damage . However , the high volume of telephone use following the shock overloaded provider capacity and disrupted service into the afternoon .
Amusement rides at Disneyland , Six Flags Magic Mountain , Universal Studios Hollywood and Knott 's Berry Farm were evacuated and temporarily shut down . California State University , Fullerton suffered some damage in its older , inadequately engineered buildings . In Orange , the Chapman University School of Law was evacuated after a water pipe was ruptured . Pipes on a Macy 's department store in Westfield Topanga ruptured during the tremor flooding the store which closed for a couple of days in order to be repaired . A light fixture damaged by the shock started a small fire in the Westfield MainPlace Mall in Santa Ana ; since the fire was in an empty movie theater , nobody was harmed .
A gap was reported on California State Route 91 near Anaheim Hills , approximately 7 miles ( 11 km ) southwest of the epicenter , but the California Department of Transportation concluded that the gap did not pose a danger . A minor landslide near the freeway caused some traffic congestion , but structural damage were reported . Caltrans replaced an expansion joint on an Interstate 5 truck overpass at the El Toro Y Interchange . The roof of Placentia 's public library nearly collapsed ; afterwards , the building was closed for repairs .
Electrical outages were reported in Chino , Chino Hills , Diamond Bar and Pomona . Over 2 @,@ 000 people lost power after a fire broke out at a La Habra power station , but electricity was restored that afternoon . Los Angeles International Airport reported a ground radar system outage along with a broken water heater , causing flooding in the checked luggage preparation area of Terminal 7 . Minor injuries from falling ceiling tiles were reported at a medical clinic in Brea .
= = = Aftershocks = = =
Approximately 100 minor aftershocks and one presumed foreshock were reported within two days after the earthquake , 27 of which occurred within an hour after the earthquake . Four aftershocks of at least 3 @.@ 0 in magnitude were reported — the first , nine minutes following the initial earthquake , was the largest at magnitude 3 @.@ 8 ; and two others , occurring over two hours later , were recorded at magnitude 3 @.@ 6 . Twenty @-@ eight aftershocks of at least 2 @.@ 0 were reported . One presumed foreshock , magnitude 1 @.@ 3 , occurred sixteen hours prior to the earthquake in the same location as the main shock .
= = = Response = = =
There was speculation that the Chino Hills earthquake may have been a foreshock to a larger earthquake . The Southern California Seismic Network 's Aftershock Probability Report , produced minutes after the event , stated that " Most likely , the recent mainshock will be the largest in the sequence . However , there is a small chance , approximately 5 – 10 % , of an earthquake equal to or larger than this mainshock in the next 7 days . "
Geologists at the United States Geological Survey and Uniform California Earthquake Rupture Forecast suggest that an earthquake with a magnitude of 6 @.@ 7 or larger will almost definitely occur somewhere in the state within the next 30 years . California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger said : " This earthquake reminds us to be prepared . [ ... ] We were very fortunate that there were no serious injuries or property damage . " Additionally , registration for the Great Southern California ShakeOut , a regional earthquake drill scheduled to occur on Nov. 13 , 2008 , increased significantly in the aftermath of the earthquake .
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= Flag of Kosovo =
The flag of the Republic of Kosovo was adopted by the Assembly of Kosovo immediately following the declaration of independence of the Republic of Kosovo from Serbia on 17 February 2008 . The flag is the result of an international design competition , organised by the United Nations @-@ backed Kosovo Unity Team , which attracted almost one thousand entries . The now @-@ used design is a variant of one proposal designed by Muhamer Ibrahimi . It shows six white stars in an arc above a golden map of Kosovo on a blue field . The stars symbolise Kosovo 's six major ethnic groups .
Before the declaration of independence , Kosovo was under the administration of the United Nations and used the UN flag for official purposes . The Serbian and Albanian populations had used their own national flags since the Socialist Yugoslavia period . The Serbs use a red , blue and white tricolor , which forms the basis of the current flag of Serbia . The Albanian population have used the flag of Albania since the 1960s as their nationality flag . Both flags can still be seen and used within Kosovo .
= = Design and use = =
The flag of Kosovo has a blue background , charged with a map of Kosovo and six stars . The stars are officially meant to symbolise Kosovo 's six major ethnic groups : Albanians , Serbs , Turks , Gorani , Romani ( often grouped with the Ashkali and Egyptians ) and Bosniaks . Unofficially , the stars are sometimes said to represent the six regions , which according to Albanian ultra nationalist ideology , make up Greater Albania : Albania , Kosovo , western parts of the Republic of Macedonia , parts of northern Greece , parts of Montenegro and Preševo Valley in southern Serbia . The flag of Kosovo resembles that of Bosnia and Herzegovina in terms of colors and shapes used ( white stars and yellow shape of the country on a blue field ) . The flag is unusual among national flags in using a map as a design element ; the Flag of Cyprus is the only other to do so . The ratio of the flag was announced during the contest as 2 : 3 , however with the passage of a diplomatic protocol law in Kosovo in April 2009 , the ratio was set as 1 : 1 @.@ 4 ( 5 : 7 when put in whole numbers ) . The colors and construction of the Kosovo flag have not yet been defined ; however , an official government document does give the colors of the flag using CMYK . The unofficial RGB values of the flag have been manually extracted since 2009 . The use of the Kosovo flag is regulated by the law : " Law on the Use of Kosovo State Symbols " . However , the Serbian Government objects to the use of the Kosovo flag at international meetings and gatherings .
= = = Colours and sizes = = =
= = Use of other flags = =
= = = Use of the Albanian flag = = =
The Albanian flag is still used by the Kosovar Albanians .
= = = Use of the Serbian flag = = =
Serbia does not recognise the secession of Kosovo and considers it a United Nations @-@ governed entity within its sovereign territory , the Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija ( Serbian : Аутономна Покрајина Косово и Метохија , Autonomna Pokrajina Kosovo i Metohija ) , according to the 2006 Constitution of Serbia .
Even months after Kosovo 's declaration of independence , the Serbian flag was still seen at official government buildings until officially replaced by the Kosovo Government . Serbian flags were used in global protests against Kosovo independence and still can be seen in Serb @-@ majority areas in the north . However , a person was sentenced by a panel of EULEX judges on November 19 , 2009 , for inciting hatred by raising a Serbian flag on a mosque in the southern part of Mitrovica ( among other charges of discord / intolerance and attempted aggravated murder of a police officer ) .
= = Before independence = =
Until 2008 , Kosovo did not have a flag of its own . However , during different periods of history , different flags were flown in Kosovo . Before 1969 , the only flags that could legally fly over Kosovo ( then an autonomous province ) were those of SFR Yugoslavia and SR Serbia . If a nationalist flag were flown , such as Albanian , Serbian or Croatian , a person could go to prison for doing it . In 1969 , the Kosovar Albanian population was able to use the Albanian flag as its national flag . However , the flag had to be charged with a red star , since this was a common symbol of the Yugoslav nation . Even without this requirement , the flag of the People 's Socialist Republic of Albania at the time had a red star , outlined in gold , above the double headed eagle . Later on , different nationalities in Kosovo could use their own national flags in accordance with legislation . Before the death of Yugoslav leader Josip Broz Tito and the breakup of SFR Yugoslavia , there were calls for the Albanian flag to be banned because residents in Kosovo did not want to live under a foreign flag . This sentiment culminated in the " Petition of the 2016 " , which called for , among other items , a greater statehood status for Serbia and the removal of all Albanian symbols . The Serbian side also began to remove the red star from the Yugoslav flag , using it for protests to counterbalance the Albanian population and to promote a " Greater Serbia " .
When Kosovo was under the administration of the United Nations , the UN flag was flown in Kosovo . However , the flag used by the Kosovar Albanian population was the Albanian flag . The Albanian flag was also used on public buildings , even though it was against UN regulations . Regulations stated only the UN flag and other authorised flags , like those of cities , could fly on public buildings . If the Albanian flag did have to go up , then the Serbian flag must go up too , according to UN regulations . However , this was never done in practice and the flag of Albania was ever @-@ present in Kosovo during the UNMIK period .
= = Competition for a new flag = =
A competition for a new flag , held in June 2007 , received 993 entries . Under the terms of UN talks , all such symbols would have to reflect the multi @-@ ethnic nature of Kosovo , avoiding the use of the Albanian or Serbian double @-@ headed eagles or the use of solely red and black or red , blue and white color schemes . Red and black are the colours used on the Albanian flag ; red , blue and white are the main colours used on the Serbian flag . Additionally , all entries had to be rectangular and have a 2 : 3 proportion . The Kosovo Symbols Commission eventually selected three designs , which were then voted on by the Assembly of Kosovo ( with a two @-@ thirds majority required for approval ) , when independence was declared after the status talks . The three proposals selected were forwarded to the Assembly on 4 February 2008 .
= = = The proposals and final choice = = =
Blue field with a white map of Kosovo surrounded by five stars . The stars vary in size and represent the different ethnic groups that reside in Kosovo . The largest star would represent ethnic Albanians .
A vertical tricolour of black , white and red .
A vertical tricolour of black , white and red with a spiral ( Dardanian symbol of the rotating sun ) in the centre of the white stripe .
The assembly voted on 17 February 2008 to use a variant of the first proposal . The modified version has an additional star , makes the stars equal in size , switches the colours of the stars and map , makes the map bigger , and arranges the stars in a curve above the map .
= = = Other proposals = = =
Ibrahim Rugova , the first president of Kosovo , introduced the " flag of Dardania " on October 29 , 2000 . The flag was blue , inscribed with a red disc with a golden ring . Inside the red disc is the Albanian eagle . The eagle is holding a ribbon with the legend " Dardania " inscribed . Dardania is the name of an ancient region in the same general area as Kosovo , but is not officially recognised by any international power . This flag did not gain much popularity , but was occasionally used at cultural and sports events during the UNMIK period and was also used at Rugova 's funeral to cover his coffin . It is still used as an unofficial presidential standard and by the two Rugovan political parties , the Democratic League of Kosovo and the Democratic League of Dardania .
Prior to the declaration of independence , Kosovars displayed a flag featuring a map of Kosovo against a blue and yellow background , similar to the flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina .
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= Ten Freedom Summers =
Ten Freedom Summers is a four @-@ disc box set by American trumpeter and composer Wadada Leo Smith , released on May 5 , 2012 , by Cuneiform Records . Smith wrote its pieces intermittently for 34 years , beginning in 1977 , before performing them live in November 2011 at the Colburn School 's Zipper Hall in Los Angeles . He was accompanied by the nine @-@ piece Southwest Chamber Music ensemble and his own jazz quartet , featuring drummers Pheeroan akLaff and Susie Ibarra , pianist Anthony Davis , and bassist John Lindberg .
A free jazz and contemporary classical work , Ten Freedom Summers comprises 19 pieces that are mostly fully developed suites . They eschew conventional themes for abstract expressions of the subject matter , which focuses on the Civil Rights Movement and other interrelated topics . Smith cites the segregation of his native Mississippi and playwright August Wilson 's The Pittsburgh Cycle as inspirations behind the work . Ten Freedom Summers received widespread critical acclaim and was named a finalist for the Pulitzer Prize for Music in 2013 .
= = Background = =
Smith started Ten Freedom Summers in 1977 , when he wrote the piece " Medgar Evers " as an evocation of the eponymous civil rights activist gunned down in Mississippi in 1963 . Smith subsequently worked intermittently on the project . He spent 34 years writing it , supported by a series of residencies , grants and commissions , the final one from the Southwest Chamber Music ensemble . He completed the pieces in a flurry of activity between 2009 and 2011 . Smith was inspired to assemble the pieces into one group by August Wilson 's 10 @-@ play series The Pittsburgh Cycle . Smith has also said of the idea behind Ten Freedom Summers :
" I was born in 1941 and grew up in segregated Mississippi and experienced the conditions which made it imperative for an activist movement for equality . I saw that stuff happening . Those are the moments that triggered this . It was in that same environment that I had my first dreams of becoming a composer and performer . "
Ten Freedom Summers was recorded at Zipper Hall in Los Angeles , where Smith performed live for three nights from November 4 to November 6 , 2011 . He played 19 pieces , accompanied by either his Golden Quartet , the nine @-@ piece Southwest Chamber Music ensemble conducted by Jeff von der Schmidt , or both . Smith 's quartet featured drummers Pheeroan akLaff and Susie Ibarra , pianist Anthony Davis , and bassist John Lindberg .
= = Composition = =
Ten Freedom Summers comprises four discs for a total of four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours of music . Most of its 19 pieces were fully developed suites , with three spanning over 20 minutes . According to Smith , there were no recurring motifs throughout . Instead of using his own " Ankhrasmation " method of graphic notation , Smith wrote Ten Freedom Summers with a traditionally notated score . His Golden Quartet played music rooted in blues and jazz idioms , and the Southwest Chamber Music ensemble played violin , viola , cello , harp , concert bass , glockenspiel , bass clarinet , flute , tympani , marimba , gongs , and other miscellaneous percussion . In the opinion of All About Jazz writer Mark Redlefsen , Smith 's use of echo @-@ laden , atmospheric sounds in his previous work culminated on Ten Freedom Summers , whose somber mood reflected the pieces ' titles .
The compositions were organized in three principal sections — " Defining Moments in America " , " What Is Democracy ? " , and " Freedom Summers " . Each section 's pieces musically described significant figures associated with the African @-@ American Civil Rights Movement during 1954 to 1964 and concepts relevant to the formation of institutions that evolved from human interaction , including government , media , and megacorporations . Jeff Dayton @-@ Johnson from All About Jazz said although its movements " variously address Malcolm X , Dr. Martin Luther King Jr . , Brown vs. Board of Education , Medgar Evers [ and ] the Little Rock Nine " , the " thematic concerns nevertheless extend ... both backwards ( to the 1857 Dred Scott case ) and forward ( to 9 / 11 ) , and to a series of cross @-@ cutting concerns ( e.g. , democracy , the freedom of the press and the black church ) . "
According to Josh Langhoff from PopMatters , the box set 's pieces " transform their subjects into musical invention and moods ; they ’ re not literal or programmatic . " Langhoff finds them similar to contemporary classical pieces in how they " make their points through abstraction . " Daniel Spicer of BBC Music characterized the music as " a mixture of austere contemporary classical composition performed by the LA @-@ based Southwest Chamber Music ensemble , and turbulent free jazz improvised by the Golden Quartet " . In the opinion of jazz critic John Fordham , the presence of either Smith 's jazz quartet or the classical ensemble led him to abandon typical themes and continuous pulses in favor of free jazz and contemporary classical idioms . Bob Rusch believed the performances were not inspired by contemporary Civil Rights Movement music by artists such as Paul Robeson , Pete Seeger , Mahalia Jackson , or Aretha Franklin , because Smith 's Golden Quintet exhibited an astral , chamber sound .
= = Critical reception = =
Ten Freedom Summers received widespread acclaim from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , the album received a weighted average score of 99 , based on 8 reviews . In The Guardian , Fordham called it " a landmark in jazz 's rich canon " , while Bill Shoemaker of The Wire deemed it " a monumental evocation of America 's civil rights movement " . Glen Hall of Exclaim ! wrote that " Smith 's music resonates with the suffering and the dreams of a better life that embodied the decade of 1954 to 1964 that is the subject of this powerful compendium of compositions . " AllMusic 's Thom Jurek viewed the box set as Smith 's best work , writing that it " belongs in jazz 's canonical lexicon with Duke Ellington 's Black Brown & Beige and Max Roach 's Freedom Now Suite . " Phil Johnson from The Independent found the music very gratifying , comparing it to if Miles Davis had recorded Ligeti during the 1950s . Langhoff wrote in PopMatters that the set was " about sound : the tangible , physically beautiful sounds of Smith 's imperative trumpet and of different instruments in combination , testing their own limits . " He asserted in conclusion , " In four and a half hours , Wadada Leo Smith writes one of America 's defining events in sound , and the story is all of ours . " In Cadence Magazine , Rusch was less enthusiastic and felt the box set could have benefitted from being released as four separate albums , writing that listening to the record in its entirety was " exhausting , but also involving and inspiring " .
Ten Freedom Summers was ranked as one of the best jazz albums of 2012 by AllMusic , All About Jazz , JazzTimes , and the Chicago Reader . Bret Saunders from The Denver Post named it 2012 's best jazz record , and Down Beat magazine named it their album of the year . It was also ranked number 31 in The Wire 's list of 2012 's best albums . Ten Freedom Summers was one of three finalists for the 2013 Pulitzer Prize for Music , along with Aaron Jay Kernis 's classical composition " Pieces of Winter Sky " and " Partita for 8 Voices " by Caroline Shaw , who ultimately won the award .
= = Track listing = =
All music composed by Wadada Leo Smith .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Release history = =
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= 1984 Independence Bowl =
The 1984 Independence Bowl was a post @-@ season American college football bowl game between the Virginia Tech Hokies and the Air Force Falcons at Independence Stadium in Shreveport , Louisiana on December 15 , 1984 . The game was the final contest of the 1984 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season for both teams , and ended in a 23 – 7 victory for the Air Force Academy .
The Virginia Tech Hokies earned a bid to the Independence Bowl following an 8 – 3 record during the 1984 @-@ 1985 football season . Tech was the No. 3 team in the country in terms of overall defense and No. 2 in terms of rushing defense , due to the efforts of Tech defender Bruce Smith , an All @-@ American and Outland Trophy winner who would later go on to be the first @-@ overall selection in the 1985 NFL Draft . Smith became the centerpiece of an eligibility debate during the weeks prior to the game , as he was at first prohibited from participating in the game by the NCAA , which had placed him under probation for accepting illegal gifts . Smith contested this probation in Virginia and Louisiana courts , and was allowed to play in the game by virtue of two court actions .
Facing the Hokies were the Falcons of the United States Air Force Academy , who had gone 7 – 4 during the regular season , including a 5 – 3 record in the Western Athletic Conference . The Falcons were led by first @-@ year head coach Fisher DeBerry and had the No. 1 ranked rushing offense in the country , using their wishbone offense to great effect .
The game kicked off under comfortable temperatures and moderate wind . An estimated 41 @,@ 100 people came out to watch the Falcons take on the Hokies . Air Force scored first with a 35 @-@ yard field goal , but the Hokies struck back with a touchdown off a 10 @-@ play , 72 @-@ yard drive , putting Virginia Tech ahead 7 – 3 . That score would remain until halfway through the second quarter , when Virginia Tech fumbled the ball at its own three @-@ yard line . Air Force recovered the ball and scored a touchdown on the next play , regaining a 10 – 7 lead . After halftime , Virginia Tech 's defense began to break down under Air Force 's rushing offense . The Hokies and Air Force battled defensively throughout the third quarter , but in the fourth quarter , Air Force 's offense broke free for 13 unanswered points , clinching the victory . Air Force quarterback Bart Weiss was named the game 's most valuable player on offense , while Virginia Tech linebacker Vince Daniels was named the game 's most valuable player on defense .
= = Team selection = =
= = = Air Force = = =
The United States Air Force Academy Falcons began the 1984 college football season with a new head coach , Fisher DeBerry , who replaced the successful Ken Hatfield . Hatfield and the Falcons had gone 10 – 2 during 1983 , including a win in the 1983 Independence Bowl . Following that win , Hatfield accepted the head @-@ coaching position at the University of Arkansas and DeBerry was hired to replace him , being promoted from the offensive coordinator position .
In the first two games of his Air Force career , DeBerry 's Falcons jumped to an excellent start . In the team 's 1984 opener , the Falcons defeated San Diego State , 34 – 17 . The following week , the Falcons blew out Northern Colorado , 75 – 7 . But after those two victories , things became more difficult for the Falcons . Air Force lost its next two games ( at Utah and Wyoming ) before defeating Colorado State , Navy , and traditional football powerhouse Notre Dame .
The Falcons ' final four games were split evenly — two wins , two losses — and Air Force finished the regular season with a record of 7 – 4 and a Western Athletic Conference record of 4 – 3 . In late November , in exchange for their regular @-@ season success , the Falcons were invited to participate in the Independence Bowl , becoming the second team in the nine @-@ year history of the game to be invited in two consecutive years .
= = = Virginia Tech = = =
Virginia Tech began the 1984 season under head coach Bill Dooley , who at the time was the winningest coach in Tech history . In 1983 , the Hokies had gone 9 – 2 , with one of the two losses coming at the hands of No. 9 West Virginia in a nationally televised game . Tech began the 1984 season with a win against Wake Forest , but followed that by a loss against West Virginia in one of the most contentious college football rivalries in the country at that time . In the two weeks that followed , Tech continued to alternate wins and losses , reaching an overall record of 2 – 2 by the end of the fourth week of the season . Tech 's fortunes took a turn for the better during the latter portion of the season , however , as the Hokies proceeded to win six of their final seven games before earning a bid to the 1984 Independence Bowl .
= = Pregame buildup = =
In the weeks leading up to the Independence Bowl , the game received as much or more coverage than the incipient national championship game due to the controversial status of Tech star Bruce Smith , who was embroiled in a legal battle with the NCAA about his participation in the game . Spread bettors favored Air Force to win the game by four points . Ticket sales were slow in the weeks leading up to the bowl , and Virginia Tech was faulted for failing to sell its entire allotment of 12 @,@ 000 tickets . Tech representatives said they might have to return as many as 8 @,@ 000 tickets due to the difficulty of selling tickets for a game more than 20 hours away by car .
= = = Offensive matchups = = =
During the 1984 season , Virginia Tech 's rushing offense was led by running back Maurice Williams , who had 149 carries for 574 yards and six touchdowns during the regular season . At quarterback , the Hokies featured Mark Cox , who completed 86 passes for 983 yards , five touchdowns , and eight interceptions during the season . Cox 's favorite target was tight end Joe Jones , who caught 39 passes for 452 yards and one touchdown during the season .
On the other side of the field , Air Force had the No. 2 rushing offense in the country during the 1984 regular season . Air Force fullback Pat Evans led the team with 159 carries for 1 @,@ 015 rushing yards . Air Force quarterback Bart Weiss also was known more for his running than his passing . Weiss finished the regular season with just 41 completions for 668 yards and three touchdowns . He carried the ball 126 times for 540 yards and 10 touchdowns . Wide receiver Ken Carpenter benefited the most from the few passes that were thrown . He had 15 catches for 258 yards and two touchdowns during the regular season .
= = = Defensive matchups = = =
On defense , the Falcons were led by Terry Maki , who had a total of 137 tackles , including assists . Dwan Wilson had five interceptions for the Falcons , and safety Scott Thomas had four . Altogether , the Falcons allowed an average of 148 rushing yards and 167 passing yards per game . In scoring defense , the Falcons allowed an average of just 21 points per game while averaging 44 points per game themselves .
Virginia Tech 's defense , meanwhile , was No. 2 nationally in rushing defense and No. 3 in total defense . During the 11 games of the regular season , Tech allowed an average of just 3 @.@ 34 yards per play , the second @-@ lowest total allowed in Tech football history . The most important player on that defense was Tech lineman Bruce Smith , who accumulated 52 tackles and 16 sacks during the regular season . On December 6 , Smith received the Outland Trophy , an award given to the top interior defensive lineman as voted by American sportswriters . Among defensive backs , the Hokies were led by Ashley Lee , who caught seven interceptions during the season .
= = = Bruce Smith controversy = = =
In the spring of 1983 , Virginia Tech was placed on probation by the NCAA for violations stemming from illegal benefits given to players and potential recruits . The probation 's main effect was to ban the players who received the benefits from participating in any postseason game following the 1984 season . Seven of the eight players involved in the scandal either left Virginia Tech or had the probation lifted as a result of appeals to the NCAA . The eighth , Bruce Smith , did not .
Because the names of the eight players had been kept secret , the general public was not informed that Bruce Smith , who had developed into one of the best defensive players in the country , would not be able to participate in the 1984 Independence Bowl . Only when Smith filed suit to force Virginia Tech and the NCAA to allow him to play in the game was the situation revealed . Dr. Cecil Lloyd , chairman of the Independence Bowl , announced at the time of the lawsuit that had he known about the restrictions on Smith , he likely would not have invited Tech to play in the game .
Smith nevertheless obtained an injunction from a Virginia court to allow him to participate in the game , which was being held in Louisiana . In response , the NCAA threatened to remove the Independence Bowl 's certification if Smith was allowed to play . When the bowl forbade Smith from participating , he obtained a restraining order from a Louisiana court to force the Independence Bowl to allow him to play . On the day of the game , the NCAA attempted to appeal the decision to the Louisiana Second Circuit Court of Appeals , but a three @-@ judge panel denied the appeal . By this time , the game was about to begin , and Smith was allowed to play .
= = Game summary = =
The 1984 Independence Bowl kicked off on December 15 , 1984 in Shreveport , Louisiana . The game was televised in the United States on ESPN , and Howard David , Paul Maguire , and Steve Grad were the broadcasters . Weather at kickoff was a comfortable 74 ° F ( 23 ° C ) and the wind was from the southwest at approximately 15 miles per hour ( 24 km / h ) . More than 41 @,@ 000 tickets were sold for the game , but attendance was somewhat less , as many seats were empty .
= = = First quarter = = =
Virginia Tech kicked off to begin the game , and Air Force began the first drive of the game at its 20 @-@ yard line after a touchback . The Falcons began the game with three consecutive short rushes that failed to gain a first down and punted the ball away to Virginia Tech . The Hokies began their first drive of the game after a short return to their 35 @-@ yard line . As had Air Force before them , Tech was unable to gain a first down and punted . Air Force began its second drive at its 34 @-@ yard line and had more success on its second drive . Aided by an offside penalty against Virginia Tech , the Falcons picked up a first down with a big run by Bart Weiss that penetrated the Tech side of the field . That run was followed by several others from the Falcons , who drove inside the Tech red zone before being stopped by the Tech defense . Facing fourth down , Air Force attempted a 35 @-@ yard field goal , which was successful . With 6 : 35 remaining in the first quarter , Air Force took a 3 – 0 lead .
Following Air Force 's post @-@ score kickoff and a short return by the Hokies , Virginia Tech 's offense began a drive at its 28 @-@ yard line . A five @-@ yard false @-@ start penalty pushed the Tech offense back five yards , but a long run by quarterback Mark Cox made up the penalty and earned Tech a first down . Another first down followed , and Tech penetrated into the Air Force side of the field . Once there , Eddie Hunter evaded Falcon defenders for a 33 @-@ yard run that took the Hokies inside Air Force 's 20 @-@ yard line . Three more plays pushed Tech forward , inside Air Force 's five @-@ yard line , for a first down . On the next play , Maurice Williams ran forward , into the end zone . The touchdown and extra point gave Virginia Tech a 7 – 3 lead with 1 : 42 left in the quarter .
Air Force returned the Virginia Tech kickoff to its 21 @-@ yard line and was aided by a 15 @-@ yard personal foul penalty against Virginia Tech after the return . The Falcons thus began their drive at their 36 @-@ yard line . They continued moving the ball forward on short rushes , but almost had a severe setback when Weiss fumbled during a carry . He recovered his own drop , however , and the Falcons retained possession . With the Falcons facing fourth down on their half of the field , time ran out in the quarter . At the end of the first quarter , Virginia Tech held a 7 – 3 lead .
= = = Second quarter = = =
Still facing fourth down , Air Force punted to begin the second quarter . Virginia Tech recovered successfully and began a drive at its 32 @-@ yard line . The Hokies ran the ball successfully at first , gaining a first down and driving into the Falcons ' half of the field . Facing a third down , Tech was aided by a pass interference penalty against Air Force , which have Tech a first down inside the Air Force 25 @-@ yard line . The Hokies advanced to the 20 @-@ yard line , but Cox was sacked by Air Force defender Larry Nicklas , pushing Tech back to the 27 @-@ yard line . Tech head coach Bill Dooley sent in kicker Don Wade to attempt a 43 @-@ yard field goal . The kick fell short , and the margin remained at 7 – 3 with 11 : 03 remaining before halftime .
Due to the missed field goal , Air Force took over from the point at which the kick was missed , the 27 @-@ yard line . Despite gaining a bit of momentum when they kept Virginia Tech from scoring , the Falcons were unable to gain a first down and went three and out , punting the ball away . Tech declined to return the ball , which rolled to the Virginia Tech three @-@ yard line , where the Hokies ' offense took over . On the first play after the punt , Tech 's Nigel Bowe fumbled the ball , which was leapt upon by several Air Force defenders , who recovered it . After the fumble recovery , it took the Falcons just one play to score a touchdown and gain a 10 – 7 lead .
With 8 : 50 before halftime , Tech now trailed for the first time since the beginning of the quarter . Needing to regain the lead , the Hokies returned Air Force 's kickoff to near the 20 @-@ yard line but committed a 15 @-@ yard personal foul penalty that pushed Tech back to its 12 @-@ yard line and forced the Hokies to gain 22 yards for a first down . Tech was unable to do this due to strong defense from Air Force and punted after going three and out . The kick was short , and Air Force began its drive at its 44 @-@ yard line . The Falcons likewise went three and out and punted back to Tech .
The Hokies recovered the punt at their 14 @-@ yard line . The Hokies gained one first down with three rushes , then another on a pass from Cox , advancing the ball to their 35 @-@ yard line . A facemask penalty against Air Force aided Tech as the Hokies drove inside Air Force territory . Time remaining in the half quickly became a factor for Virginia Tech , as the Hokies penetrated the Falcons ' 45 @-@ yard line with just 1 : 10 remaining in the half . As the Hokies rushed the ball , they were forced to call timeouts in order to stop the clock — which counts down following rushing plays that do not gain a first down or end out of bounds . Cox threw occasional passes , gaining short yardage , but most of the Hokies ' work during the drive was done on the ground . Tech penetrated the Air Force red zone , driving to the Falcons ' 12 @-@ yard line with 25 seconds remaining . As Cox attempted to throw a pass into the end zone in an effort to get a touchdown before time expired , Air Force 's Mike Chandler intercepted the ball , denying the Hokies a scoring chance .
At halftime , Air Force had a 10 – 7 lead .
= = = Third quarter = = =
Air Force received the ball to begin the second half and started at its 20 @-@ yard line after a touchback . The Falcons drove into Tech territory , but the Hokies ' defense forced the Falcons to punt near midfield , and Tech took over at 12 : 23 in the quarter at its 24 @-@ yard line after a short return . As had Air Force , Tech picked up a couple of first downs . But like Air Force , the opposition 's defense forced a punt near midfield . Following the punt , Air Force took over at its 20 @-@ yard line with 9 : 09 remaining in the quarter .
The Falcons had trouble moving the ball at first , but were helped by a 15 @-@ yard personal foul penalty against Virginia Tech that gave them a first down . Weiss completed a pass that gave the Falcons another first down and drove Air Force inside Tech territory . On the first play within Hokie territory , Weiss fumbled the ball , but fell on it for a loss , and Air Force retained possession . Weiss made up for his fumble two plays later when he scrambled for a first down that kept the drive going . Despite that effort , Tech was able to force a stop and Air Force punted with 3 : 10 remaining in the quarter .
Tech took over at its 13 @-@ yard line following the 63 @-@ yard punt but went three and out and was itself forced to punt . Air Force 's offense returned to the field at its 47 @-@ yard line after the kick . The Falcons picked up one first down , but the Tech defense stiffened and forced a fourth down . Needing just inches to gain a first down , Air Force elected to attempt to gain the needed yardage rather than punt the ball away . But before the Falcons could start the play , time ran out in the third quarter . With one quarter remaining , the Falcons still held a 10 – 7 lead .
= = = Fourth quarter = = =
The fourth quarter began with Air Force in possession of the ball , facing fourth down , and needing to advance mere inches to gain a first down . During the Falcons ' attempt to gain those inches , however , Tech 's Bruce Smith broke through the Air Force offensive line and sacked Bart Weiss for a loss . Having failed to gain a first down , Air Force turned the ball over to Virginia Tech , which began a drive at its 42 @-@ yard line . Tech 's Eddie Hunter moved the ball forward on three consecutive rushes , earning a first down and driving into Air Force territory . Seeking to tie the game or gain a lead with a trick play ; Tech head coach Bill Dooley ordered a play involving a pass by Hunter instead of quarterback Mark Cox . The pass was intercepted by Air Force defender Scott Thomas , and the Falcons took over on offense at their 38 @-@ yard line with 12 : 58 remaining in the game .
As had Virginia Tech , Air Force began moving the ball on the ground . The Falcons were aided by two offsides penalties against the Hokies and drove into Tech territory . Once there , Weiss completed a 16 @-@ yard pass to Tom Coleman for a first down . Weiss picked up another first down by running the ball , pushing the Falcons inside the Tech red zone with 10 : 10 remaining . The Tech defense stiffened , forcing a fourth down at the two @-@ yard line . Rather than kick a field goal , Fisher DeBerry elected to attempt the touchdown , and Mike Brown ran the needed two yards . The score and following extra point gave Air Force a 17 – 7 lead with 6 : 00 remaining in the game .
Virginia Tech 's offense began work at its 20 @-@ yard line needing to score quickly in order to have a chance at making up the 10 @-@ point deficit , which would require two separate scores to make good . Mike Cox completed a seven @-@ yard pass , then Maurice Williams broke free for a 15 @-@ yard rush that gave Tech a first down and drove the Hokies to the 42 @-@ yard line . Cox completed a long pass into the Air Force red zone , but the completion was negated by an offensive pass interference penalty against Tech that cost the Hokies the long completion , a loss of down , and an additional 15 yards . While scrambling for extra time in which to throw the ball , Cox was sacked by Air Force defender Chris Funk and fumbled the ball . Air Force recovered the loose football , and the Falcons ' offense returned to the field with just over four minutes left to play .
The Falcons began their drive at the Tech 30 @-@ yard line after the fumble , which effectively eliminated any chance Tech had to earn the two scores needed to regain the lead . The Falcons moved the ball effectively down the field , running out the clock as they did so . Bart Weiss finally broke through the Tech defense for a 12 @-@ yard gain and the Falcons ' final touchdown of the game . Though the extra point kick was missed , Air Force had taken an insurmountable 23 – 7 lead with 2 : 08 remaining in the game . Following Air Force 's post @-@ touchdown kickoff , Tech 's offense returned to the field at its 20 @-@ yard line . The first play of the Hokies ' drive resulted in a 10 @-@ yard holding penalty against Tech . With time winding down , Tech advanced the ball successfully via several passes , but time ran out shortly after Tech crossed the 50 @-@ yard line . Air Force clinched a 23 – 7 victory .
= = Statistical summary = =
The 23 points Tech allowed in the game marked just the third time that season Virginia Tech allowed more than 20 points in a game . For his performance in the game , Air Force quarterback Bart Weiss was named the game 's most valuable player on offense . Virginia Tech linebacker Vince Daniels was named the game 's most valuable defensive player . Daniels had a game @-@ leading 15 tackles , tying a Tech bowl @-@ game record set by Ashley Lee in the 1981 Peach Bowl . The record still stands today . Meanwhile , Weiss completed six of his seven passes for 49 yards . His main success came rushing the ball , as he carried it 29 times for 93 yards and a touchdown .
Virginia Tech 's leading rusher was Eddie Hunter , who carried the ball 12 times for 75 yards . Tech quarterback Mark Cox finished the game having completed just six of his 17 passes for 50 passing yards and one interception . In total , Tech turned the ball over four times — twice via interceptions and twice via lost fumbles .
Bruce Smith finished the game with a single sack and eight tackles , and cited his poor performance on the time spent away from practice and in court . Other Virginia Tech players cited the court battle as a distraction during game preparations , and it was also thought that many Air Force players were inspired by the increased media coverage given Virginia Tech . Air Force coach Fisher DeBerry said he thought the storm of pre @-@ game publicity about Smith helped his team . " It seemed like everybody forgot the Air Force was in town , " he said . " The thing that motivated the team was the challenge of playing against them with him in the lineup . "
Virginia Tech set several bowl game records in the Independence Bowl that still stand today . Tech allowed just two passing first downs , seven pass attempts and 49 passing yards on defense . Conversely , the Hokies allowed 55 rushing attempts by Air Force , a record for the most against Tech in a bowl game . Bart Weiss set a bowl @-@ game record for most carries by a single player against Tech , and Falcons punter Mark Simon kicked a 63 @-@ yard punt that is the longest ever kicked by a Tech opponent in a bowl game .
= = Postgame effects = =
Virginia Tech 's loss and Air Force 's win brought both teams to final 1984 records of 8 – 4 . The loss left Virginia Tech winless in five bowl appearances to that date . The win was Air Force 's third bowl victory in as many years , and the Falcons became the first team to repeat as Independence Bowl champions . The Hokies won their next bowl appearance , the 1986 Peach Bowl . Air Force appeared in a bowl the following year , against Texas .
Despite the uncomplimentary media coverage given him and his poor performance during the Independence Bowl , Bruce Smith was selected with the first overall pick in the 1985 NFL Draft . Smith was subsequently signed to a $ 2 @.@ 6 million contract by the Buffalo Bills . During the 1985 college football season , Virginia Tech struggled to rebuild from losing 20 starters ( 10 on offense , 10 on defense ) from the 1984 team , and finished with a 6 – 5 record . Air Force , meanwhile , performed extremely well , finishing with an 11 – 1 record , including a bowl @-@ game win over the Texas Longhorns . Fisher DeBerry remained the coach of Air Force for another 22 years , eventually retiring after the conclusion of the 2006 season .
Nine years after appearing in the 1984 Independence Bowl , Tech invited to participate in the 1993 game against Indiana . By that time , memories of the legal troubles that had surrounded the game were gone . Independence Bowl president Cecil Lloyd said of the controversy in 1993 , " It was the best thing that ever could have happened to the Independence Bowl . ... It got us international publicity . It put us on the map . "
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= The Boat Race 1938 =
The 90th Boat Race took place on 2 April 1938 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . It was the first Boat Race to be televised . In a race umpired by the former Cambridge rower and coach Harold Rickett , Oxford won by two lengths in a time of 20 minutes 30 seconds . The victory took the overall record in the event to 47 – 42 in Cambridge 's favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1937 race by three lengths , with Cambridge leading overall with 47 victories to Oxford 's 41 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Cambridge were coached by D. H. E. McCowen ( who had rowed in the 1932 race ) , Derek Mays @-@ Smith , R. H. H. Symonds ( who had rowed in the 1931 race ) and C. W. Wise . Oxford 's coaches were P. C. Mallam ( a four @-@ time Dark Blue who had rowed in the 1921 , 1922 , 1923 and 1924 races ) , Guy Oliver Nickalls ( who had rowed three times between 1921 and 1923 ) and J. H. Page . The umpire for the race wast the former Cambridge rower Harold Rickett who had rowed for the Light Blues three times , in the 1930 , 1931 and 1932 races . He had also coached them for the 1933 race , and had umpired the race the previous year .
Oxford had been rated as favourites to win the race throughout their three months of training . The rowing correspondent for The Times noted that " both crews are absolutely first @-@ rate exponents of their respective styles " and that " both coxes are first @-@ rate " . Oxford elected to use the same boat as they raced in for the previous year 's event , while Cambridge used a new vessel ; both were built by George Sims Boatbuilding Company of Hammersmith . It was the first year that the Boat Race was televised , which , according to the television correspondent for The Observer , " was a great success " and " not even the umpire knew more about the race than we [ the viewers ] " .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 13 @.@ 75 lb ( 82 @.@ 2 kg ) , 7 @.@ 25 pounds ( 3 @.@ 3 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Cambridge 's crew contained three participants with Boat Race experience , in A. Burrough , T. B. Langton and T. H. Hunter . Oxford saw five former Blues return to the crew , including John Cherry who was making his third consecutive appearance in the event . Two of the participants were registered as non @-@ British , both in the Cambridge crew : number six G. Keppel and cox T. H. Hunter were both American .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Oxford . Umpire Rickett started the race at 2 p.m. in " fine " weather conditions and with a strong tide . Despite being out @-@ rated by three strokes per minute , Oxford took an immediate lead and were over half a length ahead by the time they passed Fulham Wall . With the Middlesex bend in their favour , Oxford increased their lead to a length and a half ahead by the Mile Post . Cambridge 's stroke Eadie called for a push just before Harrods Furniture Depository and the Light Blues began to reduce the deficit , and although the Dark Blues responded , by the time the crews passed below Hammersmith Bridge , Oxford 's lead was down to half a length .
Cambridge 's faster stroke rate saw them gain on the Dark Blues and by the time the passed HMS Stork , they held a quarter @-@ length lead , although by Chiswick Steps the lead was gone and Oxford led by a quarter of a length . They passed below Barnes Bridge with that lead as both crews headed into rough water . According to the special correspondent writing in the The Manchester Guardian , " a sea awaited them " . Both crews took on water in the difficult conditions but the Dark Blues prevailed . Oxford won by two lengths in a time of 20 minutes 30 seconds , their second consecutive win . It was the narrowest margin of victory since the 1930 race and the fastest since the 1935 race . The victory took the overall record in the event to 47 – 42 in Cambridge 's favour . The correspondent for The Manchester Guardian described it as " excellent " , and " a great race in the best traditions " The Observer 's correspondent suggested that " the race will rank as one of the closest and most exciting in which the two Universities have ever engaged . " The former Oxford rower , G. I. F. Thomson , writing in The Observer , claimed " one can scarcely have hoped for a more interesting or thrilling race " . Oxford 's number seven and boat club president Cherry said " I hope this will show that last year 's victory was not a flash in the pan " . His counterpart , T. B. Langton noted that his crew " had an excellent race and enjoyed every minute of it " .
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= Hurricane Esther =
Hurricane Esther was the first large tropical cyclone to be discovered by satellite imagery . The fifth tropical cyclone , named storm , and hurricane of the 1961 Atlantic hurricane season , Esther developed from an area of disturbed weather hundreds of miles west @-@ southwest of the southernmost Cape Verde Islands on September 10 . Moving northwestward , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Esther on September 11 , before reaching hurricane intensity on the following day . Early on September 13 , Esther curved westward and deepened into a major hurricane . The storm remained a Category 3 hurricane for about four days and gradually moved in west @-@ northwestward direction . Late on September 17 , Esther strengthened into a Category 4 hurricane and peaked with sustained winds of 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) on September 18 . The storm curved north @-@ northeastward on September 19 , while offshore North Carolina . Esther began to weaken while approaching New England and fell to Category 3 intensity on September 21 . The storm turned eastward early on the following day , and rapidly weakened to a tropical storm .
Esther then executed a large cyclonic loop , until curving northward on September 25 . Early on the following day , Esther struck Cape Cod , hours before emerging into the Gulf of Maine . Later on September 26 , the storm made landfall in southeastern Maine , before weakening to a tropical depression and becoming extratropical over southeastern Quebec . The remnants persisted for about 12 hours , before dissipating early on September 27 . Between North Carolina and New Jersey , effects were primarily limited to strong winds and minor beach erosion and coastal flooding due to storm surge . In New York , strong winds led to severe crop losses and over 300 @,@ 000 power outages . High tides caused coastal flooding and damage to a number of pleasure boats . Similar impact was reported in Massachusetts . Additionally , some areas observed more than 8 inches ( 203 mm ) of rainfall , flooding basements , low @-@ lying roads , and underpasses . Overall , damage was minor , totaling about $ 6 million ( 1961 USD ) . There were also seven deaths reported when a United States Navy P5M aircraft crashed about 120 miles ( 190 km ) north of Bermuda .
= = Meteorological history = =
On September 10 , the Television Infrared Observation Satellite observed an area of convection , or thunderstorms , to the southwest of the Cape Verde islands , suggesting the possibility of tropical cyclogenesis . At 18 : 00 UTC that day , a tropical depression formed and subsequently moved on a northwest trajectory . By the time the Hurricane Hunters reached the system on September 12 , winds of hurricane force were recorded , and as such , the San Juan , Puerto Rico Weather Bureau began issuing warnings on Hurricane Esther . It was later estimated that the system attained tropical storm status on September 11 , although the National Hurricane Center later noted that it could have attained hurricane status by this date , thus potentially being one of four simultaneous hurricanes , along with hurricanes Betsy , Carla , and Debbie . The only other such occasions were in 1893 and 1998 . This also made Esther the first hurricane to be discovered by satellite imagery , although not the first to be imaged by one .
After becoming a hurricane , Esther turned more to the west @-@ northwest , influenced by the strengthening Bermuda High that built behind Hurricane Debbie well to the north . By September 13 , the storm attained major hurricane status , which is a Category 3 on the current @-@ day Saffir @-@ Simpson scale with sustained winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . By that time , the gale force winds extended about 230 mi ( 370 km ) from the center , with hurricane @-@ force winds spreading 135 mi ( 217 km ) to the north . After maintaining winds of 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) for about two days , Esther weakened slightly on September 16 while passing well north of the Lesser Antilles . On the next day , the hurricane passed about 375 mi ( 604 km ) north of Puerto Rico . Late on September 17 , the barometric pressure fell to 927 mbar ( 92 @.@ 7 kPa ; 27 @.@ 4 inHg ) in the center of Esther , and operationally the Hurricane Hunters estimated winds of 150 mph ( 241 km / h ) . This was later lowered slightly to 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) , which would be its peak intensity attained on September 18 , making it a Category 4 hurricane .
Around the time of attaining peak winds , Esther began moving more to the northwest toward the east coast of the United States , influenced by a dissipating cold front that exited the coast on September 15 . On September 20 , the hurricane passed about 120 mi ( 193 km ) east of Cape Hatteras while turning to the north @-@ northeast . It continued up the coastline , later passing about 150 mi ( 241 km ) east of the Delmarva Peninsula . Another trough from the west steered Esther to the northeast and was expected to cause the storm to accelerate , potentially bringing it over Cape Cod . While turning , the hurricane passed about 110 mi ( 177 km ) south of the eastern tip of Long Island , 35 mi ( 56 km ) southeast of Block Island , and just 27 mi ( 43 km ) south of Nantucket Island . After the trough bypassed the hurricane , Esther slowed and turned to the east away from land and over much cooler waters . It quickly weakened to tropical storm status on September 22 , and on that day the Weather Bureau discontinued advisories , remarking that Esther no longer had tropical characteristics .
As a weakened tropical storm , Esther turned to the southeast and gradually executed a large loop . On September 24 , it turned back to the west and subsequently turned back to the north , influenced by another approaching trough . Warmer waters allowed the storm to re @-@ intensify slightly . As a result , the Boston Weather Bureau reissued advisories on the storm on September 25 while Esther was 275 mi ( 443 km ) south of Nantucket . The storm crossed over eastern Cape Cod while gradually weakening , making a final landfall near Rockland , Maine , on September 26 . After crossing into Canada , Esther became extratropical early on September 27 while continuing to the east @-@ northeast . It was last noted at 06 : 00 UTC that day while over eastern Quebec .
= = Preparations = =
While Esther was becoming a powerful hurricane over the open Atlantic , the San Juan Weather Bureau office issued a small craft advisory for the Leeward Islands , United States Virgin Islands , Puerto Rico , Hispaniola , the Bahamas , and Bermuda . Because of uncertainty about the storm 's future path , the Weather Bureau advised residents along the east coast of the United States to closely follow the storm . The agency later issued a hurricane watch from Myrtle Beach , South Carolina to Norfolk , Virginia on September 18 .
In Norfolk , Virginia , between 10 @,@ 000 and 15 @,@ 000 people were evacuated to emergency shelters on September 19 , but were able to return home the next day as Esther passed far to the east . Preparations for Esther were described by the National Weather Service 's Norfolk bureau as " the most thorough ever seen here " at the time . Naval ships and aircraft carriers based in the city headed for open waters to endure the storm , while over 200 military airplanes were flown inland away from the coast .
The National Weather Service , in anticipation of a possible landfall in the Carolinas , issued a gale warning and a hurricane watch from Myrtle Beach , South Carolina to Norfolk , Virginia on September 18 ( tropical storm warnings were not issued at the time ) . A hurricane warning was issued from Cherry Point , North Carolina to the Virginia capes on September 19 , but was discontinued early on September 20 as the hurricane passed to the east . A hurricane watch was also issued from Cape May , New Jersey to the Massachusetts coast on September 19 , and like the warning , was discontinued on September 20 .
As Esther began to parallel the coastline , a hurricane warning was issued for coastal areas from Long Island to Provincetown , Massachusetts on September 20 , and were extended to Eastport , Maine early on September 21 . All hurricane watches were discontinued on September 21 as Esther moved away from the New England coast , and all hurricane warnings were downgraded to gale warnings later that day as Esther passed near Nantucket and weakened to a tropical storm , and all warnings were discontinued on September 22 after the storm moved away from the coast . After Esther completed its anticyclonic loop over the northwestern Atlantic , a gale warning was again issued from Provincetown , Massachusetts to Eastport , Maine on September 25 , and was discontinued the next day after Esther made its second landfall in Maine . Personnel on two offshore surveillance stations called the Texas Towers were evacuated ; a third tower had collapsed during a storm in January 1961 , prompting higher safety standards .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
A powerful hurricane , Esther produced high waves and strong swells across much of the western Atlantic , including along the north coast of Puerto Rico , the Virgin Islands , and the Bahamas .
= = = North Carolina and Virginia = = =
In North Carolina , the outer edges of Esther brought sustained winds of 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) with gusts up to 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) . A storm surge of 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) was reported in Wilmington , North Carolina . The storm surge caused minor flooding and beach erosion in the Outer Banks , where road damage was extensive . Damage to property , however , was minimal , and the storm 's effects in the Wilmington area were compared to those of " a good nor 'easter " by the local weather bureau . Southeastern Virginia experienced tides 2 to 4 ft ( 0 @.@ 6 to 1 @.@ 2 m ) above normal , which flooded some coastal highways in the Hampton Roads area . There was minor beach erosion in the Norfolk area due to turbulent seas .
= = = Mid @-@ Atlantic = = =
Esther mainly produced heavy rainfall and gale force wind gusts along the coasts of Maryland and Delaware . These areas also experienced storm surges of 6 – 7 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 1 m ) above normal . Wind gusts to 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) were observed at Ocean City , Maryland , and storm surge flooding caused damage to the city 's sea wall and boardwalk . Minor to moderate damage was reported along the New Jersey coast . A wind gust of 69 mph ( 111 km / h ) was observed in Atlantic City . Winds downed trees and power lines and damaged apple crops . Storm surge resulted in minor beach erosion and wrecked some boats . Damage totaled less than $ 1 million .
In New York , sustained winds of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) and gusts up to 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) in Putnam and Rockland counties downed numerous trees , caused power outages , and damaged crops . Farther south on Long Island , the hardest hit areas were Nassau and eastern Suffolk counties . Wind gusts up to 108 mph ( 174 km / h ) felled trees and power lines , leaving over 300 @,@ 000 homes without electricity ; minor structure damage was also reported . Downed power lines and minor flooding due to rainfall amounts of up to 7 in ( 178 mm ) also caused public transportation delays on Long Island . Tides as high as 35 ft ( 10 @.@ 7 m ) damaged many pleasure boats . Minor flooding was reported in Queens and Brooklyn . Damage likely exceeded $ 3 million , with nearly one @-@ third of that amount incurred to crops and property each .
= = = New England = = =
In Connecticut , sustained winds between 35 and 50 mph ( 56 and 80 km / h ) and gusts between 45 and 65 mph ( 72 and 105 km / h ) caused electrical and phone service outages , as well as generally minor property damage . There was also some loss to crops , especially apples and corn . Similar impact was reported farther east in Rhode Island , though winds were much stronger , with sustained winds of 74 mph ( 119 km / h ) and a gust up to 83 mph ( 134 km / h ) observed at Block Island . Tides ranging from 4 to 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 8 m ) above normal damaged small crafts and caused severe beach erosion , destroying a parking lot and washing out several roads . In south @-@ central and northeastern Maine , precipitation totals between 2 and 4 in ( 51 and 102 mm ) flooded basements , underpasses , and low @-@ lying roads , resulting in traffic being delayed by detours .
Strong winds were also observed in eastern Massachusetts , with the strongest wind gust being 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) in Chatham .
Despite gale and storm force wind gusts in eastern Massachusetts and southern New Hampshire , damage was minimal and consisted mainly of downed trees and isolated power outages . Rainfall totals ranged from 1 inch ( 25 mm ) in southern Maine to around 6 inches ( 152 mm ) in the Boston area . The storm separated Smith 's Point from the rest of Nantucket Island , creating what came to be known as Esther 's Island ( which has since re @-@ connected in 1988 , re @-@ separated , and re @-@ connected again in 2009 ) . In all , Esther caused an estimated $ 6 million ( 1961 USD ) in damage .
= = = Navy plane crash = = =
While over open waters , Esther caused seven indirect deaths when a United States Navy P5M aircraft crashed about 120 miles ( 193 km ) north of Bermuda . A merchant ship , the African Pilot , was in the area where the plane crashed when the captain of the ship received a message from the Bermuda Coast Guard that " We have aircraft in trouble in that vicinity ... " The captain of the African Pilot diverted the ship in order to assist the Coast Guard 's search for the lost plane . The heavy seas brought by Esther made search @-@ and @-@ rescue efforts difficult . In the end , only three of the ten crewmen were rescued ; the other seven were declared lost at sea .
The survivors told Coast Guard officials that during the storm , one of the engines of the plane failed , along with most of the electrical power ; as a result , the crew was unable to drop the reserve tank or close the bomb bay doors automatically . Before the crew could close the bomb bay doors manually , the plane crashed in shark @-@ infested waters and broke apart ; three of the crewmen were able to get out of the downed plane , but the other seven were unable to escape . The three survivors were then attacked by sharks before being rescued .
= = Project Stormfury = =
Hurricane Esther was also one of the first targets of a Navy experiment in modifying or weakening hurricanes by seeding them . On September 16 , a Navy plane flew into the eye of Esther about 400 miles ( 644 km ) northeast of Puerto Rico , and dropped canisters of silver iodide into the storm . The hurricane appeared to weaken slightly in response to the seeding , reportedly by ten percent . This weakening was temporary , however , as the hurricane resumed strengthening shortly after . The aircraft returned the next day to seed again , but the seeding canisters fell outside the eyewall with no effect on its structure , and the hurricane continued to strengthen . Despite this result , the experiment was deemed a success , and led to the establishment of Project Stormfury .
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= Kubera =
Kubera ( Sanskrit : कुबेर , Pali / later Sanskrit : Kuvera ) , also spelt Kuber , is the Lord of Wealth and the god @-@ king of the semi @-@ divine Yakshas in Hindu mythology . He is regarded as the regent of the North ( Dik @-@ pala ) , and a protector of the world ( Lokapala ) . His many epithets extol him as the overlord of numerous semi @-@ divine species and the owner of the treasures of the world . Kubera is often depicted with a plump body , adorned with jewels , and carrying a money @-@ pot and a club .
Originally described as the chief of evil spirits in Vedic @-@ era texts , Kubera acquired the status of a Deva ( god ) only in the Puranas and the Hindu epics . The scriptures describe that Kubera once ruled Lanka , but was overthrown by his demon stepbrother Ravana , later settling in the city of Alaka in the Himalayas . Descriptions of the " glory " and " splendours " of Kubera 's city are found in many scriptures .
Kubera has also been assimilated into the Buddhist and Jain pantheons . In Buddhism , he is known as Vaisravana , the patronymic used of the Hindu Kubera and is also equated with Pañcika , while in Jainism , he is known as Sarvanubhuti .
= = Iconography = =
Kubera is often depicted as a dwarf , with fair complexion and a big belly . He is described as having three legs , only eight teeth , one eye , and being adorned with jewels . He is sometimes depicted riding a man . The description of deformities like the broken teeth , three legs , three heads and four arms appear only in the later Puranic texts . Kubera holds a mace , a pomegranate or a money bag in his hand . He may also carry a sheaf of jewels or a mongoose with him . In Tibet , the mongoose is considered a symbol of Kubera 's victory over Nāgas — the guardians of treasures . Kubera is usually depicted with a mongoose in Buddhist iconography .
In the Vishnudharmottara Purana , Kubera is described as the embodiment of both Artha ( " wealth , prosperity , glory " ) and Arthashastras , the treatises related to it — and his iconography mirrors it . Kubera 's complexion is described as that of lotus leaves . He rides a man — the state personified , adorned in golden clothes and ornaments , symbolizing his wealth . His left eye is yellow . He wears an armour and a necklace down to his large belly . The Vishnudharmottara Purana further describes his face to be inclined to the left , sporting a beard and mustache , and with two small tusks protruding from the ends of his mouth , representing his powers to punish and to bestow favours . His wife Riddhi , representing the journey of life , is seated on his left lap , with her left hand on the back of Kubera and the right holding a ratna @-@ patra ( jewel @-@ pot ) . Kubera should be four @-@ armed , holding a gada ( mace : symbol of dandaniti — administration of justice ) and a shakti ( power ) in his left pair , and standards bearing a lion — representing Artha and a shibika ( a club , the weapon of Kubera ) . The nidhi treasures Padma and Shankha stand beside him in human form , with their heads emerging from a lotus and a conch respectively .
The Agni Purana states that Kubera should be installed in temples as seated on a goat , and with a club in his hand . Kubera 's image is prescribed to be that of gold , with multi @-@ coloured attributes . In some sources , especially in Jain depictions , Kubera is depicted as a drunkard , signified by the " nectar vessel " in his hand .
= = Names = =
The exact origins of the name Kubera are unknown . " Kubera " or " Kuvera " ( कुवेर ) as spelt in later Sanskrit , means " deformed or monstrous " or " ill @-@ shaped one " ; indicating his deformities . Another theory suggests that Kubera may be derived from the verb root kumba , meaning to conceal . Kuvera is also split as ku ( earth ) , and vira ( hero ) .
As the son of Vishrava ( " Fame " ) , Kubera is called Vaisravana ( in the Pali language , Vessavana ) and as the son of Ilavila , Ailavila . Vaisravana is sometimes translated as the " Son of Fame " . The Sutta Nitapa commentary says that Vaisravana is derived from a name of Kubera 's kingdom , Visana . Once , Kubera looked at Shiva and his wife Parvati with jealousy , so he lost one of his eyes . Parvati also turned this deformed eye yellow . So , Kubera gained the name Ekaksipingala ( " one who has one yellow eye " ) . He is also called Bhutesha ( " Lord of spirits " ) like Shiva . Kubera usually is drawn by spirits or men ( nara ) , so is called Nara @-@ vahana , one whose vahana ( mount ) is nara . Hopkins interprets naras as being water @-@ spirits , although Mani translates nara as men . Kubera also rides the elephant called Sarvabhauma as a loka @-@ pala . His garden is named Chaitrarath .
Kubera also enjoys the titles " king of the whole world " , " king of kings " ( Rajaraja ) , " Lord of wealth " ( Dhanadhipati ) and " giver of wealth " ( Dhanada ) . His titles are sometimes related to his subjects : " king of Yakshas " ( Yaksharajan ) , " Lord of Rakshasas " ( Rakshasadhipati ) , " Lord of Guhyakas " ( Guhyakadhipa ) , " king of Kinnaras " ( Kinnararaja ) , " king of animals resembling men " ( Mayuraja ) , and " king of men " ( Nararaja ) . Kubera is also called Guhyadhipa ( " Lord of the hidden " ) . The Atharvaveda calls him the " god of hiding " .
= = Changing status and family = =
= = = Early descriptions and parentage = = =
In the Atharvaveda — where he first appears — and the Shatapatha Brahmana , Kubera is the chief of evil spirits or spirits of darkness , and son of Vaishravana . The Shatapatha Brahmana calls him the Lord of thieves and criminals . In the Manusmriti , he becomes a respectable Loka @-@ pala ( " world protector " ) and the patron of merchants . In the epic Mahabharata , Kubera is described as the son of Prajapati Pulastya and his wife Idavida and the brother of sage Vishrava . Kubera is described as born from a cow . However , from the Puranas , he is described as the grandson of Pulastya and the son of Vishrava and his wife Ilavida ( or Ilivila or Devavarnini ) , daughter of the sage Bharadvaja or Trinabindu .
By this time , though still described as an asura , Kubera is offered prayers at the end of all ritual sacrifices . His titles , such as " best of kings " and " Lord of kings " ( Harivamsa indicate that Kubera is made " Lord of kings " ) , in contrast to the god @-@ king of heaven , Indra , whose title of " best of gods " led to the later belief that Kubera was a man . The early texts Gautama Dharmashastra and Apastamba describe him as a man . Only the Grihyasutras of Shankhayana and Hiranyakesin call him a god , and suggest offerings of meat , sesame seeds and flowers to him .
= = = Puranic and epic descriptions : Godhood acquired = = =
The Puranas and the epics Mahabharata and Ramayana grant Kubera unquestioned godhood . Kubera also acquired the status of the " Lord of riches " and the wealthiest Deva . He also becomes a Loka @-@ pala ( " world protector " ) and guardian ( dik @-@ pala ) of the North direction , although he is also sometimes associated with the East . Kubera 's status as a Loka @-@ pala and a dik @-@ pala is assured in the Ramayana , but in the Mahabharata , some lists do not include Kubera . Thus , Kubera is considered a later addition to the original list of Loka @-@ palas , where the gods Agni or Soma appear in his place . This status , the Ramayana records , was granted to Kubera by Brahma — the creator @-@ god and father of Pulastya — as a reward for his severe penance . Brahma also conferred upon Kubera the riches of the world ( Nidhis ) , " equality with gods " , and the Pushpaka Vimana , a flying chariot . Kubera then ruled in the golden city of Lanka , identified with modern @-@ day Sri Lanka . The Mahabharata says that Brahma conferred upon Kubera the lordship of wealth , friendship with Shiva , godhood , status as a world @-@ protector , a son called Nalakubera / Nalakubara , the Pushpaka Vimana and the lordship of the Nairrata demons .
Both the Puranas and the Ramayana feature the half @-@ blood siblings of Kubera . Vishrava , Kubera 's father , also married the Rakshasa ( demon ) princess Kaikesi , who mothered four Rakshasa children : Ravana , the chief antagonist of the Ramayana , Kumbhakarna , Vibhishana and Soorpanaka . The Mahabharata regards Vishrava as the brother of Kubera , so Kubera is described as the uncle of Ravana and his siblings . It records that when Kubera approached Brahma for the favour of superseding his father Pulastya , Pulastya created Vishrava . To seek the favour of Vishrava , Kubera sent three women to him , by whom Vishrava begot his demon children . Ravana , after acquiring a boon of Brahma , drove Kubera away from Lanka and seized his Pushpaka Vimana , which was returned to Kubera after Ravana 's death . Kubera then settled on Gandhamandana mountain , near Mount Kailash — the cosmological abode of the god Shiva — in the Himalayas . Sometimes , Kailash itself is called Kubera 's residence . His city is usually called Alaka or Alaka @-@ puri ( " curl @-@ city " ) , but also Prabha ( " splendour " ) , Vasudhara ( " bejeweled " ) and Vasu @-@ sthali ( " abode of treasures " ) . There , Kubera had a grove called Caitraratha , where the leaves were jewels and the fruits were girls of heaven . There is also a charming lake called Nalini in the grove . Kubera is often described as a friend of Shiva in the epics . The Padma Purana says that Kubera prayed to Shiva for many years , and Shiva granted him the kingship of Yakshas .
A description of Kubera 's magnificent court appears in the Mahabharata as well as the Meghaduta . Here , Gandharvas and Apsaras entertain Kubera . Shiva and his wife Parvati often frequent Kubera 's court , which is attended by semi @-@ divine beings like the Vidyadharas ; Kimpurushas ; Rakshasas ; Pishachas ; as well as Padma and Shankha ; personified treasures ( nidhi ) ; and Manibhadra , Kubera 's chief attendant and chief of his army . Like every world @-@ protector , Kubera has seven seers of the North in residence . Alaka is recorded to be plundered by Ravana once , and attacked by the Pandava prince , Bhima once . Kubera 's Nairrata army is described to have defeated king Mucukunda , who then defeated them by the advice of his guru Vashishta . Shukra , the preceptor of the demons , is also recorded to have defeated Kubera and stolen his wealth . Another major tale in the scriptures records how Kubera entertained the sage Ashtavakra in his palace .
Kubera is the treasurer of the gods and overlord of the semi @-@ divine Yakshas , the Guhyakas , Kinnaras and Gandharvas , who act as his assistants and protectors of the jewels of the earth , as well as guardians of his city . Kubera is also the guardian of travelers and the giver of wealth to individuals , who please him . The Rakshasas also serve Kubera , however , some cannibalistic Rakshasas are described to have sided with Ravana in the battle against Kubera . Kubera also developed as minor marriage @-@ divinity . He is invoked with Shiva at weddings and is described as Kameshvara ( " Lord of Kama – pleasure , desire etc . " ) . He is associated with fertility of the aquatic type .
The Puranas and the Mahabharata record that Kubera married Bhadra ( " auspicious " ) , or Kauberi ( " wife of Kubera " ) , daughter of the demon Mura . She is also called Yakshi – a female Yaksha and Charvi ( " splendour " ) . They had three sons : Nalakubara ( " Reed @-@ axle " ) , Manigriva ( " Bejewled @-@ neck " ) or Varna @-@ kavi ( " Colourful poet " ) , and Mayuraja ( " king of animals resembling men " ) ; and a daughter called Minakshi ( " fish @-@ eyed " ) . The Mahabharata calls his wife Riddhi ( " prosperity " ) and Nalakubara his son .
= = Worship = =
As the treasurer of the riches of the world , Kubera is prescribed to be worshipped . Kubera also credited money to the god Venkateshwara ( a form of the god Vishnu ) for his marriage with Padmavati . In remembrance of this , the reason devotees go to Tirupati to donate money in Venkateshwara 's Hundi ( " Donation pot " ) , is so that he can pay it back to Kubera .
While Kubera still enjoys prayers as the god of wealth , his role is largely taken by the god of wisdom , fortune and obstacle @-@ removal , Ganesha , with whom he is generally associated .
= = Beyond Hinduism = =
Kubera is recognized outside India and Hinduism as well . Kubera is a popular figure in Buddhist as well as Jain mythology . The Orientalist Dr. Nagendra Kumar Singh remarked that , " Every Indian religion has a Kubera after the Hindu prototype " .
Kubera is the Buddhist Vaisravana or Jambhala , and the Japanese Bishamon . The Buddhist Vaisravana , like the Hindu Kubera , is the reagent of the North , a Loka @-@ pala and the Lord of Yakshas . He is one of the Four Heavenly Kings , each associated with a cardinal direction . In Buddhist legends , Kubera is also equated with Pañcika , whose wife Hariti is the symbol of abundance . The iconography of Kubera and Pancika is so similar that in certain cases , A. Getty comments , it is extremely difficult to distinguish between Pancika and Kubera . The Japanese Bishamon , also known as Tamon @-@ Ten , is one of the Jūni @-@ Ten ( 十二天 ) , a group of 12 Hindu deities adopted in Buddhism as guardian deities ( deva or ten ) who are found in or around Buddhist shrines . The Juni @-@ Ten group of twelve deities were created by adding four deities to the older grouping of Happou @-@ Ten , the eight guardians of the directions . Bishamon rules over the north , like his Hindu counterpart Kubera .
In Jainism , Kubera is the attendant Yaksha of the 19th Tirthankar Mallinath . He is usually called Sarvanubhuti or Sarvahna , and may be depicted with four faces , rainbow colours and eight arms . The Digambara sect of Jainism gives him six weapons and three heads ; while the Svetambaras portray him with four to six arms , numerous choices of weapons , though his attributes , the money bag and citron fruit are consistent . He may ride a man or an elephant . He is related to the Buddhist Jambhala rather than the Hindu Kubera .
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= Infinity ( Mariah Carey song ) =
" Infinity " is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey from her sixth compilation album , # 1 to Infinity ( 2015 ) . It was released by Epic Records on April 27 , 2015 , as the only single from the album . Carey wrote the song in collaboration with Eric Hudson , Priscilla Renea , Taylor Parks and Ilsey Juber . Carey and Hudson also produced the track . It is an R & B song ; the lyrics are about Carey putting herself first and emancipation . However , many critics likened the content to the singer 's separation from her then @-@ husband , entertainer Nick Cannon .
Critical response to " Infinity " was positive , with Carey 's vocals and humorous songwriting praised . Particular emphasis was placed on the reference to Fritos . In the United States , the song reached number eighty @-@ two on the Billboard Hot 100 , and charted on several R & B component charts . In Europe , it peaked at number twenty @-@ seven on the UK R & B Chart , and made the top twenty in Spain and top thirty in Hungary . Carey performed a medley of her 1990 debut single " Vision of Love " with " Infinity " at the 2015 Billboard Music Awards , Live ! with Kelly and Michael and Jimmy Kimmel Live ! . The accompanying music video was directed by Brett Ratner and filmed during one of Carey 's Las Vegas residency shows .
= = Background = =
" Infinity " is the only new recording to be included on Carey 's third greatest hits album , # 1 to Infinity ( 2015 ) . It was written and produced by Carey and Eric Hudson , with additional songwriting from Priscilla Renea , Taylor Parks and Ilsey Juber . Carey unveiled the single 's artwork on April 24 , 2015 , via music identification service Shazam . Mike Wass for Idolator wrote that Carey exudes " overpowering glamor " and " looks typically ravishing in a cleavage @-@ exposing , black ensemble , which she accentuates with huge diamond earrings and fabulous windswept hair . "
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
" Infinity " is a mid @-@ tempo R & B ballad that lasts for a duration of four minutes . The song , in the key of C sharp , has a slow feel and a tempo of 67 beats per minute . Carey 's voice spans three octaves from C ♯ 3 to C ♯ 6 . Carey belts the lines " Close the door , lose the key , leave my heart on the mat for me . I was yours eternally , there 's an end to infinity " , while the songs hook consists of the singer " breathily cooing " the title repeatedly in a descending vocal run . Accompanied by an orchestral synth , string and brass instrumental , Alex Camp of Slant Magazine described " Infinity " as a " welcome throwback to Mariah 's early ballads " . Andrew Unterberger of Spin likened the intro to the work of Just Blaze , and finishes the song with a whistle note . According to its lyrics , Carey is putting herself first in order to emancipate herself . As described by Wass , " Infinity " is " distinctly unromantic " and " a kiss @-@ off anthem " , writing that it sits somewhere in between two of Carey 's previous singles , " Obsessed " ( 2009 ) and " You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " ( 2014 ) .
According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Universal Music Publishing Group , the song is written in the key of D ♭ major with a tempo of 67 beats per minute . The song is written in cut time and follows a chord progression of G ♭ maj7 – D ♭ / F – E ♭ m7 , with Carey 's vocals spanning three octaves , from D ♭ 3 to D ♭ 6 .
The lyric " Boy , you actin ’ so corny like Fritos " generated a positive response from both critics and fans alike , with MTV News reporting that fans were " freaking " over it . Wass described the inclusion of Fritos as " hilarious " , while Camp likened it to a form of product placement . Billboard highlighted the juxtaposition between the chorus , " Close the door / Lose the key / Leave my heart on the mat for me / I was yours eternally / There 's an end to infinity " and one of the verses , " Name hold weight like kilos / Boy you actin ' so corny like Fritos / Wouldn 't have none of that without me , though / Ain 't none of my business , it 's tea though / Outta ammo , gotta reload / If life was a game you 're a free throw / It 's nothing that you don 't already know , " noting that the former is " almost sweet " compared to the latter .
The lyrics aroused suspicion amongst critics that it was referring to Carey 's separation from her second husband , Nick Cannon . Daniel D ’ Addario of Time called " Infinity " a " kiss @-@ off track " directed at Cannon , while Camp wrote that the song will be " better remembered " for its lyrical content aimed at Cannon . A reviewer for Billboard wrote that Carey was possibly " returning to form as the queen of post @-@ heartbreak empowerment " , but speculated that the lyrics were most likely about Cannon . Brian Mansfield of USA Today felt that " Infinity " is more of a " kiss @-@ off " than " come @-@ on " track . Unterberger documented that fans would " prognosticate " over whether or not the lyrics pertained to her marriage to Cannon . Emilee Linder for MTV News noticed that Carey appeared to refer to their separation and ongoing co @-@ parenting of their twins , Moroccan and Monroe , in the line " Ain 't no being friends / Ain ’ t no false pretense / Ain ’ t no make amends / Ain ’ t no come agains / That ’ s the story , ain ’ t no happy ends . " However , Carey has denied that the lyrics are in any way related to her personal life . When Liz Hernandez of Access Hollywood asked if the lyrics were about her relationship with Cannon , Carey responded by saying that it is about putting herself first , and that even if the lyrics were directed at Cannon , she would not publicly confirm it :
I don 't feel like it 's my personal life . It 's written for all the women , or men , or whoever 's gone through any type of relationship . I 'm looking at it as the mantra of ' Infinity ' is love yourself … loving yourself first to infinity . Then you can love anybody or anything else – your career , your kids , your life , It 's like someone emancipating themselves . It 's like my re @-@ emancipation of Mimi , I wanted everybody to be able to sing along with [ me ] . It 's a big chorus . I tend to be more private about my personal life anyway , so even if the song were about someone in particular , I would never say that , because that would be like my own private thought .
= = Remix = =
On July 30 , 2015 , Carey posted a photo on her Instagram account accompanied by Hudson , French Montana and Justin Bieber at recording studio Record Plant in Hollywood . It was reported by TMZ that Carey , Hudson and Montana were working on a remix to " Infinity " , and that Bieber " decided to pop in " . They played the remix to Bieber , who after expressing his admiration for Carey and the song , decided to contribute some vocals to it . On August 8 , TMZ leaked what appeared to be the final mix of the track , called " Why You Mad ? ( Infinity Remix ) " , featuring Montana , Bieber and T.I .. With Carey only performing the hook to the original version of " Infinity " , the theme of the remix is that she rejects each of the three featured artists proposals . The song begins with a " laconic rap " by Montana , followed by Carey singing the hook over a " synth @-@ laden chorus " , which has a heavier instrumental and bass compared to the original version .
Bieber begins his verse approximately one minute and forty @-@ five seconds in , singing the new lyrics " It ’ s like every time you call me / You know I can ’ t leave you lonely / ' Cause I was always there when you need / You said that you 'd be there ' til the end / What must I say / I never thought it would happen this way oh / But I can tell if you 're gone again / got my number … things til the end . ” Followed by another chorus and a verse by T.I. , the song ends with a fade . A reviewer for the Inquisitor praised the collaboration , however Idolator 's Christina Lee was critical of the remix , writing " Two of them don ’ t sound like grown men — and they get the longer verses . French ’ s loopy rapping and off @-@ key warbling is incoherent . Justin ’ s attempts to sound pained just sounds whiny . " It is the second time that Carey and Bieber have collaborated , the first being when the two re @-@ recorded Carey 's 1994 song " All I Want for Christmas Is You " for Bieber 's 2011 Christmas album Under the Mistletoe .
= = Critical reception = =
" Infinity " garnered a positive response from critics , many of whom complimented its throwback feel , as well as Carey 's vocals and songwriting . Billboard was complimentary of the song , writing " The throwback @-@ flavored track is a soaring break @-@ up track , complete with sassy lines that shut down the guy she 's singing about . " Mansfield and Wass both complimented the non sequitur lyrical couplet of " Boy you so corny like Fritos " and " If life was a game you ’ re a free throw " . Mansfield further noted that although " Infinity " does not " recapture the glory " of past singles " Dreamlover " ( 1993 ) and " Always Be My Baby " ( 1995 ) , " it sure gets the sound right , " while Wass wrote that " Infinity " showcases Carey 's vocal range and " knack for writing hilarious one @-@ liners . " D ’ Addario echoed Wass 's sentiment regarding the couplet , writing that the song is " full of Carey ’ s trademark askew wit " . Unterberger concluded his review by writing that no other singer could perform " Infinity " as well as Carey . Although Camp wrote that " Infinity " delivers everything listeners have come to grow accustomed to hearing from Carey , such as whistle notes and " sudden shifts from chest to head voice " , she disapproved of the drawn out " non @-@ hook " . She further criticised the song 's melodic structure , writing that it appeared to cover up Carey 's " ailing voice " . Despite praising the song , several critics wrote that " Infinity " was unlikely to become her nineteenth number @-@ one on the Billboard Hot 100 .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " Infinity " peaked at number eighty @-@ two on the Billboard Hot 100 , with first week sales figures of 26 @,@ 000 downloads and 1 @.@ 8 million streams . Her forty @-@ seventh entry on the Hot 100 in twenty @-@ five years following her debut in 1990 , it places her ninth amongst artists with the most entries . It further peaked at number forty @-@ five on the Digital Songs chart , number twenty @-@ two on the Adult R & B songs chart , number eleven on both the R & B Songs and the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Digital Songs charts , and number twenty @-@ eight on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . In the United Kingdom , the song reached number twenty @-@ seven on the UK R & B Chart , but missed the top one @-@ hundred on the UK Singles Chart , peaking at one @-@ hundred and fifty @-@ four . In Europe , " Infinity " made the top twenty in Spain and the top thirty in Hungary . Elsewhere , the song peaked at number fifty @-@ two in Sweden and eighty @-@ five in France . The song peaked at number sixty @-@ four in Japan .
= = Promotion = =
Carey performed a medley of her 1990 debut single " Vision of Love " with " Infinity " as part of its promotion , the first time being at the 2015 Billboard Music Awards on May 17 , 2015 , her first appearance at the awards show in seventeen years . A video tribute to the singer was shown prior to the singer entering the stage , who was wearing a " sheer and glittery " dress . Andrew Hampp for Billboard noted that it was an " Octave @-@ leaping " performance and one of the most memorable of the night . However Carey 's vocals , despite confirming that she had been suffering from bronchitis prior to the performance , garnered a mixed reaction from users on Twitter . D ’ Addario wrote that she sang " Vision of Love " with " evident confidence " , but noted that the key had been lowered . The next day , Carey repeated the medley on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! .
The singer performed the medley on Live ! with Kelly and Michael on May 22 , 2015 , during their week @-@ long Disney World take @-@ over . On a platform above the road on Main Street , U.S.A. , Carey wore a magenta dress inspired by the one which Disney character Aurora from Sleeping Beauty wears in the 1959 film adaptation . " Infinity " is included on the set @-@ list of her third headlining residency Mariah Carey Number 1 's at The Colosseum at the Caesars Palace hotel in Las Vegas . The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Brett Ratner , a longtime friend of Carey 's , and premiered on June 2 , 2015 . Clips of Carey performing " Infinity " at her Las Vegas residency are intercut with cameos by Tyson Beckford and Jussie Smollett .
= = Credits and personnel = =
The following credits were adapted from the liner notes of # 1 to Infinity , Epic Records .
Recording locations
Recording – Windmark Recording Studios , Santa Monica , CA .
Mixing – Ninja Beat Club , Atlanta , GA .
Mastering – Powers Mastering , Florida
Personnel
= = Charts = =
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= Angelina Veneziano =
Angelina Veneziano is a fictional character from the American CBS soap opera The Young and the Restless . She is portrayed by Diana DeGarmo , who is famed for being runner @-@ up on the third season of the reality television competition American Idol . She was introduced by former executive producer and head writer Maria Arena Bell on October 31 , 2011 , as the daughter of mob boss Angelo Veneziano ( Mike Starr ) . Angelina was described as a mob boss daughter and aspiring singer by Zap2it . DeGarmo described her as an over @-@ the @-@ top " jersey girl " , and noted her flamboyant costumes and voice . The show 's executive producer and head writer Maria Arena Bell offered DeGarmo the role of Veneziano after seeing her performance of Penny Pingleton in the musical production of Hairspray .
Originating from New Jersey , Angelina arrived in Genoa City , Wisconsin to be with her father Angelo . She also wanted to fulfill her new @-@ found dreams of becoming a recording artist . Her father hired music producer Devon Hamilton ( Bryton James ) to create her music . However , it was soon evident that she lacked in talent . She developed a crush on Kevin Fisher ( Greg Rikaart ) , which she takes to extreme heights , conning him into a short @-@ lived marriage with the help of her father . Angelina eventually achieved her musical dream , having released a song entitled " Good Goodbye " which was written and produced by DeGarmo . The song was about how the character evolved into a better person when she left , and detailed her " emotional journey " . DeGarmo said that she had finally gotten rid of her selfish ways and expressed this through music . After a five @-@ month stint on the series , on March 27 , 2012 , Angelina left Genoa City to further pursue her music career in Los Angeles . Described as " mafia princess " and an alter ego , TV Guide credited her as being comedic relief for the daytime drama . However , Luke Kerr of Zap2it was not receptive of the character 's Jersey Shore concept , criticizing the soap opera for it . DeGarmo likened Angelina 's transformation to My Fair Lady .
= = Casting = =
On September 12 , 2011 , it was announced that DeGarmo was to join the cast of The Young and the Restless in the contract role of " jersey girl " Angelina . DeGarmo is well known for placing second on the third season of the reality television competition , American Idol . After her departure from American Idol , she ventured into on @-@ stage musicals . Upon Angelina 's debut on the show , it was revealed that she would be romantically linked to Kevin Fisher ( Greg Rikaart ) . According to Entertainment Weekly , " Angelina , wants to be a singer – but she 's not exactly good at it . " DeGarmo began filming scenes on September 22 , with her first airdate being October 31 , 2011 . Speaking about how she landed the role of Angelina , DeGarmo said that she was doing a special performance of the musical Hairspray at the Hollywood Bowl for three nights that August , to which head writer Maria Arena Bell had attended . She stated :
According to CBS Soaps In Depth DeGarmo said : " I 'm definitely spicing things up ! Angelina is getting into a bit of shenanigans and trouble along the way , just to make sure people are on their toes . " Additionally , she noted that : " Angelina may have a little bit of a crush on Kevin and she is not afraid to show it . " CBS Soaps In Depth wrote : " viewers definitely can expect Angelina to make her mark in Genoa City . " DeGarmo confessed that she never watched daytime soap operas because she was in school , but her family was " super excited " about seeing her on one . Because she never had experience working on soaps , she talked about how fast @-@ paced it was , stating : " I would equate this to guerrilla theater . It ’ s very fast . You do your presentation and you ’ re done . It keeps me on my toes . I have to give my best performance at that very moment . " She also discussed having crossed over in the genre : " Sometimes being a ‘ reality ’ person can be a bit of a stigma . ‘ The Young and the Restless ’ was willing to take a chance on me . They are so fantastic . "
= = Development = =
= = = Characterization = = =
TV Guide introduced Angelina as : " the Jersey girl daughter of mob boss Angelo Veneziano ( Mike Starr ) . She comes to Genoa City with dreams of being a chart @-@ topping vocalist . And what Angelina wants , Angelina gets ! " Fred Bronson of The Hollywood Reporter noted that DeGarmo already had experience of playing the part of a " Jersey Girl " because she had once starred in the musical The Toxic Avenger , which is set in New Jersey . Bronson also noted that she was having a fun time playing the part . Describing Angelina , DeGarmo labeled her as " over @-@ the @-@ top " and a " gum @-@ smacking , tone @-@ deaf princess whose hair is as large as her attitude . " She said " I 'm having a blast ! Angelina believes she 's Barbra Streisand mixed with Celine Dion . " The character is described as an alter ego by DeGarmo . DeGarmo revealed that she was having a " blast " picking out costumes for the over @-@ the @-@ top part : " Her hair and make @-@ up are icing on the cake " she stated . Additionally , she noted that " Angelina ’ s style has taken a few notes from the cast of Jersey Shore . " Comparing Angelina to herself , she said : " There are some things that I , Diana , would be too terrified to walk out of the house wearing , but Angelina is not afraid . " She is also described as a " mafia princess " . DeGarmo said : " You never know what she 's going to do , which keeps everyone on their toes . One minute she 's nice , the next she snaps " . According to DeGarmo , Angelina is fully aware that her father is a mob boss and : " she doesn 't mind . She likes throwing around her weight at any time . She loves the perks of being a mob boss 's daughter . She lives for it . "
= = = Music career = = =
Angelina 's dream is to be a successful singer on the music charts . DeGarmo noted that her father , Angelo , " who thinks his spoiled @-@ brat daughter sings like a choir of angels " puts pressure on Devon Hamilton ( Bryton James ) , a young and upcoming music producer , to show Angelina the ropes of the music industry and make her a success . DeGarmo said : " Unfortunately , she ’ s not as good a singer as she and her father think she is [ sic ] Angelina is a bit oblivious to reality , but will slowly come to grips with it over the next few weeks . As a singer myself , it ’ s liberating to get on the set and throw all ego – and notes – aside and surprise people . " DeGarmo commented : " It 's fantastically hilarious because it puts the poor kid in a horrible predicament ! " She said that Angelina was into Top 40 music at first , but : " the writers have her singing the American standards — Judy Garland , that sort of thing . We want the audience to be really familiar with the songs , so they can tell how badly Angie is butchering them . " Michael Logan of TV Guide noted that you needed " skill to play a bad singer " , to which DeGarmo said that it 's harder than people realize : " but it 's really liberating to get out there and be bad . You just throw your ego to the wind and sing for Jesus . " Devon would eventually go on to make Angelina a good singer . Angelina briefly fired Devon for adding rap verses to a song of hers which was soaring on the charts , but he retained the rights of the track .
As her time on the show was nearing its end , it was announced that DeGarmo was to debut a country ballad song entitled " Good Goodbye " . Kelly Ballhorn of Ryanseacrest.com noted that : " Fans of ' Young and the Restless ' and Diana have been waiting for her to sing on the show like she can in real life ... well , the wait ’ s over " . " Good Goodbye " was co @-@ written by DeGarmo and her real @-@ life fiance Ace Young , who was also a competitor on American Idol , and details Angelina 's " emotional journey " on the show . She was approached by the show 's award @-@ winning composer David Kurtz , and he asked her to make a song for Angelina . Rodney Ho of The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution said : " It ’ s supposed to be a turning point to her character . Her character on the most part has been pushy and full of herself . " During an interview with TV Guide , DeGarmo said that the song will " tug at your heartstrings " and marks a big turning point for Angelina 's storyline : " where she 's finally starting to grow up . She 's coming to realize that she needs to get rid of her selfish ways . She doesn 't know how to go about that like a normal person , so she does it through song . "
= = = Relationship with Kevin Fisher = = =
When she first arrived in Genoa City , Angelina set her eyes on Kevin Fisher ( Greg Rikaart ) , whom she developed a huge crush on . Of her crazy crush , DeGarmo said : " Ooh , she wants him bad ! Angie has her eyes , her heart and her body set on landing Kevin — and it scares him to death . " She said that Kevin was too sweet and nervous , and is weakened to Angelina 's preying on him . " She loves seeing him squirm " DeGarmo stated . Of working with Rikaart , she said : " Greg and I can 't stop laughing during our scenes together . " During an interview with MSN , she stated : " I 've had the great pleasure sharing the screen with Mr. Greg Rikaart . Angelina gets a little bit of a crush on Kevin , and she 's not afraid not to show it . It 's a blast , because she makes him incredibly nervous [ sic ] The sparks that fly on screen are just hilarious . It 's wonderful to be a part of . " Just before Kevin was set to marry his girlfriend Chloe Mitchell ( Elizabeth Hendrickson ) , Angelina persuaded him to help her escape town , as she was in danger . They returned home safe .
Eventually , things got to the stage where Angelina 's father forced Kevin to marry his daughter . Becca Badget of Yahoo ! wrote : " Kevin keeps to himself that he married Angelina to avoid a bullet from Angelo 's henchman . The guests are unaware that he married her to stay alive . " While this happened , Kevin 's mother Gloria Bardwell ( Judith Chapman ) was involved with Angelo , who had kidnapped and sent away her husband Jeffrey Bardwell ( Ted Shackelford ) to have Gloria for himself . On whether or not Kevin will ever love her , DeGarmo said : " I know she sure hopes so . She did try to get him to marry her . " The relationship , however , ended when Angelina realizes that he never loved her . DeGarmo said : " Kevin does see the light inside Angelina , even though that light may be a little dim sometimes . "
= = Storylines = =
Angelina was introduced as Angelo 's daughter who had a dream of becoming a successful recording artist . Angelo 's girlfriend Gloria requested that music producer Devon should help her out , only for everyone to find out she had no talent . Angelina developed a crush on Gloria 's son , Kevin Fisher , who was already engaged to his girlfriend Chloe . Angelina attempted to seduce Kevin , making Chloe hate her . Angelo put Kevin in charge of keeping Angelina safe from her dangerous ex @-@ boyfriend Carmine Basco ( Marco Dapper ) . Devon found out that Angelina sang well only if staring into Kevin 's eyes . At Kevin and Chloe 's wedding , Angelina told Kevin that she was pregnant with Carmine 's child and that they needed to leave town immediately . Kevin ran away with her after shots were fired during the wedding ceremony .
They set out on a journey to get away from Carmine , first going to a hotel near Niagara Falls . Hearing of this , Angelo assumed that Kevin wanted to win over Angelina , and sent over his friend Dino to " break his legs " . They fled to Angelo 's fishing cabin on an island where a homeless man is living . It is later revealed to be Gloria 's estranged husband Jeffrey who had been kidnapped and sent away by Angelo , but lost memory of it . Jeffrey stole their motor boat , leaving them stranded there . Angelina then finally revealed to Kevin that she was never pregnant and faked the ordeal so that he would fall in love with her . Dino arrives at the Island and nearly killed Kevin , but Angelina tells him he can 't because she will be married to Kevin . Because of this , Kevin reluctantly had to marry her at a ceremony in Glowarm because Angelo forced him . Kevin was extremely miserable and told Chloe that the marriage was a sham .
Angelo told Kevin that he would hurt Chloe if he didn 't devote himself wholeheartedly to Angelina . While at a bar at Jimmy 's , Angelina revealed to him that she really does love him , and he admits to her that he doesn 't , breaking her heart . The marriage ended and Angelina confessed to tricking Kevin into marrying her . They are officially divorced and she released a song entitled " Good Goodbye " . She made sure that Chloe and Kevin get back together . She left Genoa City to further pursue her music career in Los Angeles , with Angelo as her manager . Moments after they leave , Angelina 's infamous ex @-@ boyfriend Carmine arrived and threatened that he is going to steal Chloe from Kevin because Kevin " stole " Angelina from him . Carmine ended up kidnapping Abby Newman ( Marcy Rylan ) . Days after he kidnapped her , they ended up falling love and returned to Genoa City .
= = Reception = =
The character 's reception has been mixed . Upon DeGarmo joining the show , Luke Kerr of Zap2It was not receptive of the character 's concept . He compared her to Snooki of the reality television series Jersey Shore and said that the show has fallen under Jersey Shore 's " drunken spell " . He wrote : " Regardless of who portrayed the character — because I have absolutely nothing against DeGarmo — why does Y & R need yet another big name stunt cast ? " Additionally , he said : " every time I read something about the new character I find myself asking myself why , just why ? " DeGarmo said : " Angelina nor I need to watch ‘ Jersey Shore ’ for pointers . But we are fans . Definitely Snooki is someone we look up to . "
Before the character aired , Deanna Barnert of MSN TV said of DeGarmo : " The young songstress may even prove there 's something more dangerous than a mob wife or a " Jersey Shore " diva : a mob daughter . " Michael Logan of TV Guide praised DeGarmo and Angelina as comic relief for the show . Lynette Rice of Entertainment Weekly regarded Angelina as Angelo 's ambitious " little angel " and called DeGarmo 's casting as " not exactly the next Mariah Carey " a " bit of a twist " . Lyndsey Parker of Yahoo ! Music called her a : " gum @-@ smacking mob princess with a heart of gold " .
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= Delaware Route 896 =
Delaware Route 896 ( DE 896 ) is a state highway located in New Castle County , Delaware . The route runs from U.S. Route 13 ( US 13 ) in Boyds Corner , Delaware north to the Maryland border northwest of Newark , where it becomes the unsigned Maryland Route 896 ( MD 896 ) briefly before heading into Pennsylvania as Pennsylvania Route 896 ( PA 896 ) . The route heads west from US 13 before turning north along with US 301 / DE 71 in Mount Pleasant , crossing the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal on the Summit Bridge . After the bridge , DE 71 splits off to the east and the road continues to Glasgow , where US 301 ends at an intersection with US 40 . DE 896 continues north and interchange with Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) before reaching Newark , where it bypasses the University of Delaware to the west by following DE 4 , Elkton Road , and South Main Street . DE 896 comes to downtown Newark and continues northwest to the Maryland border . DE 896 has a business route , DE 896 Business ( DE 896 Bus . ) , that passes through Glasgow , and had an alternate alignment south of Glasgow called DE 896 Alternate ( DE 896 Alt . ) .
DE 896 was originally built as a state highway during the 1920s and 1930s . By 1938 , the route was designated between DE 71 in Summit Bridge and the Maryland border northwest of Newark . In the 1950s , the route was extended to US 13 south of Townsend , following DE 71 to Middletown and replacing a part of that route south of there . Between the 1950s and 1990s , various alignments of US 301 , US 301N , and US 301S followed DE 896 . In the 1980s , DE 896 was realigned to head from Mt . Pleasant to US 13 in Boyds Corner , with DE 71 later being extended down the former route past Middletown . Also around this time , DE 896 was rerouted to bypass the University of Delaware to the west . A bypass of Glasgow was completed in the 1990s .
= = Route description = =
DE 896 begins at an intersection with US 13 in Boyds Corner , heading west on two @-@ lane undivided Boyds Corner Road . East of US 13 , the road becomes unnumbered Pole Bridge Road and reaches an interchange with the DE 1 toll road . From the southern terminus , DE 896 passes through agricultural areas with some residential subdivisions and woods . The road crosses over Norfolk Southern 's Delmarva Secondary railroad line and comes to an intersection with US 301 / DE 71 in Mount Pleasant .
Here , DE 896 turns north to form a concurrency with US 301 / DE 71 on Summit Bridge Road , a four @-@ lane divided highway . The road heads between the Summit Airport to the west and housing developments to the east . US 301 / DE 71 / DE 896 heads to the northwest through farm fields before turning to the west and passing a residential subdivision to the south . In the unincorporated community of Summit Bridge , the road intersects the northern terminus of DE 15 . Past this intersection , US 301 / DE 71 / DE 896 turns north and crosses over the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal on the Summit Bridge .
Past the Summit Bridge , the road runs through woods and crosses under Chesapeake City Road near the Delaware Veterans Memorial Cemetery . DE 71 splits from US 301 / DE 896 by turning to the southeast on Red Lion Road . US 301 / DE 896 continues north through residential neighborhoods and fields and passes to the west of Lums Pond State Park . The road reaches Glasgow , where it curves northeast to bypass the community to the east with DE 896 Bus. heading north into Glasgow . US 301 / DE 896 heads to the east of Hodgson Vo @-@ Tech High School and curves northwest to intersect US 40 , where US 301 comes to its northern terminus .
Following this intersection , DE 896 continues northwest as South College Avenue , coming to a southbound ramp that provides access to DE 896 Bus. at the north end of Glasgow . The road passes through industrial and business areas with a few homes , heading to the west of Glasgow High School before intersecting Old Baltimore Pike . The route heads through wooded areas to the east of Iron Hill Park before reaching a modified cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 95 ( Delaware Turnpike ) . Past this interchange , DE 896 enters Newark and runs northwest past businesses , curving north and coming to an intersection with DE 4 .
At this point , DE 896 turns west to join DE 4 on the four @-@ lane divided Christiana Parkway , passing to the south of the University of Delaware 's Science , Technology , and Advanced Research campus . The road narrows into a three @-@ lane undivided road with two eastbound lanes and one westbound lane , curving to the northwest and coming to a bridge over Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor railroad line . Christiana Parkway comes to an intersection with the eastern terminus of DE 279 , where DE 4 ends and DE 896 continues northeast on Elkton Road . DE 896 becomes a four @-@ lane divided highway that heads into residential areas . The road changes names to South Main Street and becomes undivided as it passes businesses before reaching downtown Newark .
Here , DE 896 intersects DE 273 , with the road splitting into a one @-@ way pair . Northbound DE 896 becomes concurrent with eastbound DE 273 on West Delaware Avenue , heading to the east , while southbound DE 896 remains along South Main Street , also concurrent with eastbound DE 273 . The one @-@ way pair carries two lanes in each direction . Northbound DE 896 soon turns north onto two @-@ way South College Avenue , which carries two northbound lanes and one southbound lane as it passes through the University of Delaware campus . The northbound direction of the route turns west ( along westbound DE 273 on West Main Street ) , reaching the end of South Main Street , which it left earlier due to one @-@ way streets . Here , northbound DE 896 continues northwest onto one @-@ way New London Road , carrying one lane , while southbound DE 896 follows DE 273 on two @-@ way , two @-@ lane West Main Street .
Soon after , both directions of the route crosses CSX 's Philadelphia Subdivision railroad line as it leaves the downtown area and enters residential neighborhoods . New London Road becomes two @-@ way carrying both directions of DE 896 , with southbound DE 896 running southwest on two @-@ way North Hillside Road to get to DE 273 and continue east . The two @-@ lane undivided DE 896 heads northwest between the Newark Country Club to the west and the University of Delaware to the east before running through wooded areas of residential development . The route becomes undivided again as it leaves Newark and passes to the west of White Clay Creek State Park . DE 896 continues to its northern terminus at the Maryland border , where the road briefly traverses the northeast corner of that state as MD 896 before heading north into Pennsylvania as PA 896 .
DE 896 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 48 @,@ 750 vehicles at the I @-@ 95 interchange to a low of 4 @,@ 605 vehicles at the intersection between New London Road and North Hillside Road . The portion of DE 896 south of DE 273 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
What is now DE 896 originally existed as a county road by 1920 , with the portion between Boyds Corner and Mt . Pleasant proposed as a state highway at that time . Four years later , the state highway between Boyds Corner and Mt . Pleasant was completed while the rest of the route was paved . A year later , the road was upgraded to a state highway between Mt . Pleasant and Summit Bridge . In 1936 , the road became a state highway between Summit Bridge and Glasgow ; at this time none of present @-@ day DE 896 was assigned a route number . On December 21 , 1936 , the grade crossing with the Pennsylvania Railroad ( now Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor ) along College Avenue in Newark was replaced with a bridge over the tracks . In 1938 , the state highway between Glasgow and Newark was built on a new alignment , bypassing a narrow winding alignment that ran further to the east along what is now Old Cooch 's Bridge Road . This road was built to give Newark a better road connection to places further south .
DE 896 was designated by 1938 to run from DE 71 in Summit Bridge north to the Maryland border northwest of Newark , passing through Newark on College Avenue and New London Road . At the state line , the road briefly became MD 278 before becoming PA 896 in Pennsylvania . MD 278 became MD 896 in 1942 to match DE 896 and PA 896 .
DE 896 was extended south to US 13 south of Townsend by 1957 , following DE 71 between Summit Bridge and Middletown and replacing DE 71 between Middletown and US 13 . Two years later , US 301S was designated along DE 71 / DE 896 between Summit Bridge and Middletown . The route was realigned to a new Summit Bridge a short distance to the west in 1960 , with a part of the former DE 896 north of the bridge becoming a part of a realigned US 301S / DE 71 . The US 301S designation along DE 71 / DE 896 between Middletown and Summit Bridge became US 301 in 1971 , with US 301N being designated along DE 896 between Summit Bridge and US 40 in Glasgow .
By 1984 , DE 896 was realigned to run from Mt . Pleasant to US 13 in Boyds Corner along its current alignment . The former alignment south of Middletown became unnumbered at the time but would become part of DE 71 again by 1990 . The Christiana Parkway around the southern edge of Newark was completed in September 1983 . A year later , US 301 was rerouted to follow DE 896 between Mt . Pleasant and Boyds Corner , with US 301N being removed from the route between Summit Bridge and Glasgow and US 301 removed from the route between route between Mt . Pleasant and Summit Bridge . In 1988 , DE 896 was routed to bypass the University of Delaware campus by heading west along the Christiana Parkway with DE 4 and then northeast on DE 2 before continuing along New London Road . By 1990 , DE 2 was routed to follow DE 4 and DE 896 on the Christiana Parkway and DE 2 Bus. was designated along with DE 896 on Elkton Road .
In 1992 , US 301 was realigned to follow DE 896 between Mt . Pleasant and Glasgow . By 1996 , DE 896 was rerouted to bypass Glasgow to the east , with the former alignment becoming DE 896 Bus . In 2012 , the Newark city council voted in favor of renaming the portion of Elkton Road carrying DE 2 Bus . / DE 896 between West Park Place and West Main Street to South Main Street in order to promote businesses along this stretch of road . The change went into effect January 1 , 2013 . In 2013 , the DE 2 and DE 2 Bus. concurrencies were removed from DE 896 in order to simplify the route designations through Newark .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in New Castle County .
= = Bannered routes = =
= = = DE 896 Business = = =
Delaware Route 896 Business ( DE 896 Bus . ) is a 1 @.@ 78 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 86 km ) long business route of DE 896 that passes through Glasgow . The route begins at an intersection with US 301 / DE 896 south of Glasgow , heading north on two @-@ lane undivided Glasgow Avenue into residential areas . The road runs immediately to the west of US 301 / DE 896 before that road curves to the northeast . The business route passes to the west of Hodgson Vo @-@ Tech High School before it heads into commercial areas and intersects US 40 . Past this , DE 896 Bus. heads into rural areas of homes and comes to a dead end at which point there is a ramp from southbound DE 896 to DE 896 Bus . It uses the old alignment of DE 896 , and was created by 1996 following the completion of the current DE 896 bypass to the east of town .
Major intersections
The entire route is in Glasgow , New Castle County .
= = = Former DE 896 Alternate = = =
Delaware Route 896 Alternate ( DE 896 Alt . ) was an alternate route of DE 896 from near its southern terminus in Boyds Corner north to Glasgow . The route headed north from Boyds Corner concurrent with US 13 on the four @-@ lane divided Dupont Parkway , passing through rural areas with some development . In Biddles Corner , the alternate route split from US 13 and headed north along DE 1 , a four @-@ lane freeway that crosses the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal on the Chesapeake & Delaware Canal Bridge . DE 896 Alt. followed DE 1 to the interchange with DE 72 , where it continued west along with DE 72 on two @-@ lane undivided Wrangle Hill Road . The road headed through suburban areas and intersected DE 71 , curving northwest and north before reaching an intersection with US 40 . At this point , the alternate route headed west concurrent with US 40 on the four @-@ lane divided Pulaski Highway , passing through developed areas to the south of Glasgow Park . DE 896 Alt. ended at an intersection with US 301 / DE 896 on the eastern edge of Glasgow . While this route was primarily signed during the reconstruction of Summit Bridge , many signs along its path remain as of April 2016 .
Major intersections
The entire route was in New Castle County .
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= D.C. United =
D.C. United is an American professional soccer club based in Washington , D.C. The club competes in the Eastern Conference of Major League Soccer , the top level of professional American soccer . The franchise is one of the ten charter clubs of MLS , having competed in the league since its inception in 1996 .
D.C. United is the most decorated club in MLS , having won thirteen international and domestic titles over the club 's history . It was one of the most successful clubs in the early years of MLS , winning eight of its thirteen titles between 1996 and 1998 under head coach Bruce Arena . United holds the joint MLS record for most Supporters ' Shields , has four MLS Cups , and been crowned U.S. Open Cup champions three times . It is also the first club to win both the MLS Supporters ' Shield and MLS Cup consecutively . On the international stage , D.C. United has competed in both the CONCACAF Champions League and its predecessor , the CONCACAF Champions ' Cup . The club won the 1998 CONCACAF Champions ' Cup , making them one of only two MLS teams to ever win a CONCACAF tournament . Subsequently , United won the now @-@ defunct Copa Interamericana in 1998 against Vasco da Gama of Brazil . This is the only intercontinental title won by an MLS club .
The team 's home field is the 45 @,@ 596 @-@ seat Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium , owned by the District of Columbia and located on the Anacostia River . The team plans to build a new soccer @-@ specific stadium at Buzzard Point just a few blocks from Nationals Park by groundbreaking and starting construction on the new stadium 2015 with an opening date of 2018 , and with potential seating between 18 @,@ 000 and 23 @,@ 000 . The team is owned by the consortium D.C. United Holdings . The team 's head coach is former long @-@ time starting midfielder Ben Olsen , who has coached the team since 2010 .
Players such as Jaime Moreno , Marco Etcheverry , and Eddie Pope are among the team 's most successful stars . D.C. United 's fan base includes four supporters ' clubs . The club 's official nickname is the " Black @-@ and @-@ Red " and home uniforms are black and white with accents of red . The team 's name alludes to the " United " appellation commonly found in the names of soccer teams in the United Kingdom and elsewhere .
= = History = =
Prior to the 1994 FIFA World Cup , the United States Soccer Federation fulfilled its promise to FIFA by aiding in the foundation of a new professional league . On June 15 , 1994 , Major League Soccer selected Washington , D.C. out of twenty @-@ two applicants to host one of the first seven teams , with three more added before the league 's launch . Like many team names in MLS , the team 's name was chosen as a reflection of the names of European clubs , such as Manchester United or Leeds United .
On April 6 , 1996 , D.C. United played in the league 's inaugural match against the San Jose Clash in Spartan Stadium in San Jose , California . In the league 's early years , D.C. was the most successful of all the teams in MLS . In their first year , coach Bruce Arena led the team to the first " double " in modern U.S. soccer history by beating the Los Angeles Galaxy in the first MLS Cup and the Rochester Raging Rhinos of the USL First Division in the 1996 U.S. Open Cup . D.C. repeated its MLS Cup victory in 1997 against the Colorado Rapids , in front of a home crowd at RFK Stadium . The team also experienced early success in CONCACAF competitions , winning both the Champions ' Cup and the Interamerican Cup in 1998 .
In October 1998 , Arena left the team to coach the U.S. men 's national team . Arena 's departure marked the beginning of a downturn in the team 's fortunes . While the club again won the MLS Cup in 1999 under coach Thomas Rongen , lackluster results in 2000 and 2001 led to Rongen 's departure and his replacement by Ray Hudson in 2002 . The team did not , however , fare much better under Hudson , and Piotr Nowak replaced him before the start of the 2004 season . The club 's first season under Nowak was marred by injuries in the early going , and some players were known to have complained about Nowak 's methods . Nevertheless , a strong finish , assisted in large measure by the late @-@ season acquisition of Argentine midfielder Christian Gómez , who helped to propel United into the playoffs as the second seed . There they advanced past the New England Revolution on penalty kicks in what has been called one of the best games in MLS history . United then defeated the Kansas City Wizards to win their fourth MLS Cup . United 's attendance record at RFK Stadium is 54 @,@ 282 , in a match against the Tampa Bay Mutiny in 2001 .
On November 18 , 2003 , MLS made sports history by signing Freddy Adu , a 14 @-@ year @-@ old soccer prodigy and on January 16 , 2004 he was officially selected by United with the first pick in the 2004 MLS SuperDraft . When Adu entered United 's regular @-@ season opener as a second @-@ half substitute on April 3 , 2004 , he became the youngest player in any professional sport in the United States since 1887 . On December 11 , 2006 , D.C. United traded Adu and goalkeeper Nick Rimando to Real Salt Lake in exchange for a major allocation , goalkeeper Jay Nolly , and future considerations .
In 2005 , the club again made MLS history by becoming the first United States @-@ based team to participate in Copa Sudamericana , entering in the Round of sixteen . Since 2006 , United has played well against international competition , beating Scottish champions Celtic F.C. and drawing Real Madrid in Seattle . In addition , the 2006 MLS All @-@ Star Team , which included eight United players and was managed by United 's manager Piotr Nowak , defeated English champions Chelsea . In 2006 and 2007 , United became the first club in league history to win the MLS Supporters ' Shield consecutively .
Since winning back @-@ to @-@ back Shields in 2006 and 2007 , the club failed to qualify for the MLS Cup Playoffs five years in a row . During this stretch , United 's lone major title came in 2008 , when they won the U.S. Open Cup . In league play during the 2008 and 2009 campaigns , United faltered at the tail @-@ end of each season , ultimately causing them to miss out on the playoffs . They had a poor 2010 MLS season , winning only six matches , drawing four and losing 20 . In 2011 , United again failed to qualify for the playoffs in the second to last week of the campaign . In 2012 , United returned to the playoffs for the first time in five years , clinching a berth in the second @-@ to @-@ last week of the season .
D.C. United tallied a total of only 3 wins in the 2013 season , setting a record for fewest wins in league history . Despite the team 's poor showing in league play , D.C. United defeated Real Salt Lake in the U.S. Open Cup final . This qualified the team to participate in the 2014 @-@ 15 CONCACAF Champions League . In 2014 , D.C. United executed a historic turnaround by clinching first place in the Eastern Conference , which also earned the team its second consecutive Champions League berth .
= = Colors and badge = =
The team 's colors and original logo were announced on October 17 , 1995 along with those of the other ten original teams during a presentation in New York City . Black and white are D.C. United 's primary colors , though the team 's nickname is the " Black @-@ and @-@ Red . " Red is used to accent the home jersey while white is the main color of the team 's away kit . The three stripes along the shoulder – in white at home and black on the road – do not represent the three jurisdictions of the Washington Metropolitan Area ( Washington , D.C. , Maryland , and Virginia ) ; rather , they represent the fact that the team 's kits are made by Adidas . United 's shirt sponsor is Reston , Virginia defense company Leidos . In 2011 , the team introduced a predominantly red third kit with black accents to be worn four or more times in the season . The team has also previously used white away uniforms with red stripes ; white and red are the colors of the flag of Washington , D.C. , and the stripes are also reminiscent of those used on the flag .
The team 's original shield was implemented in 1996 consisting of the team 's name , D.C. United , above a black bald eagle facing right on a red field , clawing three soccer balls overlaid on three white stars . The three stars and balls were intended to represent the region 's three jurisdictions . The bird , associated with the federal government based in Washington , D.C. , symbolizes many of the attributes of the team , including speed and power . The logo was redesigned before the 1998 season . The current design reoriented the eagle facing left , and removed the three stars below it , whose metaphor was retained by three raised wing feathers . At the center of the eagle is a single gold @-@ colored star and soccer ball , which represents the team 's victory in Major League Soccer 's inaugural cup in 1996 . The logo can also be adorned with four silver stars above it , representing the MLS Cups the team has won .
On December 10 , 2015 , D.C. United unveiled an updated logo designed by Peter Horridge , featuring a D.C. flag @-@ inspired design across the eagle , an updated wordmark , and more dynamic wings .
= = = Uniform evolution = = =
Home
Away
Third / Special
= = = Sponsorship = = =
Leidos was announced as the main jersey sponsor on February 24 , 2014 for a multi @-@ year agreement , replacing the previous sponsor Volkswagen Group of America . Other sponsors include Adidas , Chipotle Mexican Grill , GEICO , Verizon Wireless , and Papa John 's Pizza .
= = Stadium = =
= = = RFK Stadium = = =
Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium ( RFK ) has been home to D.C. United since the club 's founding in 1996 . The D.C. United Training Complex is located north of the stadium , and is where the Reserve Division team plays .
RFK was built in 1961 as a dual use baseball and American football stadium . Prior to 1996 , it periodically hosted soccer matches , including the 1980 Soccer Bowl , the 1993 Supercoppa Italiana , and five matches during the 1994 FIFA World Cup . When the Washington Nationals baseball team shared the field from 2005 to 2007 , there were criticisms regarding problems with the playing surface and even the dimensions of the field .
Several regional university stadiums have been used by the team for Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup matches , including Klöckner Stadium in Charlottesville , Virginia in 1996 , and George Mason Stadium in Fairfax , Virginia in 2010 . Similarly , the team has also used the Maryland SoccerPlex in Germantown , Maryland for multiple early @-@ round games in U.S. Open Cup and CONCACAF Champions ' Cup since it opened in 2001 . Exhibition games , as well as occasional regular season matches , have also been played in nearby FedEx Field in Landover , Maryland ; the latter have generally been played as part of doubleheaders featuring friendlies between national teams or foreign clubs .
= = = New DC United Stadium = = =
In July 2006 , D.C. United proposed building a new stadium along the Anacostia River near Anacostia Park , but disputes with the city government forced the team to consider other sites . In February 2009 , the team announced plans for a new stadium in nearby Prince George 's County , Maryland close to FedEx Field . This proposal ran into similar trouble , however , when the County Council voted to send a letter to the Maryland General Assembly opposing the stadium plan . In October 2009 , the Baltimore Sun reported that Baltimore mayor Sheila Dixon has asked the Maryland Stadium Authority to explore the possibility of wooing D.C. United to Baltimore by building a soccer stadium that could serve as D.C. United 's permanent home , as well as host other events . The Baltimore plan did not coalesce , however , and the team returned its focus to Washington D.C.
On July 25 , 2013 , a tentative deal was announced which will see a 20 @,@ 000 @-@ 25 @,@ 000 seat stadium built at Buzzard Point costing $ 300 million . Following votes by the D.C. Council to approve the plan , it was signed into law on December 30 , 2014 . Under the July 2013 deal , the District of Columbia was to have obtained a portion of the necessary Buzzard Point property from the developer that owned it , in exchange for cash and a government building . DC United would kick the $ 150 million needed to construct the stadium on the city @-@ owned land , which it would rent for 20 to 35 years . The deal also gave DC United the right to build restaurants , bars , and even a hotel nearby . Under the deal as revised by D.C. City Council in December 2014 , the city would instead pay fair market value for the developer 's land , and use eminent domain if a deal could not be reached .
When negotiations began in January 2015 , D.C. Council chairman Phil Mendelson was downbeat about the talks , saying the two sides were " very far apart " on a price . Mayor Muriel Bowser , Gray 's successor , budgeted $ 106 @.@ 3 million in fiscal 2016 to acquire the stadium site , add infrastructure ( such as water , sewer , electrical , and natural gas lines ) , and remove toxic hazards at the site .
Following reports that the club had spoken with city , county , and state officials in Virginia about abandoning the District of Columbia and constructing a stadium in Northern Virginia , D.C. United and the city signed a final construction agreement on June 8 . The agreement required that the facility seat a minimum of 17 @,@ 000 people , and established the term of the lease at 30 years for a minimal $ 1 per year . The agreement also contained a clause governing land : If the cost of land acquisition rose above $ 150 million , D.C. United was required to reimburse the city 50 percent of the excess ( although the club 's commitment was capped at $ 10 million ) . The club was also barred from playing more than an occasional home game away from the Buzzard Point stadium ( e.g. , barred from relocating for the term of the lease ) . Mayor Bowser then submitted the agreement , as well as land purchase agreements and a revised developer agreement , to the City Council for approval ; the council approved the land purchase agreements on June 30 , 2015 .
Under the terms of the June 8 agreement , D.C. United was required to submit a concept design for the stadium to the city by September 1 , 2015 . The District of Columbia faced a deadline for September 30 , 2015 , to use eminent domain to acquire the Akridge land , which forces the club to commit to building a stadium before the city finished purchasing land . On September 30 , the District of Columbia filed for eminent domain for the Akridge parcel .
= = Club culture = =
= = = Supporters and mascot = = =
D.C. United has four major supporters groups ; La Barra Brava , the Screaming Eagles , La Norte and the District Ultras . Each group has a designated section of the home stadium . La Barra Brava , Spanish for " The Brave Fans " , was founded in 1995 by Latino fans in the Washington , D.C. area , mostly Bolivian immigrants in support of original United players Marco Etcheverry and Jaime Moreno . They seek to bring a South American style to home games . All four clubs host public tailgates before home matches , and are known for singing during games . La Norte , which takes its name from its location on the North side of the stadium , is noted for its streamers , large drum , and harassment of the opposition .
DC United 's mascot is Talon , an anthropomorphic bald eagle .
= = = Rivalries = = =
D.C. United 's primary rival is the New York Red Bulls . The two teams compete annually for the Atlantic Cup , a competition instituted by the two clubs . The cup is awarded to the team that gets the most points across the teams ' meetings throughout the season . D.C. United also has a burgeoning rivalry with the Philadelphia Union as the two teams represent two cities separated by only 120 miles . D.C. United is also unique among MLS teams for its rivalry with the Charleston Battery of the United Soccer Leagues , as they compete every time they face one another for the Coffee Pot Cup , a trophy established by the two sides ' supporters .
= = Ownership = =
When the league was founded in 1995 , billionaire investor George Soros was the primary financial backer and director of Washington Soccer L.P. , the group that owned the operating rights to D.C. United . Kevin Payne , former President of Soccer USA Partners and current CEO of D.C. United , was instrumental in organizing this ownership group . By 1998 the group was looking for new investors , and on February 15 , 2001 , it agreed to sell the team to Anschutz Entertainment Group ( AEG ) , founded by Colorado billionaire Philip Anschutz , with AEG exercising its option to become the sole investor @-@ operator on January 8 , 2002 . AEG , who also own Major League Soccer 's Los Angeles Galaxy and Houston Dynamo , ran the team until 2007 .
In May 2007 , United entered into an initial one @-@ year strategic partnership with Brazilian club Atlético Mineiro . The goal of the partnership is to enhance the sporting and commercial success of the respective clubs by sharing expertise and experience as well as creating new opportunities for the clubs in both areas .
On January 8 , 2007 , the operating rights to D.C. United were sold to D.C. United Holdings , a newly formed group venture that included real estate developer Victor MacFarlane , founder of MacFarlane Partners , and William H.C. Chang , chairman of Westlake International Group . Other investors included D.C. United president Kevin Payne and Blue Devil Development , headed by former Duke basketball players Brian Davis and Christian Laettner . In April 2009 , Victor MacFarlane sold his share of the team to his partner William Chang after two stadium proposals had fallen through . In October 2009 , Chang also bought out Davis and Laettner to fully control the team . Chang is also one of the primary investors of Major League Baseball 's San Francisco Giants . In July 2012 , Erick Thohir and Jason Levien , minority owners of the Philadelphia 76ers National Basketball Association franchise , joined Chang as partners . Thohir and Levin stated their primary goals are to make United a global brand and build a soccer @-@ specific stadium for the club .
= = Broadcasting = =
In 2015 , the club reached a new multi @-@ year deal with Sinclair Broadcast Group 's American Sports Network division to broadcast all of the team 's regionally @-@ televised matches , beginning in the 2016 season . The matches will be split between its local cable network NewsChannel 8 and Washington 's ABC affiliate WJLA @-@ TV . Sinclair and the team will split the costs of the telecasts and production roles , while the team will handle advertising sales and provide on @-@ air commentators . For the 2016 season , the preliminary distribution is 7 matches on WJLA and 17 on NewsChannel 8 , with the remaining 10 being shown by one of MLS 's national TV partners . The 24 Sinclair @-@ produced matches are also syndicated to co @-@ owned stations in the region : WUTB Baltimore , WRLH Richmond , WTVZ Norfolk , and WSET Roanoke , where they will largely appear on those stations ' digital subchannels .
After several years off the air , English @-@ language radio coverage began on WJFK @-@ FM and WJFK for the 2014 season .
Comcast SportsNet Mid @-@ Atlantic had previously broadcast D.C. United matches from 1996 to 2015 , dating back to its time as Home Team Sports . Under the terms of the most recent contract , signed during the 2013 season , CSN was obligated to show a minimum of 16 matches per season . Some matches were relegated to the network 's " CSN + " feed or not televised at all due to scheduling conflicts with the Washington Capitals , Wizards , and college football . Dave Johnson handled play by play , and former United player Santino Quaranta handled color commentary . Previously , former D.C. United John Harkes offered color commentary opposite Johnson . Color commentary was also historically provided by Thomas Rongen , Gordon Bradley , Clint Peay , and Garth Lagerway .
= = Players = =
= = = Current roster = = =
As of June 15 , 2016 .
= = = Players on loan = = =
= = Team management = =
= = = Head coaching history = = =
= = Honors = =
= = = Continental = = =
CONCACAF Champions League
Winners : 1998
= = = Domestic = = =
MLS Cup
Winners ( 4 ) : 1996 , 1997 , 1999 , 2004
Runners Up : 1998
Supporters ' Shield
Winners ( 4 ) : 1997 , 1999 , 2006 , 2007
Runners Up : 1998
Eastern Conference
Winners ( Playoff ) ( 5 ) : 1996 , 1997 , 1998 , 1999 , 2004
Winners ( Regular Season ) ( 6 ) : 1997 , 1998 , 1999 , 2006 , 2007 , 2014
Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup
Winners ( 3 ) : 1996 , 2008 , 2013
Runners Up ( 2 ) : 1997 , 2009
= = = Intercontinental = = =
Copa InteramericanaWinners : 1998
= = = Minor Trophies = = =
Atlantic Cup ( 9 ) : 2002 , 2004 , 2005 , 2006 , 2007 , 2008 , 2009 , 2012 , 2014
Carolina Challenge Cup ( 4 ) : 2010 , 2011 , 2012 , 2014
ATX Pro Challenge : 2015
Puerto Rico MLS @-@ USL Challenge : 2009
= = Record = =
= = = Player records = = =
Statistics below show the all @-@ time regular @-@ season club leaders . Bold indicates active D.C. United players .
As of January 4 , 2016
All @-@ Time regular season record : 264 – 249 – 115 ( Through 2015 season )
= = = Team MVP = = =
= = = MLS All @-@ Time Best XI = = =
Four players who were with D.C. United during the 1990s were chosen in 2005 as members of the MLS All @-@ Time Best XI :
DF : Jeff Agoos : D.C. United ( 1996 @-@ 2000 )
DF : Eddie Pope : D.C. United ( 1996 @-@ 2002 )
MF : Marco Etcheverry : D.C. United ( 1996 @-@ 2003 )
FW : Jaime Moreno : D.C. United ( 1996 @-@ 2002 , 2004 @-@ 2010 )
= = = Hall of Tradition = = =
In 2003 , D.C. United introduced the " Hall of Tradition " ( formerly " Tradition of Excellence " ) , an honor bestowed upon players , coaches & front office staff deemed by United to have been crucial to the team 's success . People are listed in the order in which they joined the club .
= = Affiliations = =
Inter Milan
Sunderland A.F.C.
Richmond Kickers – United Soccer League ( 3rd division )
D.C. United U @-@ 23 – Premier Development League ( 4th division )
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= Saving Private Ryan =
Saving Private Ryan is a 1998 American epic war drama film set during the Invasion of Normandy in World War II . Directed by Steven Spielberg and written by Robert Rodat , the film is notable for its graphic portrayal of war , and for the intensity of its opening 27 minutes , which includes a depiction of the Omaha Beach assault of June 6 , 1944 . It follows United States Army Rangers Captain John H. Miller ( Tom Hanks ) and a squad ( Tom Sizemore , Edward Burns , Barry Pepper , Giovanni Ribisi , Adam Goldberg , and Jeremy Davies ) as they search for a paratrooper , Private First Class James Francis Ryan ( Matt Damon ) , who is the last @-@ surviving brother of four servicemen .
The film received universal critical acclaim , winning several awards for film , cast , and crew , as well as earning significant returns at the box office . The film grossed US $ 481 @.@ 8 million worldwide , making it the second highest @-@ grossing film of the year . The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences nominated the film for 11 Academy Awards ; Spielberg 's direction won him a second Academy Award for Best Director , with four more awards going to the film . Saving Private Ryan was released on home video in May 1999 , earning another $ 44 million from sales . In 2014 , Saving Private Ryan was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry as it was deemed " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant . "
= = Plot = =
In the present day , an elderly World War II veteran and his family visit the Normandy American Cemetery and Memorial in Normandy , France . The veteran walks around the cemetery and , upon seeing one specific gravestone , collapses to his knees , overwhelmed by emotion .
The film flashes back to the morning of June 6 , 1944 , the beginning of the Normandy Invasion , as American soldiers prepare to land on Omaha Beach . They suffer heavily from their struggle against German infantry , machine gun nests , and artillery fire . Captain John H. Miller , a company commander of the 2nd Ranger Battalion , survives the initial landing and assembles a group of his Rangers to penetrate the German defenses , leading to a breakout from the beach . After the battle , the body of a dead soldier lying face down on the beach , with " S. Ryan " inscribed on the back of his uniform , is shown .
Meanwhile , in Washington , D.C , at the U.S. War Department , General George Marshall is informed that three of the four brothers of the Ryan family were killed in action and that their mother is to receive all three telegrams in the same day . He learns that the fourth son , Private First Class James Francis Ryan , is a paratrooper and is missing in action somewhere in Normandy . Marshall , after reading Abraham Lincoln 's Bixby letter , orders that Ryan must be found and sent home immediately .
Three days after D @-@ Day , Miller receives orders to find Ryan and bring him back from the front . He assembles six men from his company — T / Sgt. Mike Horvath , Private First Class Richard Reiben , Privates Stanley Mellish , Adrian Caparzo , Danny Jackson , medic Irwin Wade — and T / 5 Timothy Upham , a cartographer who speaks French and German , loaned from the 29th Infantry Division . Miller and his men move out to Neuville ; there , they meet a squad from the 101st Airborne Division . Caparzo dies after being shot by a sniper .
Eventually , they locate a Private James Ryan , but soon learn that he is not their man . They find a member of Ryan 's regiment who informs them that his drop zone was at Vierville and that his and Ryan 's companies had the same rally point . Once they reach it , Miller meets a friend of Ryan 's , who reveals that Ryan is defending a strategically important bridge over the Merderet River in the town of Ramelle . On the way to Ramelle , Miller decides to neutralize a German machine gun position , despite the misgivings of his men . Wade is fatally wounded in the ensuing skirmish , but Miller , at Upham 's urging , declines to execute a surviving German , nicknamed " Steamboat Willie " , and sets him free on condition that he give himself up as a prisoner of war to the first Allied unit he encounters . No longer confident in Miller 's leadership , Reiben declares his intention to desert the squad and the mission , prompting a confrontation with Horvath . The argument heats up until Miller defuses the situation by disclosing his background in civilian life , about which the squad had earlier set up a betting pool . Reiben then reluctantly decides to stay .
Upon arrival at Ramelle , Miller and the squad come upon a small group of paratroopers , one of whom is Ryan . Ryan is told of his brothers ' deaths , the mission to bring him home , and that two men had been lost in the quest to find him . He is distressed at the loss of his brothers , but does not consider it fair to go home , asking Miller to tell his mother that he intends to stay " with the only brothers [ he has ] left . " Miller decides to take command and defend the bridge with what little manpower and resources are available . Using his own men and the accompanying paratroopers , Miller forms ambush positions throughout the ruined town for the tanks and infantry utilizing Molotov cocktails , detonation cords , and " sticky bombs " made from socks and TNT .
Elements of the 2nd SS Panzer Division arrive with infantry and armor . Although they inflict heavy casualties on the Germans , most of the paratroopers , along with Jackson , Mellish , and Horvath , are killed . While attempting to blow the bridge , Miller is shot and mortally wounded by a German soldier . Just before a Tiger tank reaches the bridge , an American P @-@ 51 Mustang flies overhead and destroys the tank , followed by American armored units which rout the remaining Germans . Upham surprises a group of German soldiers as they attempt to retreat . The German infantryman who shot Miller , " Steamboat Willie " , raises his hands in surrender , believing that Upham will accept because of their earlier encounter . Having witnessed Captain Miller being shot by Steamboat Willie , Upham shoots him and lets the other surviving Germans flee .
Reiben and Ryan are with Miller as he dies and says his last words , " James ... earn this . Earn it . " The film returns to the present and it is revealed that the veteran is Ryan and the grave he is standing at is Miller 's . Ryan asks his wife to confirm that he has led a good life , that he is a " good man " and thus worthy of the sacrifice of Miller and the others . His wife replies , " You are . " At this point , Ryan stands at attention and delivers a salute toward Miller 's grave .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In 1994 , Robert Rodat wrote the script for the film . Rodat 's script was submitted to producer Mark Gordon , who liked it and in turn passed it along to Spielberg to direct . The film is loosely based on the World War 2 life stories of the Niland brothers . A shooting date was set for June 27 , 1997 .
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
Before filming began , several of the film 's stars , including Edward Burns , Barry Pepper , Vin Diesel , Adam Goldberg , Giovanni Ribisi , and Tom Hanks , endured ten days of " boot camp " training led by Marine veteran Dale Dye and Warriors , Inc . , a California @-@ based company that specializes in training actors for realistic military portrayals . Matt Damon was intentionally not brought into the camp , to make the rest of the group feel resentment towards the character .
Spielberg had already demonstrated his interest in World War II themes with the films 1941 , Empire of the Sun , Schindler 's List , and the Indiana Jones series . Spielberg later co @-@ produced the World War II themed television miniseries Band of Brothers and its counterpart The Pacific with Tom Hanks . When asked about this by American Cinematographer , Spielberg said , " I think that World War II is the most significant event of the last 100 years ; the fate of the baby boomers and even Generation X was linked to the outcome . Beyond that , I 've just always been interested in World War II . My earliest films , which I made when I was about 14 years old , were combat pictures that were set both on the ground and in the air . For years now , I 've been looking for the right World War II story to shoot , and when Robert Rodat wrote Saving Private Ryan , I found it . "
= = = Filming = = =
The D @-@ Day scenes were shot in Ballinesker Beach , Curracloe Strand , Ballinesker , just east of Curracloe , County Wexford , Ireland . Filming began June 27 , 1997 , and lasted for two months . Some shooting was done in Normandy , for the Normandy American Cemetery and Memorial in Colleville @-@ sur @-@ Mer and Calvados . Other scenes were filmed in England , such as a former British Aerospace factory in Hatfield , Hertfordshire , Thame Park , Oxfordshire and Wiltshire . Production was due to also take place in Seaham , County Durham , but government restrictions disallowed this .
= = = Portrayal of history = = =
Saving Private Ryan has received critical acclaim for its realistic portrayal of World War II combat . In particular , the sequence depicting the Omaha Beach landings was named the " best battle scene of all time " by Empire magazine and was ranked number one on TV Guide 's list of the " 50 Greatest Movie Moments " . The scene cost US $ 12 million and involved up to 1 @,@ 500 extras , some of whom were members of the Irish Reserve Defence Forces . Members of local reenactment groups such as the Second Battle Group were cast as extras to play German soldiers . In addition , twenty to thirty actual amputees were used to portray American soldiers maimed during the landing . Spielberg did not storyboard the sequence , as he wanted spontaneous reactions and for " the action to inspire me as to where to put the camera " .
The historical representation of Charlie Company 's actions , led by its commander , Captain Ralph E. Goranson , was well maintained in the opening sequence . The sequence and details of the events are very close to the historical record , including the sea sickness experienced by many of the soldiers as the landing craft moved toward the shoreline , significant casualties among the men as they disembarked from the boats , and difficulty linking up with adjacent units on the shore .
The distinctive signature " ping " of the US soldiers ' M1 Garand rifles ejecting their ammunition clips is heard throughout the battle sequence . The contextual details of the Company 's actions were well maintained , for instance , the correct code names for the sector Charlie Company assaulted , and adjacent sectors , were used . Included in the cinematic depiction of the landing was a follow @-@ on mission of clearing a bunker and trench system at the top of the cliffs which was not part of the original mission objectives for Charlie Company , but which they did undertake after the assault on the beach .
The landing craft used included twelve actual World War II examples , 10 LCVPs and 2 LCMs , standing in for the British LCAs that the Ranger Companies rode in to the beach during Operation Overlord . The filmmakers used underwater cameras to better depict soldiers being hit by bullets in the water . Forty barrels of fake blood were used to simulate the effect of blood in the seawater . This degree of realism was more difficult to achieve when depicting World War II German armored vehicles , as few examples survive in operating condition . The Tiger I tanks in the film were copies built on the chassis of old , but functional , Soviet T @-@ 34 tanks . The two vehicles described in the film as Panzers were meant to portray Marder III tank destroyers . One was created for the film using the chassis of a Czech @-@ built Panzer 38 ( t ) tank similar to the construction of the original Marder III ; the other was a cosmetically modified Swedish SAV m / 43 assault gun , which also used the 38 ( t ) chassis .
Inevitably , some artistic license was taken by the filmmakers for the sake of drama , distorting the historical veracity of the film 's presentation . There are strategic and operational , as well as tactical flaws in the film 's depiction of the Normandy campaign . There is a strategic problem in that at the time of the mission , American forces from the two American beach areas - Utah and Omaha - had not yet linked up . Had such a mission been executed in reality , a Ranger team operating out of the Omaha beach area would have had to move through the heavily enemy @-@ occupied city of Carentan , or swim or boat across the estuary linking Carentan to the channel , or transfer by boat to the Utah landing area . On the other hand , US forces moving out of Utah would have had direct and much shorter routes , relatively unencumbered by enemy positions , and were already in contact with some teams from both US airborne divisions landed in the area .
The Utah beach landings , however , were relatively uncontested , with assault units landing on largely unoccupied beaches and experiencing far less action than the landings at Omaha . The filmmakers chose to begin the narrative with a depiction of the more dramatic story of Omaha , despite the strategic inaccuracy of an impossible mission that could easily have been pursued from the other beach area . In addition , one of the most notable of the operational flaws is the depiction of the 2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich as the adversary during the fictional Battle of Ramelle . The 2nd SS was not engaged in Normandy until July , and then at Caen against the British and Canadians , 100 miles east . Furthermore , the Merderet River bridges were not an objective of the 101st Airborne Division but of the 82nd Airborne Division , part of Mission Boston .
Much has also been said about various " tactical errors " made by both the German and American forces in the film 's climactic battle . Spielberg responded , saying that in many scenes he opted to replace sound military tactics and strict historical accuracy for dramatic effect . Some other technical errors were also made , often censored , including the mistaken reversed orientation of the beach barriers ; the tripod obstructions with a mine at the apex .
To achieve a tone and quality that was true to the story as well as reflected the period in which it is set , Spielberg once again collaborated with cinematographer Janusz Kamiński , saying , " Early on , we both knew that we did not want this to look like a Technicolor extravaganza about World War II , but more like color newsreel footage from the 1940s , which is very desaturated and low @-@ tech . " Kamiński had the protective coating stripped from the camera lenses , making them closer to those used in the 1940s . He explains that " without the protective coating , the light goes in and starts bouncing around , which makes it slightly more diffused and a bit softer without being out of focus . " The cinematographer completed the overall effect by putting the negative through bleach bypass , a process that reduces brightness and color saturation . The shutter timing was set to 90 or 45 degrees for many of the battle sequences , as opposed to the standard of 180 @-@ degree timing . Kamiński clarifies , " In this way , we attained a certain staccato in the actors ' movements and a certain crispness in the explosions , which makes them slightly more realistic . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Saving Private Ryan was a critical and commercial success and is credited with contributing to a resurgence in America 's interest in World War II . Old and new films , video games , and novels about the war enjoyed renewed popularity after its release . The film 's use of desaturated colors , hand @-@ held cameras , and tight angles has profoundly influenced subsequent films and video games . Saving Private Ryan was released in 2 @,@ 463 theaters on July 24 , 1998 , and grossed $ 30 @.@ 5 million on its opening weekend . The film grossed $ 216 @.@ 5 million in North America and $ 265 @.@ 3 million in other territories , bringing its worldwide total to $ 481 @.@ 8 million and making it the highest @-@ grossing domestic film of the year . Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 45 @.@ 74 million tickets in North America .
= = = Critical response = = =
The film received universal critical acclaim and has a ' certified fresh ' rating of 92 % on Rotten Tomatoes based on 130 reviews with an average score of 8 @.@ 6 out of 10 . The consensus states " Anchored by another winning performance from Hanks , Spielberg 's unflinchingly realistic war film virtually redefines the genre . " The film also has a score of 90 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 34 reviews indicating " universal acclaim " .
Much of the praise went for the realistic battle scenes and the actors ' performances . It earned some criticism for ignoring the contributions of several other countries to the D @-@ Day landings in general and at Omaha Beach specifically . The most direct example of the latter is that during the actual landing the 2nd Rangers disembarked from British ships and were taken to Omaha Beach by Royal Navy landing craft ( LCAs ) . The film depicts them as being United States Coast Guard @-@ crewed craft ( LCVPs and LCMs ) from an American ship , the USS Thomas Jefferson ( APA @-@ 30 ) . This criticism was far from universal with other critics recognizing the director 's intent to make an " American " film . The film was not released in Malaysia after Spielberg refused to cut the violent scenes ; however , the film was finally released there on DVD with an 18SG certificate much later in 2005 . Many critics associations , such as New York Film Critics Circle and Los Angeles Film Critics Association , chose Saving Private Ryan as Film of the Year . Roger Ebert gave it four stars out of four and called it " a powerful experience " .
Filmmaker Quentin Tarantino has expressed admiration for the film and has cited it as an influence on his 2009 film , Inglourious Basterds . Conversely , film director and military veteran Oliver Stone has accused the film of promoting " the worship of World War II as the good war , " and has lumped it alongside films such as Gladiator and Black Hawk Down that he believes were well @-@ made , but may have inadvertently contributed to Americans ' readiness for the 2003 invasion of Iraq . In defense of the film 's portrait of warfare , Brian De Palma commented , " The level of violence in something like Saving Private Ryan makes sense because Spielberg is trying to show something about the brutality of what happened . "
Actor Richard Todd , who performed in The Longest Day and was amongst the first of the Allied soldiers to land in Normandy ( Sword Beach ) , said the film was " Rubbish . Overdone . " American academic Paul Fussell , who saw combat in France during World War II , objected to what he described as , " the way Spielberg 's Saving Private Ryan , after an honest , harrowing , 15 @-@ minute opening visualizing details of the unbearable bloody mess at Omaha Beach , degenerated into a harmless , uncritical patriotic performance apparently designed to thrill 12 @-@ year @-@ old boys during the summer bad @-@ film season . Its genre was pure cowboys and Indians , with the virtuous cowboys of course victorious . "
Other World War II veterans , however , stated that the film was the most realistic depiction of combat they had ever seen . The film was so realistic that combat veterans of D @-@ Day and Vietnam left theaters rather than finish watching the opening scene depicting the Normandy invasion . Their visits to posttraumatic stress disorder counselors rose in number after the film 's release , and many counselors advised " ' more psychologically vulnerable ' " veterans to avoid watching it .
= = = Awards = = =
The film was nominated for eleven Academy Awards , and won five including Best Cinematography , Best Sound , Best Sound Effects Editing , Best Film Editing , and Best Director for Spielberg , but lost the Best Picture award to Shakespeare in Love , being one of a few that have won the Best Director award without also winning Best Picture . The Academy 's decision to not award the film with the Best Picture Oscar has resulted in much criticism in recent years , many of whom believe it is one of the biggest Oscar snubs in its history .
The film also won the Golden Globes for Best Motion Picture – Drama and Director , the BAFTA Award for Special Effects and Sound , the Directors Guild of America Award , a Grammy Award for Best Film Soundtrack , the Producers Guild of America Golden Laurel Award , and the Saturn Award for Best Action , Adventure , or Thriller Film . The American Film Institute has included Saving Private Ryan in many of its lists , ranking it as the 71st greatest American movie in AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ( 10th Anniversary Edition ) , as well as the 45th most thrilling film in AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Thrills , the 10th most inspiring in AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Cheers , and the eight best epic film in " AFI 's 10 Top 10 " .
= = = Television broadcasts = = =
On Veterans Day from 2001 – 2004 , the American Broadcasting Company aired the film uncut and with limited commercial interruption . The network airings were given a TV @-@ MA rating , as the violent battle scenes and the profanity were left intact . The 2004 airing was marred by pre @-@ emptions in many markets because of the language , in the backlash of Super Bowl XXXVIII 's halftime show controversy . However , critics and veterans ' groups such as the American Legion and the Veterans of Foreign Wars assailed those stations and their owners , including Hearst @-@ Argyle Television ( owner of 12 ABC affiliates ) ; Scripps Howard Broadcasting ( owner of six ) ; and Belo ( owner of four ) for putting profits ahead of programming and honoring those who gave their lives at wartime , saying the stations made more money running their own programming instead of being paid by the network to carry the film , especially during a sweeps period .
A total of 65 ABC affiliates — 28 % of the network — did not clear the available timeslot for the film , even with the offer of The Walt Disney Company , ABC 's parent , to pay all fines for language to the Federal Communications Commission . In the end , however , no complaints were lodged against ABC affiliates who showed Ryan , perhaps because even conservative watchdogs like the Parents Television Council supported the unedited rebroadcast of the film . Additionally , some ABC affiliates in other markets that were near affected markets , such as Youngstown , Ohio , ABC affiliate WYTV ( which is viewable in parts of the Columbus , Cleveland , and Pittsburgh markets , none of which aired the film ) and Gainesville , Florida , ABC affiliate WCJB @-@ TV ( which is viewable in parts of the Orlando and Tampa markets ) , still aired the film and gave those nearby markets the option of viewing the film . TNT and Turner Classic Movies have also broadcast the film .
= = = Home video = = =
The film was released on home video in May 1999 with a VHS release that earned over $ 44 million . The DVD release became available in November of the same year , and was one of the best @-@ selling titles of the year , with over 1 @.@ 5 million units sold . The DVD was released in two separate versions : one with Dolby Digital and the other with DTS 5 @.@ 1 surround sound . Besides the different 5 @.@ 1 tracks , the two DVDs are identical . The film was also issued in a very limited 2 @-@ disc LaserDisc release in November 1999 , making it one of the very last feature films to ever be issued in this format , as LaserDiscs ceased manufacturing and distribution by the year 's end , due in part to the growing popularity of DVDs .
In 2004 , a Saving Private Ryan special edition DVD was released to commemorate the 60th anniversary of D @-@ Day . This two @-@ disc edition was also included in a box set titled World War II Collection , along with two documentaries produced by Spielberg , Price For Peace ( about the Pacific War ) and Shooting War ( about war photographers , narrated by Tom Hanks ) . The film was released on Blu @-@ ray Disc on April 26 , 2010 in the UK and on May 4 , 2010 in the US , as part of Paramount Home Video 's premium Sapphire Series . However , only weeks after its release , Paramount issued a recall due to audio synchronization problems . The studio issued an official statement acknowledging the problem , which they attributed to an authoring error by Technicolor that escaped the quality control process , and that they had already begun the process of replacing the defective discs .
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= Eskaya people =
The Eskaya , less commonly known as the Visayan @-@ Eskaya , is the collective name for the members of a cultural minority found in Bohol , Philippines , which is distinguished by its cultural heritage , particularly its literature , language , dress and religious observances . After the Eskaya first came to public attention in 1980 , these cultural practices were the subject of intense speculation on the part of local journalists and amateur historians who made diverse claims about the ethnolinguistic status of the Eskaya people . The unique Eskayan language and writing system in particular has been a source of fascination and controversy . Some journalists argued that the Eskaya were historically displaced from the Middle East , while others suggested that the community was a cult speaking an invented language . According to Eskaya mythology , the language and script was created through divine inspiration by the ancestor Pinay who based it on the human body . Suppressed by the Spanish colonists , Pinay 's language was said to have resurfaced under the leadership of Mariano Datahan ( ca . 1875 – 1949 ) , a veteran of Bohol 's republican army . Although the historical existence of Pinay cannot be confirmed , more recent studies that combined linguistic analysis with oral history and genealogical research provide evidence that the Eskaya language was most likely created and disseminated within a generation by a charismatic individual . Today , the Eskaya are officially classified as an Indigenous Cultural Community under The Indigenous Peoples Rights Act of 1997 ( Republic Act No. 8371 ) . A number of reports have suggested that Eskaya linguistic and cultural education has been in steady decline since the mid @-@ 1980s , although promising revitalisation efforts have also been documented .
= = Area = =
Most members of the Eskaya community inhabit a mountainous area that intersects the municipalities of Duero , Guindulman , Pilar , and Sierra Bullones in the once @-@ forested region of Bohol 's southeast interior . The original Eskaya settlement in Biabas ( Guindulman ) , was established in 1902 . In 1951 , the second township of Taytay ( municipality of Duero ) was founded by Fabian Baja in accordance with Datahan 's directions . Significant Eskaya populations are now also found in the nearby townships of Canta @-@ ub , Lundag , Tambongan , Cadapdapan , and Fatimah . In 1996 , the Eskaya community was awarded a certificate of Ancestral Domain Claim by President Fidel Ramos . An official census of the Eskaya population has not yet been made . One report estimates that in 1991 there were 130 Eskaya families living in Bohol .
= = Language and script = =
The Eskayas speak a Boholano dialect of Cebuano in daily life . Boholano @-@ Bisaya is the dominantly used language among the languages spoken by the members of the Eskayan tribe . This variety is used in their close familial interactions , in their conversations with their neighbors in the community , in their transactions in the barangay , school meetings , social gatherings , church rituals and in the trade and commerce . However , they are better known for an auxiliary language , known as Eskayan , or Ineskaya , which is used for prayers , songs , and formal speeches . Lexically , Eskayan shows no clear relationship with any known language ( however , considered to be an encryption of Cebuano ) although there is strong but inconsistent Spanish influence . A striking feature of the language is its unusual phonotactics .
The Eskayan writing system takes the form of a syllabary of over 1 @,@ 000 characters , all modeled on parts of the human body including internal organs . This unique script has been compared variously to Phoenician , Etruscan , Hebrew , and even the undeciphered script of the Butuan paleograph . While there are no mother @-@ tongue speakers of Eskayan , it is taught to both adults and children in volunteer @-@ run cultural schools . The Eskayan language and script has been the object of ongoing controversy .
= = Religion = =
Under the direction of Mariano Datahan , the group converted en masse to the nascent Philippine Independent Church in about 1902 . Community members revere the entity Suno which is conflated with the Santo Niño , and in addition to weekly church services they are served by appointed spiritual leaders known as biki and beriki . The biki , or bishop , is responsible for performing harvest ceremonies and other rituals such as house blessing . Before a house can be constructed , a ritual is performed in which a spiritual leader asks the permission of the spirits . If permission is not granted , the builder must select a new site . The Eskaya also retain spiritual traditions once widespread in lowland Boholano rural communities .
= = Eskaya society = =
The teaching of Eskayan in the volunteer schools is one of the few remaining cultural practices of the Eskaya community .
Formerly , Eskaya men would wear shirts made of piña raffia with a Chinese @-@ style collar , black breeches , and cotton berets . Women wore piña dresses with bulging sleeves similar to the Spanish @-@ influenced Boholano style ( mostly in Biabas ) and covered their hair with cotton habits ( mostly in Taytay ) . Traditionally , women were not permitted to cut their hair short nor wear trousers , and drinking and dancing were universally prohibited . For the most part these customs have been discontinued , however traditional dress is sometimes worn on Sundays and special occasions .
At weddings the parents of the bride offer the couple a glass of water and a comb . The comb is dipped in the water and run through the hair of both bride and groom . Rice is then showered on the couple , connoting plenty .
Until recently , the Eskaya practised a form of communal farming in which a portion of land was tilled for the benefit of the whole community .
= = Literature and mythology = =
Eskaya literature was first dictated for transcription by Mariano Datahan whose words were recorded by personal scribes . These texts – which comprise local oral history and regional folklore – have sometimes been referred to by journalists as the karaang mga libro or " old books " . The transcribed oral literature is mostly written in both Cebuano and Eskayan ; one is reported to be in Spanish . The Eskaya stories are fundamental to the community ’ s understanding of itself , particularly its origins , belief systems , and practices . One legend tells of how the group first arrived in Bohol from Sumatra . Their first leader , Dangko , had twelve children who settled near Antequera before moving east . Various other Eskayan legends recount the stories of Boholano kings and heroes ; a few of these stories even make reference to actual historical figures such as Jesus Christ , Datu Sikatuna , Ferdinand Magellan , and Francisco " Dagohoy " Sendrijas . As part of their cultural education , students must transcribe five of these texts into lined textbooks at the Eskaya schools .
The Eskaya writings mentioned by researchers are as follows : Abedeja , Ang Alpabeto sa Katsila , Ang Damgo ni Hurayhaber , Ang Lingganay na Ugís , Ang mga hiyas ug Caague ni Mariano Datahan , Ang pagtulun @-@ an sa Bisayas , Aritmetica , Askormos Meneme , Atekeses , Bisayan Declarado , Daylinda , Grinada , Kwadra , Pamatasan , Pinay , Pinulungan , Rangnan , Simplet , Suno , Tumao and Unang Tao sa Bisaya sa Bohol . Identical texts sometimes go by different names and larger texts may subsume smaller ones . Brenda Abregana , a former curator of the Bohol Museum , has mentioned a folded book of esoteric knowledge written in Spanish but its existence has not been established .
= = History = =
Although the Eskaya had been known to people living in the vicinity of Bohol ’ s southeast highlands prior to World War II , it was only in the early 1980s that they came to wider public attention when government agricultural advisers toured the province to introduce Green Revolution policies . Local journalists and researchers have since suggested various theories on the origins of the Eskaya but there is still no broad consensus on the subject .
As far as documented evidence is concerned , genealogies attest that many of the predecessors of those living in the communities today originally came from the town of Loon on Bohol ’ s western coast ; Mariano Datahan is reported to have arrived at the site of present @-@ day Biabas at the turn of the nineteenth century ; The Philippine Independent Church in Biabas was established in 1902 ; Datahan wrote a letter to President Manuel Quezon in 1937 ; and the resistance hero Col. Esteban Bernido records a meeting with Datahan in Biabas in 1944 . A project to document the history of the Eskaya community via the Eskayan language is presently being undertaken at The Australian National University .
= = Theories and controversies = =
The Eskaya community has been the object of ongoing controversy , particularly with regards to its status as an indigenous group and the classification of the Eskayan language . Intense speculation in the 1980s and 1990s on the part of journalists and lay historians generated a number of theories that continue to be elaborated without resolution .
It has been argued variously that the Eskaya are a remnant of the original indigenous settlers on Bohol ; that they migrated to Bohol from Sumatra in the seventh century A.D. ; that they are descendants of the resistance groups that fought under Francisco Dagohoy ; that they are a cult or secret society ; or that they are a conscious reconstruction of an imagined pre @-@ colonial society .
Some of the more unusual proposals are that the Eskaya people are a Semitic proto @-@ Christian tribe ; that they possess the lost book of Enoch ; that they are descended from the builders of King Solomon ’ s temple ; that their existence proves the imminence of a second Messiah in Bohol ; or that they guard esoteric secrets .
Likewise , the Eskayan speech variety has been associated with languages as disparate as Hebrew , Greek , and Etruscan . Recent studies have revealed that the syntax of Eskayan is virtually identical to that of Boholano @-@ Visayan , lending weight to the theory that Eskayan is actually an auxiliary variety of this language .
= = Film project = =
In an article written by Nickie Wang for the Manila Standard Today on 25 March 2009 , Boholano actor Cesar Montano mentioned that he was interested in producing a feature film on the Eskaya . The following month , Montano announced a working title for the his project , Eskaya : The Quick Brown Fox , and discussed his casting preferences which included the possibility of A @-@ list Hollywood actors like Brad Pitt and Tom Cruise , with Manny Pacquiao in the lead role . The story concerns a wealthy , influential American who is wrongfully implicated in a crime . To prove his innocence he tracks the only witness to the crime into the forests of Bohol where he encounters the Eskaya tribe .
= = Beach Resort = =
There is a beach resort in Panglao named after the Eskaya tribe called Eskaya Beach Resort & Spa .
= = Additional reading = =
Piers Kelly ( 2012 ) Your word against mine : How a rebel language and script of the Philippines was created , suppressed , recovered and contested . The Australian Journal of Anthropology 23 ( 3 ) : 357 @-@ 378 .
Piers Kelly ( 2012 ) The morphosyntax of a created language of the Philippines : Folk linguistic effects and the limits of relexification . In The 42nd Australian Linguistic Society Conference Proceedings – 2011 ( Canberra , 2 @-@ 4 Dec 2011 ) , edited by M. Ponsonnet , L. Dao and M. Bowler . Canberra : ANU Research Repository , http : / / hdl.handle.net / 1885 / 9401 .
Eskaya Resource Folder
Regina Estorba Scribbling the Voice of a Tende : An Ethnography of the Women of Escaya . Kinaadman .
Piers Kelly ( 2006 ) The Classification of the Eskaya language of Bohol A research report submitted to the National Commission on Indigenous Peoples , Bohol , The Philippines . July 2006 .
Piers Kelly ( 2006 ) Visayan @-@ Eskaya Secondary Source Materials : Survey and Review Part One : 1980 – 1993 . Produced for the National Commission on Indigenous Peoples , Bohol , Philippines . 2006
Hector Santos " The Eskaya Script " in A Philippine Leaf . US , January 25 , 1997 .
Hector Santos " Butuan Silver Strip Deciphered ? " in A Philippine Leaf . US , October 28 , 1996 .
Jes Tirol The strange value of zero The Bohol Chronicle October 15 , 2006 .
Milan Ted Torralba ( 2003 ) Bohol : Language . In Tubod : The heart of Bohol , edited by R. N. Villegas . Manila : National Commission for Culture and the Arts .
Promoting Sustainable Development EU News June 2006 .
Angelo O. Tubac ( 2013 ) Lexical Retrieval in L1 , L2 , L3 , and L4 of the Bilingual Eskayan Tribe in Tay @-@ tay , Duero , Bohol . Unpublished Masteral Thesis . University of San Carlos . Cebu City .
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= Jaguar =
The jaguar ( Panthera onca ) is a big cat , a feline in the Panthera genus , and is the only extant Panthera species native to the Americas . The jaguar is the third @-@ largest feline after the tiger and the lion , and the largest in the Americas . The jaguar 's present range extends from Southwestern United States and Mexico across much of Central America and south to Paraguay and northern Argentina . Apart from a known and possibly breeding population in Arizona ( southeast of Tucson ) and the bootheel of New Mexico , the cat has largely been extirpated from the United States since the early 20th century .
This spotted cat most closely resembles the leopard physically , although it is usually larger and of sturdier build and its behavioral and habitat characteristics are closer to those of the tiger . While dense rainforest is its preferred habitat , the jaguar will range across a variety of forested and open terrains . Its preferred habitats are usually swamps and wooded regions , but jaguars also live in scrublands and deserts . The jaguar is notable , along with the tiger , as a feline that enjoys swimming . The jaguar is largely a solitary , opportunistic , stalk @-@ and @-@ ambush predator at the top of the food chain ( an apex predator ) . It is a keystone species , playing an important role in stabilizing ecosystems and regulating the populations of the animals it hunts . The jaguar has an exceptionally powerful bite , even relative to the other big cats . This allows it to pierce the shells of armored reptiles and to employ an unusual killing method : it bites directly through the skull of prey between the ears to deliver a fatal bite to the brain .
The jaguar is a near threatened species and its numbers are declining . Threats include loss and fragmentation of habitat . While international trade in jaguars or their parts is prohibited , the cat is still frequently killed by humans , particularly in conflicts with ranchers and farmers in South America . Although reduced , its range remains large . Given its historical distribution , the jaguar has featured prominently in the mythology of numerous indigenous American cultures , including those of the Maya and Aztec .
= = Etymology = =
The word ' jaguar ' comes to English from one of the Tupi – Guarani languages , presumably the Amazonian trade language Tupinambá , via Portuguese jaguar . The Tupian word , yaguara " beast " , is sometimes translated as " dog " . The specific word for jaguar is yaguareté , with the suffix -eté meaning " real " or " true " .
The first component of its taxonomic designation , Panthera , is Latin , from the Greek word for leopard , πάνθηρ , the type species for the genus . This has been said to derive from the παν- " all " and θήρ from θηρευτής " predator " , meaning " predator of all " ( animals ) , though this may be a folk etymology — it may instead be ultimately of Sanskrit origin , from pundarikam , the Sanskrit word for " tiger " . In Mexican Spanish , its nickname is el tigre : 16th century Spaniards had no native word in their language for a cat smaller than a lion but bigger than a leopard nor had ever encountered such a creature in the Old World , and so named it after a cat whose ferocity would have only been known to them through Roman writings , popular literature during the Renaissance .
Onca is the Portuguese onça , with the cedilla dropped for typographical reasons , found in English as ounce for the snow leopard , Panthera uncia . It derives from the Latin lyncea lynx , with the letter L confused with the definite article ( Italian lonza , Old French l 'once ) .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
The jaguar , Panthera onca , is the only extant New World member of the genus Panthera . DNA evidence shows the lion , tiger , leopard , jaguar , snow leopard , and clouded leopard share a common ancestor , and that this group is between six and ten million years old ; the fossil record points to the emergence of Panthera just two to 3 @.@ 8 million years ago . Phylogenetic studies generally have shown the clouded leopard ( Neofelis nebulosa ) is basal to this group . The position of the remaining species varies between studies and is effectively unresolved .
Based on morphological evidence , British zoologist Reginald Pocock concluded the jaguar is most closely related to the leopard . However , DNA evidence is inconclusive and the position of the jaguar relative to the other species varies between studies . Fossils of extinct Panthera species , such as the European jaguar ( Panthera gombaszoegensis ) and the American lion ( Panthera atrox ) , show characteristics of both the lion and the jaguar . Analysis of jaguar mitochondrial DNA has dated the species ' lineage to between 280 @,@ 000 and 510 @,@ 000 years ago , later than suggested by fossil records .
While jaguars now live only in the Americas , they are descended from Old World cats . Two million years ago , scientists believe , the jaguar and its closest relative , the similarly spotted leopard , shared a common ancestor in Asia . In the early Pleistocene , the forerunners of modern jaguars crossed Beringia , the land bridge that once spanned the Bering Strait and connected Asia and North America . These jaguar ancestors then moved south into Central and South America , feeding on the deer and other grazing animals that once covered the landscape in huge herds .
= = = Geographical variation = = =
The last taxonomic delineation of the jaguar subspecies was performed by Pocock in 1939 . Based on geographic origins and skull morphology , he recognized eight subspecies . However , he did not have access to sufficient specimens to critically evaluate all subspecies , and he expressed doubt about the status of several . Later consideration of his work suggested only three subspecies should be recognized .
Recent studies have also failed to find evidence for well @-@ defined subspecies , which are no longer recognized . Larson ( 1997 ) studied the morphological variation in the jaguar and showed there is clinal north – south variation , but also the differentiation within the supposed subspecies is larger than that between them , and thus does not warrant subspecies subdivision . A genetic study by Eizirik and coworkers in 2001 confirmed the absence of a clear geographical subspecies structure , although they found that major geographical barriers , such as the Amazon River , limited the exchange of genes between the different populations . A subsequent , more detailed study confirmed the predicted population structure within the Colombian jaguars .
Pocock 's subspecies divisions are still regularly listed in general descriptions of the cat . Seymour grouped these in three subspecies .
Panthera onca onca : Venezuela through the Amazon , including
P. o. peruviana ( Peruvian jaguar ) : Coastal Peru
P. o. hernandesii ( Mexican jaguar ' ) : Western Mexico – including
P. o. centralis ( Central American jaguar ) : El Salvador to Colombia
P. o. arizonensis ( Arizonan jaguar ) : Southern Arizona to Sonora , Mexico
P. o. veraecrucis ( Panthera onca veraecrucis ) : Central Texas to southeastern Mexico
P. o. goldmani ( Goldman 's jaguar ) : Yucatán Peninsula to Belize and Guatemala
P. o. palustris ( Pantanal jaguar , it is the largest subspecies , weighing more than 135 kg or 300 lb ) : The Pantanal regions of Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul , Brazil , along the Paraguay River into Paraguay and northeastern Argentina .
The Mammal Species of the World continues to recognize nine subspecies , the eight subspecies above and additionally P. o. paraguensis . In addition , extinct subspecies P. o. augusta and P. o. mesembrina lived throughout the Americas during the Pleistocene .
= = Biology and behavior = =
= = = Physical characteristics = = =
The jaguar , a compact and well @-@ muscled animal , is the largest cat in the New World and the largest carnivorous mammal in Central and South America . Size and weight vary considerably : weights are normally in the range of 56 – 96 kg ( 124 – 211 lb ) . Larger males have been recorded to weigh as much as 158 kg ( 348 lb ) ( roughly matching a tigress or lioness ; however note this animal was weighed with a full stomach ) . The smallest females have low weights of 36 kg ( 79 lb ) . Females are typically 10 – 20 percent smaller than males . The length , from the nose to the base of the tail , of the cats varies from 1 @.@ 12 to 1 @.@ 85 m ( 3 @.@ 7 to 6 @.@ 1 ft ) . Their tails are the shortest of any big cat , at 45 to 75 cm ( 18 to 30 in ) in length . Their legs are also short , considerably shorter when compared to a small tiger or lion in a similar weight range , but are thick and powerful . The jaguar stands 63 to 76 cm ( 25 to 30 in ) tall at the shoulders . Compared to the similarly colored Old World leopard , the jaguar is bigger , heavier and relatively stocky in build .
Further variations in size have been observed across regions and habitats , with size tending to increase from the north to south . A study of the jaguar in the Chamela @-@ Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve on the Mexican Pacific coast , showed ranges of just about 50 kg ( 110 lb ) , about the size of a female cougar . Jaguars in Venezuela or Brazil are much larger with average weights of about 95 kg ( 220 lb ) in males and of about 56 kilograms ( 123 lb ) to 78 kilograms ( 172 lb ) in females . In the Brazilian Pantanal , weights of 136 kilograms ( 300 lb ) or more are not uncommon in old males , with the highest recorded weight , for a Jaguar weighed on an empty stomach being 148 kilograms ( 326 lb ) . Forest jaguars are frequently darker and considerably smaller than those found in open areas ( the Pantanal is an open wetland basin ) , possibly due to the smaller numbers of large , herbivorous prey in forest areas .
A short and stocky limb structure makes the jaguar adept at climbing , crawling , and swimming . The head is robust and the jaw extremely powerful , it has the third highest bite force of all felids , after the lion and tiger . A 100 kg ( 220 lb ) jaguar can bite with a force of 503 @.@ 57 kgf ( 1110 lbf ) at canine teeth and 705 @.@ 79 kgf ( 1556 lbf ) at carnassial notch . This strength adaptation allows the jaguar to pierce turtle shells . A comparative study of bite force adjusted for body size ranked it as the top felid , alongside the clouded leopard and ahead of the lion and tiger . It has been reported that " an individual jaguar can drag an 800 lb ( 360 kg ) bull 25 ft ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) in its jaws and pulverize the heaviest bones " . The jaguar hunts wild animals weighing up to 300 kg ( 660 lb ) in dense jungle , and its short and sturdy physique is thus an adaptation to its prey and environment .
= = = Coloration = = =
The base coat of the jaguar is generally a tawny yellow , but can range to reddish @-@ brown and black , for most of the body . However , the ventral areas are white . The cat is covered in rosettes for camouflage in the dappled light of its forest habitat . The spots vary over individual coats and between individual jaguars : rosettes may include one or several dots , and the shapes of the dots vary . The spots on the head and neck are generally solid , as are those on the tail , where they may merge to form a band .
While the jaguar closely resembles the leopard , it is sturdier and heavier , and the two animals can be distinguished by their rosettes : the rosettes on a jaguar 's coat are larger , fewer in number , usually darker , and have thicker lines and small spots in the middle that the leopard lacks . Jaguars also have rounder heads and shorter , stockier limbs compared to leopards .
= = = = Color morphism = = = =
Color morphism occurs in the species . A near @-@ black melanistic form occurs regularly . Jaguars with melanism appear entirely black , although their spots are still visible on close examination .
The black morph is less common than the spotted form but , at about six percent of the population , it is several orders of magnitude above the mutation rate . Hence , it is being supported by selection . Some evidence indicates the melanism allele is dominant . The black form may be an example of heterozygote advantage ; breeding in captivity is not yet conclusive on this .
Melanistic jaguars are informally known as black panthers , but ( as with all forms of polymorphism ) they do not form a separate species .
Extremely rare albino individuals , sometimes called white panthers , also occur among jaguars , as with the other big cats . As usual with albinos in the wild , selection keeps the frequency close to the rate of mutation .
= = = Reproduction and life cycle = = =
Jaguar females reach sexual maturity at about two years of age , and males at three or four . The cat is believed to mate throughout the year in the wild , although births may increase when prey is plentiful . Research on captive male jaguars supports the year @-@ round mating hypothesis , with no seasonal variation in semen traits and ejaculatory quality ; low reproductive success has also been observed in captivity . Female estrus is 6 – 17 days out of a full 37 @-@ day cycle , and females will advertise fertility with urinary scent marks and increased vocalization . Both sexes will range more widely than usual during courtship .
Pairs separate after mating , and females provide all parenting . The gestation period lasts 93 – 105 days ; females give birth to up to four cubs , and most commonly to two . The mother will not tolerate the presence of males after the birth of cubs , given a risk of infanticide ; this behavior is also found in the tiger .
The young are born blind , gaining sight after two weeks . Cubs are weaned at three months , but remain in the birth den for six months before leaving to accompany their mother on hunts . They will continue in their mother 's company for one to two years before leaving to establish a territory for themselves . Young males are at first nomadic , jostling with their older counterparts until they succeed in claiming a territory . Typical lifespan in the wild is estimated at around 12 – 15 years ; in captivity , the jaguar lives up to 23 years , placing it among the longest @-@ lived cats .
= = = Social activity = = =
Like most cats , the jaguar is solitary outside mother – cub groups . Adults generally meet only to court and mate ( though limited noncourting socialization has been observed anecdotally ) and carve out large territories for themselves . Female territories , which range from 25 to 40 km2 in size , may overlap , but the animals generally avoid one another . Male ranges cover roughly twice as much area , varying in size with the availability of game and space , and do not overlap . The territory of a male can contain those of several females . The jaguar uses scrape marks , urine , and feces to mark its territory .
Like the other big cats , the jaguar is capable of roaring and does so to warn territorial and mating competitors away ; intensive bouts of counter @-@ calling between individuals have been observed in the wild . Their roar often resembles a repetitive cough , and they may also vocalize mews and grunts . Mating fights between males occur , but are rare , and aggression avoidance behavior has been observed in the wild . When it occurs , conflict is typically over territory : a male 's range may encompass that of two or three females , and he will not tolerate intrusions by other adult males .
The jaguar is often described as nocturnal , but is more specifically crepuscular ( peak activity around dawn and dusk ) . Both sexes hunt , but males travel farther each day than females , befitting their larger territories . The jaguar may hunt during the day if game is available and is a relatively energetic feline , spending as much as 50 – 60 percent of its time active . The jaguar 's elusive nature and the inaccessibility of much of its preferred habitat make it a difficult animal to sight , let alone study .
= = = Hunting and diet = = =
Like all cats , the jaguar is an obligate carnivore , feeding only on meat . It is an opportunistic hunter and its diet encompasses at least 87 species . The jaguar can take virtually any terrestrial or riparian vertebrate found in Central or South America , with a preference for large prey . The jaguar is more of a dietary generalist than its Old World cousins : the American tropics have a high diversity of small animals but relatively low populations and diversity of the large ungulates which this genus favors . They regularly take adult caimans , deer , capybaras , tapirs , peccaries , dogs , zorros , and sometimes even anacondas . However , the cat will eat any small species that can be caught , including frogs , mice , birds ( mainly ground @-@ based species such as cracids ) , fish , sloths , monkeys , and turtles ; a study conducted in Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary in Belize , for example , revealed that the diets of jaguars there consisted primarily of armadillos and pacas . Some jaguars will also take domestic livestock .
There is evidence that jaguars in the wild consume the roots of Banisteriopsis caapi .
While the jaguar often employs the deep throat @-@ bite and suffocation technique typical among Panthera , it sometimes uses a killing method unique amongst cats : it pierces directly through the temporal bones of the skull between the ears of prey ( especially the capybara ) with its canine teeth , piercing the brain . This may be an adaptation to " cracking open " turtle shells ; following the late Pleistocene extinctions , armored reptiles such as turtles would have formed an abundant prey base for the jaguar . The skull bite is employed with mammals in particular ; with reptiles such as the caiman , the jaguar may leap onto the back of the prey and sever the cervical vertebrae , immobilizing the target . When attacking sea turtles , including the huge Leatherback sea turtle which weighs about 385 kg ( 849 lb ) on average , as they try to nest on beaches , the jaguar will bite at the head , often beheading the prey , before dragging it off to eat . Reportedly , while hunting horses , a jaguar may leap onto their back , place one paw on the muzzle and another on the nape and then twist , dislocating the neck . Local people have anecdotally reported that when hunting a pair of horses bound together , the jaguar will kill one horse and then drag it while the other horse , still living , is dragged in their wake . With prey such as smaller dogs , a paw swipe to the skull may be sufficient to kill it .
The jaguar is a stalk @-@ and @-@ ambush rather than a chase predator . The cat will walk slowly down forest paths , listening for and stalking prey before rushing or ambushing . The jaguar attacks from cover and usually from a target 's blind spot with a quick pounce ; the species ' ambushing abilities are considered nearly peerless in the animal kingdom by both indigenous people and field researchers , and are probably a product of its role as an apex predator in several different environments . The ambush may include leaping into water after prey , as a jaguar is quite capable of carrying a large kill while swimming ; its strength is such that carcasses as large as a heifer can be hauled up a tree to avoid flood levels .
On killing prey , the jaguar will drag the carcass to a thicket or other secluded spot . It begins eating at the neck and chest , rather than the midsection . The heart and lungs are consumed , followed by the shoulders . The daily food requirement of a 34 kg ( 75 lb ) animal , at the extreme low end of the species ' weight range , has been estimated at 1 @.@ 4 kg ( 3 @.@ 1 lb ) . For captive animals in the 50 – 60 kg ( 110 – 130 lb ) range , more than 2 kg ( 4 @.@ 4 lb ) of meat daily are recommended . In the wild , consumption is naturally more erratic ; wild cats expend considerable energy in the capture and kill of prey , and they may consume up to 25 kg ( 55 lb ) of meat at one feeding , followed by periods of famine . Unlike all other Panthera species , jaguars very rarely attack humans . However , jaguar attacks appear to be on the rise with increased human encroachment on their habitat and a decrease in prey populations . Sometimes jaguars in captivity attack zookeepers .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Distribution and habitat = = =
The jaguar has been an American cat since crossing the Bering Land Bridge during the Pleistocene epoch ; the immediate ancestor of modern animals is Panthera onca augusta , which was larger than the contemporary cat . Its present range extends from Mexico , through Central America and into South America , including much of Amazonian Brazil . The countries included in this range are Argentina , Belize , Bolivia , Brazil , Colombia , Costa Rica ( particularly on the Osa Peninsula ) , Ecuador , French Guiana , Guatemala , Guyana , Honduras , Mexico , Nicaragua , Panama , Paraguay , Peru , Suriname , the United States and Venezuela . The jaguar is now extinct in El Salvador and Uruguay . It occurs in the 400 km ² Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary in Belize , the 5 @,@ 300 km ² Sian Ka 'an Biosphere Reserve in Mexico , the approximately 15 @,@ 000 km2 Manú National Park in Peru , the approximately 26 @,@ 000 km2 Xingu National Park in Brazil , and numerous other reserves throughout its range .
The inclusion of the United States in the list is based on occasional sightings in the southwest , particularly in Arizona , New Mexico and Texas . In the early 20th century , the jaguar 's range extended as far north as the Grand Canyon , and as far west as Southern California . The jaguar is a protected species in the United States under the Endangered Species Act , which has stopped the shooting of the animal for its pelt . In 1996 and from 2004 on , wildlife officials in Arizona photographed and documented jaguars in the southern part of the state . Between 2004 and 2007 , two or three jaguars have been reported by researchers around Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge in southern Arizona . One of them , called ' Macho B ' , had been previously photographed in 1996 in the area . For any permanent population in the USA to thrive , protection from killing , an adequate prey base , and connectivity with Mexican populations are essential . In February 2009 , a 53 @.@ 5 kg ( 118 lb ) jaguar was caught , radio @-@ collared and released in an area southwest of Tucson , Arizona ; this is farther north than had previously been expected and represents a sign there may be a permanent breeding population of jaguars within southern Arizona . The animal was later confirmed to be indeed the same male individual ( ' Macho B ' ) that was photographed in 2004 . On 2 March 2009 , Macho B was recaptured and euthanized after he was found to be suffering from kidney failure ; the animal was thought to be 16 years old , older than any known wild jaguar .
Completion of the United States – Mexico barrier as currently proposed will reduce the viability of any population currently residing in the United States , by reducing gene flow with Mexican populations , and prevent any further northward expansion for the species .
The historic range of the species included much of the southern half of the United States , and in the south extended much farther to cover most of the South American continent . In total , its northern range has receded 1 @,@ 000 km ( 621 mi ) southward and its southern range 2 @,@ 000 km ( 1243 mi ) northward . Ice age fossils of the jaguar , dated between 40 @,@ 000 and 11 @,@ 500 years ago , have been discovered in the United States , including some at an important site as far north as Missouri . Fossil evidence shows jaguars of up to 190 kg ( 420 lb ) , much larger than the contemporary average for the animal .
The habitat of the cat includes the rain forests of South and Central America , open , seasonally flooded wetlands , and dry grassland terrain . Of these habitats , the jaguar much prefers dense forest ; the cat has lost range most rapidly in regions of drier habitat , such as the Argentine pampas , the arid grasslands of Mexico , and the southwestern United States . The cat will range across tropical , subtropical , and dry deciduous forests ( including , historically , oak forests in the United States ) . The jaguar prefers to live by rivers , swamps , and in dense rainforest with thick cover for stalking prey . Jaguars have been found at elevations as high as 3 @,@ 800 m , but they typically avoid montane forest and are not found in the high plateau of central Mexico or in the Andes . The jaguars preferred habitats are usually swamps and wooded regions , but jaguars also live in scrublands and deserts .
= = = Ecological role = = =
The adult jaguar is an apex predator , meaning it exists at the top of its food chain and is not preyed on in the wild . The jaguar has also been termed a keystone species , as it is assumed , through controlling the population levels of prey such as herbivorous and granivorous mammals , apex felids maintain the structural integrity of forest systems . However , accurately determining what effect species like the jaguar have on ecosystems is difficult , because data must be compared from regions where the species is absent as well as its current habitats , while controlling for the effects of human activity . It is accepted that mid @-@ sized prey species undergo population increases in the absence of the keystone predators , and this has been hypothesized to have cascading negative effects . However , field work has shown this may be natural variability and the population increases may not be sustained . Thus , the keystone predator hypothesis is not accepted by all scientists .
The jaguar also has an effect on other predators . The jaguar and the cougar , the next @-@ largest feline of the Americas , are often sympatric ( related species sharing overlapping territory ) and have often been studied in conjunction . Where sympatric with the jaguar , the cougar is smaller than normal and is smaller than the local jaguars . The jaguar tends to take larger prey , usually over 22 kg ( 49 lb ) and the cougar smaller , usually between 2 and 22 kg ( 4 @.@ 4 and 48 @.@ 5 lb ) , reducing the latter 's size . This situation may be advantageous to the cougar . Its broader prey niche , including its ability to take smaller prey , may give it an advantage over the jaguar in human @-@ altered landscapes ; while both are classified as near @-@ threatened species , the cougar has a significantly larger current distribution .
= = Conservation status = =
Jaguar populations are rapidly declining . The animal is considered Near Threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) , meaning it may be threatened with extinction in the near future . The loss of parts of its range , including its virtual elimination from its historic northern areas and the increasing fragmentation of the remaining range , have contributed to this status . The 1960s had particularly significant declines , with more than 15 @,@ 000 jaguar skins brought out of the Brazilian Amazon yearly ; the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of 1973 brought about a sharp decline in the pelt trade . Detailed work performed under the auspices of the Wildlife Conservation Society revealed the animal has lost 37 percent of its historic range , with its status unknown in an additional 18 percent . More encouragingly , the probability of long @-@ term survival was considered high in 70 percent of its remaining range , particularly in the Amazon basin and the adjoining Gran Chaco and Pantanal . In 1990 Belize created the Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary as the world 's first wilderness reserve for jaguar protection and study .
Given the inaccessibility of much of the species ' range , particularly the central Amazon , estimating jaguar numbers is difficult . Researchers typically focus on particular bioregions , thus species @-@ wide analysis is scant . In 1991 , 600 – 1 @,@ 000 ( the highest total ) were estimated to be living in Belize . A year earlier , 125 – 180 jaguars were estimated to be living in Mexico 's 4 @,@ 000 @-@ km2 ( 2400 @-@ mi2 ) Calakmul Biosphere Reserve , with another 350 in the state of Chiapas . The adjoining Maya Biosphere Reserve in Guatemala , with an area measuring 15 @,@ 000 km2 ( 9 @,@ 000 mi2 ) , may have 465 – 550 animals . Work employing GPS telemetry in 2003 and 2004 found densities of only six to seven jaguars per 100 km2 in the critical Pantanal region , compared with 10 to 11 using traditional methods ; this suggests the widely used sampling methods may inflate the actual numbers of cats .
The major risks to the jaguar include deforestation across its habitat , increasing competition for food with human beings , poaching , hurricanes in northern parts of its range , and the behavior of ranchers who will often kill the cat where it preys on livestock . When adapted to the prey , the jaguar has been shown to take cattle as a large portion of its diet ; while land clearance for grazing is a problem for the species , the jaguar population may have increased when cattle were first introduced to South America , as the animals took advantage of the new prey base . This willingness to take livestock has induced ranch owners to hire full @-@ time jaguar hunters .
The skins of wild cats and other mammals have been highly valued by the fur trade for many decades . From the beginning of the 20th @-@ century Jaguars were hunted in large numbers , but over @-@ harvest and habitat destruction reduced the availability and induced hunters and traders to gradually shift to smaller species by the 1960s . The international trade of jaguar skins had its largest boom between the end of the Second World War and the early 1970 , due to the growing economy and lack of regulations . From 1967 onwards , the regulations introduced by national laws and international agreements diminished the reported international trade from as high as 13000 skins in 1967 , through 7000 skins in 1969 , until it became negligible after 1976 , although illegal trade and smuggling continue to be a problem . During this period , the biggest exporters were Brazil and Paraguay , and the biggest importers were the USA and Germany .
The jaguar is regulated as an Appendix I species under CITES : all international trade in jaguars or their parts is prohibited . All hunting of jaguars is prohibited in Argentina , Belize , Colombia , French Guiana , Honduras , Nicaragua , Panama , Paraguay , Suriname , the United States ( where it is listed as endangered under the Endangered Species Act ) , Uruguay and Venezuela . Hunting of jaguars is restricted to " problem animals " in Brazil , Costa Rica , Guatemala , Mexico and Peru , while trophy hunting is still permitted in Bolivia . The species has no legal protection in Ecuador or Guyana .
= = = Jaguars in the United States = = =
The only extant cat native to North America that roars , the jaguar was recorded as an animal of the Americas by Thomas Jefferson in 1799 . There are multiple zoological reports of jaguars in California , two as far north as Monterey in 1814 ( Langsdorff ) and 1826 ( Beechey ) . The coastal Diegueño ( Kumeyaay people ) of San Diego and Cahuilla Indians of Palm Springs had words for jaguar and the cats persisted there until about 1860 . The only recorded description of an active jaguar den with breeding adults and kittens in the U.S. was in the Tehachapi Mountains of California prior to 1860 . In 1843 , Rufus Sage , an explorer and experienced observer recorded jaguar present on the headwaters of the North Platte River 30 – 50 miles north of Long 's Peak in Colorado . Cabot 's 1544 map has a drawing of jaguar ranging over the Pennsylvania and Ohio valleys . Historically , the jaguar was recorded in far eastern Texas , and the northern parts of Arizona and New Mexico . However , since the 1940s , the jaguar has been limited to the southern parts of these states . Although less reliable than zoological records , Native American artefacts with possible jaguar motifs range from the Pacific Northwest to Pennsylvania and Florida .
Jaguars were rapidly eliminated in the United States . The last female jaguar in the United States was shot by a hunter in Arizona 's White Mountains in 1963 . Arizona outlawed jaguar hunting in 1969 , but by then no females remained and over the next 25 years only two male jaguars were found ( and killed ) in Arizona . Then in 1996 , Warner Glenn , a rancher and hunting guide from Douglas , Arizona , came across a jaguar in the Peloncillo Mountains and became a jaguar researcher , placing webcams which recorded four more Arizona jaguars . None of the other four male jaguars sighted in Arizona in the last 15 years have been seen since 2006 . Then , in 2009 , a male jaguar named Macho B , died shortly after being radio @-@ collared by Arizona Game and Fish Department ( AGFD ) officials in 2009 . In the Macho B incident , a former AGFD subcontractor pleaded guilty to violating the endangered species act for trapping the cat and a Game and Fish employee was fired for lying to federal investigators . In 2011 , a 200 @-@ pound male jaguar was photographed near Cochise in southern Arizona by a hunter after being treed by his dogs ( the animal left the scene unharmed ) . A second 2011 sighting of an Arizona jaguar was reported by a Homeland Security border pilot in June 2011 , and conservation researchers sighted two jaguars within 30 miles of the Mexico / U.S. border in 2010 . In September 2012 , a jaguar was photographed in the Santa Rita Mountains of Arizona , the second such sighting in this region in two years . Apparently this jaguar has been photographed numerous times over the past nine months through June 2013 . On February 3 , 2016 , the Center for Biological Diversity released a video of this jaguar - now named El Jefe - roaming the Santa Rita Mountains , about 25 miles south of downtown Tucson .
Legal action by the Center for Biological Diversity led to federal listing of the cat on the endangered species list in 1997 . However , on January 7 , 2008 , George W. Bush appointee H. Dale Hall , Director of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service ( USFWS ) , signed a recommendation to abandon jaguar recovery as a federal goal under the Endangered Species Act . Critics , including the Center of Biological Diversity and New Mexico Department of Game and Fish , were concerned the jaguar was being sacrificed for the government 's new border fence , which is to be built along many of the cat 's typical crossings between the United States and Mexico . In 2010 , the Obama Administration reversed the Bush Administration policy and pledged to protect " critical habitat " and draft a recovery plan for the species . The USFWS was ultimately ordered by the court to develop a jaguar recovery plan and designate critical habitat for the cats . On August 20 , 2012 , the USFWS proposed setting aside 838 @,@ 232 acres in Arizona and New Mexico — an area larger than Rhode Island — as critical jaguar habitat . On March 4 , 2014 Federal wildlife officials set aside nearly 1 @,@ 200 square miles along the U.S.-Mexico border as habitat essential for the conservation of the jaguar . The reservation includes parts of Pima , Santa Cruz and Cochise counties in Arizona and Hidalgo County in New Mexico . In September 2015 the jaguar " El Jefe " was photographed via camera trap and analysis of his spots confirms that he has been in southeastern Arizona ( 30 miles south of Tucson ) since 2011 . Jaguars have been present in this region every year since 1997 . El Jefe and other males may have originated from a breeding population in Sonora , Mexico , 125 miles ( 200 kilometers ) to the south of Tucson .
= = = Conservation approaches = = =
Current conservation efforts often focus on educating ranch owners and promoting ecotourism . The jaguar is generally defined as an umbrella species – its home range and habitat requirements are sufficiently broad that , if protected , numerous other species of smaller range will also be protected . Umbrella species serve as " mobile links " at the landscape scale , in the jaguar 's case through predation . Conservation organizations may thus focus on providing viable , connected habitat for the jaguar , with the knowledge other species will also benefit .
Jaguar conservation is complicated by the species ' extremely large range which spans 18 countries with different policies and regulations . One approach has been to pinpoint specific areas of high importance for jaguar conservation efforts , so @-@ called " hotspots " . These hotspots , described as jaguar conservation units , are large areas populated by about 50 jaguars . This method has been used in tiger conservation , and has seen some success . Each unit was graded on a scale integrating unit size , connectivity , habitat quality , jaguar hunting , prey hunting , and jaguar population status into a prioritization assessment . The result of an analysis across the Jaguar ’ s historic range was the identification of about 51 areas that are priorities for jaguar conservation . However , recent studies underlined that to maintain the robust exchange across the jaguar gene pool necessary for maintaining the species , it is important that jaguar habitats are interconnected . To facilitate this , a new project , the Paseo del Jaguar , has been established to connect several jaguar hotspots .
In setting up protected reserves , efforts generally also have to be focused on the surrounding areas , as jaguars are unlikely to confine themselves to the bounds of a reservation , especially if the population is increasing in size . Human attitudes in the areas surrounding reserves and laws and regulations to prevent poaching are essential to make conservation areas effective .
To estimate population sizes within specific areas and to keep track of individual jaguars , camera trapping and wildlife tracking telemetry are widely used , and feces may be sought out with the help of detector dogs to study jaguar health and diet .
Ecotourism setups are being used to generate public interest in charismatic animals such as the jaguar , while at the same time generating revenue that can be used in conservation efforts . Audits done in Africa have shown that ecotourism has helped in African cat conservation . As with large African cats , a key concern in jaguar ecotourism is the considerable habitat space the species requires , so if ecotourism is used to aid in jaguar conservation , some considerations need to be made as to how existing ecosystems will be kept intact , or how new ecosystems that are large enough to support a growing jaguar population will be put into place .
= = In mythology and culture = =
= = = Pre @-@ Columbian Americas = = =
In pre @-@ Columbian Central and South America , the jaguar was a symbol of power and strength . Among the Andean cultures , a jaguar cult disseminated by the early Chavín culture became accepted over most of what is today Peru by 900 BC . The later Moche culture of northern Peru used the jaguar as a symbol of power in many of their ceramics .
In Mesoamerica , the Olmec — an early and influential culture of the Gulf Coast region roughly contemporaneous with the Chavín — developed a distinct " were @-@ jaguar " motif of sculptures and figurines showing stylised jaguars or humans with jaguar characteristics . In the later Maya civilization , the jaguar was believed to facilitate communication between the living and the dead and to protect the royal household . The Maya saw these powerful felines as their companions in the spiritual world , and a number of Maya rulers bore names that incorporated the Mayan word for jaguar ( b 'alam in many of the Mayan languages ) . The Aztec civilization shared this image of the jaguar as the representative of the ruler and as a warrior . The Aztecs formed an elite warrior class known as the Jaguar Knights . In Aztec mythology , the jaguar was considered to be the totem animal of the powerful deity Tezcatlipoca .
= = = Contemporary culture = = =
The jaguar and its name are widely used as a symbol in contemporary culture . It is the national animal of Guyana , and is featured in its coat of arms . The flag of the Department of Amazonas , a Colombian department , features a black jaguar silhouette pouncing towards a hunter . The jaguar also appears in banknotes of Brazilian real . The jaguar is also a common fixture in the mythology of many contemporary native cultures in South America , usually being portrayed as the creature which gave humans the power over fire .
Jaguar is widely used as a product name , most prominently for a British luxury car brand . The name has been adopted by sports franchises , including the NFL 's Jacksonville Jaguars and the Mexican soccer club Chiapas F.C. The crest of Argentina 's national federation in rugby union features a jaguar ; however , because of a journalist error , the country 's national team is nicknamed Los Pumas . In the spirit of the ancient Mayan culture , the 1968 Olympics in Mexico City adopted a red jaguar as the first official Olympic mascot .
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= Cyclone Nilofar =
Extremely Severe Cyclonic Storm Nilofar was , at the time , the third @-@ strongest cyclone in the Arabian Sea . In late October 2014 , it reached peak maximum sustained winds estimated between 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) and 215 km / h ( 130 mph ) . The India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) named it Nilofar ; the name refers to the water lily , and was suggested by Pakistan . The western fringes of the storm caused flash flooding in northeastern Oman , killing four people .
Nilofar originated from a low pressure area between India and the Arabian Peninsula . It developed into a depression on October 25 and moved generally northward through an area of favorable conditions . The system intensified into a cyclonic storm on October 26 . Quickly organizing due to the conditions , Nilofar developed a well @-@ defined eye and structure , attaining its peak intensity on October 28 . At the time , Nilofar was expected to make landfall in western India , prompting evacuations and preparations . However , high wind shear caused the storm to rapidly weaken , and Nilofar degraded into a remnant low pressure area on October 31 off the Indian state of Gujarat .
= = Meteorological history = =
Toward the middle of October 2014 , the monsoon trough was active over the Arabian Sea off the west coast of India . A circulation formed on October 19 near the Lakshadweep archipelago , remaining nearly stationary for several days . It developed a distinct low pressure area on October 21 , and produced an intense area of convection by the next day . Despite moderate wind shear , conditions favored further development , including warm water temperatures and good outflow , amplified by an anticyclone to its east @-@ northeast . The structure became more organized by October 24 , when broken rainbands were rotating around a poorly @-@ defined circulation . That day , the American @-@ based Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) classified it as a tropical depression , although the agency did not issue warnings at the time . At 00 : 00 UTC on October 25 , the India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) classified the system as a depression about 1270 km ( 790 mi ) southeast of Muscat , Oman .
When the system first formed , it benefited from warm water temperatures of 28 to 30 ° C ( 82 to 86 ° F ) and a favorable phase of the Madden – Julian oscillation . Moderate wind shear and continued interaction with the monsoon dislocated the bulk of the deepest convection to the western periphery . By 12 : 00 UTC on October 25 , the system organized enough for the JTWC to classify it as Tropical Cyclone 04A , and there were hints of an eye feature within the thunderstorms . By the time of classification , the storm was moving to the northeast , steered by the subtropical ridge to the south , although the motion slowed on October 26 due to competing influence of another subtropical ridge to the northwest . That day , the system strengthened quickly ; the IMD upgraded the depression to a deep depression at 03 : 00 UTC , to Cyclonic Storm Nilofar at 06 : 00 UTC , and further to a severe cyclonic storm at 21 : 00 UTC . At 00 : 00 UTC on October 27 , the JTWC upgraded Nilofar to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane , based on the development of a 54 km ( 33 mi ) eye . Throughout that day , the cyclone turned more to the northwest as a ridge built to the east , while the inner core of convection became more symmetrical and compact . Also by that time , tropical cyclone forecast models anticipated that Nilofar would eventually recurve to the northeast and make landfall in western India .
At 06 : 00 UTC on October 27 , the IMD upgraded Nilofar to a very severe cyclonic storm . The storm was rapidly intensifying at the time , after the wind shear had decreased , and the eye contracted to a diameter of 19 km ( 12 mi ) . At 09 : 00 UTC on October 28 , the IMD upgraded Nilofar further to an extremely severe cyclonic storm . Six hours later , the JTWC estimated peak 1 @-@ minute winds of 215 km / h ( 130 mph ) ; at the time , the agency anticipated further strengthening due to the favorable conditions and good organization . At 18 : 00 UTC on October 28 , the IMD estimated peak 3 @-@ minute winds of 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) . At the time , it was the third @-@ strongest storm on record in the Arabian Sea . On October 29 , Nilofar started weakening due to increased wind shear , and the convection diminished in intensity . At the same time , the storm turned northeastward while rounding the ridge to the east . Increasingly cooler and drier air , as well as cooler waters , caused the storm to degrade rapidly . The eye , previously small and well defined , dissipated by 06 : 00 UTC on October 29 . Later that day , the center began decoupling from the convection , a sign of rapid weakening , and by 21 : 00 UTC the IMD downgraded it to a severe cyclonic storm . Early on October 30 , the JTWC downgraded Nilofar to a tropical storm , and subsequently the circulation became exposed from the convection . At 18 : 00 UTC that day , the JTWC posted their final advisory . Nilofar weakened further into a depression on October 31 , and soon after degenerated into a remnant low off coast of the Indian state of Gujarat .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Offshore buoys recorded 3 @.@ 2 m ( 10 @.@ 5 ft ) waves and winds of 41 km / h ( 25 mph ) . The outskirts of the storm caused flash flooding in Al @-@ Rustaq in northeastern Oman , killing four people after a vehicle was swept away in a flooded wadi . Five people were rescued when another car was stranded amid floods west of Al @-@ Rustaq .
In the storm 's developmental stages , the outskirts of Nilofar dropped 410 mm ( 16 in ) of rainfall in Margao , Goa , helping the state record its wettest October in four years . Other nearby areas along India 's west coast received heavy rainfall . The threat of the storm prompted officials to evacuate nearly 30 @,@ 000 people in western India , utilizing 200 storm shelters . Most of the displaced people were living in thatched huts and weak structures . In coastal areas , schools were canceled for two days . Most of the evacuees quickly returned home after the storm weakened . To minimize damage , trees were trimmed down to eliminate damage due to falling debris , and a total suspension of fishing activities was ordered , with about 5 @,@ 000 boats advised to return to port . Officials in Gujarat sent a warning of the storm to all operators of ham radios . A distant warning signal 2 was hoisted in the ports of Kandla and Mundra . National Disaster Response Force deployed rescue and rehabilitation teams at Gandhidham , Dwarka , Porbandar , Veraval , Rajkot and Bhuj while standby teams were stationed at Ahmedabad and Vadodara . After facing problems during deadly floods in September and Cyclone Hudhud in October , mobile companies enacted greater preparations during Nilofar to guarantee operations during the storm , including an emergency hotline , setting up internet in shelters , and mobile cell towers . Despite the threat from the storm , Nilofar only produced light rainfall and gusty winds along the Gujarat coast . Unseasonable rainfall damaged mangoes in Maharashtra , causing prices to rise . Shifting air patterns brought cooler temperatures to western India , signaling the end of the monsoon season , while also bringing haze and smog over Delhi from polluting areas to the south .
In Pakistan , fishermen were also warned to avoid the sea , and people in coastal areas were evacuated . The country 's navy , coast guard , Maritime Security Agency , and fishermen organizations helped rescue fishermen stationed offshore . Along the coast of Sindh province , bathing and swimming were banned for several days . There were minor power outages in Karachi due to heavy rainfall from Nilofar .
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= Typhoon Choi @-@ wan ( 2009 ) =
Typhoon Choi @-@ wan was a powerful typhoon that became the first Category 5 equivalent @-@ super typhoon to form during the 2009 Pacific typhoon season . Forming on September 11 , 2009 , about 1100 km ( 700 mi ) to the east of Guam , the initial disturbance rapidly organized into a tropical depression . By September 12 , the depression intensified into a tropical storm , at which time it was given the name Choi @-@ wan . The following day , rapid intensification took place through September 14 . Choi @-@ wan attained its peak intensity on September 15 , as it moved through the Northern Mariana Islands with the Japan Meteorological Agency reporting peak windspeeds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) . Additionally , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center reported the storm to have attained winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph 1 @-@ minute sustained ) . The typhoon remained very powerful until September 17 when the storm 's outflow weakened . The typhoon underwent an eyewall replacement cycle , leading to intensity fluctuations . By September 19 , Choi @-@ wan rapidly weakened as strong wind shear caused convection to diminish . The following day , the system transitioned into an extratropical cyclone and dissipated several hours later over open waters .
Despite the intensity of Choi @-@ wan when it passed through the Northern Mariana Islands , no casualties were reported . However , following the storm , the United States Navy deemed that the island of Alamagan was uninhabitable , with all but one of the structures completely destroyed and most of the islands ' trees downed . In response to this , all residents on the island were evacuated to nearby Saipan .
= = Meteorological history = =
Early on September 11 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began monitoring an area of convection roughly 1 @,@ 100 km ( 700 mi ) east of Guam . A broad , low @-@ level circulation center had formed within the system and became increasingly organized , showing signs of developing convective banding . A Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert was released later that day as convection was rapidly consolidating around the low , which was embedded within the eastern end of the monsoonal trough . It was then declared as a tropical depression by the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) and the JTWC with the latter designating it as Tropical Depression 15W The tropical depression was tracking westward along the southern edge of the subtropical ridge situated east of the international dateline .
During September 12 , the depression continued to develop quickly with both the JMA and the JTWC reporting that the depression had intensified into a Tropical Storm later that day , with the JMA assigning the international name of Choi @-@ wan and the international designation of 0915 . During September 13 , Choi @-@ wan gradually developed whilst moving west with the JMA reporting that Choi @-@ wan had become a severe tropical storm late that day , before reporting along with the JTWC early the next day that Choi @-@ wan had intensified further and had become a weak Typhoon with multiple spiral bands that had wrapped into the fully consolidated center to form a banding eye . During September 14 , Choi @-@ wan intensified further whilst moving along the southwestern edge of a deep level subtropical ridge of the northeast , intensifying into a Category 4 @-@ equivalent typhoon on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale with 1 @-@ minute winds of 220 km / h ( 140 mph ) .
Early on September 15 , the JTWC reported that Typhoon Choi @-@ wan had intensified further and had become a Category 4 @-@ equivalent Super Typhoon whilst passing over the island of Alamagan . Later that day the JMA reported that Typhoon Choi @-@ wan had reached its 10 @-@ minute peak wind speeds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) and a pressure of 915 hPa ( mbar ) . Typhoon Choi @-@ wan then intensified further and reached its peak 1 @-@ minute wind speeds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) which made it the first Category 5 @-@ equivalent tropical cyclone on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale anywhere in the world in 2009 .
With the help of excellent poleward outflow and high ocean heat content , Typhoon Choi @-@ wan remained at its peak intensity until early on September 17 when deep convection started to erode in the northwestern quadrant as the tropical upper tropospheric trough ( TUTT ) cell to the northwest was no longer providing good outflow . Choi @-@ wan was then downgraded to a typhoon by the JTWC as it started to undergo an eyewall replacement cycle , with the JTWC reporting a secondary peak intensity of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) , during the next day . During September 19 , Choi @-@ wan rapidly weakened , as it moved into an unfavorable environment with higher amounts of vertical wind shear , causing the storm 's deep convection to erode . As a result of this and dry latitude air wrapping into the low level circulation center , the JTWC decided to downgrade Choi @-@ wan to an extratropical system and released their final advisory , early the next day before the JMA followed suit later that day . The JMA then reported that the extratropical low had dissipated completely , early on September 21 .
= = Preparations = =
= = = Mariana Islands = = =
Early on September 12 , the National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office in Guam , using data from the JTWC , placed Tinian and Saipan under a Typhoon Watch whilst declaring a Tropical Storm Watch also declared for Guam and Rota . By September 15 , the islands of Agrihan , Tinian and Saipan before being upgraded to tropical storm warnings and a typhoon watch . Additionally , the watches in place for Guam and Rota were discontinued . These warnings were kept in force until late on September 14 , when the warnings for Tinian were canceled and the typhoon watch for Saipan was canceled , while the typhoon watch was upgraded to a Typhoon Warning as Choi @-@ wan rapidly intensified . The Tropical Storm Warning in place for Saipan was canceled during September 15 as Choi @-@ wan intensified into a high @-@ end Category 4 equivalent super typhoon . All watches and warnings were discontinued during the afternoon of September 16 once Choi @-@ wan was no longer a threat to the Mariana Islands .
By September 15 , shelters were opened throughout Tinian and Saipan at local schools , most schools and all governmental buildings were closed and residents rushed to board up their homes . The American Red Cross had also mobilized on the islands by this time . Some private schools were open during the morning but let out early to allow students to return to their families before the typhoon 's arrival . On Saipan , 179 residents sought refuge in shelters by the afternoon of September 15 , by which time heavy rain had begun falling . Only one flight was delayed by the typhoon across all the islands . The youth basketball league in the Northern Mariana Islands canceled their games for the time Choi @-@ wan passed through the islands . At the height of the storm , a total of 270 residents sought refuge in shelters on Saipan .
= = = Japan = = =
Early on September 16 the JMA started to issue Typhoon force wind warnings , for the Naha , Okinawa ; however these were discontinued later that day . The JMA then placed the Yokohama , Moji and Naha under a Typhoon Warning early the next day . These warnings were kept in place until early on September 19 , when the JMA added the Kushiro and Otaru to the warnings . However , the warnings were dropped for all areas except Yokohama and Kushiro as the typhoon turned away from Japan . These warnings stayed in effect until late the next day when they were cancelled as Choi @-@ wan began to dissipate .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
On September 15 , the eye of Choi @-@ wan passed within 10 km ( 5 mi ) of Alamagan and brought winds of up to 230 km / h ( 145 mph ) to the island . The most recent storm of Choi @-@ wan 's intensity to strike the islands was Typhoon Chaba in 2004 . That storm caused severe damage and widespread flooding . Unlike Chaba , relatively little rainfall fell due to Choi @-@ wan , and no flooding was reported . The main effects from the typhoon in Saipan were downed trees which littered streets across the islands . Power lines were downed and sewer pipes were broken ; however , crews began repairing damage once Choi @-@ wan passed . In Garapan , the major shelter on the island sustained minor damage and repair work on it would take roughly a week .
On Alamagan , residents attempted to contact officials on other islands on September 17 . Despite the extreme intensity of the storm , all sixteen residents on the island , including the 4 @-@ day old infant were safe . During their attempted contact , the connection was poor and hard to understand . The following day , the United States Navy sent a ship and helicopter to the island to assess the situation . The Navy stated that the entire island of Alamagan was a total loss , with all but one of the structures , a facility for laboratory and research , completely destroyed and most of the islands ' trees downed .
Once on the island , they determined that all residents needed to be evacuated " ... whether they like or not " . The first to be evacuated from the island were the infant and six people in the family ; the infant was taken to a hospital on Saipan as a precaution . On nearby Agrihan , it was determined that the residents on the island also needed to be evacuated . Prior to their evacuations , they were given relief supplies , mainly food and water , to survive for five days . Roughly 260 gallons of fresh water , 50 lbs of rice and other health or comfort supplies were delivered by Helicopter Sea Combat Squadron 25 to both islands . On September 21 , the Salvation Army announced that residents displaced by the storm would be received donated items , such as clothing , toys , pillows and baby formula .
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= Russian battleship Retvizan =
Retvizan ( Russian : Ретвизан ) was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built before the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 for the Imperial Russian Navy . She was built by the American William Cramp and Sons because Russian shipyards were already at full capacity . Named after a Swedish ship of the line that was captured during the battle of Vyborg Bay in 1790 ( Swedish : Rättvisan , meaning both fairness and justice ) , Retvizan was briefly assigned to the Baltic Fleet , but was transferred to the Far East in 1902 .
The ship was torpedoed during the Japanese surprise attack on Port Arthur during the night of 8 / 9 February 1904 and grounded in the harbour entrance when she attempted to take refuge inside , as her draft had significantly deepened from the amount of water she had taken aboard after the torpedo hit . She was refloated and repaired in time to join the rest of the 1st Pacific Squadron when they attempted to reach Vladivostok through the Japanese blockade on 10 August . The Japanese battle fleet engaged them again in the Battle of the Yellow Sea , forcing most of the Russian ships to return to Port Arthur after their squadron commander was killed and his flagship damaged . Retvizan was sunk by Japanese howitzers in December after the Japanese gained control of the heights around the harbour .
The Japanese raised and repaired Retvizan after Port Arthur surrendered in January 1905 . She was commissioned into the Imperial Japanese Navy as Hizen ( 肥前 ) in 1908 . Based in Sasebo when the Japanese declared war on Germany in 1914 , the ship was sent to reinforce the weak British squadron off British Columbia , but diverted to Hawaii after reports of a German gunboat there . Hizen was unsuccessfully sent to search for other German ships after the Americans interned the gunboat in November . After World War I she supported the Japanese intervention in the Russian Civil War and was disarmed in 1922 in accordance with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty . The ship was sunk as a gunnery target in 1924 .
= = Background = =
Tsar Nicholas II had desired a warm @-@ water port on the Pacific since his accession to the throne in 1894 . He achieved this ambition in March 1898 when Russia signed a 25 @-@ year lease for Port Arthur and the Liaotung Peninsula with China . Japan had previously forced China to sign over the port and its surrounding territory as part of the treaty that concluded the First Sino @-@ Japanese War of 1894 – 95 , but the Triple Intervention of France , Russia , and Germany forced them to return the port in exchange for a sizeable increase in the indemnity paid by the Chinese . Japan invested much of the indemnity money in expanding its fleet , while Russia began a major building programme ( " For the Needs of the Far East " ) to defend its newly acquired port .
Russian shipyards were already at maximum capacity so the Naval Ministry decided to order ships from abroad . Charles Henry Cramp , the owner and son of the founder of William Cramp and Sons in Philadelphia , had a relationship with the Imperial Russian Navy dating back to the late 1870s when his firm built the auxiliary cruisers Afrika , Asia , Europa and Zabiiaka . Cramp also repaired several Russian warships visiting America in 1893 , and he cultivated the contacts he made in the Russian Navy throughout the 1890s . As such , he was ideally positioned to offer to build a battleship for the Russians in his shipyard when they began to look abroad .
= = Design and description = =
Preliminary design work on a battleship intended to equal the latest Japanese ships was begun over the winter of 1897 – 98 by the Naval Technical Committee although the displacement was limited to 12 @,@ 000 long tons ( 12 @,@ 193 t ) for economic reasons . The basic design was that of the Peresvet class with its speed increased to 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) using only two shafts and its steaming range increased to 5 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 300 km ; 5 @,@ 800 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The Naval Ministry intended to conduct an international design competition with the ships being built abroad as the Baltic shipyards were at full capacity already .
Cramp 's contacts kept him informed of the Russians ' intentions and he sailed to Saint Petersburg to offer his services and design expertise in March 1898 . Initially Cramp offered American designs to the Russians , including an updated version of USS Iowa as it was a relatively close match for the Russian specification , but the Russians preferred their own designs . Both sides compromised and the final design was based on the Russian battleship Potemkin . The new ship had four fewer 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns , but twice the coal capacity for improved range and a longer , slightly narrower hull for more speed . The contract was signed on 23 April 1898 for a price of $ 4 @,@ 360 @,@ 000 . The protected cruiser Varyag was ordered at the same time for $ 2 @,@ 138 @,@ 000 .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Retvizan was 382 feet 3 inches ( 116 @.@ 5 m ) long at the waterline and 386 feet 8 inches ( 117 @.@ 9 m ) long overall . She had a beam of 72 feet 2 inches ( 22 @.@ 0 m ) and a draft of 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) . The ship displaced 12 @,@ 780 long tons ( 12 @,@ 985 t ) at normal load . Her hull was subdivided by fourteen transverse watertight bulkheads ; in addition a longitudinal centreline bulkhead divided the engine room . Retvizan had a complete double bottom that extended up the side to the lower edge of the armour deck . She had a metacentric height of 3 feet 2 inches ( 1 @.@ 0 m ) . Her crew consisted of 23 officers and 722 enlisted men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Retvizan had two three @-@ cylinder vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines with a total designed output of 16 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 11 @,@ 931 kW ) . The Russian Navy preferred to use Belleville boilers , but Cramp pressed for Niclausse boilers , not least because he was the American agent for them , and was supported by the General Admiral Grand Duke Alexei Alexandrovich . Twenty @-@ four Niclausse @-@ type boilers provided steam to the engines at a working pressure of 18 standard atmospheres ( 1 @,@ 824 kPa ; 265 psi ) . On sea trials , the engines produced 17 @,@ 111 ihp ( 12 @,@ 760 kW ) and a top speed of 17 @.@ 99 knots ( 33 @.@ 32 km / h ; 20 @.@ 70 mph ) , just under the contract speed of 18 knots . Not surprisingly , Cramp claimed that she reached 18 @.@ 01 knots to avoid contractual penalties . Following Retvizan 's arrival in Russia , the propeller pitch was adjusted and she exceeded 18 knots . She carried a normal load of 1 @,@ 016 long tons ( 1 @,@ 032 t ) of coal that provided a range of 4 @,@ 900 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 100 km ; 5 @,@ 600 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) and a maximum load of 2 @,@ 000 long tons ( 2 @,@ 000 t ) that gave 8 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 000 km ; 9 @,@ 200 mi ) at the same speed .
= = = Armament and fire control = = =
Retvizan 's armament was built by the Obukhov Works in Saint Petersburg and shipped to America for installation . The main armament consisted of two pairs of 12 @-@ inch 40 @-@ calibre guns mounted in French @-@ style electrically @-@ operated centre @-@ pivot twin turrets fore and aft . These guns had a maximum elevation of + 15 ° and could depress to -5 ° . The ship carried 77 rounds per gun and the guns could fire one round every 80 to 90 seconds . They fired a 730 @-@ pound ( 330 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 592 ft / s ( 790 m / s ) to a range of 12 @,@ 000 yards ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) .
Eight of the twelve 45 @-@ calibre 6 @-@ inch Canet Pattern 1892 quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns were mounted in casemates on the main deck while four were mounted on the upper deck . They fired shells that weighed 91 @.@ 3 lb ( 41 @.@ 4 kg ) with a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 610 ft / s ( 800 m / s ) . They had a maximum range of around 12 @,@ 000 yards ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) and could fire three to five rounds per minute . The guns were provided with 200 rounds each .
The ship carried many smaller guns to defend itself against attack by torpedo boats . The largest of these were twenty QF 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) Canet Pattern 1892 guns . Fourteen of these were in embrasures on the main deck and six were mounted on the upper deck , between the six @-@ inch casemates . Each gun was provided with 325 rounds . They fired an 11 @-@ pound ( 4 @.@ 9 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 700 ft / s ( 820 m / s ) to a maximum range of 7 @,@ 005 yards ( 6 @,@ 405 m ) . The rate of fire was between twelve and fifteen rounds per minute . A total of twenty @-@ four 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns were carried ; four in each fighting top and eight at each end of the superstructure . They fired a 3 @.@ 3 @-@ pound ( 1 @.@ 5 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 100 ft / s ( 650 m / s ) . Six 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss guns were mounted in the bridge wings . They fired a 1 @.@ 1 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 50 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 540 ft / s ( 470 m / s ) .
Retvizan carried six 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) torpedo tubes . Four were above water , one each in the bow and stern and the aft pair of broadside tubes ; the forward broadside tubes were underwater . A total of 17 torpedoes were carried . The ship was designed to carry two second @-@ class torpedo boats each equipped with a single torpedo tube and a small quick @-@ firing gun . The ship could also carry 45 mines .
The ship was fitted with Liuzhol stadiametric rangefinders that used the angle between two vertical points on an enemy ship , usually the waterline and the crow 's nest , to estimate the range . The gunnery officer consulted his references to get the range and calculated the proper elevation and deflection required to hit the target . He transmitted his commands via a Geisler electro @-@ mechanical fire @-@ control transmission system to each gun or turret .
= = = Armour = = =
The total weight of the Krupp armour was 3 @,@ 300 long tons ( 3 @,@ 353 t ) or 25 @.@ 8 % of the displacement . The armour was mostly made in the United States , although a contract was let for deck armour from Russia on 6 January 1899 . The main waterline belt had a maximum thickness of 9 inches ( 229 mm ) and tapered to 5 inches ( 127 mm ) thick at its lower edge . It was 256 feet ( 78 @.@ 0 m ) long and 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) high , of which about 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) was above the waterline . The 6 @-@ inch upper belt was as long as the main belt and was 7 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) high . Armour plates 2 inches ( 51 mm ) thick protected the ends of the ship to a height equal to that of the main and upper belts combined . Bulkheads 7 inches ( 177 @.@ 8 mm ) thick provided transverse protection for the ship 's vitals . The lower casemate armour was 5 inches ( 127 mm ) thick and armour screens 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) thick separated each gun . The upper casemate armour consisted of five inches of armour plate with semicircular 1 @.@ 5 @-@ inch thick gun shields enclosing the guns .
The front and sides of the turrets were 9 inches ( 229 mm ) thick with 2 @-@ inch roofs . Their barbettes were 8 inches ( 203 mm ) thick above the upper deck , but diminished to 4 inches ( 102 mm ) below it . The conning tower and its communication tube had 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) walls . The armour deck inside the central citadel was level with the top of the main belt and sloped down to meet the lower edge of the main belt . It was two inches thick on the flat and 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) on the slope . Fore and aft of the citadel the deck thickened to 3 inches ( 76 mm ) to the ends of the ship and reinforced the ram bow .
= = Construction and service = =
Named after the Swedish ship of the line Rättvisan ( Justice ) which was captured by the Russians at the Battle of Viborg Bay in 1790 , Retvizan was ordered on 2 May 1898 for delivery in thirty months . The detailed sketch design was forwarded at the end of 1898 to Saint Petersburg for approval and work commenced on the ship around that time , although she was not officially laid down until 29 July 1899 as yard number 300 . Construction was delayed by a strike at the shipyard that began in August 1899 and continued until the strike collapsed in early 1900 . Other delays were caused by differences between American and Russian shipbuilding techniques and the insistence of the Naval Ministry on approving any design changes even though a Russian commission had been sent to Philadelphia to supervise her construction .
Her armament arrived in Philadelphia missing electrical cables and with incomplete documentation , which required Cramp 's electricians to piece things together themselves , for which Cramp charged an extra $ 50 @,@ 000 . She was launched on 23 October 1900 and ran her acceptance trials in October 1901 . The trials were successful but revealed incomplete work that Cramp had to finish before he received his last payment . More work needed to be done on the armament , but it had to wait until she arrived in Russia . Retvizan was accepted on 23 March 1902 , under the command of Captain Eduard Schensnovich who commanded her throughout her Russian service .
Retvizan sailed for the Baltic Sea on 13 May 1902 and stopped to re @-@ coal in Cherbourg , France en route . After leaving Cherbourg a boiler tube burst on 14 June , scalding six stokers , three of them fatally . After her arrival she was fitted with radio equipment and took part in a naval review in Reval staged for the state visit of Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany in August . Later that month she tested an experimental system for coaling at sea ; it was deemed successful , but her equipment was removed before she sailed for the Pacific . Retvizan departed on 13 November 1902 in company with the battleship Pobeda and the cruisers Diana , Pallada and Bogatyr ; she arrived at Port Arthur on 4 May 1903 .
= = = Battle of Port Arthur = = =
The Pacific Squadron began mooring in the outer harbour at night as tensions with Japan increased , in order to react more quickly to any Japanese attempt to land troops in Korea . Both Russia and Japan had ambitions to control both Manchuria and Korea which naturally caused problems between them . A further issue was the Russian failure to withdraw its troops from Manchuria in October 1903 . Japan had begun negotiations to reduce the tensions in 1901 , but the Russian government was slow and uncertain in its replies because it had not yet decided exactly how to resolve the problems . Japan interpreted this as deliberate prevarications designed to buy time to complete the Russian armament programs . The final straws were news of Russian timber concessions in northern Korea and the Russian refusal to acknowledge Japanese interests in Manchuria while continuing to place conditions on Japanese activities in Korea . These caused the Japanese government to decide in December 1903 that war was now inevitable .
Retvizan was on searchlight duty on the night of 8 / 9 February 1904 and attracted many torpedoes during the Japanese surprise attack that night . She was hit on the port side forward by a torpedo which blew a 220 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 20 m2 ) hole in her side . Five men in the torpedo compartment were killed and all electrical power was knocked out . The ship took on enough water to give her a list of 11 ° ; this was reduced to 5 ° by counter @-@ flooding . A sail was used to cover the hole and steam was raised so she could head for the inner harbour . The 2 @,@ 200 long tons ( 2 @,@ 235 t ) of water she had taken aboard had increased her draft enough to cause her to ground in the harbour entrance . She was not refloated until 8 March , but played an important role in the meantime in defeating a Japanese attempt to seal the entrance with block ships on 23 – 24 February . Repairs began immediately after she was towed into the harbour and were completed on 3 June although no docks were available and a cofferdam had to be built . She sailed with the rest of the Russian squadron on 23 June in an abortive attempt to reach Vladivostok . Vice Admiral Vitgeft returned to Port Arthur when he encountered the Japanese fleet , led by Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō , shortly before sunset as he did not wish to engage the numerically superior Japanese in a night battle .
During the summer , Retvizan landed two 6 @-@ inch , two 47 mm and six 37 mm guns to reinforce the landward defences of the port . She was hit on 9 August by seven 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) shells fired by a battery with a narrow view of the harbour . Schensnovich was slightly wounded , a barge adjacent to the ship was sunk and she was holed below the waterline . The ship took on a 1 ° list from 400 long tons ( 410 t ) of water , which was corrected by counter @-@ flooding . The holes were patched , although the water was not pumped out , and she sailed the next day with the fleet in another attempt to reach Vladivostok . This sortie resulted in the Battle of the Yellow Sea .
= = = Battle of the Yellow Sea = = =
The battle began as a long @-@ range gunnery duel , during which the Russian ships hit the Japanese ships numerous times and forced Tōgō to temporarily disengage . Over two hours after the start of the battle , the Japanese fleet closed the range and started shooting again at 17 : 35 . Forty minutes later a shell struck Retzivan 's forward turret near the gun ports , killing one turret crewman and wounding six others from the blast pressure . The impact knocked one 12 @-@ inch shell off its loading tray , crushing two other sailors and also setting fire to the canvas covering the gun ports . Fearing that the fire might spread , the surviving crewmen flooded the turret , knocking out its electrical system . The crew was able to get the turret partially functional within an hour .
At approximately 18 : 40 hours on 10 August , during the final phase of the battle , the Russian flagship Tsesarevich was hit by 12 @-@ inch shells which killed Admiral Vitgeft and his immediate staff . The Russian battleship was turning out of control , disrupting the Russian formation . As the Japanese pre @-@ dreadnoughts continued to pound the Tsesarevich with their 12 @-@ inch fire , Retzivan 's captain boldly charged Tōgō 's battleline in an attempt to divert the Japanese shellfire onto his ship . The Japanese battle line immediately shifted their fire onto the oncoming Retzivan , firing so many shells that they were unable to adjust their fire due to the number of shell splashes engulfing the Russian battleship . As the Russian squadron was now disorganized , Tōgō 's battleships were running low on ammunition and some ships ' main guns were disabled , he turned the battle over to his cruisers and destroyers . Retzivan had effectively ended the duel between the opposing fleets , and had saved Tsesarevich from destruction . During the battle , Retvizan received 18 hits from large @-@ calibre shells , and suffered 6 sailors killed and another 42 men wounded , including Schensnovich .
She was subsequently besieged in Port Arthur and sunk in shallow water by thirteen 28 @-@ centimeter ( 11 in ) howitzer shells on 6 December 1904 after the Imperial Japanese Army gained control of the heights surrounding the harbour . Schensnovich was the senior surviving naval officer and signed the capitulation of Port Arthur for the Imperial Russian Navy on 2 January 1905 .
= = = Japanese service = = =
Retvizan was raised by the Japanese on 22 September 1905 and renamed Hizen , after Hizen Province , two days later . The ship departed Port Arthur on 19 November and arrived at Sasebo on 27 November where her repairs lasted until November 1908 . Her fighting tops were removed , her light weapons were replaced by Japanese ones , and her boilers were replaced by Miyabara boilers . The barrels and breeches of her main guns were replaced by Japanese @-@ built examples and all four above @-@ water torpedo tubes were removed . In Japanese service her crew numbered 796 officers and crewmen .
Hizen was assigned to the 1st Fleet on 1 December 1909 and was refitted in 1913 . She was dispatched to Esquimalt , British Columbia , in October 1914 to reinforce the weak British squadron there , then diverted to Honolulu , Hawaii , before the end of the month to watch the German gunboat SMS Geier after that ship arrived on 15 October . Hizen watched the port in company with the armoured cruiser Asama until Geier was interned on 8 November by the Americans . Afterwards she and Asama headed south in search of the German East Asia Squadron , but never located them ; the ship was recalled home in February 1915 . On 13 December 1915 , Hizen was assigned to the 5th Division of the 3rd Fleet until relieved on 10 May 1917 . The ship served in the Indian Ocean at some point during the war where she probably escorted troop convoys .
Hizen supported the Japanese intervention in the Russian Civil War in 1918 and was often stationed in Vladivostok as a guardship . On 1 September 1921 she was reclassified as a 1st class coast defence ship and disarmed at Sasebo in April 1922 in accordance with the Washington Naval Treaty . She was stricken on 20 September 1923 and sunk as a target ship in the Bungo Channel on 25 July 1924 .
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= 1966 Liberty Bowl =
The 1966 Liberty Bowl was a post @-@ season American college football bowl game between the Virginia Tech Hokies and the Miami Hurricanes at Memphis Memorial Stadium in Memphis , Tennessee on December 10 , 1966 . The game was the final contest of the 1966 college football season for both teams , and ended in a 14 – 7 victory for the Miami Hurricanes . A then @-@ record 39 @,@ 101 tickets were sold for the game , but due to 36 @-@ degree temperatures at game time , only 25 @,@ 012 spectators attended . The game marked just the second time that Virginia Tech had played in a bowl game since the creation of the team in 1892 . The game also marked the second time in each school 's history that the two teams had faced each other . The previous meeting , held in 1953 , ended in a 26 – 0 shutout victory for the Hurricanes . Current Virginia Tech head football coach and then @-@ player Frank Beamer participated in the game as a backup cornerback for the Hokies .
= = Pregame buildup = =
= = = Virginia Tech = = =
The Hokies were led on defense by All @-@ America safety Frank Loria , who caught three interceptions and returned three punts for touchdowns as a junior during the 1966 season . In addition , Virginia Tech defensive end George Foussekis was named to the Associated Press second @-@ team All @-@ America team , and helped keep the Hurricanes ' offense in check for most of the game . On offense , fullback Tommy Groom served as the third of the Hokies ' three team captains during the game . Virginia Tech was coached by Jerry Claiborne , who was in his sixth year as head coach of the Hokies . Under Claiborne , Virginia Tech had amassed a strong 8 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 record with wins over Kentucky , Florida State , and Virginia and a 70 – 12 blowout win over traditional rival VMI in the final game of the season . The Hokies ' sole loss came in the first game of the season against Tulane , and Virginia Tech drew a 13 – 13 tie against West Virginia .
= = = Miami = = =
The ninth @-@ ranked Hurricanes boasted a 7 – 2 – 1 regular @-@ season record , including wins over Southern California and Florida . The Hurricanes were led on the field by three @-@ time All @-@ American lineback Ted Hendricks , who would later go on to a Hall of Fame career in the National Football League . Off the field , the Hurricanes were coached by Charlie Tate , who would head the Hurricanes football team until 1970 .
= = Game summary = =
The game kicked off in frigid 36 ° F ( 2 ° C ) weather , and from the beginning , defense dominated . In the first half , Tech held Miami to just 16 yards of total offense . On the opposite side of the ball , Miami set bowl game records for fewest rushing yards allowed and fewest first downs allowed . The Hokies got the first big break of the game after blocking Miami 's first punt of the game . Taking over at the Miami 21 @-@ yard line , it took Virginia Tech just five plays to march into the end zone for an early 7 – 0 lead . Virginia Tech and Miami battled to a stalemate for the rest of the first half , and Tech went into halftime still clinging to a 7 – 0 lead .
In the second half , Tech 's fortune turned . Late in the third quarter , the Virginia Tech defense stopped Miami 's offense again , but instead of receiving the punt cleanly , the Hokies committed a roughing the kicker penalty that allowed Miami to retain possession of the ball with a first down . A few plays later , Miami scored its first touchdown of the game . In the fourth quarter Miami finally took the lead on a 10 @-@ play , 70 @-@ yard drive . The Hokies were unable to answer the Hurricanes ' score , and Miami won the 1966 Liberty Bowl , 14 – 7 .
= = Statistical summary = =
Miami 's Jimmy Cox was named the game 's most valuable player after catching five passes for 77 yards — accounting for nearly half of Miami 's total offensive output . Miami earned just three rushing first downs during the game , setting a Liberty Bowl record that has yet to be broken .
Each team had two players pass the ball . Tech 's Tommy Stafford finished the game having completed four 13 passes for 59 yards and one interception . Several times during the game , the Hokies had also played with Barker passing the ball . He finished having completed two of his three passes for 13 yards . On the Miami side of the ball , Miller completed nine of 26 passes for 99 yards and Olivo completed one pass for nine yards .
On the ground , Virginia Tech 's Tommy Francisco led all runners with 21 carries for 55 yards . Backing up Francisco was Tech 's Sal Garcia , who finished with three carries for 15 yards . Miami 's leading rusher was McGee , who carried the ball 12 times for 36 yards . Backing up McGee was Acuff , who finished with six carries for 25 yards .
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= Maryland Route 222 =
Maryland Route 222 ( MD 222 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . The state highway runs 11 @.@ 36 miles ( 18 @.@ 28 km ) from MD 7 in Perryville north to U.S. Route 1 ( US 1 ) near Conowingo . MD 222 parallels the Susquehanna River in western Cecil County , connecting Perryville and Conowingo with Port Deposit . Due to limitations in the highway in Port Deposit , including a steep hill and a low railroad bridge , the state highway has a truck bypass that uses MD 275 , MD 276 , and US 1 through Woodlawn and Rising Sun to connect Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) with US 222 in Conowingo .
MD 222 was originally constructed as MD 268 , a number presently assigned to North Street in Elkton . The state highway was paved from Perryville to Port Deposit in the late 1910s and early 1920s . MD 268 was extended north to Conowingo in the early 1930s . In 1938 , MD 268 was superseded when US 222 was extended south from US 1 in Conowingo to US 40 in Perryville . The only significant change as US 222 occurred when a new alignment was constructed around the interchange with I @-@ 95 in the early 1960s . MD 222 was designated in 1995 when US 222 was rolled back to its former and present terminus at US 1 in Conowingo .
= = Route description = =
MD 222 begins at an intersection with MD 7 ( Broad Street ) in downtown Perryville . The state highway heads north as two @-@ lane Aiken Avenue to US 40 ( Pulaski Highway ) immediately to the east of the toll plaza for the Thomas J. Hatem Memorial Bridge . The disconnected old alignment continues straight as Aiken Avenue Extended while MD 222 heads northeast as Perryville Road to cross over CSX 's Philadelphia Subdivision . The state highway curves north and receives the other end of the old alignment , Clayton Street , before leaving the town of Perryville and passing Perryville High School . MD 222 intersects the southern end of MD 824 ( Blythedale Road ) and the entrance to the Perryville Outlet Center before meeting I @-@ 95 ( John F. Kennedy Memorial Highway ) at a folded diamond interchange . The state highway passes the entrance to Hollywood Casino Perryville before reaching an intersection with the northern end of MD 824 and MD 275 ( Perrylawn Drive ) . MD 222 Truck follows MD 275 north toward Rising Sun , while MD 222 turns west onto Bainbridge Road toward Port Deposit .
MD 222 heads through a mix of forest and farmland , crossing Happy Valley Branch before passing the entrance to the former United States Naval Training Center , Bainbridge , which contains the Edward W. Haviland House and the original campus of the Tome School . The state highway then begins a steep descent from a high bluff to the Susquehanna River , with the southbound direction gaining a climbing lane . Upon entering the town limits of Port Deposit , MD 222 's name changes to Main Street and the highway makes a sharp turn to the north to parallel the river and Norfolk Southern Railway 's Port Road Branch The state highway intersects MD 276 ( Centre Street ) in the center of Port Deposit . MD 222 passes the Paw Paw Building and intersects Granite Avenue before crossing Rock Run and passing under a low railroad bridge to the west side of the tracks . The state highway leaves the town of Port Deposit and continues north as Susquehanna River Road , closely paralleling the river and passing through its forested flood plain , much of which is part of Susquehanna State Park . Soon after crossing Octoraro Creek , MD 222 reaches its northern terminus at an intersection with US 1 ( Conowingo Road ) at the eastern end of Conowingo Dam . Following US 1 northeast to the community of Conowingo leads to the southern terminus of US 222 and the northern terminus of MD 222 Truck .
MD 222 is a part of the National Highway System as a principal arterial from US 40 north to MD 275 within Perryville .
= = History = =
What is now MD 222 was originally designated MD 268 . The first paved section of MD 268 was Aiken Avenue from Broad Street north to around present @-@ day US 40 in Perryville , which was surfaced by 1910 . Aiken Avenue was extended north to the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad ( now CSX ) as a state @-@ aid road by 1919 . The highway was extended as a state road north from the B & O crossing to the top of the bluff above Port Deposit by 1921 . Pavement was extended through Port Deposit to Rock Run in 1923 . The final section of MD 268 , Susquehanna River Road , was under construction by 1930 and completed by 1933 . The highway reused an abandoned railroad bridge to cross Octoraro Creek .
The first change in alignment in MD 268 occurred around 1934 when a bridge was constructed over the B & O Railroad in Perryville , leaving behind Aiken Avenue Extended and Clayton Street . US 222 was extended south to US 40 in Perryville , then on Broad Street , in 1938 , assuming all of MD 268 . US 222 was reconstructed from US 40 to Port Deposit during World War II to improve access to the naval training center . In 1963 , a new alignment was created for the interchange with I @-@ 95 , bypassing Blythedale Road , which became MD 824 . US 222 's southern terminus was rolled back to US 1 in Conowingo in 1995 ; MD 222 was designated along its present course at the same time . MD 222 became the only signed state @-@ numbered highway in Maryland with a number that matches a U.S. Highway .
= = Junction list = =
The entire route is in Cecil County .
= = Related routes = =
= = = Truck route = = =
Maryland Route 222 Truck is a signed 12 @.@ 49 @-@ mile ( 20 @.@ 10 km ) truck bypass of MD 222 from MD 222 in Perryville to US 1 and US 222 in Conowingo . The signed route follows MD 275 from MD 222 in Perryville north to MD 276 in Woodlawn . MD 222 Truck continues north on MD 276 from Woodlawn north to US 1 west of Rising Sun . The truck route then heads west on US 1 ( in a wrong @-@ way concurrency ) to US 222 's southern terminus in Conowingo . MD 222 Truck has existed since at least 2002 .
Junction list
The entire route is in Cecil County .
= = = Auxiliary routes = = =
MD 222 has three auxiliary routes that are maintained by the Maryland Transportation Authority ( MDTA ) and provide access to the authority 's facilities around I @-@ 95 's interchange with MD 222 and the John F. Kennedy Memorial Highway toll plaza to the east of the Millard E. Tydings Memorial Bridge .
MD 222A is the designation for Chesapeake Overlook Parkway , a 0 @.@ 09 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 14 km ) spur west from the intersection of MD 222 and the ramps to and from southbound I @-@ 95 . This spur intersects MD 222B near its western end and serves as the entrance to Hollywood Casino Perryville .
MD 222B is the designation for Turnpike Drive , a 0 @.@ 89 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 43 km ) service road that heads south from MD 222A and veers west to parallel the southbound lanes of I @-@ 95 . The state highway provides access to the MDTA administration building , the Perryville barracks of the Maryland State Police , and the adjacent truck weigh station on southbound I @-@ 95 .
MD 222C is the designation for G.R. Dawson Drive , a 0 @.@ 48 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 77 km ) service road that heads west from MD 222 and parallels the northbound lanes of I @-@ 95 . The state highway provides access to a truck weigh station on northbound I @-@ 95 .
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= Soul Reaver 2 =
Soul Reaver 2 is an action @-@ adventure game developed by Crystal Dynamics and published by Eidos Interactive . It is a sequel to Legacy of Kain : Soul Reaver and the third game in the Legacy of Kain series . Originally developed as a PlayStation and Dreamcast project , it was reworked into a PlayStation 2 and Microsoft Windows title in early production , and was released in 2001 . Soul Reaver 2 was followed by two sequels , Blood Omen 2 and Legacy of Kain : Defiance , in 2002 and 2003 .
The game continues the adventures of the vampire @-@ turned @-@ wraith Raziel , the protagonist of Soul Reaver . Though Raziel initially seeks to exact revenge on Kain , his murderer and former master , this objective is superseded by a higher quest for knowledge . Traveling through history , he gradually exposes the truth behind his own past and destiny .
Hoping to deliver a more story @-@ focused , cinematic experience than Soul Reaver , Crystal Dynamics researched time travel fiction , theology , and the works of Joseph Campbell when creating Soul Reaver 2 's narrative . Critics praised the game for its involved storyline , visuals and puzzles , but criticized it for lacking replay value and ending without a definite resolution . Its developers felt the final product fell short of their ambitions , but it performed well commercially , and was included on Sony 's " Greatest Hits " list .
= = Gameplay = =
Soul Reaver 2 is a single @-@ player action @-@ adventure game . The player controls Raziel , a ghostly " ex @-@ vampire " , from a third @-@ person perspective . Gameplay , which is based on the original Soul Reaver , prompts the player to shift between two planes of existence — the material and spectral realms — to progress . The material realm represents the physical , living world , whereas the spectral realm is a warped mirror of this environment . In the spectral realm , the player cannot manipulate objects and weapons , and water is insubstantial . Raziel 's health slowly regenerates in the spectral world , whereas it gradually depletes in the material realm . If Raziel runs out of health in the material world , he is shunted into the spectral realm , and if killed in this plane , he returns to the nearest checkpoint . Save points enable players to record their progress and continue their game .
Raziel retains most of the powers he possessed in the previous game , such as the abilities to glide , climb walls , fire bolts of telekinetic energy , and swim . To sustain his strength and travel between the planes , he must devour souls ; this is typically accomplished by defeating enemies . The game 's combat consists of a hack and slash system , entailing the use of combinations of attacks before executing a finishing move . Human enemies exist only in the material world , and include mercenaries , demon hunters , and the Sarafan , a monastic order of vampire hunters ; other material creatures include dogs , thralls , and mutants . Sluagh are enemies who exclusively inhabit the spirit world , whereas cross @-@ planar beings such as demons and shades can pursue the player between both realms . Enemies leave behind souls when killed , which replenish Raziel 's health once consumed .
The player 's primary weapon is a ghostly version of the Soul Reaver sword , referred to as the wraith @-@ blade . The wraith @-@ blade is symbiotically bound to Raziel , and can be summoned or dismissed at any time in the material world , but , if overused , the sword can turn against Raziel , siphoning his health . Other weapons include claws , swords and spears . As the game progresses , the player encounters magical forges which imbue the wraith @-@ blade with elemental powers associated with darkness , light , air , and fire . These enhancements have various uses , but are only available in the material realm . If Raziel shifts , he loses his active elemental imbuement , and must re @-@ forge the blade at locations scattered throughout the game world .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Soul Reaver 2 is set in Nosgoth , a fictional land with fantasy aspects . In the first game in the series , Blood Omen : Legacy of Kain , the vampire Kain embarks on a journey to restore the Pillars of Nosgoth — nine supernatural edifices which are inextricably tied to the health of the land , but become corrupted . During his adventure , Moebius , a manipulative sorcerer , tricks Kain into orchestrating the destruction of the vampire race : Kain is left the last surviving vampire in Nosgoth . After restoring eight of the Pillars , Kain discovers that he would need to sacrifice his own life to restore the final corrupt one . Realizing that his death would ensure the annihilation of his species , he refuses to kill himself . This triggers the Pillars ' collapse , and dooms the world to eternal decay , but enables Kain to live on and revive the vampire race .
By the time of Soul Reaver , 1500 years later , Kain is a despotic emperor , his vampires dominate the land , and Nosgoth hinges on the brink of collapse . The Elder God , a demiurge @-@ like entity , lurks beneath Nosgoth and controls the cycle of reincarnation ; the vampires , whose biological immortality opposes his doctrine , are his enemies . In Soul Reaver , Raziel — Kain 's lieutenant — is executed by Kain , but The Elder God resurrects him and encourages him to exact revenge . Traversing the wasteland and murdering the vampires , Raziel confronts Kain , who attacks him with the Soul Reaver sword , imbued with a spirit which absorbs its victims ' souls . The Soul Reaver shatters when it strikes Raziel , and the blade 's spirit binds itself to his arm . His motives still mysterious , Kain lures Raziel through a time portal into Nosgoth 's past .
In Soul Reaver 2 , it is established that , in Nosgoth , fatalism is an actuality — history is immutable , and all individuals are subject to predestination . Raziel , due to his paradoxical destiny , is the only exception to this rule — his presence enables temporal paradoxes to be triggered , altering history for better or worse . Kain relies on Raziel 's free will in a bid to outsmart Moebius and resolve the dilemma he faced in Blood Omen , ultimately hoping to enable both the restored Pillars and the vampire race to co @-@ exist in the future . Soul Reaver 2 opens as Raziel emerges from the time slip and is greeted by Moebius , having arrived in an era 30 years prior to the events of Blood Omen . Two further time periods , 100 years after and 500 years before Blood Omen respectively , are also explored as the story progresses .
= = = Characters = = =
Raziel returns as the protagonist of Soul Reaver 2 . In Soul Reaver , Raziel discovered that he was once a human and a leading member of the vampire @-@ hunting Sarafan brotherhood , and his epiphanies drive the conflict in the story . Kain , the antagonist of Soul Reaver , appears as a non @-@ player character in cutscenes , urging Raziel to unearth his destiny . Moebius the Time Streamer , a sorcerer who was a villain in Blood Omen , attempts to manipulate Raziel into destroying Kain — it is revealed that he is an agent of The Elder God , Raziel 's ally and guide in Soul Reaver , who is slowly established as a more sinister entity . Ariel , a specter bound to the Pillars who featured in Blood Omen and Soul Reaver , returns , and the vampire Vorador , also from Blood Omen , assists Raziel early in the game . The ancient vampire Janos Audron , a new character who was previously only mentioned in Blood Omen , acts as Raziel 's mentor towards the end of the story .
= = = Story = = =
The game begins by summarizing Soul Reaver 's ending : Raziel confronts Kain in Nosgoth 's wasteland , and pursues him through a portal leading to the past . Moebius , the leader of a vampire @-@ hunting crusade in this age , coerces Raziel to re @-@ embrace his former heritage as a Sarafan vampire hunter by killing Kain . Though Raziel is initially eager to do so , his enthusiasm wanes over time as he witnesses the ruthlessness of Moebius 's soldiers . Kain , who is destined to die at Raziel 's hands in this era , implores Raziel to thwart fate and instead facilitate his quest to restore the Pillars . After he learns that Moebius serves The Elder God , and that he has thus been duped , Raziel faces a decision : indulge his lust for vengeance but submit to fate by killing Kain , or defy his cohorts and exercise his free will by exerting mercy .
While exploring this period , Raziel discovers evidence that two ancient races waged war in Nosgoth 's distant past . One race created the Pillars to banish their adversaries , but the enemy race — the Hylden — retaliated with a curse which transformed the Pillars ' architects into the first vampires . Kain explains that , had he sacrificed himself , the vampire race — the rightful inheritors of the Pillars — would have become extinct . Raziel chooses to spare Kain , causing a paradox ; history reshuffles itself to accommodate the extension of Kain 's life . He , however , refuses to indulge Kain 's plans any further , instead opting to explore his own past . Vorador tells Raziel that the last of the ancient vampires , Janos Audron , held the key to Raziel 's destiny , but Janos was murdered by the Sarafan five centuries ago .
Deciding to speak with Janos , Raziel orders Moebius to send him further back in time . Moebius deceives Raziel , instead conveying him over a century into the future , where he and The Elder God highlight the consequences of the Pillars ' destruction to turn Raziel against Kain . Raziel navigates the future era and finds his own way back to the age of the Sarafan and Janos Audron . There , Janos presents Raziel with the Reaver , a younger version of the physical Soul Reaver blade which will later house a soul @-@ devouring spirit . Suddenly , a group of Sarafan led by Raziel 's former , human self launch an ambush , and Janos sacrifices himself . Raziel swears vengeance as Janos dies , and pursues the attackers . He uses the Reaver to kill them and his younger self , renouncing his Sarafan past .
The wraith @-@ blade attached to Raziel 's arm , over @-@ aroused after the deaths of the Sarafan , suddenly seizes control of the physical Reaver , and impales Raziel ; Raziel , horrified , then realizes his destiny . He himself has always been the ravenous spirit inside the Reaver , and therefore is fated to be stuck in a time loop ; the sword shattered against him in Soul Reaver because it was unable to consume itself . While his soul is being drawn into the sword , Kain emerges and tears the Reaver from Raziel 's body , saving him in reciprocation and forcing history to reshuffle again . However , this paradox strains Nosgoth 's history too far , enabling the Hylden to return and jeopardize his ambition to restore the Pillars . Amidst Kain 's dismay , Raziel realizes that the wraith @-@ blade is still bound to him , and laments that his destiny has not been changed , but merely postponed .
= = Development = =
Even before the release of Soul Reaver , Crystal Dynamics were aware that they would create a follow @-@ up , but had no " master plan " . Soul Reaver uses the engine of Gex : Enter the Gecko . Prior to the beginning of development , director Amy Hennig emphasized that the role @-@ playing game elements of Blood Omen , stronger dialogue and character interaction , a greater variety of acquirable mechanics , and wider use of the spectral realm should figure into the sequel . Pre @-@ production began in late 1999 , and the project briefly entered development for the PlayStation and Dreamcast with a targeted release date in fall of 2000 . The team was given approval to switch to the PlayStation 2 after creating a proof @-@ of @-@ concept demo for E3 2000 , and the game was announced as an exclusive title for the newer console . Executive producer Andrew Bennett analogized the developers ' design sensibilities to the non @-@ linear nature of Nintendo 's The Legend of Zelda and Mario franchises , but said it was decided that Soul Reaver 2 would not be a " traditional ' complete a level , fight a boss ' type of game " . Level designers constructed a generalized puzzle and object @-@ interaction system , helping to prevent an undesired re @-@ emergence of Soul Reaver 's abundant block puzzles . Instead of creating more inherent and optional abilities for Raziel , they focused on including new , mandatory enhancements for the Soul Reaver weapon .
On the decision to downplay Raziel 's quest for vengeance against Kain in this sequel , Hennig explained , " he 's being pretty simple @-@ minded , he 's sort of being very black @-@ and @-@ white in his interpretation of things , and being kind of petulant [ ... ] he 's not really as heroic as Kain is , and he has a lot of stuff to figure out , basically , about what 's going on " . Soul Reaver 2 was crafted to feature a more cinematic , story @-@ focused experience than its predecessor , which the developers felt had been " patchy " in this regard . It entered production after Blood Omen 2 , but shipped almost six months before the latter game . A separate team within Crystal Dynamics , with creative autonomy , developed Blood Omen 2 , and contradictions created by its scenario hindered work on Soul Reaver 2 . After researching time travel fiction , Hennig devised a subplot concerning temporal paradoxes to resolve the continuity problems between both titles , and established that Blood Omen 2 's story is a product of the final paradox created when Kain saves Raziel at the end of Soul Reaver 2 . Other themes were inspired by the works of Joseph Campbell , and theology surrounding Gnosticism . Concepts which formulated the crux of the story included the idea " that the only way a hero can ever succeed is by following his own path " , and the question , " can you change history or not ? And if so , what does it mean to change history - in terms of being responsible for the repercussions ? "
British comic book writer Paul Jenkins was drafted by Crystal Dynamics to help refine the game 's script . Though Soul Reaver features a variety of boss encounters , Soul Reaver 2 does not ; this was a conscious decision on the part of the staff , to ensure the game 's pacing more closely emulated that of a novel or a film . While expanding the series ' fiction , Hennig sought to take people back to the characters and mythology of the original Blood Omen , and built on its latent themes , including issues of fatalism , ethical dilemma and morality . In an interview , she stated that " the game will have a proper ending this time " , and said " it has a conclusion . It 's the end of a chapter . There won 't be a cliffhanger " . However , the story needed to be restructured several times before its completion , and , like the original Soul Reaver , many planned areas and abilities were excised , including three elemental forges ( earth , water and spirit ) , more Reaver enhancements , and nine " spell @-@ type things " . She explained that the project 's small programming crew , its switch to the PlayStation 2 , and its limited 17 month production schedule had forced the team to " pick their battles " , leading numerous features to be simplified or eliminated . Commenting on the final product , lead designer Richard Lemarchand said that Soul Reaver 2 " fell short of what the team had wanted to accomplish . In particular , some puzzles were too opaque , the combat was rather one @-@ dimensional , [ and the story ] ended without a decent resolution " .
= = = Audio = = =
Soul Reaver 2 was composed by Kurt Harland , of American band Information Society , and Jim Hedges . Harland and Hedges had already collaborated on Soul Reaver , but Hedges had not previously contributed compositions . The adaptive audio framework from the previous game returned ; depending on signals from the game in certain situations — such as combat , puzzles , danger or suspense — the game 's soundtrack actively changes . Music from both Soul Reaver and Soul Reaver 2 was released on a promotional soundtrack in 2001 .
Gordon Hunt returned as the game 's recording director , with Kris Zimmerman as casting director . Voice actors from both Blood Omen and Soul Reaver reprised their roles , with Michael Bell playing Raziel and Simon Templeman portraying Kain . The Elder God was again voiced by Tony Jay , Richard Doyle voiced Moebius , and Anna Gunn played Ariel . Paul Lukather , absent from Soul Reaver , rejoined the cast as Vorador . René Auberjonois , the only newcomer to the Legacy of Kain series , provided the voice of Janos Audron .
= = Release = =
Publisher Eidos Interactive was " broadly satisfied " with the commercial performance of Soul Reaver 2 , which sold more than 500 @,@ 000 copies by June 2002 . Later , Sony re @-@ released it under the " Greatest Hits " label . Shortly after the initial PlayStation 2 release in October 2001 , the Microsoft Windows port shipped , developed by Nixxes Software BV . The PlayStation 2 release featured bonus material , including voice casting outtakes , artworks , a soundtrack , trailers , the game 's dialogue script , and a compilation of Nosgoth 's history . In 2002 , the game was released in Japan by publisher Titus Software . In 2012 , digital distribution services GOG.com and Steam made the Windows port of Soul Reaver 2 available for purchase .
= = Reception = =
On the PlayStation 2 , Soul Reaver 2 respectively received an aggregate score of 80 @.@ 71 % and 80 / 100 from rating websites GameRankings and Metacritic . Various reviewers held its storytelling , visuals and sound in high regard , but described its gameplay as dull and unsatisfying . Doug Perry of IGN praised the game 's dark atmosphere and intriguing story , but said that it can become tiresome and drag on . He thought the " haughtiness " and drama of the dialogue , particularly between Raziel and Kain , was often overdone , and noted that its gameplay was near identical to that of its predecessor but with less replay value . Perry enjoyed the new puzzles involving the elemental powers of the Reaver for being more complex and diverse than the block puzzles of Soul Reaver , and praised the combat system . He gave the game a score of 9 @.@ 0 , but in his later review for Defiance , he revised his opinion , saying this rating was " way too high " and " that game told a great story , but just didn 't deserve that score " .
Joe Fielder of GameSpot gave Soul Reaver 2 a score of 8 @.@ 8 and called it an excellent sequel , again praising the change to elemental puzzles and the combat system , but criticizing the dearth of sidequests and boss fights , and the lack of definite resolution to the storyline . Electronic Gaming Monthly 's reviewer said that it triumphed as an aesthetic showcase , but deemed its gameplay mediocre and unappealing . The reviewer for Game Informer regarded Soul Reaver 2 as " quite engrossing " . Star Dingo of GamePro similarly praised its graphics , sound design and voice acting , but condemned missed creative opportunities concerning the potential of the spectral realm and time travel , saying that the game " takes as many steps back as it does forward , and ends up teetering precariously over the brink of being a disappointment " . The review concurred with IGN that the plot and dialogue , though entertaining , sometimes bordered on pretentiousness , and Game Revolution 's Duke Ferris repeatedly compared the story to a soap opera .
Other critics , such as GameZone 's Michael Lafferty , were less reserved in their praise of the narrative — The Electric Playground referred to it as " a textbook example to other console developers on how to write videogame prose " — but agreed that its complex and involved backstory could alienate some players . The Adrenaline Vault 's Mike Laidlaw stated that " the folks at Crystal Dynamics obviously have no kindness in their heart for game reviewers trying desperately to describe the plot " . Journalists also commonly cited Soul Reaver 2 's poor lifespan and replayability as an issue ; the reviewer for Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine opined that " the problem is that there just isn 't much gameplay there " and Fielder warned that play " burns bright , but not as long as you 'd like " .
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= Hell Comes to Quahog =
" Hell Comes to Quahog " is the third episode of the fifth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy , an episode produced for Season 4 . It originally aired on Fox on September 24 , 2006 . The episode follows teenage daughter Meg after she requests that her parents buy her a car . At the showroom , however , her father , Peter , decides to buy a tank , instead of the car Meg was interested in . Deciding to pay for a new car herself , Meg is able to get a job at Superstore USA , which eventually destroys the local economy of Quahog , and upsets the local community .
The episode was written by Kirker Butler and directed by Dan Povenmire . It received mostly positive reviews from critics for its storyline and entertaining cultural references . It was viewed by 9 @.@ 66 million viewers in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Dave Boat , Carrie Fisher , Phil LaMarr , Rachael MacFarlane and Fred Tatasciore , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series . " Hell Comes to Quahog " was released on DVD along with twelve other episodes from the season on September 18 , 2007 .
= = Plot = =
Peter , Cleveland , Joe , and Quagmire are spending the evening at The Drunken Clam , when Peter is reminded to pick up Meg from the roller skating rink . They then go to the rink and continue to enjoy themselves , but forget to pick up Meg when they leave . After skating home in the rain , Meg asks the family for her own car . The next day , Peter takes his daughter to the local car showroom , where she shows an interest in a sedan . Distracted by a large tank at the dealership , however , Peter is tricked into buying it . At first , Peter uses the tank himself , despite it being intended for Meg , but then he teaches Meg to drive it . Later that day , however , the two accidentally run over Joe , and he impounds the tank . Frustrated , Meg decides to earn the money for her own car , and is able to get a job at the local Quahog mega store , Superstore USA , working under a man named Mr. Penisburg . The shops in Quahog soon become bankrupt because of the new superstore , and citizens are informed that there will be widespread electricity blackouts because of Superstore USA 's increasing power @-@ demand . As the town is enduring a massive heat wave , the rest of the citizens become angered .
Meanwhile , Peter loses his job at the Pawtucket Brewery because Superstore USA has its own brewery and they cannot compete . Disjointed , Peter joins an angry protest outside the store , but after entering the store to encourage customers to leave , Peter is impressed by its central cooling system , and decides to become an employee also working under Mr. Penisburg with Meg as his superior . Later , his daughter is promoted to assistant manager by Mr. Penisburg , who immediately instructs her to fire Peter . Despite her reservations about her father , she chooses her family over her job and quits . In the meantime , Brian and Stewie decide to eliminate the superstore completely by retrieving Peter 's tank , and driving it through the superstore , while Peter and Meg escape through an emergency exit . After bulldozing the store , Brian and Stewie drive outside and demolish it and Penisburg with the tank 's cannon . Immediately afterwards , the electricity supply to Quahog is restored , and life returns to normal .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Kirker Butler and directed by Dan Povenmire . Most of the music throughout the episode was written by Walter Murphy , including the 1970s song , " A Fifth of Beethoven " , which was played at the roller rink scene . In addition , the music that is played when Brian and Stewie are destroying the store follows the style of Elmer Bernstein 's theme to Stripes . Several variations were made to the Iceman scene , who was originally meant to be fighting with his wife , but was changed for legal reasons .
Several scenes and gags had to be removed from the television broadcast of the episode , as they were deemed inappropriate . This includes a scene when Brian recalls being stroked too hard by a " Special Child , " which he retaliates against by biting the child 's hand . The final scene , also censored from television airing , involved Chris laughing excessively at one of his own jokes , concluding with " Oh , I peed and pooped . " These scenes were removed from FOX , but not from Adult Swim or the DVD . Another scene involves a man driving in a Hummer , while watching the 2005 film Madagascar in his car . The man then exclaims " Dude , those animals are so fucking funny , " which was mistakenly broadcast uncensored in Canada , though this problem was corrected for future broadcasts . The censors remained intact in the United States .
" Hell Comes to Quahog " , along with the twelve other episodes from Family Guy 's fifth season , were released on a three @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on September 18 , 2007 . The sets included brief audio commentaries by Seth MacFarlane and various crew and cast members for several episodes , a collection of deleted scenes and animatics , a special mini @-@ feature which discusses the process behind drawing Peter Griffin , and mini @-@ feature entitled " Toys , Toys Galore " .
In addition to the regular cast , voice actor Dave Boat , actress Carrie Fisher , voice actor Phil LaMarr , voice actress Rachael MacFarlane and voice actor Fred Tatasciore guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Lori Alan , actress Alex Breckenridge , actor Johnny Brennan , actor Ralph Garman , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin and writer John Viener made minor appearances .
= = Cultural references = =
The title of the episode parodies the title of the 1988 cult film , Hell Comes to Frogtown . In the opening scene of the episode , Peter , Joe , Quagmire and Cleveland are shown playing ping pong at the local bar . Once Joe accidentally hits their final ping pong ball out a window , Peter responds by forcing the puppet character Mr. Moose , from the children 's television series Captain Kangaroo , to tell a knock @-@ knock joke . This causes hundreds of ping pong balls to cascade from the ceiling above them . Going on to exclaim the amount of fun he is having , Peter recounts his performance in a Broadway musical version of the 1984 film Red Dawn .
After being reminded to pick up Meg at the local roller rink , Peter and his friends decide to go skating After returning home without Meg , the Griffin family are shown watching a Pepperidge Farm commercial on their television . Immediately afterwards , Meg enters her home , and begs her parents to get buy her a new vehicle . Reluctant to do so , Peter informs Meg that plenty of people are able to get around without a car , including the fictional Marvel Comics superhero Iceman . Finally deciding to give in and purchase a vehicle for Meg , the Griffin family head to the local car dealership . While there , Brian notices a large amount of Hummers , and questions who would ever want to drive one . A cutaway then shows a loud , obnoxious man driving a yellow Hummer , who goes on to brag about being able to watch the 2005 film Madagascar while driving , and proceeds to destroy two vehicles in the process while yelling the name of former United States Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld .
Returning home with the tank , Peter decides to surprise his wife , Lois , with his new purchase . Once Lois opens her eyes , she exclaims the phrase " Bocce balls ! " , which was originally from the 1984 comedy film Splash . Coming to accept the tank , Lois and Peter decide to take it to a drive @-@ in theater , where they are shown watching a film entitled The Even Couple , by screenwriter Neil Simon , and starring actors Jeff Daniels and Bill Pullman . The next day , after the tank is impounded by Joe , the family is shown watching the CBS television drama Ghost Whisperer , with Jennifer Love Hewitt then appearing on screen . Meg then interrupts , and expresses her anger at her father for allowing the tank to be impounded . Her father then responds by stating that it is " not the worst thing " he has ever done , with a cutaway of Peter murdering Yogi Bear then being shown .
The Superstore USA store is similar to Wal @-@ Mart . Frustrated by her father , Meg decides to get a job at Superstore USA . As she is being instructed about her job by her new boss , he tells her to feed the deformed man Sloth from the 1985 film The Goonies . As Superstore USA begins to take over the town , it is announced that rolling blackouts will be performed in order to meet the store 's need for electricity . A commercial during Quahog 's local news is then played , parodying the theme to the 1971 children 's television series The Electric Company . While Stewie and Brian attack the store , the manager of Superstore USA runs to hide in the bathroom before being crushed by the billboard in front of him . This is a reference to the Jurassic Park scene where the attorney also hides in a bathroom before being eaten by the T @-@ Rex .
= = Reception = =
In a slight improvement over the previous week , the episode brought in 9 @.@ 66 million viewers on its original airing , according to the Nielsen ratings . The episode acquired a 3 @.@ 4 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , tying with The Simpsons , and edging out series creator Seth MacFarlane 's second show American Dad ! , in both ratings and total viewership .
Reviews of the episode by television critics were mostly positive , noting its " hilarious beginning and the nice ending . " Dan Iverson of IGN praised the episode , stating that the episode " looks to show that this fifth season is going to bring the series back to the irreverent basics that made it so appealing . " Iverson went on to comment that some of the jokes were " extremely funny " and that " the episode had it all , from the Electric Company bit to making fun of people who drive Hummers and watch movies like Madagascar . " In the conclusion of his review , Iverson gave the episode an eight out of ten . Brett Love of TV Squad also gave the episode a positive review , calling the installment much better than the previous two episode 's from the season , " Stewie Loves Lois " and " Mother Tucker " , but criticized the storyline 's similarity to the South Park episode " Something Wall @-@ Mart This Way Comes " . Love commented negatively on the portrayal of Peter working at the superstore , however , stating , " it 's a fine line when they go retarded with Peter . Sometimes it plays really funny , and sometimes it just gets annoying . "
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= George Dewhurst ( cricketer ) =
George Alric R. Dewhurst ( 31 October 1894 – 4 January 1954 ) was a Trinidadian cricketer who played for West Indies before the team attained Test match status . A highly regarded wicket @-@ keeper , Dewhurst was an influential and popular member of the Trinidad and West Indian sides . In his later career , he improved substantially as a batsman . He toured England with the West Indies team in 1923 but missed the 1928 tour of England in controversial circumstances . Despite continued speculation that he would be recalled , he did not play representative cricket again .
= = Early career = =
Dewhurst made his first @-@ class debut for Trinidad in 1920 , playing two matches against Barbados . The following season , he played twice in the Inter @-@ Colonial Tournament , and also played both games in 1922 . In the final of the latter tournament , he scored 58 , his maiden first @-@ class half @-@ century and only his second score in double figures .
During 1923 , a representative West Indian team toured England . Dewhurst was selected as wicket @-@ keeper for the tour . He played in 15 games to score 182 runs at an average of 10 @.@ 11 , with one half @-@ century : 52 against Nottinghamshire . Although not the team 's official vice @-@ captain , Dewhurst was very influential in the side . His performances as wicket @-@ keeper were widely praised in the English press , and according to one team @-@ mate from that tour , the bowling was difficult for a wicket @-@ keeper to take . Despite competition from C. Piggott , whom many Trinidadians considered a superior wicket @-@ keeper , Dewhurst secured his place as Trinidad 's wicket @-@ keeper after the tour . Many critics regarded Dewhurst as the best wicket @-@ keeper in the West Indies .
Dewhurst continued to play for Trinidad between 1923 and 1926 , although , owing to his business commitments , he was unable to play in every game . In 1926 he played against the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) , which was touring the West Indies , for both Trinidad and a West Indies team . He passed fifty three times against the touring team , and such was his improvement as a batsman that critics suggested he could hold a place in the West Indies team for his batting alone . However , Dewhurst did not play another first @-@ class match until 1930 .
= = Controversy and later career = =
Dewhurst occasionally captained Trinidad in the Inter @-@ Colonial Tournament and was a candidate to captain the West Indies cricket team in England in 1928 , when the two most likely men were unwilling or unable to lead the team . Dewhurst had acted as vice @-@ captain of the West Indies team in 1926 to Harold Austin , but in the event , Karl Nunes was selected as captain . Dewhurst was also overlooked as vice @-@ captain in favour of Vibart Wight although the latter had no captaincy experience . Dewhurst was named in the team to tour England , but he withdrew . Some newspaper reports blamed illness for his decision , others suggested business reasons . Critics believed that Dewhurst 's absence adversely affected the team ; the replacement wicket @-@ keepers were not regarded as equal to Dewhurst 's ability , and the vice @-@ captain had little success . It was suggested that Dewhurst only missed the tour because he had not been chosen as vice @-@ captain . Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack noted : " The absence of Dewhurst — a member of the team of 1923 — was very severely felt . " However , Dewhurst was criticised in the West Indies for being unsporting by refusing to go on the tour .
After an absence from first @-@ class cricket , Dewhurst returned to play for Trinidad in 1930 when the MCC toured the West Indies . Before the series , he was named in the press as a candidate to lead the West Indies Test team . A Barbados newspaper claimed that he was the only suitable potential captain from Trinidad . The same report suggested that , while he may not have been available for every Test , he was an ideal leader if the selectors chose different captains for the matches played on each island . During the tour , and before the Trinidad Test , the Trinidad team played the MCC . Nelson Betancourt captained in the first game and won the match ; Dewhurst led in the second and was defeated . Subsequently , Betancourt was selected as captain for the Trinidad Test match . Citing " insularity and prejudice " in West Indian selection , an article in a Trinidad newspaper stated : " The selection of Betancourt in preference to Dewhurst was a pre @-@ arranged affair , the latter being only given the leadership of the second Trinidad team in order to keep quiet a suspicious and already much chagrined public . " The newspaper suggested that Dewhurst had been set up to fail when the selectors gave him a weaker team to play the MCC , that he still out @-@ performed Betancourt in captaincy , and that the decision was based on factors other than ability .
The match between Trinidad and MCC was Dewhurst 's last in first @-@ class cricket . In 31 first @-@ class matches , he scored 665 runs at an average of 16 @.@ 21 , passing fifty in six innings . He held 47 catches and made 13 stumpings . Both the Trinidad and West Indian selectors continued to leave Dewhurst out of teams . He was not chosen to tour Australia with the West Indies in 1930 – 31 . One press report suggested " reasons are to be found in directions other than cricket " , and that minds had been " poisoned " . Dewhurst continued to be mentioned as a prospective selection , and even as a possibility for the West Indies captaincy , in the early 1930s , and critics still believed him to be the best wicket @-@ keeper in the West Indies . But his lack of regular cricket was considered to count against him .
= = Impact = =
Writing about cricket in Trinidad , historian C. L. R. James noted that Dewhurst always kept wicket " excellently " , but that many Trinidadians considered Piggott a better wicket @-@ keeper who was only left out because he was black and Dewhurst was white . James recalled that people were astonished when Piggott was not chosen to tour England in 1923 . But he suggests it was not a surprise as without Dewhurst 's selection , among the Trinidad representatives on the West Indian team , there would have been no players from the Queen 's Park Club , the most prestigious club on the island , nor would there have been any white players . Writing in 1927 , in the expectation that Dewhurst would tour England the following year , his 1923 team @-@ mate C. R. Browne wrote that Dewhurst 's " heart is as big as his body " and that his " expansive smile captures many victims " . He described him as " very unassuming , but winning in appearance Dewhurst is effective in his job and inspires confidence in bowler and fieldsmen alike . Without Trinidad 's skipper no West Indies Team is complete . "
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= William A. Spinks =
William Alexander Spinks Jr . ( 1865 – 1933 ) was an American professional player of carom billiards in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . He was known professionally as William A. Spinks or ( in the initialing practice common in his era ) W. A. Spinks , and occasionally also referred to as Billy Spinks . In addition to being amateur Pacific Coast Billiards Champion several times , a world champion contender in more than one cue sports discipline , and an exhibition player in Europe , he became the co @-@ inventor ( with William Hoskins ) in 1897 of modern billiard cue chalk .
He was originally ( and again in retirement from the billiards circuit ) a Californian , but spent much of his professional career in Chicago , Illinois . At his peak , his was a household name in U.S. billiards ; the New York Times ranked Spinks as one of " the most brilliant players among the veterans of the game " , and he still holds the world record for points scored in a row ( 1 @,@ 010 ) using a particular shot type . Aside from his billiards playing career , he founded a lucrative sporting goods manufacturing business . He was both an oil company investor and director , and a flower and fruit farm operator and horticulturist , originator of the eponymous Spinks cultivar of avocado .
= = As an inventor ( 1892 – 97 ) = =
While Spinks was a world @-@ class player , his lasting contributions to cue sports were the innovations he brought to the game and the industry resulting from his fascination with the abrasives used by players on the leather tips of their cue sticks .
Cue " chalk " ( used since at least 1807 ) helps the tip better grip the cue ball ( very briefly ) on a stroke and prevents miscueing , as well as permitting the player to impart a great deal more spin to the ball , vital for position play and for spin @-@ intensive shots , such as massés . In the 1800s , true chalk ( generally calcium carbonate lumps , suspended from strings ) , and even plaster was often used , but players experimented with other powdery , abrasive substances , since true chalk had a deleterious effect on the game equipment , not only discoloring the billiard cloth but also allegedly damaging the fabric .
In 1892 , Spinks was particularly impressed by a piece of natural chalk @-@ like substance obtained in France , and presented it to chemist and electrical engineer William Hoskins ( 1862 – 1934 ) of Chicago for analysis . He determined it was porous volcanic rock ( pumice ) originally probably from Mount Etna , Sicily . Using the rock as a starting place , the two experimented together with different formulations of various materials to achieve the cue ball " action " that Spinks sought .
They eventually narrowed their search to a mixture of Illinois @-@ sourced silica and the abrasive substance corundum or aloxite ( a form of aluminum oxide , Al2O3 ) , founding William A. Spinks & Company with a factory in Chicago after securing a patent on March 9 , 1897 . Spinks later left the company as an active party , but it retained his name and was subsequently run by Hoskins , and later by Hoskins 's cousin Edmund F. Hoskin , after Hoskins moved on to other projects .
While regular calcium carbonate chalk had been packaged and marketed on a local scale by various parties ( English player Jack Carr 's " Twisting Powder " of the 1820s being the earliest recorded example , although considered dubious by some billiards researchers ) , the Spinks Company product ( which is still emulated by modern manufacturers with differing , proprietary compounds ) effectively revolutionized billiards . The modern product provided a cue tip friction enhancer that allowed the tip to better grip the cue ball briefly and impart a previously unattainable amount of spin on the ball , which consequently allowed more precise and extreme cue ball control , made miscueing less likely , made curve and massé shots more plausible , and ultimately spawned the new cue sport of artistic billiards . Even the basic draw and follow shots of pool games ( such as eight @-@ ball and nine @-@ ball ) depend heavily on the effects and properties of modern billiard " chalk " .
Spinks made a " fortune " from his co @-@ invention and the company that sold it to the world .
= = As a player = =
Spinks was a formidable specialist and professional competitor in straight rail billiards ( early on ) , and balkline billiards ( one of the most difficult of all cue sports ) , especially 14 @.@ 2 and later 18 @.@ 2 balkline , and skilled enough at the even more difficult 18 @.@ 1 variant to hold his own against World Champions .
= = = 1890s : Rise as a professional contender = = =
He moved to the East from California , as it was the center of high @-@ quality playing . He began his competitive professional playing career in Brooklyn , New York , ca . 1892 , at about 27 years of age .
On December 19 , 1893 , in Brooklyn , Spinks played in an exhibition that also featured the great Maurice Daly and young champion Frank Ives , and gave demonstrations of fancy massé shots ( see illustration ) . He also played a 14 @.@ 2 balkline match against World Champion Jacob Schaefer Sr. ; Schaefer won , 250 – 162 , with a high run and average of 88 and 20 ( respectively ) to Spinks 's 33 and 13 .
In 1894 , he was living in Cincinnati , Ohio , and in January of that year offered a convoluted challenge to veteran cueist Edward McLaughlin of Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , to play him either a single 14 @.@ 2 match to 600 points for US $ 500 each ( a substantial amount of money in that period for someone to put up personally on a bet – approximately $ 13 @,@ 675 in modern dollars ) in New York City , or one in New York and one in Philadelphia , or one in Cincinnati and one in Philadelphia , whatever McLaughlin preferred , and even offered to pay travel expenses to Cincinnati .
Spinks issued an even more curious challenge in November 1894 , to play 14 @.@ 2 balkline against ( almost ) any challenger to 600 points for a $ 1 @,@ 000 pot again , and while including French champion Edward Fournil , the bet specifically excluded the top @-@ three names in that era of the sport , namely Shaefer , Ives and George Franklin Slosson . The challenge was accepted by well @-@ known Chicago pro Thomas Gallagher ( in a match that future champion Ora Morningstar traveled all the way to Chicago to see ) .
Spinks was apparently not a fan of upstart cueist Ives in particular . Days after issuing his caveat @-@ laden challenge , Spinks was described by an onlooking journalist as " very uneasy until the seventeenth inning " as a spectator at the 14 @.@ 2 balkline World Champion challenge match between Ives and incumbent Schaefer ; the latter 's point total had been trailing , sometimes badly , in all sixteen previous innings until he rallied in the final inning of the game . Spinks , along with Gallagher , even helped Schaefer train in 14 @.@ 2 for another match against Ives , in October of that year ; though Spinks lost this practice match 600 – 369 ( averages 23 vs. 14 ) , he had a high run of 109 , to Schaefer 's 102 ( and Gallagher 's 157 total ) .
Spinks was reported in the press in 1895 to be specifically desired as a competitor in an upcoming seven @-@ man invitational tournament for " second class " professional players ( i.e. , not the top 3 ) , organized by Daly , and with as much as $ 1 @,@ 200 ( approx . $ 34 @,@ 133 in modern dollars ) added .
Spinks had moved to Chicago by 1896 , and was perfecting his billiard chalk with Hoskins . That year he was noted for besting McLaughlin at 14 @.@ 2 by a comfortable 2500 – 2300 margin ( with averages of 11 vs. 10 ) in a five @-@ evening 14 @.@ 2 match for $ 250 ( approx . $ $ 7 @,@ 111 , in modern dollars ) , December 8 – 12 , in Slosson 's New York City billiard hall . At one point he had trailed rather badly , 1500 – 1880 , after McLaughlin pulled off a stunning run of 140 ( Spinks 's highest recorded run of the match was 69 ) .
By 1897 , the year of the launch of Spinks & Company , he had evidently overcome his seeming reluctance to face World Champions again ( perhaps from having several years ' experience with his own product prototypes ) . Spinks competed in ( but did not win ) a December 3 open tournament .
The next month in New York City , a January 15 – 21 , 1898 double @-@ elimination , five @-@ man invitational 18 @.@ 2 balkline tournament was arranged , again in Chicago . It was a handicapped event , featuring the five top players from the previous event – Schaefer and Ives , as World Champions , had to reach 600 points to Spinks 's , William Catton 's and George Butler Sutton 's 260 . Without having to rely on the 600 @-@ point handicap , Spinks beat Schaefer flat @-@ out , 260 – 139 ( with a high run of 48 vs. Schaefer 's 38 ) in his January 18 second game . Spinks ( with a high run of " only " 44 ) was defeated in a very close 249 – 260 third game a day later by Catton ( high run 56 ) – by way of comparison , the same night Ives trounced Sutton by a whopping 400 – 160 . By January 20 , Spinks seemed to be running out of steam , as Sutton took him 260 – 118 , ( high runs 73 vs. 30 ) , and he lost again 154 – 400 ( with another high run of 44 ) to Ives a day later . ( In Spinks 's defense , he not only did better against Ives than Catton had , but Ives also had a very impressive high run of 136 , making it virtually impossible to catch up . ) This loss put Spinks out of the tournament at 4th place .
= = = 1900s : World @-@ class competitor = = =
Spinks was still considered a newsworthy contender over a decade later , for the World 18 @.@ 2 Balkline Championship of 1909 , being enumerated in " a fine list of entries " anticipated for the March event .
On January 11 , Spinks ( with a high run of 51 ) beat former amateur champion and then @-@ pro Calvin Demarest , 250 – 199 , in only 15 innings – despite scoring 0 points in 4 innings and only 1 @-@ point in another – by building several solid runs in the innings in which things went his way . For all intents and purposes it was a 10 @-@ inning win . Demarest took his revenge only days later , defeating Spinks in a close 250 – 225 , 23 @-@ inning game on January 13 , despite Spinks 's high run of 78 ( his highest 18 @.@ 2 run on record in publicly available sources , and considerably higher than Demarest 's 52 that night ) . Spinks lost to him again the very next day , 175 – 250 , in an exhibition game , though Spinks had a solid high run of 69 .
In January 1909 , just prior to an 18 @.@ 1 balkline championship at Madison Square Garden ( in which Spinks was not competing ) , he and Maurice Daly were observed playing practice games with Sutton for the latter 's pre @-@ event training , in Daly 's billiard hall in New York City , on multiple occasions over a several @-@ day stretch . While Spinks lost all but one of the recorded matches of this series , one loss was by a single point , at 400 – 399 , and another was a close 400 – 370 . His victory was 300 – 194 – surprising given that 18 @.@ 1 was not his preferred game .
Many articles of the era stress that Spinks was a Californian , because during this period American billiards was completely dominated by East @-@ Coasters and a few Midwesterners .
= = = 1910s – 1920s : Setting a record and leveling the field = = =
Spinks was noted in 1912 for a still @-@ unbroken world record run of 1 @,@ 010 continuous points at 18 @.@ 2 balkline using the " chuck nurse " ( a form of nurse shot ) , and could have made more , but stopped . Later , anchor space rules were instituted especially to curtail the effectiveness of the chuck nurse . The use of such repetitive , predictable shots by Spinks , Schaefer Sr. and their contemporaries led to the development of the more advanced and restrictive 14 @.@ 1 balkline rules ( invented in 1907 , but not played professionally until 1914 ) , which further thwarted the ease of reliance on nurse shots than the older balkline games already did .
In August 1915 , Spinks was tapped to join a consultative panel of notable players and major billiard hall proprietors to help develop a new handicapping system for balkline billiards , organized by the Brunswick @-@ Balke @-@ Collender Company , at that time the organizers of the World Championships . The inspiration for the new system was simply making it possible for the newly ascendant Willie Hoppe to be meaningfully challenged – his near @-@ unassailability was hurting billiard tournament revenues , because the outcome was considered foreordained by many potential ticket @-@ buyers . The system was expected to level the playing field in other ways , especially making it easier for skilled amateurs to enter the professional ranks .
Well into the 1920s , Spinks was still a well @-@ respected figure in the billiards industry , and wrote articles for publications such as Billiards Magazine , in which he sometimes focused on rather esoteric topics , as in his January 1923 piece on " Ventilation of Billiard Rooms " in an era when tobacco smoking was prevalent .
= = As an oilman and farm operator = =
Spinks described himself as a director of an oil company at the 1900 census . He invested money from his billiard equipment corporation in the petroleum industry in California .
While Spinks was not operating a farm by 1900 , the W. A. Spinks Ranch was a large enough operation by 1909 to employ a staff of farmhands , and included land in Bradbury Canyon , near Duarte , California , where Spinks resided at the time . He described himself as a flower farmer ( among other such specialists in the area ) in 1910 , and later as an " avocado rancher " . As a pomology horticulturist , he developed the Spinks avocado cultivar . Spinks was active in the growers ' community , and in 1922 hosted a large regional farm bureau meeting of avocado farmers at his ranch @-@ land " mountain estate " . Although active as a floriculturist , Spinks made no known lasting contributions to that field .
= = = Spinks avocado = = =
The Spinks variety of avocado , Persea americana ' Spinks ' , was developed by William A. Spinks at his Duarte ranch between 1910 and 1920 . In 1920 , Spinks provided a supply of his avocados for a University of California at Berkeley and California Avocado Association comparison of avocado strains . The Spinks avocado fruit was shown to be more resistant to freezing than other avocados . They also proved to be the second @-@ longest @-@ lasting in storage out of the ten varieties tested .
Considered " famous " by 1918 , the Duarte @-@ based Spinks avocado orchards were contracted to supply seedlings in 1919 for the palace of Xu Shichang , the President of China before communism , and other prestigious gardens in Asia . The Spinks varietal was eventually supplanted in popularity by the Hass avocado , the dominant commercial strain today .
= = Private life = =
William A. Spinks Jr . , the youngest of five children , was born July 11 , 1865 , in the then @-@ small township of San Jose , California , to struggling farmer William Sr. and wife Cynthia J. ( Prather ) Spinks . He had blue eyes , dark hair and a ruddy complexion , and was 5 feet 8 inches ( 1 @.@ 73 m ) tall by adulthood . His education is obscure .
On September 1 , 1891 , Spinks married Clara Alexandria Karlson ( b . December 12 , 1871 , Gothenburg , Sweden , immigrated 1872 ; d . October 4 , 1949 , Los Angeles ) ; they were to remain together for over 40 years . They returned to California from Chicago before the turn of the century . After a period in a San Francisco apartment ( ca . 1900 ) , they lived in the then @-@ rural Los Angeles suburbs of Duarte ( ca . 1910 ) where their farm was , and Monrovia ( later , by 1920 ) where they maintained a modest house . After William 's business success , the couple became extensive world travelers .
William Spinks died January 15 , 1933 , aged 67 , in Monrovia , California . In Los Angeles County 's San Gabriel Valley , Spinks Canyon , its stream Spinks Canyon Creek , and the local major residential thoroughfare Spinks Canyon Road ( running through Duarte 's northernmost residential area , Duarte Mesa ) , are named after him .
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= Godsmack =
Godsmack is an American rock band from Lawrence , Massachusetts , formed in 1995 . The band is composed of founder , frontman and songwriter Sully Erna , guitarist Tony Rombola , bassist Robbie Merrill , and drummer Shannon Larkin . Since its formation , Godsmack has released six studio albums , one EP ( The Other Side ) , four DVDs , one compilation album ( Good Times , Bad Times ... Ten Years of Godsmack ) , and one live album ( Live and Inspired ) .
The band has had three consecutive number @-@ one albums ( Faceless , IV , and The Oracle ) on the Billboard 200 . The band also has 20 top ten rock radio hits , including 15 songs in the top five , a record number of top ten singles by a rock artist .
Since its inception , Godsmack has toured on Ozzfest on more than one occasion , and has toured with many other large tours and festivals , including supporting its albums with its own arena tours . Godsmack has sold over 20 million records in just over a decade . In honor of the band 's success and the release of their sixth studio album , 1000hp , Mayor Marty Walsh has declared August 6 as " Godsmack Day " in the city of Boston .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and All Wound Up ( 1995 – 97 ) = = =
In February 1995 , Sully Erna decided to start a new band as the lead singer after playing the drums for more than 23 years , including more than two years in the now @-@ defunct band Strip Mind . His new band , The Scam , formed with Erna on vocals , Robbie Merrill on bass , local guitarist and friend Lee Richards on guitar , and Tommy Stewart on drums . The Scam quickly changed its name to Godsmack , after recording one demo . The newly formed band started playing small bars in their hometown of Boston . Locally popular songs such as " Keep Away " and " Whatever " soon brought them to the top of the hit charts in the Boston / New England area .
The band 's name , according to Erna statement in a 1999 interview , " I was making fun of somebody who had a cold sore on his lip and the next day I had one myself and somebody said , It looks like God smacked your face for making fun . The name stuck and they went by Godsmack from then on . We were aware of the Alice in Chains song but didn 't really think much about it . " In 1996 , Tony Rombola and Joe D 'Arco joined Godsmack as the guitarist and drummer , after Richards left upon learning he had a six @-@ year @-@ old child and Stewart left due to personal differences . In the same year , the band entered the studio for the first time , recording its first CD titled All Wound Up . The CD was recorded in just three days for $ 2 @,@ 600 .
For the next two years , the band played throughout the Boston area . Eventually Godsmack 's CD landed in the hands of Rocko , the night @-@ time DJ for Boston radio station WAAF ( FM ) . The radio station put " Keep Away " into heavy rotation and the song rose to the number one spot at the station very quickly . Newbury Comics , a New England record store chain , agreed to sell the CD on consignment . Shortly after the success of " Keep Away " , Godsmack went back into the studio and recorded a single titled " Whatever " , which became the new local favorite on WAAF ( FM ) . In an interview Sully Erna stated , " We had been selling maybe 50 copies a month at the time WAAF picked up the album . All of a sudden we started moving over a thousand records a week . ( ... ) I was doing all this from my bedroom . After years of grinding away , things finally started taking off " .
= = = Godsmack ( 1998 – 99 ) = = =
In mid @-@ 1998 , Universal / Republic Records signed the band to their label . Joe D 'Arco was dismissed from the band . He was replaced by former drummer Tommy Stewart , who returned after expressing a desire to be in the band again . The band 's first studio recording All Wound Up was re @-@ mastered , and the finished self @-@ titled debut CD album Godsmack was released to the public six weeks later . This led to the band 's first headlining tour , " The Godsmack Tour " with Jim Rose Circus as the opening act . After the album 's release the band went on the street playing club shows as well as playing at Ozzfest and Woodstock ' 99 . This was followed by a tour in Europe supporting Black Sabbath . Roxanne Blanford from Allmusic gave the album three out of five stars , stating , " Godsmack confidently brought metal into the technological age " . The album entered the Billboard 200 at number twenty @-@ two , and was certified 4x platinum by the RIAA in 2001 after being initially certified gold in 1999 .
The album sold well despite being initially pulled from the shelves in some stores due to concerns over some of its lyrical content . The band and its record label later added a Parental Advisory sticker to the album , and some stores ordered amended copies of the album . Erna commented in Rolling Stone magazine stating , " Our record has been in the marketplace for more than a year now without a parental advisory sticker and this is the one and only complaint ... Stickers and lyrics are by nature subjective ... We have decided to put a sticker on the record " . This controversy did not appear to adversely affect album sales but , according to Erna , helped , " It 's almost taunting kids to go out and get the record to see what we 're saying on it " . The album also had four successful singles which were " Whatever " , " Keep Away " , " Voodoo " and " Bad Religion " .
= = = Awake ( 2000 – 01 ) = = =
In 2000 , Godsmack returned to the studio after the multi @-@ platinum success of Godsmack to start recording Awake . The album was released on October 31 , 2000 . The album debuted at number five on the Billboard 200 , and has been certified 2x platinum by the RIAA . " Vampires " , a song on the album , also earned the band a Grammy nomination for Best Rock Instrumental Performance in 2002 . With the release of Awake , Godsmack toured Europe supporting Limp Bizkit . Erna said at the time , " We 've been touring nonstop since August 1998 , So most of Awake was written on tour while we were ping @-@ ponging between America and Europe , building up the band . " Ozzfest " was actually the only big tour where we rode under someone else 's wings ; we did a lot of work on our own . " The band played Ozzfest in 2000 again as they had in 1999 .
Two of the songs on the album were used in United States Navy commercials ( " Sick of Life " and " Awake " ) as background music . Erna stated , " Someone in the military is a fan , and they asked if they could use the music , and we accepted " . However , Erna insisted in an interview that Godsmack does not support any war .
= = = The Scorpion King , Faceless and The Other Side ( 2002 – 05 ) = = =
In 2002 , Erna was asked to write and perform a song for the soundtrack to The Scorpion King . The motion picture was the third in the Mummy saga , and was a spin @-@ off prequel of the Mummy series . The song Godsmack wrote and performed was titled " I Stand Alone " and the song became the number 1 single at Rock Radio and the most played Active Rock song in 2002 for 14 weeks straight . It was also used in the game Prince of Persia : Warrior Within .
With Shannon Larkin ( ex Ugly Kid Joe , Souls at Zero , Wrathchild America , MF Pitbulls ) replacing Tommy Stewart , who left due to personal differences for the second time , Godsmack went back into the studio to record a new album that was released in 2003 . Faceless debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 , selling 269 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , and the album would go on to sell over one million copies in the United States . Faceless managed to beat West Coast nu metal band Linkin Park , with the release of their second studio album Meteora , which dropped to number two on the Billboard 200 . Faceless also debuted at number nine on the Top Canadian Albums and at number one on the Top Internet Albums and remained at that position for two weeks . A massive Tour of America and Europe supporting Metallica followed .
The lead single " Straight Out of Line " received a Grammy Award nomination for " Best Hard Rock Performance " . The award went to Evanescence 's single " Bring Me to Life " . The album got its name after a swimming @-@ pool incident . However , in a later interview Merrill stated otherwise , making it unclear of how the album 's title came to be , " It came from the band 's feeling that , despite our radio and sales success , we still flew a bit under the radar " .
On March 16 , 2004 The Other Side , an acoustic EP , was released . The album debuted at number five on the Billboard 200 ; this is a relatively high position for an acoustic EP . It included several previously released songs re @-@ recorded as acoustic versions , as well as three new acoustic tracks . One new song , " Touché " , featured Godsmack 's first guitar player , Lee Richards , as well as John Kosco , who were at that time in the now defunct band Dropbox , The other two new acoustic tracks were " Running Blind " and " Voices " . The song " Asleep " is actually an acoustic version of " Awake " from the band 's second album Awake . Godsmack shifted from its " heavy " sound to a more mellow acoustic sound on this EP in the same manner Alice in Chains did in the Sap and Jar of Flies EPs , one of many similarities to Alice in Chains for which the band has been criticized . In 2004 , Godsmack opened for Metallica 's " Madly in Anger with the World tour " , and headlined the tour along with Dropbox . Afterwards , in autumn 2004 , the band played several acoustic shows to promote The Other Side , while at the same time continuing to open for Metallica .
= = = IV and Ten Years of Godsmack ( 2006 – 07 ) = = =
On April 25 , 2006 , Godsmack released its fourth studio album simply titled IV , followed by a tour that would continue until August 2007 , titled " The IV tour " . The album was produced by Erna and engineered by the well known producer and engineer Andy Johns , known for engineering Led Zeppelin 's Led Zeppelin IV . The first single from the album , " Speak " was released on February 14 , 2006 . The album debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 , selling 211 @,@ 000 copies in its first week .
IV has since been certified gold . The band had written over forty songs for the album , but the final track listing had eleven tracks , Larkin commented , " it 's Sully 's band and his vision . [ ... ] When it comes time to pick the songs it 's all Sully " . The album 's minimalist name " IV " derives not only from its being the band 's fourth studio album , but also from a running piece of backstage humor , as related by Larkin and Erna in an interview .
To celebrate ten years as a band , Godsmack released a greatest hits album entitled Good Times , Bad Times ... Ten Years of Godsmack on December 4 , 2007 . The album debuted at number thirty @-@ five on the Billboard 200 , selling 40 @,@ 000 copies in the first week of release . It includes a cover of the Led Zeppelin song " Good Times Bad Times " , as well as a DVD of Godsmack 's acoustic performance in Las Vegas at House of Blues . The album was originally intended to be a boxed set , but the band scrapped the plans so they could release a best of album . Godsmack will follow the release of the album with an acoustic tour . Despite rumors of the band going on hiatus as a result of releasing a greatest hits album , Erna was quoted as saying , " we 're not going away , we are just gonna take a break and enjoy our 10th year anniversary and kind of recharge our batteries . And then Godsmack will be back , and we will come back bigger and badder than ever . "
= = = The Oracle and break ( 2008 – 13 ) = = =
In November 2008 , Larkin announced that the band would be reforming and recording a new album . The following summer , the band toured as support to Mötley Crüe 's Crüe Fest 2 tour and released a non @-@ album single , " Whiskey Hangover " . After the tour , Godsmack started production for their new album . The album , titled The Oracle was released on May 4 , 2010 . Arriving to popular reception , The Oracle is Godsmack 's third straight full @-@ length studio album to debut at No. 1 with 117 @,@ 000 sold in the first week of release . Erna had this to say about the early sound album , " It 's gonna be really heavy . I mean , it 's very aggressive . I 'm not really sure ; it 's very premature right now . Right now we just finished one track for the Crüe Fest this Summer . But as far as the whole record goes , I think it 's going to be a lot more in your face . I don 't think there 's going to be any ' Voodoo 's or ' Serenity 's on this one . We decided to go balls out ! " .
Godsmack headlined the fourth annual Mayhem Festival alongside Disturbed . The band entered the studio in January 2012 to mix a live album plus record several covers for an upcoming release . The band then went on tour in the spring with Staind . Godsmack has completed work on an EP of cover songs . Godsmack released their new live album Live & Inspired on May 15 , 2012 . The set included a bonus EP of cover tracks . In January 2013 , Erna announced a short solo tour through America . In February , Sully said in an interview that Godsmack would take a break during 2013 . " We are going to take some time away now because we just ran for two years " he said in an interview with Loudwire .
= = = 1000hp ( 2014 – present ) = = =
In February 2014 , Erna tweeted that the band has made progress in the songwriting process for its next studio album , tentatively scheduled for late 2014 release . He also mentioned that the band finished 11 songs for the new record in two weeks . In April , the band announced that they have recorded 15 songs , ten of which will make the final cut . In May , Erna announced that the album is titled 1000hp ( 1000 Horsepower ) . The album 's title track was released as a single the following month . The album was released on August 5 , 2014 and sold around 58 @,@ 000 copies in the United States in its first week of release to land at position No. 3 on The Billboard 200 chart . Since release the disc has spawned the single Something Different and What 's Next . The band have unified a campaign to aid military veterans with their latest single What ’ s Next .
Godsmack also headlined 2014 Uproar Festival . They were announced on August 20 , 2014 , to be part of the Soundwave Festival in Australia . It has expanded to a 2 @-@ day festival for the first time , in February / March 2015 and followed by series of shows and tours around Europe . In July 2015 , The band has revealed dates for an upcoming North American fall headline tour . The run includes dates with Sevendust . Also in August 2015 Godsmack announced a new leg of North American dates that will keep the band busy through mid @-@ November .
On October 14 , 2015 , Godsmack released a digital single called " Inside Yourself " available for a limited free download . The song was released on iTunes on November 20 , 2015 .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Godsmack has been described as nu metal , heavy metal , post @-@ grunge , hard rock , and alternative metal . The band 's primary influences include Aerosmith , Alice in Chains , Black Sabbath , Led Zeppelin , Metallica , Pantera and Rush according to Erna , Larkin , and Rombola . Erna has cited Layne Staley as his primary influence .
The overall sound of the band 's first two albums sound similar to the sound of the Alice in Chains album Dirt . However , Godsmack has attempted to distance themselves from the Alice in Chains comparison with Erna stating in an interview with Matt Ashare , " I 've just never really heard that in our music " .
The band 's music is often compared to Alice in Chains which the band cites as an influence . Adrien Begrand of PopMatters states , " Erna perfectly mimics the late Layne Staley 's low , guttural , sinister singing and snarly , metal @-@ inspired growls " -Erna 's vocals also seem to be reminiscent of Metallica 's James Hetfield- and , " The band 's music is a faithful retread of Jerry Cantrell 's churning , tuned @-@ down hard rock " . Katherine Turman of Amazon.com states the band has " dark , swirling , commanding music " . She also commented on the band 's third album Faceless , which " mixes arena rock in the vein of an Alice in Chains " , " riff @-@ heavy , layered tunes and sharp , confident bridge @-@ burning lyrics " .
Erna 's singing style has been stated as " the snarl of James Hetfield " , and " composed of dark harmony that sounds a lot like Alice in Chains " . Merrill 's bass style has been described as " bulldozer bottom with occasional slap @-@ bass reverb " . Larkin 's drumming is thought to " worship at the twin altars of Neil Peart and John Bonham " . And Rombola 's guitar playing style has been praised as " guitars that sound like percussion instruments " .
= = Band members = =
Current members
Sully Erna – lead vocals , rhythm guitar , keyboards , harmonica , drums , percussion ( 1995 – present )
Robbie Merrill – bass , backing vocals ( 1995 – present )
Tony Rombola – lead guitar , backing vocals ( 1996 – present )
Shannon Larkin – drums , percussion ( 2002 – present )
Former members
Lee Richards – lead guitar , backing vocals ( 1995 – 1996 )
Tommy Stewart – drums , percussion ( 1995 – 1996 , 1998 – 2002 )
Joe D 'Arco – drums , percussion ( 1996 – 1998 )
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Godsmack ( 1998 )
Awake ( 2000 )
Faceless ( 2003 )
IV ( 2006 )
The Oracle ( 2010 )
1000hp ( 2014 )
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = = Grammy Awards = = =
= = = Billboard Awards = = =
= = = Boston Music Awards = = =
= = = Metal Edge Readers ' Choice Awards = = =
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= A Different Kind of Love Song =
" A Different Kind of Love Song " is a song by American recording artist Cher , taken from her 24th studio album , Living Proof ( 2002 ) . The song was written and produced by Sigurd Rosnes and Johan Aberg , with additional writing done by Michelle Lewis , and was co @-@ produced by Anders Hansson . The dance @-@ pop song alludes to themes of tragedy , heroism and brotherhood , and was released as a double A @-@ side single with " The Music 's No Good Without You " in July 2002 through Warner Bros. Records and WEA .
" A Different Kind of Love Song " received mostly positive reviews from music critics , who deemed it as one of the album 's highlights , although noting Cher 's heavily processed vocals due to the use of auto @-@ tune . The song charted on a few Billboard components , such as Dance / Club Play Songs , where it reached number one , Hot Dance Music / Maxi @-@ Singles Sales , peaking at number two , and on the Adult Contemporary chart . No accompanying music video was commissioned for " A Different Kind of Love Song " ; however , the track was performed a few times by Cher , including on a Will & Grace episode , her concert tour Living Proof : The Farewell Tour , and during the 50th American Bandstand in 2002 .
= = Composition and release = =
" A Different Kind of Love Song " is a dance @-@ pop song written and produced by Johan Aberg , while additional writing was done by Michelle Lewis , and Sigurd Rosnes . Anders Hansson co @-@ produced the song . According to Michael Paoletta of Billboard , the track " finds [ Cher ] not rocking the " Believe " boat too much : the chorus is soaring , the beats are foot @-@ stomping , and the singer 's vocals are gloriously affected . " Jim Farber of Entertainment Weekly perceived that Cher 's vocals are heavily processed due to the use of auto @-@ tune . Lyrically , " A Different Kind of Love Song " alludes to themes of tragedy , heroism and brotherhood , as noted by Rolling Stone journalist Barry Walters . The song was also treated with different remixes done by producers such as Rodney Jerkins . In an interview with MTV News , Jerkins expressed that he was flattered to be working with Cher . He further added , " It 's incredible to be able to work with a true diva . Cher said she just wanted me to do my thing , which was the most incredible thing in the world . And I had fun doing it . " His remix was included on the 2003 compilation album The Very Best of Cher . " A Different Kind of Love Song " was released as a single on July 2002 , with " The Music 's No Good Without You " as its A @-@ side .
= = Reception = =
Michael Paoletta of Billboard considered the album version of the song " perfect " , but questioned that " it may be too upbeat for clubland " . Reviewing Living Proof , Jim Farber of Entertainer Weekly noted that the songs " have enough oomph to make this more than a one @-@ shot comeback , " while Kerry L. Smith of Allmusic selected it as a " track pick " from his album review . Slant Magazine called the song " euphoric " .
" A Different Kind of Love Song " charted on few Billboard components . On the chart issue dated August 31 , 2002 , the song reached the top position on the Dance / Club Play Songs , and peaked at number 30 on the Adult Contemporary chart . It also peaked at number two on the Hot Dance Music / Maxi Singles chart .
= = Promotion = =
No music video was made for " A Different Kind of Love Song " . However , Cher performed it on the comedy series Will & Grace in 2002 , where she made a special guest appearance in the episode , " AI : Artificial Insemination Part 2 " , as God . The singer also performed the track during the first leg of the Living Proof : The Farewell Tour , and on April 20 , 2002 , during the 50th American Bandstand .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Cher - vocals
Johan Aberg - writer , producer , bass , guitars , keyboard , programming , mixing
Michelle Lewis - writer
Sigurd Rosnes - writer
Anders Hansson - producer
Neil Tucker - assistant engineer
Esbjörn Gunnarsson - bass
Ziggy - backing vocals , keyboard , programming
Dennis B - keyboard , programming , mixing
Björn Engelmann - mixing
Marie Diephuise - backing vocals
Credits adapted from Living Proof liner notes .
= = Charts = =
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= WASP @-@ 15b =
WASP @-@ 15b is an extrasolar planet discovered in 2008 by the SuperWASP collaboration , which seeks to discover exoplanets that transit their host stars . The planet orbits its host star at a distance of 0 @.@ 05 AU every four days . The mass of this planet is about one half that of Jupiter , but its radius is nearly 50 % larger than Jupiter 's , making the density of this planet only one quarter that of water ; it is thought that some other form of heating must explain its extremely low density . WASP @-@ 15b 's discovery was published on April 29 , 2009 .
= = Discovery = =
WASP @-@ 15 was first observed by the WASP @-@ South branch of the SuperWASP project , which operates from the South African Astronomical Observatory , between May 4 , 2006 and July 17 , 2006 . It was later observed by both WASP @-@ South and SuperWASP @-@ North , which is based in the Canary Islands , from January 31 , 2007 to July 17 , 2007 and from January 31 , 2008 to May 29 , 2008 . Further analysis taken from 24 @,@ 943 collected data points revealed eleven full or partial transits .
Follow @-@ up observations were conducted by a European and American science team at the 1 @.@ 2 m Leonhard Euler Telescope at La Silla Observatory in Chile , which further raised the possibility of the existence of a planet in WASP @-@ 15 's orbit ; use of the CORALIE spectrograph on the Euler Telescope between March 6 , 2008 and July 17 , 2008 revealed that the variations in radial velocity measurements were not because of an eclipsing binary star system .
CORALIE and the High Resolution Echelle Spectrometer ( HIRES ) revealed the spectrum of WASP @-@ 15 , which was used to derive the star 's characteristics . The science team studying WASP @-@ 15 found that , after running best @-@ fit models , WASP @-@ 15 's radial velocity and transit shifts were most likely due to the existence of a planet .
WASP @-@ 15 's planet , WASP @-@ 15b , had one of the lowest densities known amongst extrasolar planets when it was discovered . Its discovery paper was published by the American Astronomical Society on April 29 , 2009 in the Astronomical Journal .
= = Host star = =
WASP @-@ 15 is an F @-@ type star located in the Hydra constellation . It is located approximately 308 parsecs ( 1 @,@ 004 light years ) from Earth and has an apparent magnitude of 10 @.@ 9 , making it invisible to the unaided eye . The star is 1 @.@ 18 times more massive than the Sun , and has a radius that is 1 @.@ 477 times larger than that of the Sun , making it more diffuse . WASP @-@ 15 has an effective temperature of 6300 K , and is thus hotter than the Sun , although at 3 @.@ 9 billion years , it is also younger . WASP @-@ 15 has a metallicity of [ Fe / H ] of -0.17 , which means that it has 68 % of the iron found in the Sun .
= = Characteristics = =
WASP @-@ 15b has a mass of 0 @.@ 542 times Jupiter 's mass and a radius that is 1 @.@ 428 times Jupiter 's radius . Due in part to its proximity to its host star , a distance of 0 @.@ 0499 AU ( 7 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 km ) , WASP @-@ 15b is greatly inflated , with a density of 0 @.@ 247 g / cm3 . Another factor , such as an internal heat source , is suspected to add to this extremely high radius and extremely low density . WASP @-@ 15b orbits its host star every 3 @.@ 7520656 days . It also has an orbital inclination of 85.5º , making it almost edge @-@ on as seen from the Earth 's perspective .
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= Highgate tube station =
Highgate is a London Underground station and former railway station in Archway Road , in the London Borough of Haringey in north London . The station takes its name from nearby Highgate Village . It is on the High Barnet branch of the Northern line , between Archway and East Finchley stations and is in Travelcard Zone 3 .
The station was originally opened in 1867 as part of the Great Northern Railway 's line between Finsbury Park and Edgware stations . As part of their only partially completed Northern Heights plan , the London Underground started serving the station in 1941 , using new platforms in tunnels beneath the surface station . The platforms of the surface station remain , but were last used in 1954 , and the section of the line through them to Finsbury Park was lifted by 1972 . One of the original 1867 station buildings still exists , and is in use as a private house .
= = History = =
= = = Original station = = =
Highgate station was originally constructed by the Edgware , Highgate and London Railway in the 1860s on its line from Finsbury Park station to Edgware station . Before the line was opened it was purchased in July 1867 by the larger Great Northern Railway ( GNR ) , whose main line from King 's Cross ran through Finsbury Park on its way to Potters Bar and the north . The station opened along with the railway to Edgware on 22 August 1867 .
Because of the hilly terrain , the station was built in a deep cutting excavated from Highgate Hill adjacent to Archway Road . Tunnels penetrated the hillside at each end of the station , leading towards East Finchley to the north and Crouch End to the south . When built , the station had two side platforms , with three tracks between them , and a station building on the south side . A footbridge linked the two platforms .
A branch line was constructed from Highgate to Alexandra Palace by the Muswell Hill Railway ( MHR ) and opened on 22 May 1872 . The new branch split from the original route north of the station in a wide arc around Highgate Wood . The next station on the branch line when it opened was Muswell Hill , and in 1902 an intermediate station opened at Cranley Gardens .
In the 1880s , the station was rebuilt , with two tracks flanking a central island platform instead of the two side platforms . The island platform was accessed from a ticket office in the middle of the footbridge . In 1911 , the MHR branch was taken over by the GNR . After the 1921 Railways Act created the Big Four railway companies , the GNR became part of the London & North Eastern Railway ( LNER ) in 1923 .
= = = Northern Heights project = = =
In 1935 , the London Passenger Transport Board ( LPTB ) announced a proposal , which became known as the Northern Heights project , to take over the LNER lines from Finsbury Park to Edgware , High Barnet and Alexandra Palace , and link them to both the Northern line at East Finchley and to the Northern City line at Finsbury Park . The construction of the first phase of this project involved extending tube train services from the Northern line 's existing terminus at Archway station ( then also called Highgate ) , through a new section of paired tunnels under Highgate station to emerge south of East Finchley station , where track connections to the LNER line were made .
To provide an interchange between the new deep @-@ level platforms and the existing surface platforms , a subterranean concourse was constructed immediately beneath the existing station . The concourse was connected to the deep @-@ level platforms with escalators and to the existing platforms by stairs . Street entrances to the concourse were provided from the south ( Archway Road ) and the north ( Priory Gardens ) . At the same time , the buildings on the surface platforms were partly reconstructed and the footbridge was removed . Northern line services through the new tunnels to East Finchley started operating on 3 July 1939 although they did not stop at Highgate until later .
= = = Wartime = = =
Following the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939 , works to complete the electrification of the LNER lines were slowed or halted . The line from Finchley Central to Edgware closed for reconstruction on 11 September 1939 . Northern line services were extended from East Finchley to High Barnet on 14 April 1940 , and started serving the deep level platforms at Highgate on 19 January 1941 , though not all of the new station buildings had been completed . The surface platforms at Highgate continued to be served by LNER steam trains .
The deep @-@ level platforms were constructed to accommodate extra @-@ long nine @-@ car trains , which were planned for services on the Northern line , but never served Highgate , having been withdrawn at the start of the war . With the interchange between LNER and Northern line services available at Highgate from January 1941 , LNER trains to East Finchley ended on 2 March 1941 , after which they operated between Finsbury Park and Alexandra Palace only . In 1942 , LNER services through Highgate were reduced to rush hour only operations . During the war , the deep @-@ level platforms at Highgate were used , as many were , as a shelter from the bombing of London by the Luftwaffe , and , later , V @-@ 1 and V @-@ 2 missiles .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
After the war , plans to complete the Northern Heights project were reviewed . In early 1946 , the conversion of the LNER line from Mill Hill East to Edgware was scheduled by the LPTB for completion between January 1947 and June 1948 . No work was carried out as maintenance works and reconstruction of war damage on the existing network had the greatest call on London Underground funds . Funds for new works were severely limited and priority was given to the completion of the western and eastern extensions of the Central line to West Ruislip , Epping and Hainault . Despite being shown as under construction on underground maps as late as 1950 , work never restarted on the unimplemented parts of the Northern Heights project .
After a temporary closure between October 1951 and January 1952 , British Railways ( the successor to the LNER ) ended passenger services between Finsbury Park and Alexandra Palace permanently on 3 July 1954 . British Rail freight traffic continued to pass through the station until 1964 . After freight traffic ceased , the line continued to be used for occasional London Underground rolling stock transfers between Highgate depot and the Northern City line , with the stock being pulled over the unelectrified lines by battery locomotives . This ceased in 1970 because of the poor condition of some of the intermediate bridges , and the track was lifted through the surface platforms in 1972 .
Completion of the station buildings was delayed for many years . Designed by the architect Charles Holden , the pre @-@ war plans included a large entrance building at the top of the hill next to The Woodman public house with a pair of escalators between the entrance and the sub @-@ surface concourse . These were to be enclosed in an inclined structure down the side of the cutting parallel with the surface tracks . Taking inspiration from the local legend , the building would have been topped by a statue of Dick Whittington and his cat . When works were finished in 1957 , a single , upwards only , escalator was provided to take passengers from the sub @-@ surface ticket hall up to a simple exit at the top of the cutting .
One of the GNR 's station buildings remains on the north side of the surface platforms , used as a private residence . Much of the route between Finsbury Park and Alexandra Palace now forms part of the Parkland Walk , although this bypasses the station site for safety reasons .
= = Services and connections = =
= = = Services = = =
The station is in Travelcard Zone 3 , between Archway and East Finchley stations . Train frequencies vary throughout the day , but generally operate every 3 – 7 minutes between 06 : 01 and 01 : 01 northbound and 05 : 37 and 00 : 18 southbound ( as of 2015 ) .
= = = Connections = = =
As of 2015 , London Bus routes 43 , 134 and 263 and night bus route N20 serve the station .
= = Use in media = =
The disused platforms and tunnels have sometimes been used for filming and have appeared in several productions including the feature film Paperhouse , and the television series EastEnders and Waking the Dead .
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= Myrmecia inquilina =
Myrmecia inquilina is a species of ant endemic to Australia in the subfamily Myrmeciinae , first discovered in 1955 and described by Athol Douglas and William Brown Jr. in 1959 . These ants are large , measuring 21 @.@ 4 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 84 in ) . During the time of its discovery , Douglas and Brown announced M. inquilina as the first social parasite among the primitive subfamilies , and today it is one of the two known Myrmecia species to have no worker caste . Two host species are known , Myrmecia nigriceps and Myrmecia vindex . Aggression between M. inquilina and its host species does not occur , and colonies may only produce M. inquilina brood months after the inquiline queens begin to lay their eggs . Queens eat the colony brood or trophic eggs , and other Myrmecia species may kill M. inquilina queens if they reject them . Due to its restricted distribution and threats to its habitat , the ant is " vulnerable " according to the IUCN Red List .
= = Taxonomy = =
Before the discovery of M. inquilina , scientists believed that parasitic ants did not exist in the primitive ant subfamilies and were only known in Dolichoderinae , Formicinae and Myrmicinae ; many authors believed that primitive ants lacked a certain trait that would prevent parasitic ants from forming , but the discovery of M. inquilina now hints possible parasitic lifeforms in Ponerinae and some army ants . Brown collected the first specimens in 1955 from large fallen trees in Western Australia , and it was officially announced as the first parasitic ant among the primitive subfamilies in 1956 . In 1959 , Australian naturalist Athol Douglas and American entomologist William Brown Jr. provided the first description of the ant in an Insectes Sociaux journal article . Its specific epithet inquilina derives from the word inquilinus , meaning " tenant " . This name references the parasitic nature of the species , living inside a colony as a " guest " of another species .
Brown discovered the holotype female from an M. vindex nest on 23 March 1955 northwest from Wagin at Badjanning Rocks , Western Australia . The specimen is currently housed in the Western Australian Museum in Perth . Two dealated paratype females were also collected with the holotype , looking very similar to each other except for the mandibles and colouration . The mandibular dentition varies among the three , and one of the paratypes is darker than the holotype . In 1991 , a published journal reviewing the species groups assigned M. inquilina to the M. cephalotes species group . However , entomologists placed it in the M. gulosa species group one month after placing it in the M. cephalotes species group .
= = Description = =
M. inquilina is a large species , though it is smaller than its host . The body length of the ant is 21 @.@ 4 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 84 in ) , the head including the clypeus is 2 @.@ 9 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 11 in ) , the antennal scape 3 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 14 in ) and the diameter of the eyes are 1 @.@ 25 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 05 in ) . The mandibles are slender with four to five acutely shaped teeth . The antennae are morphologically similar to M. vindex , but it is smaller in comparison ; the petiole node is also longer and wider . The postpetiole is subtriangular and more narrow than those seen on M. vindex queens . The clypeus , legs and antennae are covered in punctulates ( spots ) , and the postpetiole and gaster have less punctulates . M. inquilina can be distinguished from other ants due to its lack of pilose ( long soft hairs ) ; only small erect setae are mostly found on the mandibles and gastric apex , but short hair can be found on the legs , and on the dorsum , thorax and cervix . The ant has pubescence ( soft short hair ) finer and more abundant than M. vindex . The pubescence is greyish in colour , and it is shorter and more noticeable on the clypeus and appendages while it is conspicuous on the postpetiole and gaster .
The colour of the head and gaster are black , shading into reddish brown on the clypeus and around the frontal carinae . The mesosoma ( alitrunk ) , node , and legs are brownish @-@ red and light , with the legs becoming yellowish in certain areas . The antennae and mandibles are brownish yellow , and the teeth have black edges . Overall , M. inquilina can be distinguished from others by its black head and its almost hairless body . Its colour is similar to M. nigriceps , but M. nigriceps is larger and covered in hair , along with a head more rounded than other species . M. inquilina does not have a worker caste , making it a workerless parasite .
Five males collected from an M. vindex nest are presumed to be M. inquilina , but the similarities between the two species cannot confirm if the males are M. inquilina . While the males collected are morphologically similar to M. vindex males , the head and gaster are darker , and two specimens show a reddish @-@ brown colour at the base of the first gastric segment , a characteristic that does not occur in M. vindex males . The genitalia is similar , but a more detailed study can distinguish these features among the two ants .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
M. inquilina is only found in the south @-@ west of Western Australia , with the holotype collected 225 kilometres ( 140 miles ) from Perth . M. inquilina occurs in colonies with M. vindex and M. nigriceps , found in soil , under logs and flat rocks in woodland . They are commonly found in granite outcrops and wooded areas , with trees such as Corymbia calophylla , Acacia acuminata and a large unidentified species of Allocasuarina ( possibly Allocasuarina huegeliana ) present . The type locality was in an area cleared for agricultural purposes , but some areas were still wooded ; many fallen large trees were present . M. inquilina is typically found deep inside the nests , around 25 centimetres ( 10 inches ) and can be found next to the queen .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
M. inquilina is one of the two known Myrmecia species to not have a worker caste , and it is an inquiline to M. nigriceps and M. vindex colonies . M. inquilina is a polygynous species ; colonies can house between two and several dozen queens , but some of them nesting in the colony are originally from there . Due to this , some M. inquilina females are ergatoid ants that lose their wings after eclosing in their cocoons . The parasitic queen ( s ) may only coexist indefinitely , but M. inquilina queens replace all host brood with their own eggs several months after infiltrating the nest . This only occurs if M. inquilina queens eat or destroy the brood laid by their host , and workers will even tend to the brood and protect it from potential invaders . M. inquilina queens tend to nest near the host queen and her brood , attended by worker ants without any form of aggression . Observations suggest that parasitic queens feed on trophic eggs laid by workers . Predatory threats only include other Myrmecia species ; they are rejected by a potential host colony . For example , M. regularis workers immediately seize M. inquilina queens and kill it as soon as the two species come into contact .
Aerial dispersion is important in this species , despite its restricted distribution . Queens never forage outside or leave the nest , unless under severe deprivation . Before nuptial flight , fully developed females start to occur during summer . Between 9 and 10 pm in January , queens and males start to emerge from their host nest and begin to mate . Observations show that the alates will climb up onto objects such as lighted fluorescent lamps and begin to fly after half an hour of endless running . When queens are looking for a host nest or wandering openly , M. vindex foragers may identify a queen and seize her ; such behaviour suggests that workers actively recruit fertilised queens for their nest . Host colonies tend to be smaller and depauperated when compared to other colonies without any inquiline queens , but host colonies can still produce alate offspring .
= = Status = =
M. inquilina is the only species in its genus to be listed as " vulnerable " by the IUCN Red List . This , however , needs updating . Habitat loss may be responsible for the ant to be potentially endangered ; Douglas and Brown note that a contamination of dieldrin spray to control the argentine ant destroyed many nests housing M. inquilina , and burn @-@ offs are also a threat to colonies housing M. inquilina .
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= Sie werden aus Saba alle kommen , BWV 65 =
Sie werden aus Saba alle kommen ( They will all come forth out of Sheba ) , BWV 65 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed it in 1724 in Leipzig for Epiphany and first performed it on 6 January 1724 .
Bach wrote the cantata to conclude his first Christmas season as Thomaskantor in Leipzig which had been celebrated with five cantatas , four of them new compositions , the Magnificat and a new Sanctus . The text by an anonymous author , who possibly supplied texts of two of the Christmas cantatas as well , combines the prescribed readings for the feast day , the prophecy from the Book of Isaiah and the gospel of Matthew about the Wise Men from the East . The librettist begins with a quotation from the prophecy , comments it by a stanza of the early anonymous Christmas carol " Ein Kind geborn zu Bethlehem " , says in a sequence of recitatives and arias that the prophecy was fulfilled in Bethlehem , concluding that the Christian should bring his heart as a gift . The cantata ends with a chorale , stanza 10 of Paul Gerhardt 's hymn " Ich hab in Gottes Herz und Sinn " .
Bach scored the cantata in seven movements festively , for two vocal soloists ( tenor and bass ) , a four @-@ part choir and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of two horns , two recorders , two oboes da caccia , strings and basso continuo . All recitatives are secco , but the full orchestra plays for the opening chorus , the last aria and the closing chorale .
= = History and words = =
Bach wrote the cantata in his first year as Thomaskantor ( director of church music ) in Leipzig to conclude his first Christmas season on the Feast of Epiphany . For the celebrations on three days of Christmas , New year 's Day and the following Sunday , he had performed five cantatas , four of them new compositions , the Magnificat and a new Sanctus in D major :
Christen , ätzet diesen Tag , BWV 63
Sanctus in D major , BWV 238
Magnificat in E @-@ flat major , BWV 243a
Darzu ist erschienen der Sohn Gottes , BWV 40
Sehet , welch eine Liebe hat uns der Vater erzeiget , BWV 64
Singet dem Herrn ein neues Lied , BWV 190
Mein liebster Jesus ist verloren , BWV 154 .
The prescribed readings for the feast day were taken from the Book of Isaiah , the heathen will convert ( Isaiah 60 : 1 – 6 ) , and from the Gospel of Matthew , the Wise Men from the East bringing gifts of gold , myrrh and frankincense to the newborn Jesus ( Matthew 2 : 1 – 12 ) . The unknown poet of the cantata text may be the same as for BWV 40 and BWV 64 for the Second and Third Day of Christmas , a person " theologically competent and poetically skilfull " , as the Bach scholar Klaus Hofmann writes . The librettist begins with the final verse of the epistle reading , Isaiah 's prophecy " all they from Sheba shall come : they shall bring gold and incense " . The poet juxtaposes the prediction by a chorale , stanza 4 of the old anonymous Christmas carol " Ein Kind geborn zu Bethlehem " ( " Puer natus in Bethlehem " , " A babe is born in Bethlehem " , 1543 ) , which describes the arrival of the " Kön 'ge aus Saba " ( Kings from Sheba ) , related to the epistle . The first recitative proclaims that the gospel is the fulfillment of the prophecy and concludes that it is the Christian 's duty to bring his heart as a gift to Jesus . This idea is the theme of the following aria . The second recitative equals the gifts of the contemporary Christian to those of the kings : Faith to the gold , Prayer to the incense , and Patience to the myrrh . The last aria expresses that the devoted Christian offers his heart as a present . The cantata ends with a chorale . The text is not extant , but it is assumed to be stanza 10 of Paul Gerhardt 's hymn " Ich hab in Gottes Herz und Sinn " .
Bach first performed the cantata for Epiphany on 6 January 1724 . In his Christmas Oratorio of 1734 , Bach dedicated Part VI , Herr , wenn die stolzen Feinde schnauben , to the topic and the occasion and first performed it on 6 January 1735 .
= = Scoring and structure = =
Bach structured the cantata in seven movements . The opening chorus is followed by an ancient chorale , then the male soloists sing a sequence of recitative and aria each . The work is completed by a closing chorale . Bach scored the cantata for two vocal soloists ( tenor ( T ) and bass ( B ) ) , a four @-@ part choir and a festive Baroque instrumental ensemble of two horns ( Co ) , two recorders ( Fl ) , two oboes da caccia ( Oc ) , two violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) , and basso continuo . Bach employed a pair of horns before in his Christmas cantata Darzu ist erschienen der Sohn Gottes , BWV 40 , and later in his cantata for Christmas 1724 , Gelobet seist du , Jesu Christ , BWV 91 , and later in Part IV of his Christmas Oratorio . He wrote the title as " J. J. Festo Epiphan : Concerto. à 2 Core du Chasse . 2 Hautb : da Caccia . / due Fiauti 2 Violini è Viola con 4 Voci " , which means : Jesus help . Feast of the Epiphany : concerto for 2 hunting horns . 2 oboes da caccia / two recorders 2 violins and viola with 4 voices .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring follows the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe . The keys and time signatures are taken from the book on all cantatas by the Bach scholar Alfred Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The continuo , playing throughout , is not shown .
= = Music = =
Bach uses scoring and especially instrumentation to illustrate the contrast of poverty and abundance . While all recitatives are secco , and the strings are silent for the first aria which is supported only by the oboes da caccia in low register , a festive orchestra with three kinds of wind instruments and strings accompanies not only , as usual , the opening chorus and the closing chorale , but also the penultimate movement , a tenor aria expressing how the believer gives his heart as a present . Hofmann notes that Bach " combines high art with the folk style " .
= = = 1 = = =
The opening chorus , " Sie werden aus Saba alle kommen " ( They will all come forth out of Sheba ) , depicts , that " alle " ( all ) , not just the three Magi , gather and move to adore . Horn signals call first and prevail throughout the movement . Canonical and imitation developments illustrate the growing of a crowd . The central section is an extended choral fugue , framed by two sections with the voices embedded in a repeat of the instrumental introduction . John Eliot Gardiner remarked in connection with his Bach Cantata Pilgrimage that the instrumentation resembles Near Eastern music , the recorders representing " the high pitches often associated with oriental music and the oboes da caccia ( in tenor register ) to evoke the shawm @-@ like double @-@ reed instruments ( salamiya and zurna ) of the Near East " .
= = = 2 = = =
The same idea is rendered in a stanza from an archaic Christmas carol , " Die Kön 'ge aus Saba kamen dar " ( The kings came out of Sheba ) , telling of the three Kings from Sheba as mentioned by Isaiah . Its melody , in triple time , is set for four parts .
= = = 3 = = =
The first recitative , " Was dort Jesaias vorhergesehn , das ist zu Bethlehem geschehn . " ( What Isaiah prophesied there has happened in Bethlehem . ) , applies the situation to the individual Christian , who has nothing to offer as a gift but his heart , explained in an arioso ending . The musicologist Julian Mincham notes unexpected harmonies when the stable of Bethlehem is mentioned , as if to illustrate the " lowliness of that birthplace " .
= = = 4 = = =
The first aria , " Gold aus Ophir ist zu schlecht " ( Gold from Ophir is too meager ) , is accompanied by the oboes da caccia , whose low register together with the bass voice conveys the humility expressed in the words . The instruments keep repeating the first motif , reminding of the initial idea that gold is not good enough .
= = = 5 = = =
The tenor recitative , " Verschmähe nicht , du , meiner Seele Licht , mein Herz " ( Do not scorn , o You the light of my soul , my heart ) , begins with a plea , expressed in a downward line over a ninth . It ends on the notion " des größten Reichtums Überfluß mir dermaleinst im Himmel werden " ( the abundance of the greatest wealth must some day be mine in Heaven ) .
= = = 6 = = =
To show the abundance , the dance @-@ like aria , " Nimm mich dir zu eigen hin " ( Take me to Yourself as Your own ) , is accompanied by all the wind instruments , playing concertante and together . Instead of a conventional da capo aria , Bach creates a bar form by repeating the text of the second idea on new musical material . A long ritornello of 32 measures " contains an almost unprecedented variety of instrumental colouring " , as Mincham writes .
= = = 7 = = =
The closing chorale , " Ei nun , mein Gott , so fall ich dir getrost in deine Hände . " ( Ah ! now , then , my God , I fall confidently into Your hands . ) , is sung on the melody of " Was mein Gott will , das g ’ scheh allzeit " , which Bach used frequently later , as the base for his chorale cantata BWV 111 and movement 25 of his St Matthew Passion .
= = Selected recordings = =
The listing is taken from the selection on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . Choirs and orchestras are roughly marked as large by red background ; performances with one voice per part ( OVPP ) and instrumental groups playing period instruments in historically informed performances are highlighted green .
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= Star Trek V : The Final Frontier =
Star Trek V : The Final Frontier is a 1989 American science fiction film released by Paramount Pictures . It is the fifth feature film based on Star Trek , and a sequel to the 1966 – 1969 Star Trek television series . Taking place shortly after the events of Star Trek IV : The Voyage Home , the plot follows the crew of the USS Enterprise @-@ A as they confront a renegade Vulcan , Sybok , who is searching for God at the center of the galaxy .
The film was directed by cast member William Shatner , following two films directed by his co @-@ star , Leonard Nimoy . Shatner also developed the initial storyline in which Sybok searches for God but instead finds an alien being . Series creator Gene Roddenberry disliked the original script , while Nimoy and DeForest Kelley objected to the premise that their characters , Spock and Leonard McCoy , would betray Shatner 's James T. Kirk . The script went through multiple revisions to please the cast and studio , including cuts in the effects @-@ laden climax of the film . Despite a writers ' guild strike cutting into the film 's pre @-@ production , Paramount commenced filming in October 1988 .
Many Star Trek veterans assisted in the production ; art director Nilo Rodis developed the designs for many of the film 's locales , shots and characters , while Herman Zimmerman served as production designer . Production problems plagued the film on set and during location shooting in Yosemite National Park and the Mojave Desert . As effects house Industrial Light & Magic 's best crews were busy and too expensive , the production used Bran Ferren 's company for the film 's effects , which had to be revised several times to keep down costs . The film 's ending was reworked because of poor test audience reaction and the failure of planned special effects . Jerry Goldsmith , composer for Star Trek : The Motion Picture , returned to score The Final Frontier .
The Final Frontier was released in North America on June 9 , 1989 , amidst a summer box office crowded with sequels and blockbuster films . It had the highest opening gross of any film in the series at that point and was number one its first week at the box office , but its grosses quickly dropped in subsequent weeks . The film received generally mixed to poor reviews by critics on release , and according to its producer , it nearly killed the franchise . The next entry in the series , Star Trek VI : The Undiscovered Country , received a more positive reception .
= = Plot = =
The crew of the newly commissioned USS Enterprise ( NCC @-@ 1701 @-@ A ) are enjoying shore leave after the starship 's shakedown cruise goes poorly . At Yosemite National Park James T. Kirk , recently demoted back to Captain after the events of the previous two films , is camping with Spock and Dr. Leonard McCoy . Their leave is interrupted when the Enterprise is ordered by Starfleet Command to rescue human , Klingon , and Romulan hostages on the planet Nimbus III . Learning of the Enterprise 's mission , the Klingon Captain Klaa decides to pursue Kirk for personal glory .
On Nimbus III , the Enterprise crew discovers that renegade Vulcan Sybok , Spock 's half @-@ brother , is behind the hostage crisis . Sybok reveals the hostage situation was a ruse to lure a starship to Nimbus III . Sybok wants to use a ship to reach the mythical planet Sha Ka Ree , the place where creation began ; the planet lies behind a seemingly impenetrable barrier near the center of the galaxy . Sybok uses his unique ability to reveal and heal the innermost pain of a person through the mind meld to subvert the wills of the hostages and crew members . Only Spock and Kirk prove resistant to Sybok ; Spock is unmoved by the experience and Kirk refuses the Vulcan 's offer , telling him that his pain is what makes him human . Sybok reluctantly declares a truce with Kirk , realizing he needs his leadership experience to navigate the Enterprise to Sha Ka Ree .
The Enterprise successfully breaches the barrier , pursued by Klaa 's vessel , and discovers a lone blue planet . Sybok , Kirk , Spock , and McCoy journey to the surface , where Sybok calls out to his perceived vision of God . An entity appears , and when told of how Sybok breached the barrier , demands that the starship be brought closer to the planet . When a skeptical Kirk inquires , " What does God need with a starship ? " , the entity attacks him in retribution . The others doubt a god who would inflict harm on people for pleasure .
Realizing his foolishness , Sybok sacrifices himself in an effort to combat the creature and allow the others to escape . Intent on stopping the being , Kirk orders the Enterprise to fire a photon torpedo at their location , to little effect . Spock and McCoy are beamed back to the ship , but Klaa 's vessel attacks the Enterprise before Kirk can be transported aboard . The vengeful entity reappears and tries to kill Kirk when Klaa 's vessel destroys it in a hail of fire . Kirk is beamed aboard the Klingon ship , where Spock and the Klingon General Korrd force Klaa to stand down . The Enterprise and Klingon crews celebrate a new détente , and Kirk , Spock , and McCoy resume their vacation at Yosemite .
= = Cast = =
William Shatner as James T. Kirk . Shatner practiced aerobics and strength training daily to prepare for the role . The physical activity and directing duties meant he woke at 4 a.m. every day during filming , no matter what time he fell asleep .
Leonard Nimoy as Spock , the Enterprise 's half @-@ Vulcan , half human science officer . Nimoy noted The Final Frontier was the most physical film in the series , which reflected Shatner 's energetic sensibility and what he enjoyed doing most on the show — " running and jumping " . Nimoy recalled Shatner 's attempts to instruct him in riding a horse , although Nimoy had ridden many horses bareback when playing American Indian roles for Republic Pictures serials .
DeForest Kelley as Leonard McCoy , chief medical officer . Kelley also noted the physicality required for the film and enjoyed doing things that he had not been asked to do in years . " I was very pleased to see that he [ Shatner ] brought it along in fine style , " he said . Kelley noted that his own ambition to direct had deserted him after seeing difficulties Nimoy faced directing the previous two Star Trek films .
The other members of the USS Enterprise @-@ A crew include chief engineer Montgomery Scott ( James Doohan ) , helmsman Hikaru Sulu ( George Takei ) , navigator Pavel Chekov ( Walter Koenig ) , and communications officer Nyota Uhura ( Nichelle Nichols ) . Takei said that despite studio pressure to complete the film on time , Shatner maintained a creative and enthusiastic atmosphere on set . " I have enormous admiration for his ability to block that kind of pressure from seeping on to the set . " Takei said that he found the biggest challenge of the film was learning to ride horses . Moreover , Takei acknowledged , " despite our sometimes strained personal history , I found working with Bill [ Shatner ] as a director to be surprisingly pleasant . "
Laurence Luckinbill plays Sybok . Sean Connery was originally contacted to star in the role , but was busy with Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade . Shatner discovered Luckinbill by chance ; channel surfing late one night , he saw him perform as Lyndon Baines Johnson . When Shatner called to offer him the role , Luckinbill accepted immediately .
Casting director Bill Shepard was in charge of filling additional roles . He combed through initial auditions with promising actors , then presented his choices to Shatner . Both men called the actors back as many as two or three times before each role was cast . Additional players include Todd Bryant as Klingon Captain Klaa , with Spice Williams @-@ Crosby as Vixis , Klaa 's lieutenant . Bryant was playing ping pong at a beach party when a casting director offered him the role . Bryant performed his audition twice , as Shatner requested that he repeat his performance speaking in Klingon . Williams @-@ Crosby thought Vixis was Kirk 's girlfriend when she arrived for her audition , but recalled afterwards that it was " fun " to play a villain . David Warner , Charles Cooper and Cynthia Gouw play the Federation , Klingon , and Romulan ambassadors to Nimbus III . Warner did not audition , but agreed to the role after Shatner swore that his character would survive the film . The director originally intended George Murdock to play the Klingon diplomat Korrd , but changed his mind on seeing Cooper 's performance . Murdock was recast as the " God " entity . Bill Quinn played McCoy 's father in one of his last roles . Producer Harve Bennett made a cameo as a Starfleet admiral .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
During the 1966 – 69 Star Trek television series , Shatner and Nimoy 's lawyers drafted what Shatner termed a " favored nations clause " , with the result that whatever Shatner received — e.g. , a pay raise or script control — Nimoy also got and vice versa . Nimoy had directed Star Trek III : The Search for Spock and Star Trek IV : The Voyage Home . Shatner had previously directed plays and television episodes ; when he signed on for The Voyage Home following a pay dispute , Shatner was promised he could direct the next film .
Shatner conceived his idea for the film 's story before he was officially given the director 's job . His inspiration was televangelists ; " They [ the televangelists ] were repulsive , strangely horrifying , and yet I became absolutely fascinated , " he recalled . Shatner was intrigued that not only did these personalities convince others God was speaking directly to them , but they became wealthy by what Shatner considered false messages . The televangelists formed the basis for the character " Zar " , later " Sybok " . Shatner 's first outline was titled " An Act of Love " , and many of its elements — the Yosemite vacation , the abduction of Klingon , human and Romulan hostages on the failed paradise planet — survived to the final film . In Shatner 's early draft , Kirk is overwhelmed by Zar 's superior numbers of followers and Spock , McCoy and the rest of the Enterprise crew come to believe in Zar 's divinity . Kirk feigns acceptance of Zar 's beliefs to travel with him to the God planet , which to Shatner would be a desolate , fiery waste . When Kirk confronts " God " , the image of the being transforms into that of Satan , and Kirk , Spock , and McCoy split up in their escape . Kirk eludes capture but goes back to save his friends from being carried away to Hell .
Shatner had presented his idea to studio head Frank Mancuso while filming The Voyage Home . Mancuso liked Shatner 's idea and agreed to hire a writer to draft a film treatment . Shatner wanted novelist Eric Van Lustbader , but negotiations between Lustbader and Paramount failed over the author 's requested $ 1 million salary . Shatner dictated the story himself and gave it to Paramount 's production president Ned Tanen for input .
Producer Harve Bennett was exhausted by his work on the previous three Star Trek films and wanted to move on , feeling that he was not part of the " Star Trek " family and that he had been mistreated by Nimoy . When Shatner tried to convince Bennett to reconsider , the producer insisted on a meeting at his home . After several hours of discussion Bennett agreed to return . Bennett disagreed with several elements of Shatner 's story , feeling that because no one could assuredly answer the question of God 's existence , the ending of the film would never be satisfying . Bennett also told Shatner that the film had the feeling of a tone poem rather than an adventure story . The studio agreed with Bennett , reasoning that the subject matter could be too weighty or offensive to theatergoers .
Shatner and Bennett began reworking the story . Concerned that knowing the renegade Sybok 's motivation from the beginning of the story was anticlimactic , the team moved the revelation to later in the story . Shatner said that Bennett also suggested turning the God entity into an " evil alien pretending to be God for his own gain " . Having satisfied themselves and Paramount with the adjustments , Shatner and Bennett approached Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan writer and director Nicholas Meyer to pen the script , but he was unavailable . Bennett found a script by David Loughery and showed his work to Shatner , who agreed that he would be a good fit for the task of scripting Star Trek .
Not everyone was happy with the story . Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry objected to the characters ' search for God in general , and more particularly , the idea of a God as portrayed by Western religion . One of Roddenberry 's employees suggested some of his employer 's animosity towards the story stemmed back to Star Trek : The Motion Picture . Roddenberry had wanted to approach that film with similar ideas that investigated the nature of God but was rejected by Paramount . Roddenberry , Nimoy and Kelley all disagreed that Spock and McCoy would betray Kirk , which Loughery explained was done to give a conflict in which " one man stands alone " from the rest .
Loughery stopped work on the script when the Writers Guild of America went on strike , and the production was further delayed when Nimoy began working on another project . During this time , Shatner reconsidered elements of the Star Trek V story ; he made Sybok 's character softer and more sympathetic . When the writers ' strike ended Loughery returned to work on the script while Shatner flew to the Himalayas for a job . When he returned , he felt betrayed by Loughery 's revisions , which he felt transformed the search for God into the search for the mythical paradise Sha Ka Ree — a word play on " Sean Connery " , whom they wanted for Sybok 's role . Though Shatner convinced Bennett and Loughery to revise much of the script , Sha Ka Ree remained ; it was changed to a place of ultimate knowledge of which Sybok had received visions . The script was also rewritten to address Nimoy and Kelley 's concerns .
While Roddenberry , Kelley and Nimoy gave their approval to the revised script , Paramount was concerned that the film would go over @-@ budget as written and ordered cuts . Shatner 's envisioned angels and demons at the film 's climax were converted to rock monsters that the false god would animate from the earth . Shatner wanted six of the creatures , but was forced to accept just one . Concerned that the franchise 's momentum following The Voyage Home had disappeared , Paramount rushed the film into production in late 1988 despite the writers ' strike cutting into pre @-@ production .
= = = Design = = =
Nilo Rodis , who had worked on two previous Star Trek features , was appointed the role of art director , and worked with Shatner to establish the film 's visual design . Shatner sought a grittier and more realistic feel to the Star Trek universe , and so the two worked together to visualize the film from start to finish . After Shatner explained the entire story in a day @-@ long session , Rodis went home and sketched out each scene from the script . Shatner was pleased with the results , especially with Rodis ' designs for Shatner 's most expansive or dramatic shots .
Rodis 's input in developing the early character and costume designs was significant . Shatner praised his costume designs as being futuristic but plausible and in keeping with the continuity established in previous Star Trek films . After being disappointed by the costume designers approached to realize Rodis ' ideas , Shatner suggested that Rodis become the costume designer as well . Bennett hired Dodie Shepard as the costume supervisor ; Shepard 's role was to oversee the costume fabrication and keep track of the clothes during filming . To save on costs , Shepard clothed extras with existing items from Western Costume 's warehouses . The constrained budget meant Shatner could not completely redesign the Starfleet uniforms , but Rodis created new brown field uniforms for the film 's location scenes as well as the leisure clothes the crew wears during shore leave .
Rodis and Shatner also drew up sketches of what the various aliens seen in the film would look like . Shatner picked Kenny Myers as the special @-@ effects makeup artist . Myers discussed the sketches with Shatner and made casts of actors ' faces using dental alginate . These casts were used for close @-@ up , high @-@ quality " A " makeups , as well as less complicated masks for far @-@ away and background characters . Shatner hired Richard Snell as makeup supervisor , advising him to make each Klingon forehead distinct .
Shatner hired Herman Zimmerman as production designer . His decision was based on Zimmerman 's work on the sets for Star Trek : The Next Generation , and he felt that the designer could convey Shatner 's futuristic yet grounded aesthetic . Zimmerman was immediately put in charge of designing all @-@ new sets for the Klingon Bird of Prey bridge , the Enterprise 's bridge , elevator shafts and bowels , and Nimbus III interiors . At one point , he was building five sets at once . Art department head Michael Okuda created LCARS backlit controls on the Klingon ship and Enterprise . The corridors for the Enterprise were the same as those used in the Next Generation television series . The bridge set alone cost $ 250 @,@ 000 . The Nimbus III city of Paradise was one of the last locations to be designed and created , because its design relied on what exterior location and terrain was used . Zimmerman created a sketch of the town 's layout over three days , drawing inspiration from a circular Moroccan fortress . Creation of the city cost $ 500 @,@ 000 and took five weeks of construction in 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) heat .
Tim Downs scouted possible areas for location filming . He looked for a location that could stand in for three different venues without the production having to move or change hotels : the film 's opening scene ; the God planet 's establishing shots ; and the Nimbus III Paradise City . Downs was familiar with the Mojave desert and thought that locations near Ridgecrest , California , would serve the production 's needs , so he took photos based on sketches Rodis had provided of what the locations might look like . Downs also shot photos with filters and tried to accomplish dust effects with his car to replicate ideas for how some sequences would be shot . When Downs returned with the photos , Shatner felt that the locations the scout found would be perfect for the film .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began in October 1988 , in and around Los Angeles , California . Shortly before the beginning of location shooting , Hollywood union truck drivers or teamsters went on strike to protest pay cuts and overtime changes . With deadlines looming , the production searched for non @-@ union drivers , aware that the Teamsters might retaliate by sabotaging equipment or flying airplanes above the filming to ruin audio recordings . After one of the production 's camera trucks exploded in the studio parking lot , the non @-@ union drivers headed to Yosemite National Park under cover of darkness with a police escort .
The film 's Yosemite scenes were all shot on location . Long shots of Kirk scaling the mountain were filmed with stunt doubles , while Shatner 's closer shots had him on a fiberglass set positioned in front of the camera , with the real mountains visible in the background . Aided by two trainers , Shatner had spent weeks at the Paramount lot , learning to climb a wooden replica . Laszlo scouted out a tall peak on which the production created a rock face with safety net . The overhead shot gave the impression Kirk was climbing at a great height , while unnatural background features such as swimming pools were camouflaged . In the scene , Spock watches Kirk 's ascent , and saves him when he slips and falls using levitating boots . Most of the shots framed Nimoy from the waist up ; in these scenes the actor was supported by a crane that gave the appropriate " float " to achieve the effect . Bluescreen footage of Shatner falling was shot later at Paramount and composited , while stuntman Ken Bates set a record for the highest American descender fall by plummeting off El Capitan — with a wire support rig — for long shots . In reviewing the dailies of the first two days of shooting , the production realized that a pine tree in the frame during Kirk and Spock 's mountain dialogue ruined the illusion of height , while a shot of Shatner clinging to the face of El Capitan appeared muddy due to clouds obscuring the sun and ruining the depth of field . The scenes had to be reshot later .
After the Yosemite shots , location shooting moved to desert locales . Nimbus III and its town , Paradise City , were recreated in the Mojave . The town was created as a haphazard collection of spaceship parts and futuristic scrap . Shatner " cracked " during the filming in 110 ° F ( 43 ° C ) heat , insulting the head electrician and ignoring Laszlo 's request for additional setup time . When a driver failed to appear and stranded Shatner and a skeleton crew , a park ranger came to the rescue and the production managed to film scenes of Sybok 's followers before they lost daylight . Shatner called the resulting half @-@ jogging pace of the dehydrated extras " the Sybok shuffle " . The production spent three more weeks filming the rest of the desert scenes , finishing the last night scene shortly before sunrise and the trip back to Los Angeles .
At Paramount , the crew filmed all the scenes that would take place on soundstages , including the Enterprise and Bird @-@ of @-@ Prey sets , the Paradise City interiors , and the campfire location . Production was smoother on set , and the crew shot scenes ahead of schedule . The crew fabricated a stand @-@ in set for the God planet location , where additional scenes were filmed to combine with the location footage . Spock 's catching of Kirk as the captain falls off El Capitan was filmed against a set that replicated the forest floor and was rotated ninety degrees .
Shatner scheduled the campfire scenes to be the last ones shot , after which the cast and crew had a small celebration before a traditional wrap party later . The cast celebrated the end of filming in the last week of December 1988 , and gave a press conference on the set of the Enterprise bridge on December 28 . Shatner returned to Paramount Studios a few days after principal photography had wrapped to organize the film 's post @-@ production schedule . This included showing a rough cut of the film — minus the special effects — to studio personnel . Shatner recalled that the film received praise and left the screening " reveling " in its reception ; it turned out to be a " momentary victory " once he saw the special effects .
= = = Effects = = =
During the Writers Strike , producer Ralph Winter confronted what writer Paul Mandell termed an " unenviable " effects situation . Industrial Light & Magic had provided the effects for the previous three Star Trek films , and Winter wanted them to work on The Final Frontier . However , the effects house 's best technicians were working on Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade and Ghostbusters II . With a stretched budget and short timeframe , Winter had to look elsewhere . To save time and money , he planned to create as many effects as he could either on stage , or through camera trickery . The producers solicited test footage from various effects houses to judge which was best able to create the film 's main effects , including the planet Sha Ka Ree and the godlike being which resided there . Bran Ferren 's effects company Associates and Ferren was picked . Ferren had worked on films such as Altered States and Little Shop of Horrors ; hiring the New York @-@ based studio made The Final Frontier the first film in the Star Trek series produced on both the east and west coasts of the United States .
Associates and Ferren had three months to complete the effects work — around half the usual industry timeframe . Shatner insisted on viewing lots of test footage before he proceeded with each shot , requesting time @-@ consuming changes if he did not like an effect . Ferren promoted a " low @-@ tech " approach to realizing complicated effects , but his cost estimates were too expensive and interfered with the scope of other live @-@ action sequences . Winter recalled that the production had budgeted $ 4 million for the film 's effects , slightly more than The Voyage Home . " The first pass " , he said , " with all the things [ Shatner ] wanted , was [ $ 5 or $ 6 ] million " . Combined with Ferren 's figures , the film 's budget climbed to $ 33 million . The studio called a meeting with executives and began cutting out effects shots .
To reduce the optical effects workload , Ferren rejected bluescreen compositing , opting instead for rear projection . This process , he reasoned , would save time , and would make sense for elements such as the Enterprise 's bridge viewer , where compositing would lack the softness of a real transmitted image . Designer Lynda Weinman used a Mac II to create the animatics cut into the film during production , which were eventually replaced by the film 's finished effects .
The rock monster climax of the film was ultimately dropped due to difficulties during filming . The monster , dubbed the Rockman , was a large latex rubber suit that breathed fire on command . Effects personnel smoked cigarettes and blew smoke into the suit 's tubing , loading it with smoke that it would slowly emit , obscuring some obvious rubber parts . On the last day of location shooting , the Rockman began suffering mechanical problems ; the suit stopped breathing fire , and the desert wind dissipated the smoke . The result , Shatner wrote , was that " our guy in the silly rubber suit ultimately just looked like ... well , a guy in a silly rubber suit . " With no time to return to the location , Shatner was forced to get wide shots and hope that the setting could be reproduced in the studio , but admitted that it was likely it was not going to work for the film .
Once back at the studio for non @-@ location filming , Shatner and Ferren met to discuss how to replace the Rockman . The agreed @-@ upon idea was an " amorphous blob of light and energy " that would rise up and chase after Kirk , shape @-@ shifting while in pursuit . The visuals took weeks before they were ready to be shown after the completion of principal photography . When Shatner saw the effects , however , he was disappointed with the low quality . Bennett and Shatner attempted to get money to reshoot the ending of the film , but Paramount turned them down .
ILM delivered the main Enterprise model , which was built by Magicam in 1978 for the first movie , to Associates and Ferren . However , scenes which included the Enterprise in the Earth @-@ orbiting Spacedock platform , as well as the Spacedock itself , were taken directly from ILM 's previous work in Star Trek IV : The Voyage Home . The Enterprise model had been damaged when it was loaned out for touring purposes , meaning the 30 @,@ 000 panels on the model had to be repainted by hand . While production wrapped , Ferren continued work on the miniatures and other optical effects at his New Jersey studio . The opticals were completed in Manhattan before being sent west ; for example , bluescreen footage of the motion controlled miniatures was filmed in Hoboken , New Jersey . In New York , the blue screen was replaced by a moving starfield — a single finished shot of a ship moving through space required as many as fifty pieces of film . The Great Barrier effects were created using chemicals , which were dropped into a large water tank to create swirls and other reactions . The " God column " , in which the false god appeared , was created by a rapidly rotating cylinder through which light was shone ; the result appeared on film as a column of light . Ferren used a beam splitter to project actor George Murdock 's head into the cylinder , giving the appearance that the false god resided within the column .
= = = Editing = = =
Days after filming was completed , Shatner returned to Paramount to supervise the film 's edit , soundscape creation and score , and integration of optical effects . Editor Peter E. Berger had already assembled rough cuts of various sequences , and with only weeks before the film 's scheduled completion , the production team set about the task of salvaging the film 's ending through editing . The false god 's screen time was reduced , and Ferren 's " god blob " effect was replaced with a closeup of the actor 's face , along with shots of lightning and smoke . At the time , Shatner felt that the edits " pulled a rabbit out of a hat " , solving many of the film 's problems .
Shatner 's cut ran slightly over two hours ( not including end credits or the opticals ) , which Paramount thought was too long . Their target runtime was one hour forty @-@ five minutes , which would guarantee twice @-@ nightly theatrical screenings . Bennett was handed the task of shortening the film 's running time , despite Shatner 's view that nothing could possibly be removed . Shatner was horrified by Bennett 's edit , and the two haggled over what parts to restore or cut .
In early test screenings , the film received negative reviews . Of the first test audience , only a small portion considered the film " excellent " , a rating that most other Star Trek films had enjoyed . Segments of the film were re @-@ edited for the theatrical release . Five minutes of footage was excised to improve the film 's pacing , and an additional scene was included on the Bird @-@ of @-@ Prey to make the circumstances of Kirk 's rescue clearer . The second screening , with the final effects and sound in place , received much better reviews .
= = Audio = =
= = = Music = = =
Music critic Jeff Bond wrote that Shatner made " at least two wise decisions " in making The Final Frontier ; beyond choosing Luckinbill as Sybok , he hired Jerry Goldsmith to compose the film 's score . Goldsmith had written the Academy Award @-@ nominated score for Star Trek : The Motion Picture , and the new Trek film was an opportunity to craft music with a similar level of ambition while adding action and character — two elements largely missing from The Motion Picture . Goldsmith did not want to accentuate the film 's comedy with music , feeling it would " [ take ] drama to the point of silliness " . He focused on the God planet as his most difficult task .
Goldsmith 's main theme begins with the traditional opening notes from Alexander Courage 's original television series theme ; an ascending string and electronic bridge leads to a rendition of the march from The Motion Picture . According to Jeff Bond , Goldsmith 's use of The Motion Picture 's march led to some confusion among Star Trek : The Next Generation fans , as they were unfamiliar with the music 's origins . Another theme from The Motion Picture to make a return appearance is the Klingon theme from the 1979 film 's opening scene . Here , the theme is treated in what Bond termed a " Prokofiev @-@ like style as opposed to the avant @-@ garde counterpoint " as seen in The Motion Picture . Goldsmith also added a crying ram 's horn .
The breadth of The Final Frontier 's locations led Goldsmith to eschew the two @-@ themed approach of The Motion Picture in favor of leitmotifs , recurring music used for locations and characters . Sybok is introduced with a synthesized motif in the opening scene of the film , while when Kirk and Spock discuss him en route to Nimbus III it is rendered in a more mysterious fashion . The motif also appears in the action cue as Kirk and company land on Nimbus III and try to free the hostages . When Sybok boards the Enterprise , a new four @-@ note motif played by low brass highlights the character 's obsession . The Sybok theme from then on is used in either a benevolent sense or a more percussive , dark rendition . Arriving at Sha Ka Ree , the planet 's five @-@ note theme bears resemblance to Goldsmith 's unicorn theme from Legend ; " ... the two melodies represent very similar ideas : lost innocence and the tragic impossibility of recapturing paradise , " writes Bond . The music features cellos conveying a pious quality , while the appearance of " God " begins with string glissandos but turns to a dark rendition of Sybok 's theme as its true nature is exposed . As the creature attacks Kirk , Spock and McCoy , the more aggressive Sybok theme takes on an attacking rhythm . When Spock appeals to the Klingons for help , the theme takes on a sensitive character before returning to a powerful sequence as the ship destroys the god @-@ creature .
The original soundtrack for the film was originally released by Epic Records , and included nine score tracks ( mostly out of film order ) and the song " The Moon Is a Window to Heaven " by Hiroshima . On Tuesday November 30 , 2010 , La @-@ La Land Records reissued the soundtrack in a 2 @-@ CD edition featuring the film 's complete score on the first disc and the original soundtrack album and some alternate cues on the second disc .
= = = Sound effects = = =
Mark Mangini served as The Final Frontier 's sound designer ; he had previously worked on The Voyage Home . Because Mangini was concerned about creating continuity within Star Trek 's sounds , he decided to reuse some effects rather than create new and different @-@ sounding ones — as such , the Bird of Prey 's cloak effect , beaming sounds , and the Enterprise engines sound similar to past movies . Mangini collaborated with Shatner to work out how the completely new effects would sound . For Sybok 's mind melds , Shatner wanted the sounds of beating hearts and breathing .
Mangini was also responsible for the film 's foley and dialogue replacement ; foley editors created background audio in sync with actions on screen to enrich the soundscape . The sound of Klingons walking , for example , was conveyed with chains and leather for a " rough " sound .
= = Themes = =
The Final Frontier appeared amidst several other films that grappled with quests for God and spiritual meaning ; author Peter Hansenberg regarded the film as part of an " almost fashionable " trend of 1980s science fiction movies with religious motifs . Regent 's Park College professor and Baptist minister Larry Kreitzer argues the film was " deliberately constructed " to raise the issues of God and the Biblical concept of paradise , Eden . Dixie State College professor Ace Pilkington went further , saying that after the " theological preoccupations " of the television series and previous films , " where else can the Enterprise go [ ... ] but in quest of God ? " Pilkington notes that The Final Frontier has roots in many plots from the series including " The Way to Eden " ( which also deals with a brilliant man hijacking the Enterprise to find the place of creation ) , " The Apple " , and " Shore Leave " ; a common thread between the paradises described is that they are always " too good to be true " . John S. Schultes agrees , pointing out that the idea of paradise has been seen many times in the series , but almost always illusory or deadened .
While many Star Trek episodes dealt with false deities , The Final Frontier is one of the few that , in the words of religious scholar Ross Shepard Kraemer , " intentionally confronted and explored theological questions , including the existence of God . " Theologian Larry Kreitzer dubbed it the film most preoccupied with religious ideas . According to the film , centuries in the future , beliefs in Eden persist , even among other alien races such as the Klingons and Romulans . Moreoever , the view of God is homogenized — no one disputes Sybok 's references to God as a " he " . Kreitzer finds that the film 's theological interpretation is offered by Kirk 's words : " Maybe He [ God ] is not out there , Bones . Maybe He 's right here , in the human heart . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Release = = =
The Final Frontier was expected to be one of the summer 's biggest movies and a sure hit , despite its appearing in a market crowded with other sequels and blockbusters such as Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade , Ghostbusters II and Batman . Never before had so many sequels been released at the same time . Analysts expected The Final Frontier to make nearly $ 200 million .
Marketing included an MS @-@ DOS computer game , part of an increasing trend of game tie @-@ ins to movies . J.M. Dillard wrote the film 's novelization , which was on The New York Times Best Seller list for four weeks . Paramount sold Star Trek @-@ branded apparel through catalogues , and Kraft made a Star Trek @-@ branded marshmallow dispenser . While Star Trek had a built @-@ in fan market , marketing tie @-@ ins were risky at the time and even high @-@ grossing films could not guarantee success of related merchandise . Unlike other summer blockbusters , Star Trek had no mass @-@ market appeal and no major food or beverage promotions , but sold pins and posters in theaters , bypassing retailers .
In its first week , The Final Frontier was number one at the domestic box office . Its $ 17 @.@ 4 million opening on 2 @,@ 202 screens beat the $ 16 @.@ 8 million total of The Voyage Home and made it the best Star Trek opening weekend to that point . The Voyage Home , however , had played in only 1 @,@ 349 theaters at a time with lower ticket prices . In its second week The Final Frontier tumbled 58 % to make $ 7 @.@ 1 million ; in its third week it grossed only $ 3 @.@ 7 million . It had a wide release of ten weeks , shorter than that of any Star Trek film before it .
The Final Frontier grossed $ 49 @,@ 566 @,@ 330 in the domestic box office for a global total of $ 63 million . The season proved to be another record @-@ breaker for the film industry , with domestic summer box @-@ office revenues of $ 2 @.@ 05 billion . The Final Frontier was the season 's tenth @-@ best @-@ grossing film , although it failed to make expected returns . It and Pink Cadillac were the early summer 's biggest box @-@ office disappointments .
= = = Critical response = = =
Critics generally gave The Final Frontier poor reviews . The film holds a 22 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 43 reviews , with the critical consensus " Filled with dull action sequences and an underdeveloped storyline , this fifth Trek movie is probably the worst of the series . " At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average out of 100 to critics ' reviews , The Final Frontier received a score of 43 based on 16 reviews .
Rob Lowing of The Sun Herald called the film " likeable but average " . The Chicago Sun @-@ Times ' Roger Ebert and The Washington Post 's Rita Kempley gave the film negative reviews , calling the film " a mess " and " a shambles " , respectively . The New York Times 's Caryn James considered the film to be disappointing to fans and non @-@ fans alike , while Chris Hicks of the Deseret News disagreed , feeling that the film approached issues in the same vein as the television series and that fans would enjoy it . Ansen and Lowing considered Shatner 's direction during action sequences weak , with Lowing adding that the second half of the film felt directionless . Hicks wrote that the film 's broad humor gave the film an inconsistent tone . In contrast , Chris Dafoe of the Toronto The Globe and Mail called it " the most intentionally funny " episode of the film series . Christian Science Monitor 's David Sterritt stated that at its best , The Final Frontier showed " flashes " of the humor that propelled The Voyage Home , and Lowing deemed Shatner 's direction at its best during comedic moments .
Critics such as Newsweek 's David Ansen judged the principal characters ' performances satisfactory ; " these veterans know each other 's moves so well they 've found a neat comic shorthand that gets more laughs out of the lines than they deserve " , Ansen wrote . Stan James of The Advertiser wrote that Warner was wasted in his role and most characters lacked any " drive and motivation " . In comparison , Luckinbill 's Sybok received praise from critics such as USA Today 's Mike Clark , who wrote that " he has the voice and stature of the golden screen 's most scintillating intellectual villains " , although he felt that he never seemed threatening or suspenseful . James considered Sybok the most " distinctive , compelling villain " of the series since Khan Noonien Singh in Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan .
The special effects were generally considered poor . Murphy wrote that the film fell apart after the arrival at Sha Ka Ree , where the " great special effects that graced parts I through IV are nowhere to be seen " . Ebert 's review agreed , saying that the visuals managed to inspire awe ever so briefly before dissolving into " an anticlimatic special effects show with a touch of The Wizard of Oz thrown in for good measure " . Kempley wrote the Enterprise 's objective was " to pass through an impenetrable ( Ha ! ) swirl of what appears to be cosmic Windex , beyond which is the planet Shockara , home of God , or perhaps California shot through a purple filter . "
Bennett blamed part of The Final Frontier 's failure on the change from a traditional Thanksgiving @-@ season Star Trek opening , to the sequel @-@ stuffed summer release period , and the diffusion of Star Trek fan viewership following the premiere of The Next Generation . Winter felt they should have recognized the film 's plot was too reminiscent of V 'ger from Star Trek : The Motion Picture and that the search for God was a mistake ; while he felt many parts of the film were good , they " smoked [ their ] own press releases " and nearly killed the franchise . Initially , Shatner believed that the film would get a positive response . In the morning after the opening night , he woke Nimoy up to tell him that the Los Angeles Times had given The Final Frontier a positive review . Soon after a local television reporter also gave the film a good review , and Shatner recalled that he incorrectly " began sensing a [ positive ] trend " . He later agreed that the film nearly ended the film series , and looking back on the film called it a " failed but glorious attempt " at a thought @-@ provoking film that did not come together . Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry considered elements of this film to be " apocryphal at best " , and particularly disliked the idea that Sarek had fathered a child ( Sybok ) with a Vulcan before Amanda . Nevertheless , the film is considered canon . Even George Takei expected the film to be a disappointment because " the script seemed rather a muddle ... as if three separately interesting stories force @-@ sealed together into one " which " made for a confusing and ultimately tiresome two hours " .
Considered a critical and commercial failure , the poor performance of The Final Frontier jeopardized the production of further Star Trek features . Bennett was given the go @-@ ahead to begin work on his own prequel concept that would have cast new actors to play the main cast at Starfleet Academy . Loughery worked with Bennett on a story inspired by Santa Fe Trail . When Paramount president Ned Tanen resigned , support for Bennett 's prequel idea evaporated . Paramount instead wanted another film with the original cast , and Bennett decided to leave the franchise . Winter remained with the production and The Wrath of Khan director Nicholas Meyer returned to direct the original cast 's final movie , Star Trek VI : The Undiscovered Country .
= = = Home media = = =
The film was released on VHS videotape in December 1989 . It was also released as a widescreen VHS edition . The video was among the top @-@ selling videocassettes for weeks after its release , and it enjoyed a resurgence in popularity in the months leading to the release of its sequel ; it was Paramount 's top @-@ selling title in the third quarter of 1991 . A Laserdisc version of the film was released by Pioneer LDCA ; The Final Frontier was the 21st @-@ best @-@ selling title for the platform in 1990 .
The film was released on DVD on April 20 , 1999 , as a bare @-@ bones edition with no bonus extras . It was re @-@ released on DVD as a 2 @-@ Disc Special Collector 's Edition on October 14 , 2003 , with bonus extras added , including footage of the principal photography wrap press conference , an interview with Shatner the day before filming began , a retrospective documentary and a commentary track by Shatner and his daughter Liz .
Paramount released The Final Frontier Blu @-@ ray Disc in May 2009 to coincide with the release of Star Trek , along with the other five films featuring the original crew , packaged as Star Trek : Original Motion Picture Collection . The Final Frontier was remastered in 1080p high @-@ definition from the 2000 high definition master prepared for the DVD . All six films in the set have new 7 @.@ 1 Dolby TrueHD audio . The disc features a new commentary track by renowned Star Trek authors and contributors Michael and Denise Okuda , Judith and Garfield Reeves @-@ Stevens and Daren Dochterman , as well as the previously recorded commentary track by Shatner and his daughter . Shatner wanted to produce a director 's cut of the movie similar to Star Trek : The Motion Picture and Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan with improved special effects and scenes omitted from the original release ; however , he stated in an interview that Paramount would not support the venture .
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= Rhys ap Gruffydd =
Rhys ap Gruffydd or ap Gruffudd ( often anglicised to " Griffith " ) ( 1132 – 28 April 1197 ) was the ruler of the kingdom of Deheubarth in south Wales from 1155 to 1197 . Today , he is commonly known as The Lord Rhys , in Welsh Yr Arglwydd Rhys , although this title may have not been used in his lifetime . He usually used the title " Proprietary Prince of Deheubarth " or " Prince of South Wales " , but two documents have been discovered in which he uses the title " Prince of Wales " or " Prince of the Welsh " . Rhys was one of the most successful and powerful Welsh princes , and , after the death of Owain Gwynedd of Gwynedd in 1170 , the dominant power in Wales .
Rhys 's grandfather , Rhys ap Tewdwr , was king of Deheubarth , and was killed at Brecon in 1093 by Bernard de Neufmarché . Following his death , most of Deheubarth was taken over by the Normans . Rhys 's father , Gruffydd ap Rhys , eventually was able to become ruler of a small portion , and more territory was won back by Rhys 's older brothers after Gruffydd 's death . Rhys became ruler of Deheubarth in 1155 . He was forced to submit to King Henry II of England in 1158 . Henry invaded Deheubarth in 1163 , stripped Rhys of all his lands and took him prisoner . A few weeks later he was released and given back a small part of his holdings . Rhys made an alliance with Owain Gwynedd and , after the failure of another invasion of Wales by Henry in 1165 , was able to win back most of his lands .
In 1171 Rhys made peace with King Henry and was confirmed in possession of his recent conquests as well as being named Justiciar of South Wales . He maintained good relations with King Henry until the latter 's death in 1189 . Following Henry 's death Rhys revolted against Richard I and attacked the Norman lordships surrounding his territory , capturing a number of castles . In his later years Rhys had trouble keeping control of his sons , particularly Maelgwn and Gruffydd , who maintained a feud with each other . Rhys launched his last campaign against the Normans in 1196 and captured a number of castles . The following year he died unexpectedly and was buried in St David 's Cathedral .
= = Genealogy and early life = =
Rhys was the second son of Gruffydd ap Rhys , ruler of part of Deheubarth , by his second wife Gwenllian ferch Gruffydd , daughter of Gruffudd ap Cynan , king of Gwynedd . His elder brother was Maredudd ap Gruffydd , and there were two younger brothers , Morgan and Maelgwn . He also had two older half @-@ brothers , Anarawd and Cadell , from his father 's first marriage . Rhys married Gwenllian ferch Madog , daughter of Madog ap Maredudd , the last Prince of all Powys .
His grandfather , Rhys ap Tewdwr , had been king of all Deheubarth until his death in 1093 . Rhys ap Tewdwr was killed in Brycheiniog , and most of his kingdom was taken over by Norman lords . Gruffydd ap Rhys was forced to flee to Ireland . He later returned to Deheubarth and ruled a portion of the kingdom , but was forced to flee to Ireland again in 1127 . When Rhys was born in 1132 , his father held only the commote of Caeo in Cantref Mawr .
The death of King Henry I of England and the ensuing rivalry between Stephen and Matilda gave the Welsh the opportunity to rise against the Normans . A revolt spread through south Wales in 1136 , and Gruffydd ap Rhys , aided by his two eldest sons , Anarawd and Cadell , defeated the Normans in a battle near Loughor , killing over five hundred . After driving Walter de Clifford out of Cantref Bychan , Gruffydd set off to Gwynedd to enlist the help of his father @-@ in @-@ law , Gruffudd ap Cynan . In the absence of her husband , Gwenllian led an army against the Norman lordship of Cydweli ( Kidwelly ) , taking along her two youngest sons , Morgan and Maelgwn . She was defeated and killed by an army commanded by Maurice de Londres of Oystermouth Castle . Morgan was also killed and Maelgwn captured .
Gruffydd formed an alliance with Gwynedd , and later in 1136 the sons of Gruffudd ap Cynan , Owain Gwynedd and Cadwaladr ap Gruffydd , led an army to Ceredigion . Their combined forces won a decisive victory over the Normans at the Battle of Crug Mawr . Ceredigion was reclaimed from the Normans , but was annexed by Gwynedd as the senior partner in the alliance . Gruffydd ap Rhys continued his campaign against the Normans in 1137 , but died later that year . The leadership of the family now passed to Rhys 's half @-@ brother Anarawd ap Gruffydd . In 1143 , when Rhys was eleven , Anarawd was murdered by the bodyguard of Cadwaladr ap Gruffydd , brother of Owain Gwynedd , king of Gwynedd . Owain punished Cadwaladr by depriving him of his lands in Ceredigion .
= = First battles ( 1146 – 1155 ) = =
Anarawd 's brother , Cadell ap Gruffydd , took over as head of the family . Gilbert de Clare , Earl of Pembroke , rebuilt Carmarthen castle in 1145 then began a campaign to reclaim Ceredigion . He built a castle in the commote of Mabudryd , but Cadell , aided by Hywel ab Owain Gwynedd who held Ceredigion for Gwynedd , destroyed it in 1146 . Rhys appears in the annals for the first time in 1146 , fighting alongside his brothers Cadell and Maredudd in the capture by assault of Llansteffan Castle . This was followed by the capture of Wiston in 1147 , Carmarthen in 1150 and Loughor in 1151 . In 1151 Cadell was attacked while out hunting by a group of Norman and Flemish knights from Tenby , and left for dead . He survived , but suffered injuries which left him unable to play an active role , and in 1153 he left on a pilgrimage to Rome .
Maredudd became ruler of Deheubarth and continued a campaign , begun in 1150 , aimed at recovering Ceredigion , which had been held by Gwynedd since 1136 . Maredudd and Rhys were able to drive Hywel ab Owain Gwynedd from Ceredigion by 1153 . The same year Rhys is recorded as an independent commander for the first time , leading an army to capture the Norman castle of St Clears . Maredudd and Rhys also destroyed the castles at Tenby and Aberafan that year . Maredudd died in 1155 at the age of twenty @-@ five and left Rhys as ruler of Deheubarth . Around this time he married Gwenllian ferch Madog , daughter of Madog ap Maredudd , prince of Powys .
= = Early reign = =
= = = Loss of territory ( 1155 – 1163 ) = = =
Shortly after becoming ruler of Deheubarth , Rhys heard rumours that Owain Gwynedd was planning to invade Ceredigion in order to reclaim it for Gwynedd . Rhys responded by building a castle at Aberdyfi in 1156 . The threatened invasion did not take place , and Turvey claims that Owain 's intention may have been to test the resolve of the new ruler .
King Stephen had died in October 1154 , bringing to an end the long dispute with the Empress Matilda which had helped Anarawd , Cadell and Maredudd to extend their rule in Deheubarth . With disunity within the realm no longer a problem , the new king of England , Henry II , soon turned his attention to Wales . He began with an invasion of Gwynedd in 1157 . This invasion was not entirely successful , but Owain Gwynedd was induced to seek terms and to give up some territory in the north @-@ east of Wales .
The following year , Henry prepared an invasion of Deheubarth . Rhys made plans to resist , but was persuaded by his council to meet the king to discuss peace terms . The terms were much harsher than those offered to Owain : Rhys was stripped of all his possessions apart from Cantref Mawr , though he was promised one other cantref . The other territories were returned to their Norman lords .
Among the Normans who returned to their holdings was Walter de Clifford , who reclaimed Cantref Bychan , then invaded Rhys 's lands in Cantref Mawr . An appeal to the king produced no response , and Rhys resorted to arms , first capturing Clifford 's castle at Llandovery then seizing Ceredigion . King Henry responded by preparing another invasion , and Rhys submitted without resistance . He was obliged to give hostages , probably including his son Hywel .
The king was absent in France in 1159 , and Rhys took the opportunity to attack Dyfed and then to lay siege to Carmarthen , which was saved by a relief force led by Earl Reginald of Cornwall . Rhys retreated to Cantref Mawr , where an army led by five earls , the Earls of Cornwall , Gloucester , Hertford , Pembroke and Salisbury , marched against him . The earls were assisted by Cadwaladr , brother of Owain Gwynedd , and Owain 's sons , Hywel and Cynan . However they were forced to withdraw and a truce was arranged . In 1162 , Rhys again attempted to recover some of his lost lands , and captured Llandovery castle . The following year Henry II returned to England after an absence of four years and prepared for another invasion of Deheubarth . Rhys met the king to discuss terms and was obliged to give more hostages , including another son , Maredudd . He was then seized and taken to England as a prisoner . Henry appears to have been uncertain what to do with Rhys , but after a few weeks decided to free him and allow him to rule Cantref Mawr . Rhys was summoned to appear before Henry at Woodstock to do homage together with Owain Gwynedd and Malcolm IV of Scotland .
= = = Welsh uprising ( 1164 – 1170 ) = = =
In 1164 all the Welsh princes united in an uprising . Warren suggests that when Rhys and Owain were obliged to do homage to Henry in 1163 they were forced to accept a status of dependent vassalage instead of their previous client status , and that this led to the revolt . Rhys had other reasons for rebellion , for he had returned to Deheubarth from England to find that the neighbouring Norman lords were threatening Cantref Mawr . His nephew , Einion ab Anarawd , who was the captain of his bodyguard , had been murdered at the instigation of Roger de Clare , Earl of Hertford . The murderer had been given the protection of the Clares in Ceredigion . Rhys first appealed to the king to intercede ; when this failed , he invaded Ceredigion and recaptured all of it apart from the town and castle of Cardigan . The Welsh revolt led to another invasion of Wales by King Henry in 1165 . Henry attacked Gwynedd first , but instead of following the usual invasion route along the north coast he attacked from the south , following a route over the Berwyn hills . He was met by the united forces of the Welsh princes , led by Owain Gwynedd and including Rhys . According to Brut y Tywysogion :
... [ King Henry ] gathered an innumerable host of the selected warriors of England and Normandy and Flanders and Gascony and Anjou ... and against him came Owain and Cadwaladr the sons of Gruffydd with all the host of Gwynedd , and Rhys ap Gruffydd with all the host of Deheubarth and Iorwerth the Red son of Maredudd and the sons of Madog ap Maredudd with all the host of Powys .
Torrential rain forced Henry 's army to retreat in disorder without fighting a major battle , and Henry vented his spleen on the hostages , having Rhys 's son Maredudd blinded . Rhys 's other son , Hywel , was not among the victims . Rhys returned to Deheubarth where he captured and burned Cardigan Castle . He allowed the garrison to depart , but held the castellan , Robert Fitz @-@ Stephen , as a prisoner . Shortly afterwards Rhys captured Cilgerran castle .
In 1167 he joined Owain Gwynedd in an attack on Owain Cyfeiliog of southern Powys , and spent three weeks helping Owain besiege the Norman castle of Rhuddlan . In 1168 he attacked the Normans at Builth , destroying its castle . Rhys benefited from the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169 and 1170 , which was largely led by the Cambro @-@ Norman lords of south Wales . In 1167 the King of Leinster , Diarmait Mac Murchada , who had been driven out of his kingdom , had asked Rhys to release Robert Fitz @-@ Stephen from captivity to take part in an expedition to Ireland . Rhys did not oblige at the time , but released him the following year and in 1169 Fitz @-@ Stephen led the vanguard of a Norman army which landed in Wexford . The leader of the Norman forces , Richard de Clare , 2nd Earl of Pembroke , known as " Strongbow " , followed in 1170 . According to Warren :
They were prompted to go by a growing suspicion that King Henry did not intend to renew his offensive against the Welsh , but was instead seeking an accommodation with the Welsh leaders .
The departure of the Norman lords enabled Rhys to strengthen his position , and the death of Owain Gwynedd in late 1170 left him as the acknowledged leader of the Welsh princes .
= = Later reign = =
= = = Peace with King Henry ( 1171 – 1188 ) = = =
In 1171 King Henry II arrived in England from France , on his way to Ireland . Henry wished to ensure that Richard de Clare , who had married Diarmait 's daughter and become heir to Leinster , did not establish an independent Norman kingdom in Ireland . His decision to try a different approach in his dealings with the Welsh was influenced by the events in Ireland , although Warren suggests that " it seems likely that Henry began rethinking his attitude to the Welsh soon after the débâcle of 1165 " . Henry now wished to make peace with Rhys , who came to Newnham to meet him . Rhys was to pay a tribute of 300 horses and 4 @,@ 000 head of cattle , but was confirmed in possession of all the lands he had taken from Norman lords , including the Clares . They met again in October that year at Pembroke as Henry waited to cross to Ireland . Rhys had collected 86 of the 300 horses , but Henry agreed to take only 36 of them and remitted the remainder of the tribute until after his return from Ireland . Rhys 's son , Hywel , who had been held as a hostage for many years , was returned to him . Henry and Rhys met once more at Laugharne as Henry returned from Ireland in 1172 , and shortly afterwards Henry appointed Rhys " justice on his behalf in all Deheubarth " . According to A. D. Carr :
This meant the delegation to him of any authority which the king might have claimed over his fellow Welsh rulers ; it might also have involved some authority over the king 's Anglo @-@ Norman subjects ... Rhys was more than a native Welsh ruler ; he was one of the great feudatories of the Angevin empire .
The agreement between Henry and Rhys was to last until Henry 's death in 1189 . When Henry 's sons rebelled against him in 1173 Rhys sent his son Hywel Sais to Normandy to aid the king , then in 1174 personally led an army to Tutbury in Staffordshire to assist at the siege of the stronghold of the rebel Earl William de Ferrers . When Rhys returned to Wales after the fall of Tutbury , he left a thousand men with the king for service in Normandy . King Henry held a council at Gloucester in 1175 which was attended by a large gathering of Welsh princes , led by Rhys . It appears to have concluded with the swearing of a mutual assistance pact for the preservation of peace and order in Wales . In 1177 Rhys , Dafydd ab Owain , who had emerged as the main power in Gwynedd , and Cadwallon ap Madog from Rhwng Gwy a Hafren swore fealty and liege homage to Henry at a council held at Oxford . At this council the king gave Meirionnydd , part of the kingdom of Gwynedd , to Rhys . There was some fighting in Meirionnydd the following year , but Rhys apparently made no serious attempt to annex it .
Rhys built a number of stone castles , starting with Cardigan castle , which was the earliest recorded native @-@ built stone castle in Wales . He also built Carreg Cennen castle near Llandeilo , a castle set in a spectacular position on a mountain top . He held a festival of poetry and song at his court at Cardigan over Christmas 1176 . This is generally regarded as the first recorded Eisteddfod . The festival was announced a year in advance throughout Wales and in England , Scotland , Ireland and possibly France . Two chairs were awarded as prizes , one for the best poem and the other for the best musical performance . J. E. Caerwyn Williams suggests that this event may be an adaptation of the similar French puys . R.R. Davies suggests that the texts of Welsh law , traditionally codified by Hywel Dda at Whitland , were first assembled in book form under the aegis of Rhys .
Rhys founded two religious houses during this period . Talley Abbey was the first Premonstratensian abbey in Wales , while Llanllyr was a Cistercian nunnery , only the second nunnery to be founded in Wales and the first to prosper . He became the patron of the abbeys of Whitland and Strata Florida and made large grants to both houses . Giraldus Cambrensis , who was related to Rhys , gives an account of his meetings with Rhys in 1188 when Giraldus accompanied Archbishop Baldwin around Wales to raise men for the Third Crusade . Some Welsh clerics were not happy about this visit , but Rhys was enthusiastic and gave the Archbishop a great deal of assistance . Giraldus says that Rhys decided to go on crusade himself and spent several weeks making preparations , but was eventually persuaded to change his mind by his wife Gwenllian , " by female artifices " .
= = = Final campaigns ( 1189 – 1196 ) = = =
Henry II died in 1189 and was succeeded by Richard I. Rhys considered that he was no longer bound by the agreement with King Henry and attacked the Norman lordships surrounding his territory . He ravaged Pembroke , Haverfordwest , and Gower and captured the castles of St. Clear 's , Laugharne , and Llansteffan . Richard 's brother , Prince John ( later King John ) , came to Wales in September and tried to make peace . He persuaded Rhys to raise the siege of Carmarthen and accompany him to Oxford to meet Richard . Rhys arrived at Oxford to discover that Richard was not prepared to travel there to meet him , and hostilities continued .
In his later years Rhys had trouble keeping control of his sons , particularly Maelgwn and Gruffydd . In 1189 Gruffydd persuaded Rhys to imprison Maelgwn , and he was given into Gruffydd 's keeping at Dinefwr . Gruffydd handed him over to his father @-@ in @-@ law , William de Braose . Gruffydd is also said to have persuaded his father to annex the lordship of Cemais and its chief castle of Nevern , held by William FitzMartin , in 1191 . This action was criticized by Giraldus Cambrensis , who describes Gruffydd as " a cunning and artful man " . William FitzMartin was married to Rhys 's daughter Angharad , and , according to Giraldus , Rhys " had solemnly sworn , by the most precious relics , that his indemnity and security should be faithfully maintained " . Rhys had also annexed the Norman lordships of Cydweli and Carnwyllion in 1190 . In 1192 Rhys secured Maelgwn 's release , but by now Maelgwn and Gruffydd were bitter enemies . In 1194 Rhys was defeated in battle by Maelgwn and Hywel , who imprisoned him in Nevern castle , though Hywel later released his father without Maelgwn 's consent . Giraldus suggests that Rhys 's incarceration in Nevern castle was divine vengeance for the dispossession of William FitzMartin . In 1195 two other sons , Rhys Gryg and Maredudd , seized Llanymddyfri and Dinefwr , and Rhys responded by imprisoning them . Rhys launched his last campaign against the Normans in 1196 . He captured a number of castles , including Carmarthen , Colwyn , Radnor and Painscastle , and defeated an army led by Roger de Mortimer and Hugh de Say near Radnor , with forty knights among the dead . This , the Battle of Radnor , was Rhys ' last battle . William de Braose offered terms , and Painscastle was returned to him .
= = = Death and aftermath ( 1197 ) = = =
In April 1197 Rhys died unexpectedly and was buried in St David 's Cathedral . The chronicler of Brut y Tywysogion records for 1197 :
... there was a great pestilence throughout the island of Britain ... and that tempest killed innumerable people and many of the nobility and many princes , and spared none . That year , four days before May Day , died Rhys ap Gruffydd , Prince of Deheubarth and unconquered head of all Wales .
Rhys died excommunicate , having quarreled with the Bishop of St. David 's , Peter de Leia , over the theft of some of the bishop 's horses some years previously . Before he could be buried in the cathedral , the bishop had his corpse scourged in posthumous penance .
Rhys had nominated his eldest legitimate son , Gruffydd ap Rhys , as his successor , and soon after his father 's death Gruffydd met the Justiciar , Archbishop Hubert Walter , on the border and was confirmed as heir . Maelgwn , the eldest son but illegitimate , refused to accept this and was given military assistance by Gwenwynwyn ab Owain of Powys . Maelgwn took the town and castle of Aberystwyth and captured Gruffydd , whom he handed over to the custody of Gwenwynwyn . Gwenwynwyn later handed him over to the king , who imprisoned him at Corfe Castle . Gruffydd was set free the following year and regained most of Ceredigion . In 1201 Gruffydd died , but this did not end the fighting between rival claimants . In 1216 Llywelyn the Great of Gwynedd held a council at Aberdyfi where he allocated parts of Deheubarth to several sons and grandsons of Rhys .
= = Character and historical assessment = =
Giraldus Cambrensis frequently mentions Rhys in his writings and describes him as " a man of excellent wit and quick in repartee " . Gerald tells the story of a banquet at Hereford in 1186 where Rhys sat between two members of the Clare family . What could have been a tense affair , since Rhys had seized lands in Ceredigion previously held by the Clare family , passed off with an exchange of courteous compliments , followed by some good @-@ natured banter between Rhys and Gerald about their family connections . Rhys gave Gerald and Archbishop Baldwin a great deal of assistance when they visited Wales to raise troops for the crusade in 1188 , and Gerald several times refers to his " kindness " and says that Rhys accompanied them all the way from Cardigan to the northern border of Ceredigion " with a liberality peculiarly praiseworthy in so illustrious a prince " .
Another contemporary writer also wrote of Rhys if Roger Turvey is correct in stating that Walter Map 's piece Of the King Appollonides deals with Rhys under a pseudonym . Map was less favourably disposed toward Rhys , describing him as " This king I have seen and know , and hate " , but goes on to say " I would not have my hatred blacken his worth ; it is not my wish ever to suppress any man 's excellence through envy " . He tells the following story about Apollonides / Rhys :
This same man gave provisions to his enemies when besieged and driven by risk of famine to capitulate ; he wished them to be overcome by his own strength and not by want of bread ; and though he deferred victory , he increased the renown of it .
Davies provides the following assessment of Rhys :
Rhys 's career was indeed a remarkable one . Its very length was a tribute to his stamina and skill : he had occupied the stage of Welsh politics for over fifty years , from his first appearance in his early ' teens , at the capture of Llansteffan castle in 1146 , to his death in 1197 . But it was his achievement which was astounding : he had reconstituted the kingdom of Deheubarth and made it the premier Welsh kingdom . For once , the poet 's compliment was well @-@ deserved : Rhys had restored " the majesty of the South " .
Davies also notes two flaws in Rhys 's achievement . One was the personal nature of his accord with Henry II , which meant that it did not survive Henry 's death . The other was his inability to control his sons and to force the other sons to accept Gruffydd as his successor .
= = Children = =
Rhys had at least nine sons and eight daughters . Confusingly , three of the sons were named Maredudd and two of the daughters were named Gwenllian .
Gruffydd ap Rhys II ( died 1201 ) was the eldest legitimate son and was nominated by Rhys as his successor . He married Maud de Braose , the daughter of William de Braose .
Maelgwn ap Rhys ( died 1231 ) , who was the eldest son but illegitimate , refused to accept Gruffydd as his father 's successor . A bitter feud developed between the two , with several of Rhys 's other sons becoming involved .
Rhys Gryg ( died 1233 ) married a daughter of the Earl of Clare . Rhys eventually became the main power in Deheubarth , but never ruled more than a portion of his father 's realm and was a client prince of Llywelyn the Great of Gwynedd .
Hywel ap Rhys ( died 1231 ) spent many years as a hostage at the court of Henry II and on his return became known as Hywel Sais ( Hywel the Saxon , i.e. Englishman ) .
Maredudd ap Rhys ( died 1239 ) was also given as a hostage , but was less fortunate than Hywel . He was blinded by King Henry after the failure of the invasion of Wales in 1165 , and became known as Maredudd Ddall ( Maredudd the Blind ) . He ended his days as a monk at Whitland Abbey .
Another Maredudd ( died 1227 ) became Archdeacon of Cardigan .
Rhys 's daughter Gwenllian ferch Rhys married Rhodri ab Owain , prince of the western part of Gwynedd .
Another Gwenllian ( circa 1178 – 1236 ) married Ednyfed Fychan , seneschal of Gwynedd under Llywelyn the Great , and through her , Rhys became an ancestor of the Tudor dynasty . Through the Tudors inter @-@ marrying with the House of Stuart Rhys is an ancestor to the current ruling house of the United Kingdom and also an ancestor of several ruling houses in Europe . When Henry Tudor landed in Pembrokeshire , Wales in 1485 to make a bid for the throne , his descent from Rhys was one of the factors which enabled him to attract Welsh support ( Henry flew a ( Welsh ) dragon banner at the battle of Bosworth Field ) .
Angharad ferch Rhys married William FitzMartin , lord of Cemais .
Other daughters married the Welsh rulers of Gwrtheyrnion and Elfael .
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= Sunderland Echo =
The Sunderland Echo is an evening newspaper serving the Sunderland , South Tyneside and East Durham areas of North East England . The newspaper was founded by Samuel Storey , Edward Backhouse , Edward Temperley Gourley , Charles Palmer , Richard Ruddock , Thomas Glaholm and Thomas Scott Turnbull in 1873 , as the Sunderland Daily Echo and Shipping Gazette . Designed to provide a platform for the Radical views held by Storey and his partners , it was also Sunderland 's first local daily paper .
The inaugural edition of the Echo was printed in Press Lane , Sunderland on 22 December 1873 ; 1 @,@ 000 copies were produced and sold for a halfpenny each . The Echo survived intense competition in its early years , as well as the depression of the 1930s and two World Wars . Sunderland was heavily bombed in the Second World War and , although the Echo building was undamaged , it was forced to print its competitor 's paper under wartime rules . It was during this time that the paper 's format changed , from a broadsheet to its current tabloid layout , because of national newsprint shortages .
The Echo is published Monday – Saturday and is part of the Johnston Press group — one of the United Kingdom 's largest publishers of local and regional newspapers . As of Jun 2015 , the paper had an average daily circulation of 16 @,@ 860 , with around 43 @,@ 500 readers , and a very active website . It retails at 70 pence . The Echo was based at Echo House , Pennywell Industrial Estate , Sunderland , from 1976 until April 2015 . It now shares a site with sister papers the Hartlepool Mail and Shields Gazette at Alexander House , 1 Mandarin Road , Rainton Bridge Business Park , Houghton @-@ le @-@ Spring .
= = General overview = =
= = = Facts and figures = = =
The Sunderland Echo is an award @-@ winning evening newspaper , published from Monday to Saturday each week . The paper has a daily circulation of 15 @,@ 249 , with an overall readership of 48 @,@ 557 , representing about 16 @.@ 5 % of adults in the area . The news coverage provided by the Echo focuses mainly on local events , including human interest , crime and court stories , as well as reports on the local Premier League football team , Sunderland AFC .
Reader profile statistics suggest that 51 % of Echo readers are male , and 49 % are female . The highest proportion of readers , 18 % , are between the ages of 45 and 54 . Independent research carried out for the Echo in 2000 found readers spent an average of 33 minutes reading the paper . The same survey showed the Echo appealed to people across the range of demographics , with between 44 and 50 % of people in each socio @-@ economic grouping being regular readers . Current industry figures show between 14 @.@ 5 % and 19 % of each socio @-@ economic grouping in the area being readers
= = = Circulation and supplements = = =
The Sunderland Echo covers a circulation area of 40 square miles ( 100 km2 ) in North East England , which includes parts of South Tyneside and County Durham , as well as the city of Sunderland . Whitburn , Marsden and The Boldons , all to the north of Sunderland , are among the South Tyneside communities covered . Peterlee , Horden , Seaham , Dawdon , Murton and Seaton , to the south of Sunderland , are the main towns and villages in the East Durham circulation area . The paper is also sold in Washington , Burnmoor and Durham , which are to the west of Sunderland . Villages on the outskirts of the city , including Houghton @-@ le @-@ Spring , Penshaw , Fencehouses , Ryhope and Hetton @-@ le @-@ Hole are included in the circulation area too . The main newspaper rivals in the Sunderland and County Durham area include The Northern Echo , The Journal , the Hartlepool Mail and the Evening Chronicle . The Sunderland Star , a free weekly newspaper printed by the Echo , is also distributed in the city . According to independent research conducted on behalf of the Echo in 2000 , the " popularity of the Echo in Sunderland and East Durham is greater than that of all other regional newspapers put together " .
In addition to the main newspaper , the Echo also produces a number of regular supplements and articles of specialist interest each week . These include sport and business supplements each Monday , a Down Your Way local news supplement on Tuesdays , jobs , junior football and nostalgia features on Wednesdays , an entertainment supplement , cars guide and nostalgia stories on Thursdays and a property pull @-@ out on Fridays . The Saturday edition includes a leisure pull @-@ out , featuring fashion , entertainment and restaurant reviews , while a local history nostalgia supplement , Retro , is published once a month . Nostalgia calendars , featuring old photographs of Sunderland and Seaham , are also produced .
= = Early years = =
= = = Foundation = = =
The first edition of the Sunderland Daily Echo and Shipping Gazette was printed on 22 December 1873 , on a flat @-@ bed press in Press Lane , Sunderland . Five hundred copies of the four @-@ page issue were produced at noon and 4 pm , and sold for a halfpenny each .
Samuel Storey , a former teacher and future Sunderland mayor and Member of Parliament , founded the paper to provide a platform for his political views and to fill a gap in the newspaper market . Although the 100 @,@ 000 @-@ strong population of Sunderland was already served by two weekly newspapers — The Sunderland Times and The Sunderland Herald — neither reflected the radical views held by Storey and his partners and there were no daily papers in the town . Storey promised readers in the first edition that , if things went wrong , " the Echo would try its best to put them right " . But he added : " Always with moderation and without esteeming all those who oppose us as fools and knaves . " Early copies of the Echo included lengthy reports of Liberal meetings , and critical articles on Liberal opponents .
The Sunderland Echo was launched with an initial investment of £ 3 @,@ 500 , raised by donations of £ 500 each from Storey and his business partners . Those joining the venture were Quaker banker Edward Backhouse , shipbroker and MP Edward Temperley Gourley , shipbuilder and MP Sir Charles Palmer , newspaper editor Richard Ruddock , rope @-@ maker Thomas Glaholm and draper Thomas Scott Turnbull . Lack of experience — only Ruddock had previous knowledge of newspaper management — and over @-@ optimistic estimates of costs meant that the initial funds were quickly exhausted . Storey later admitted : " In our childlike , simple ways , we thought this might be sufficient , but in a few months all the money was gone , so we paid in another £ 3 @,@ 500 and that soon went too . " As the prospect of any great financial success receded , Ruddock , Gourley and Palmer withdrew from the project . Storey , however , remained dedicated to the idea , and took on their shares . A further £ 7 @,@ 000 in investment from Storey enabled the remaining partners to abandon the " wheezing flat @-@ bed press " and , in July 1876 , the Echo moved to new premises at 14 Bridge Street , Sunderland .
= = = Bridge Street = = =
Bridge Street remained the home of the Echo for the next 100 years . Old buildings were demolished , new machine and composing rooms built on West Wear Street and two rotary presses installed just before the move , each capable of printing 24 @,@ 000 copies an hour . These changes brought about increased circulation , but it took another seven years before the Echo made a profit . It was a time of intense competition ; the Sunderland Times converted from a bi @-@ weekly to a daily paper in the same month as the Echo moved to Bridge Street , and Tory supporters started a paper of their own , the Sunderland Daily Post . The Sunderland Times was the first to collapse , but the Post survived for the next quarter of a century , providing the Echo with an often bitter rival .
Following the deaths of two further partners , Backhouse in 1879 and Turnbull in 1880 , Storey bought their shares to become the Echo 's chief proprietor . A year later , in 1881 , he met Scottish @-@ born millionaire Andrew Carnegie , and formed a syndicate with him to set up new newspapers and buy up others . Among those purchased were the Wolverhampton Express and Star , the Northern Daily Mail in Hartlepool and the Portsmouth Evening News . An attempt to buy the Shields Gazette , the country 's oldest daily newspaper , failed . The syndicate finally broke up in 1885 , with Storey retaining control of the Echo , Hampshire Telegraph , Portsmouth News and the Northern Daily Mail . These papers formed the basis of a new company , Portsmouth and Sunderland Newspapers Ltd , formed in the 1930s . The 19th century ended with the rivalry between the Echo and the Sunderland Daily Post intensifying . The Silksworth Colliery strike of 1891 pitted the two papers against each other , with the Post attacking Storey for having exploited the strike for political gain . Storey successfully sued for libel .
= = 20th century = =
= = = Consolidation = = =
The new century saw the Echo falling behind the times in its production methods . Established as a " leading daily newspaper " , it was one of the last to still be setting type by hand in 1900 . This changed in 1902 , when Linotype lead @-@ setting machines were brought in to set type mechanically . A landslide victory for the Liberal Party followed at the 1906 General Election , which heralded a new era for the Echo . The paper 's old rival , the Sunderland Daily Post , was discontinued six months later , and the Football Echo was launched on 7 September 1907 .
World War I brought its own difficulties for the Echo . Reporters went off to battle and , after the cost of newsprint soared , the paper was forced to double in price to a penny . The Echo 's 50th anniversary in 1923 was marked by a visit from company chairman Samuel Storey . Storey died two years later , three months after his eldest son Fred , and the chairmanship passed to another Samuel — Fred 's elder son . In the same year , plans were laid to improve the Bridge Street premises . The work included enlarging the printing works and was completed by the end of the 1920s .
= = = Depression years = = =
The depression of the 1930s brought mass unemployment to Sunderland . But , for the Echo , it was also a time of important structural changes in ownership . A new company controlling the three titles owned by the Storey family was formed in 1934 — Portsmouth and Sunderland Newspapers Ltd . There was a change in name for the Echo too , when the word Daily was dropped from its title of Sunderland Daily Echo and Shipping Gazette . The decade also , however , brought a fire which destroyed most of the bound files of archive copies of the Echo . Nineteenth @-@ century editions of the Echo can only be accessed in Sunderland at the City Centre Library in Fawcett Street .
= = = Second World War = = =
The Second World War brought havoc to Wearside , with Sunderland one of the seven most heavily bombed towns in the country . Despite the heavy shelling of the North East coast and River Wear , the Echo offices and printing plant escaped undamaged . The Shields Gazette , the Echo 's nearest rival , was not as fortunate . Its premises in Chapter Row , South Shields , were bombed in September 1941 and , under an emergency wartime arrangement , the paper was printed on the Echo presses . The Echo continued to be published throughout the war , despite paper rationing , a lack of reporters and a strict censorship of photographs . The war did have one major impact on the Echo — in the form of its size . Wartime restrictions on newsprint reduced the former broadsheet to its present tabloid size , and this style has been retained ever since .
= = = Post @-@ war changes and centenary = = =
The post @-@ war years saw the Echo drop Shipping Gazette from its main title @-@ piece , following a redesign in 1959 . Instead , the paper became known as Echo Sunderland for several years , although the name Sunderland Echo and Shipping Gazette continued to be printed in much smaller type above the new title . A further title @-@ piece redesign in 1972 , however , dispensed with the words Shipping Gazette and introduced an illustration of Wearmouth Bridge alongside the title Echo Sunderland .
Following a major refurbishment of the Bridge Street base in the mid @-@ 1960s , the next milestones for the paper came in 1973 . The first was Sunderland A.F.C. ' s 1 – 0 win over Leeds United in the FA Cup Final . Ian Porterfield 's winning goal was headline news at the time , giving the Echo its all @-@ time record circulation figure of 95 @,@ 000 copies of the Sports Echo . The second important event of 1973 was the 100th anniversary of the paper . Celebrations included a birthday party , with dignitaries such as Sunderland A.F.C. manager Bob Stokoe among the guests . Lord Buckton , the chairman of Portsmouth and Sunderland Newspapers Ltd , announced his retirement at the event , and was succeeded by his son , The Honourable Richard Storey . News of a move from Bridge Street to Pennywell , Sunderland , was also announced during the anniversary celebrations . The old newspaper building has since been replaced by a modern apartment block . The Echo name still lives on , however , as the project as been named Echo24 .
= = Modern era = =
= = = Decades of change = = =
The Echo moved from Bridge Street to a purpose @-@ built newspaper office at Echo House , Pennywell Industrial Estate , in 1976 . The move brought an end to the traditional methods of printing using hot molten metal to produce type and printing plates , and introduced computer technology . The £ 4 million development saw the Echo become the first daily newspaper in the North East to be completely produced by photo @-@ composition and web @-@ offset printing . It also saw a change in the Echo 's appearance , with a new shape , bolder typefaces and clearer printing . The first new @-@ look Echo was printed at Pennywell on 26 April 1976 and was issue number 32 @,@ 512 .
Another change inspired by the move was a return for the Football Echo man . The cartoon character had for years indicated the match results of Sunderland with a smile , a frown or a tear , while adorning the outside wall of the Bridge Street building . After several years in storage , he was returned to the wall of the new Echo building in 1976 , where he still remains today .
In 1985 there was a break in tradition when the Echo title @-@ piece appeared reversed out in white on a red background , instead of the more familiar red or black lettering . The new title @-@ piece was designed to give a greater impact to the colourful front page . It was the first in a series of changes which included dropping Sunderland from the title in 1990 , the paper simply becoming The Echo . This change was reversed in 1997 , with a return to the name Sunderland Echo .
= = = Technological changes = = =
The 1990s saw the Echo take a huge technological leap forward when a £ 12 million printing press was installed . It was used for the first time in December 1996 and was capable of printing up to 70 @,@ 000 newspapers an hour . The press was part of a multimillion @-@ pound revamp , which also saw journalists making up full news pages on computer screens for the first time . The Echo 's first internet news service was also launched in 1996 . A further £ 5 million was spent on updating the pre @-@ press and press hall area in 2004 , to improve printing quality and speed of production .
The Echo was still part of Portsmouth and Sunderland Newspapers until the end of the 1990s , although printed by Northeast Press , a subsidiary of the main company . However , the last link to the original founder , Samuel Storey , disappeared in 1999 , when Johnston Press took over the business in May that year . The Sunderland Echo is still published by Northeast Press , although Johnston Press — the nation 's second largest regional publisher — now owns the whole company . In September 2012 it was announced the multimillion @-@ pound press hall was to close , with the loss of 81 jobs , and printing operations moved to Sheffield . On Saturday , 3 November , the final Echo was printed in Sunderland . The Echo was based at Echo House , Pennywell Industrial Estate , Sunderland , from 1976 until April 2015 . It now shares a site with sister papers the Hartlepool Mail and Shields Gazette at Alexander House , 1 Mandarin Road , Rainton Bridge Business Park , Houghton @-@ le @-@ Spring .
= = = On @-@ line revolution = = =
The Echo 's new @-@ look website was launched in February 2007 , while a digital editing suite was created within the office at the same time . The audio @-@ visual equipment allows reporters to both write about and film stories as they happen , and the articles can be published on @-@ line within seconds .
Statistics show that almost 80 @,@ 000 people visited the Echo 's website in January 2007 , and this figure had risen to 216 @,@ 000 by January 2008 . , for 2013 the audited figures reflected about 122 @,@ 000 adult visitors per month . The website is updated 24 hours a day , seven days a week , with stories including football match reports and football transfer rumours among the most popular . Slideshows , videos and podcasts are also included on the site in addition to the news of the day .
= = = Expansion into magazine production = = =
The Sunderland Echo branched out into magazine production in October 2009 , with the free ' high @-@ end lifestyle ' publication etc . Twelve thousand copies are produced each month , and etc can also be read as an E @-@ magazine online . It also has a website , www.etcnortheast.co.uk , which was launched in February 2012 . The publication is aimed at an ABC1 audience and , although produced by staff based at Echo House in Sunderland , it is distributed across the North East , from Alnwick in Northumberland to Yarm in North Yorkshire , as well as by direct delivery . Aimed at people with ' a large disposable income , ' etc includes features on fashion , beauty , motoring , travel , property , food and wine , as well as celebrity interviews .
= = Awards and recognition = =
The Echo has won numerous accolades , as well as government praise , for its campaigning journalism , specialist writing , community work , photographic images and appeals for good causes over the decades . Examples of notable writing include a 2006 campaign highlighting the threat posed by bogus callers to the elderly and a 2005 campaign to protect 999 crews from being attacked on duty , which both received official praise in Parliament . A 1996 drug education campaign , which included the creation of a telephone service for tip @-@ offs about suspected local drug dealers , was also highly praised . The Newspaper Society named the Echo as its Campaigning Newspaper of the Year for the Drug Busters drive , and the campaign also won an award from the International Newspaper Marketing Association .
In the 135 years of its existence , the Echo has become part of the culture of the North East of England and a replica branch office of the Sunderland Daily Echo and Shipping Gazette was built at the open air Beamish Museum in County Durham in 1991 . Designed to show visitors how the newspaper would have operated in around 1913 , the life @-@ size exhibit includes a distribution office , reporter 's office , stationery shop and fully working printing press . The replica office took museum staff several months to research and create , and was opened by Sir Richard Storey , great @-@ grandson of Echo founder Samuel Storey , on 10 May 1991 .
A racehorse was named after the paper in 1991 , which was owned by a consortium of 250 Echo readers . The gelding won races at Hamilton , Redcar , Newcastle upon Tyne and Haydock in the early 1990s , but had to be put down on 17 February 1996 after pulling up badly lame during a routine morning gallop . The Echo was also used in a display at the Science Museum in London in 1999 , to show how writing can be made simpler for people with reading difficulties , and a specially printed edition of the newspaper appeared on the TV show Touching Evil , starring Robson Green , in the same year .
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= Grigory Potemkin =
Prince Grigory Aleksandrovich Potemkin @-@ Tavricheski ( Russian : Григо ́ рий Алекса ́ ндрович Потёмкин @-@ Таври ́ ческий ; ‘ Potyomkin ’ , r Grigoriy Aleksandrovich Potyomkin @-@ Tavricheskiy ; October 11 [ O.S. September 30 ] 1739 – October 16 [ O.S. October 5 ] 1791 ) was a Russian military leader , statesman , nobleman and favourite of Catherine the Great . He died during negotiations over the Treaty of Jassy , which ended a war with the Ottoman Empire that he had overseen .
Potemkin was born into a family of middle @-@ income noble landowners . He first attracted Catherine 's favor for helping in her 1762 coup , then distinguished himself as a military commander in the Russo @-@ Turkish War ( 1768 – 1774 ) . He became Catherine 's lover , favorite and possibly her consort . After their passion cooled , he remained her lifelong friend and favored statesman . Catherine obtained for him the title of Prince of the Holy Roman Empire and gave him the title of Prince of the Russian Empire among many others : he was both a Grand Admiral and the head of all of Russia 's land and irregular forces . Potemkin 's defining achievements include the peaceful annexation of the Crimea ( 1783 ) and the successful second Russo @-@ Turkish War ( 1787 – 1792 ) . The fall of Ottoman stronghold Izmail that he orchestrated prompted Gavrila Derzhavin and Osip Kozlovsky to write Russia 's first national anthem , " Let the thunder of victory sound ! " .
In 1774 , Potemkin became the governor @-@ general of Russia 's new southern provinces . An absolute ruler , he worked to colonize the wild steppes , controversially dealing firmly with the Cossacks who lived there . He founded the towns of Kherson , Nikolayev , Sevastopol , and Ekaterinoslav ( now Dnipropetrovsk ) . Ports in the region became bases for his new Black Sea Fleet . His rule in the south is associated with the " Potemkin village " , a largely fictional method of ruse involving the construction of painted façades to mimic real villages , full of happy , well @-@ fed people , for visiting officials to see . Potemkin was known for his love of women , gambling and material wealth ; he oversaw the construction of many historically significant buildings , including the Tauride Palace in St. Petersburg . A century after Potemkin 's death , his name was given to the Battleship Potemkin , which featured in the 1905 Russian Revolution and was fictionalized in Battleship Potemkin , a silent film by Sergey Eisenstein .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
A descendant of the Moscovite diplomat Pyotr Potemkin ( 1617 @-@ 1700 ) , Grigory was born in the village of Chizhovo near Smolensk into a family of middle @-@ income noble landowners . The family claimed Polish ancestry . His father , Alexander Potemkin , was a decorated war veteran ; his mother Daria was " good @-@ looking , capable and intelligent " , though their marriage proved ultimately unhappy . Potemkin received his first name in honour of his father 's cousin Grigory Matveevich Kizlovsky , a civil servant who became his godfather . It has been suggested that Kizlovsky fathered Potemkin , who became the centre of attention , heir to the village and the only son among six children . As the son of an ( albeit petty ) noble family , he grew up with the expectation that he would serve the Russian Empire .
After Alexander died in 1746 , Daria took charge of the family . In order to achieve a career for her son , and aided by Kizlovsky , the family moved to Moscow , where Potemkin enrolled at a gymnasium school attached to the University of Moscow . The young Potemkin became adept at languages and interested in the Russian Orthodox Church . He enlisted in the army in 1750 at age eleven , in accordance with the custom of noble children . In 1755 a second inspection placed him in the élite Horse Guards regiment . Having graduated from the University school , Potemkin became one of the first students to enroll at the University itself . Talented in both Greek and theology , he won the University 's Gold Medal in 1757 and became part of a twelve @-@ student delegation sent to Saint Petersburg later that year . The trip seems to have affected Potemkin : afterwards he studied little and was soon expelled . Faced with isolation from his family , he rejoined the Guards , where he excelled . At this time his net worth amounted to 430 souls ( serfs ) , equivalent to that of the poorer gentry . His time was taken up with " drinking , gambling , and promiscuous lovemaking " , and he fell deep in debt .
Grigory Orlov , one of Catherine 's lovers , led a palace coup in June 1762 that ousted the Emperor Peter III and enthroned Catherine II . Sergeant Potemkin represented his regiment in the revolt . Allegedly , as Catherine reviewed her troops in front of the Winter Palace before their march to the Peterhof , she lacked a sword @-@ knot ( or possibly hat plumage ) , which Potemkin quickly supplied . Potemkin 's horse then ( appeared to ) refuse to leave her side for several minutes before Potemkin and horse returned to the ranks . After the coup Catherine singled out Potemkin for reward and ensured his promotion to second lieutenant . Though Potemkin was among those guarding the ex @-@ Tsar , it appears that he had no direct involvement in Peter 's murder in July . Catherine promoted him again to Kammerjunker ( gentleman of the bedchamber ) , though he retained his post in the Guards . Potemkin was soon formally presented to the Empress as a talented mimic ; his imitation of her was well received .
= = = Courtier and general = = =
Although Catherine had not yet taken Potemkin as a lover , it seems likely that she passively — if not actively — encouraged his flirtatious behaviour , including his regular practice of kissing her hand and declaring his love for her : without encouragement , Potemkin could have expected trouble from the Orlovs ( Catherine 's lover Grigory and his four brothers ) who dominated court . Potemkin entered Catherine 's circle of advisers , and in 1762 took his only foreign assignment , to Sweden , bearing news of the coup . On his return , he was appointed Procurator , and won a reputation as a lover . Under unclear circumstances , Potemkin then lost his left eye and fell into a depression . His confidence shattered , he withdrew from court , becoming something of a religious hermit . Eighteen months later , Potemkin reappeared , probably summoned by Catherine . He became an army paymaster and oversaw uniform production . Shortly after , he became a Guardian of Exotic Peoples at the new All @-@ Russian Legislative Commission , a significant political post . In September 1768 , Potemkin became Kammerherr ( chamberlain ) ; two months later Catherine had his military commission revoked , fully attaching him to court . In the interval , the Ottoman Empire had started the Russo @-@ Turkish War of 1768 to 1774 and Potemkin was eager to prove himself , writing to Catherine :
The only way I can express my gratitude to Your Majesty is to shed my blood for Your glory . This war provides an excellent opportunity for this and I cannot live in idleness . Allow me now , Merciful Sovereign , to appeal at Your Majesty 's feet and request Your Majesty to send me to ... the front in whatever rank Your Majesty wishes ... [ to serve ] just for the duration of the war .
Potemkin served as Major @-@ General of the cavalry . He distinguished himself in his first engagement , helping to repulse a band of unruly Tatar and Turkish horsemen . He also fought in Russia 's victory at the Battle of Kamenets and the taking of the town . Potemkin saw action virtually every day , particularly excelling at the Battle of Prashkovsky , after which his commander Aleksandr Mikhailovich Golitsyn recommended him to Catherine . Potemkin 's army , under Pyotr Rumyantsev , continued its advance . Potemkin fought at the capture of Jurja , a display of courage and skill for which he received the Order of St. Anna . At the Battle of Larga , he won the Order of St. George , third class , and fought well during the rout of the main Turkish force that followed . On leave to St. Petersburg , the Empress invited him to dine with her more than ten times .
Back at the front , Potemkin won more military acclaim , but then fell ill ; rejecting medicine , he recovered only slowly . After a lull in hostilities in 1772 his movements are unclear , but it seems that he returned to St. Petersburg where he is recorded , perhaps apocryphally , to have been one of Catherine 's closest advisers . Though Orlov was replaced as her favourite , it was not Potemkin who benefited . Alexander Vasilchikov , another Horse @-@ Guardsman , replaced Orlov as the queen 's lover . Potemkin returned to war in 1773 as Lieutenant @-@ General to fight in Silistria . It appears that Catherine missed him , and that Potemkin took a December letter from her as a summons . In any case Potemkin returned to St. Petersburg as a war hero .
= = = Favorite of Catherine II = = =
Potemkin returned to court in January 1774 expecting to walk into Catherine 's arms . The political situation , however , had become complex . Yemelyan Pugachev had just arisen as a pretender to the throne , and commanded a rebel army thirty thousand strong . In addition , Catherine 's son Paul turned eighteen and began to gain his own support . By late January Potemkin had tired of the impasse and effected ( perhaps with encouragement from Catherine ) a " melodramatic retreat " into the Alexander Nevsky Monastery . Catherine relented and had Potemkin brought back in early February 1774 , when their relationship became intimate . Several weeks later he had usurped Vasilchikov as Catherine 's favorite , and was given the title of Adjutant General . When Catherine 's friend Friedrich Melchior , Baron von Grimm objected to Vasilchikov 's dismissal , she wrote back to him , " Why do you reproach me because I dismiss a well @-@ meaning but extremely boring bourgeois in favour of one of the greatest , the most comical and amusing , characters of this iron century ? " His uncouth behavior shocked the court , but Potemkin showed himself capable of suitable formality when necessary .
The frequent letters the pair sent to each other survive , revealing their affair to be one of " laughter , sex , mutually admired intelligence , and power " . Many of their trysts seem to have centered around the banya sauna in the basement of the Winter Palace ; Potemkin soon grew so jealous that Catherine had to detail her prior love @-@ life for him . Potemkin also rose in political stature , particularly on the strength of his military advice . In March 1774 he became Lieutenant @-@ Colonel in the Preobrazhensky Guards , a post previously held by Alexei Orlov . He also became captain of the Chevaliers @-@ Gardes from 1784 . In quick succession he won appointment as Governor @-@ General of Novorossiya , as a member of the State Council , as General @-@ in @-@ Chief , as Vice @-@ President of the College of War and as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Cossacks . These posts made him rich , and he lived lavishly . To improve his social standing he was awarded the prestigious Order of St. Alexander Nevsky and Order of St. Andrew , along with the Polish Order of the White Eagle , the Prussian Order of the Black Eagle , the Danish Order of the Elephant and the Swedish Royal Order of the Seraphim .
That Catherine and Potemkin married is " almost certain " , according to Simon Sebag Montefiore ; biographer Virginia Rounding expresses some doubt . In December 1784 Catherine first explicitly referred to Potemkin as her husband in correspondence , though 1775 , 1784 and 1791 have all been suggested as possible nuptial dates . In all , Catherine 's phrasing in 22 letters suggested he had become her consort , at least secretly . Potemkin 's actions and her treatment of him later in life fit with this : the two at least acted as husband and wife . By late 1775 , however , their relationship was changing , though it is uncertain exactly when Catherine took a secretary , Pyotr Zavadovsky , as a lover . On 1 January 1775 , Zavadovsky became Adjutant @-@ General to the Empress ( he became her official favorite in May ) and Potemkin moved to command the St. Petersburg troop division . Signs of a potential " golden adieu " for Potemkin include his 1775 appointment , at Catherine 's request , to the title of Prince of the Holy Roman Empire . Though he was " bored " with Catherine , the separation was relatively peaceful . The Prince was sent on a tour to Novogrod , but , contrary to the expectations of some onlookers ( though not Catherine 's ) , he returned a few weeks later . He then snubbed her gift of the Anichkov Palace , and took new apartments in the Winter Palace , retaining his posts . Though no longer Catherine 's favorite , he remained her favored minister .
Though the love affair appeared to end , Catherine and Potemkin maintained a particularly close friendship , which continued to dominate their lives . Most of the time this meant a ménage à trois in the court between the pair and Catherine 's latest swain . The favorite had a high @-@ pressure position : after Zavadovsky came Semyon Zorich ( May 1777 to May 1778 ) , Ivan Rimsky @-@ Korsakov ( May 1778 to late 1778 ) , Alexander Lanskoy ( 1780 to 1784 ) , Alexander Yermolov ( 1785 @-@ 1786 ) , Alexander Dmitriev @-@ Mamonov ( 1786 @-@ 1789 ) and Platon Zubov ( 1789 @-@ 1796 ) . Potemkin checked candidates for their suitability ; it also appears that he tended to the relationships and " filled in " between favorites . Potemkin also arranged for Catherine to walk in on Rimsky @-@ Korsakov in a compromising position with another woman . During Catherine 's ( comparatively ) long relationship with Lanskoy , Potemkin was particularly able to turn his attentions to other matters . He embarked upon a long series of other romances , including with his own nieces , one of whom may have borne him a child .
= = = Diplomat = = =
Potemkin 's first task during this period was foreign policy . An anglophile , he helped negotiate with the English ambassador , Sir James Harris , during Catherine 's initiative of Armed Neutrality , though the south remained his passion . His plan , known as the Greek Project , aspired to build a new Byzantine Empire around the Turkish capital in Constantinople . Dismembering the Ottoman Empire would require détente with Austria ( technically still the Habsburg Monarchy ) , and its ruler Joseph II . They met in May 1780 in the Russian town of Mogilev . The ensuing alliance represented the triumph of Potemkin 's approach over courtiers such as Catherine 's son Paul , who favored alliance with Prussia . The May 1781 defensive treaty remained secret for almost two years ; the Ottomans were said to still have been unaware of it even when they declared war on Russia in 1787 .
Elsewhere , Potemkin 's scheme to develop a Russian presence in the rapidly disintegrating state of Persia failed . Plans for a full @-@ scale invasion had previously been cut back and a small unit sent to establish a trading post there was quickly turned away . Potemkin focused instead on Russia 's southern provinces , where he was busy founding cities ( including Sevastopol ) and creating his own personal kingdom , including his brand new Black Sea Fleet . That kingdom was about to expand : under the Treaty of Kuçuk Kainarji , which had ended the previous Russo @-@ Turkish war , the Crimean Khanate had become independent , though effectively under Russian control . In June 1782 it was descending again into anarchy . By July 1783 , Potemkin had engineered the peaceful annexation of the Crimea and Kuban , capitalizing on the fact that Britain and France were fighting elsewhere . The Kingdom of Georgia accepted Russian protection a few days later with the Treaty of Georgievsk searching for protection against Persia 's aim to reestablish its suzerainty over Georgia ; the Karabakh Khanate of Persia initially looked as though it might also , but eventually declined Russian help . Exhausted , Potemkin collapsed into a fever he barely survived . Catherine rewarded him with one hundred thousand roubles , which he used to construct the Tauride Palace in St. Petersburg .
= = = Governor @-@ General and city builder = = =
Potemkin returned to St. Petersburg in November 1783 and was promoted to Field Marshal when the Crimea was formally annexed the following February . He also became President of the College of War . The province of Tauris ( the Crimea ) was added to the state of Novorossiya ( lit . New Russia . ) Potemkin moved south in mid @-@ March , as the " Prince of Tauris " . He had been the namestnik of Russia 's southern provinces ( including Novorossiya , Azov , Saratov , Astrakhan and the Caucasus ) since 1774 , repeatedly expanding it via military action . He kept his own court , which rivalled Catherine 's : by the 1780s he operated a chancellery with fifty or more clerks and had his own minister , Vasili Popov , to oversee day @-@ to @-@ day affairs . Another favored associate was Mikhail Faleev .
The " criminal " breaking of the Cossack hosts , particularly the Zaporozhian Cossacks in 1775 , helped define his rule . However , Montefiore argues that given their location , and in the wake of the Pugachev rebellion , the Cossacks were likely doomed in any case . By the time of Potemkin 's death , the Cossacks and their threat of anarchic revolt were well controlled . Among the Zaporizhian Cossacks he was known as Hrytsko Nechesa .
= = = = Builder = = = =
Potemkin then embarked on a period of city @-@ founding . Construction started at his first effort , Kherson , in 1778 , as a base for a new Black Sea Fleet he intended to build . Potemkin approved every plan himself , but construction was slow , and the city proved costly and vulnerable to plague . Next was the port of Akhtiar , annexed with the Crimea , which became Sevastopol . Then he built Simferopol as the Crimean capital . His biggest failure , however , was his effort to build the city of Ekaterinoslav ( lit . The glory of Catherine ) , now Dnipropetrovsk . The second most successful city of Potemkin 's rule was Nikolayev ( now better known as Mykolaiv ) , which he founded in 1789 . Potemkin also initiated the redesign of Odessa after its capture from the Turks ; it was to turn out to be the greatest .
Potemkin 's Black Sea Fleet was a massive undertaking for its time . By 1787 , the British ambassador reported twenty @-@ seven battleships . It put Russia on a naval footing with Spain , though far behind the British Navy . The period represented the peak of Russia 's naval power relative to other European states . Potemkin also rewarded hundreds of thousands of settlers who moved into his territories . It is estimated that by 1782 the populations of Novorossiya and Azov had doubled during a period of " exceptionally rapid " development . Immigrants included Russians , foreigners , British convicts diverted from Australia , Cossacks and controversially Jews . Though the immigrants were not always happy in their new surroundings , on at least one occasion Potemkin intervened directly to ensure families received the cattle to which they were entitled . Outside of Novorossiya he drew up the defensive Azov @-@ Mozdok line , constructing forts at Georgievsk , Stavropol and elsewhere and ensured that the whole of the line was settled .
In 1784 Lanskoy died and Potemkin was needed at court to console the grieving Catherine . After Alexander Yermolov was installed as the new favorite in 1785 , Catherine , Yermolov and Potemkin cruised the upper Volga . When Yermolov attempted to unseat Potemkin ( and attracted support from Potemkin 's critics ) , he found himself replaced by Count Alexander Dmitriev @-@ Mamonov in the summer of 1786 . Potemkin returned to the south , having arranged that Catherine would visit in the summer of 1787 . She reached Kiev in late January , to travel down the Dnieper after the ice had melted ( see Crimean journey of Catherine the Great ) . Potemkin had other lovers at this time , including a ' Countess ' Sevres and a Naryshkina . Leaving in April , the royal party arrived in Kherson a month later . On visiting Sevastopol , Austria 's Joseph II , who was traveling with them , was moved to note that " The Empress is totally ecstatic ... Prince Potemkin is at the moment all @-@ powerful " .
= = = = " Potemkin Village " = = = =
The notion of the Potemkin village ( coined in German by critical biographer Georg von Helbig as German : Potemkinsche Dörfer ) arose from Catherine 's visit to the south . Critics accused Potemkin of using painted façades to fool Catherine into thinking that the area was far richer than it was . Thousands of peasants were alleged to have been stage @-@ managed for this purpose . Certainly , Potemkin had arranged for Catherine to see the best he had to offer ( organising numerous exotic excursions ) and at least two cities ' officials did conceal poverty by building false houses . It seems unlikely , however , that the fraud approached the scale alleged . The Prince of Ligne , a member of the Austrian delegation , who had explored on his own during the trip , later proclaimed the allegations to be false .
= = = Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief = = =
Potemkin remained in the south , gradually sinking into depression . His inactivity was problematic , given that he was now Russia 's commander @-@ in @-@ chief and , in August 1787 , another Russo @-@ Turkish war broke out ( the second of Potemkin 's lifetime ) . His opponents were anxious to reclaim the lands they had lost in the last war , and they were under pressure from Prussia , Britain and Sweden to take a hostile attitude towards Russia . Potemkin 's bluster had probably contributed to the hostility , either deliberately or accidentally ; either way , his creation of the new fleet and Catherine 's trip to the south had certainly not helped matters . In the center , Potemkin had his own Yekaterinoslav Army , while to the west lay the smaller Ukraine Army under the command of Field @-@ Marshal Rumyantsev @-@ Zadunaisky . On water he had the Black Sea Fleet , and Potemkin was also responsible for coordinating military actions with Russia 's Austrian allies . Potemkin and Catherine agreed on a primarily defensive strategy until the spring . Though the Turks were repelled in early skirmishes ( against the Russian fortress at Kinburn ) , news of the loss of Potemkin 's beloved fleet during a storm sent him into a deep depression . A week later , and after kind words from Catherine , he was rallied by the news that the fleet was not in fact destroyed , but only damaged . General Alexander Suvorov won an important victory at Kinburn in early October ; with winter now approaching , Potemkin was confident the port would be safe until the spring .
Turning his attention elsewhere , Potemkin established his headquarters in Elisabethgrad and planned future operations . He assembled an army of forty or fifty thousand , including the newly formed Kuban Cossacks . He divided his time between military preparation ( creating a fleet of a hundred gunboats to fight within the shallow liman ) and chasing the wives of soldiers under his command . Meanwhile , the Austrians remained on the defensive across central Europe , though they did manage to hold their lines . Despite advice to the contrary , Potemkin pursued an equally defensive strategy , though in the Caucasus Generals Tekeeli and Pavel Potemkin were making some inroads . In early summer 1788 , fighting intensified as Potemkin 's forces won their naval confrontation with the Turks with few losses , and began the siege of Ochakov , a Turkish stronghold and the main Russian war aim . Less promising was that St. Petersburg , exposed after Russia 's best forces departed for the Crimea , was now under threat from Sweden in the Russo @-@ Swedish War of 1788 – 90 . Potemkin refused to write regularly with news of the war in the south , compounding Catherine 's anxiety .
Potemkin argued with Suvorov and Catherine herself , who were both anxious to assault Ochakov , which the Turks twice managed to supply by sea . Finally , on 6 December , the assault began and four hours later the city was taken , a coup for Potemkin . Nearly ten thousand Turks had been killed at a cost of ( only ) two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half thousand Russians . Catherine wrote that " you [ Potemkin ] have shut the mouths of everyone ... [ and can now ] show magnanimity to your blind and empty @-@ headed critics " . Potemkin then visited the naval yard at Vitovka , founded Nikolayev , and traveled on to St. Petersburg , arriving in February 1789 . In May he left once more for the front , having agreed contingency plans with Catherine should Russia be forced into war with either Prussia or the upstart Poland , which had recently successfully demanded the withdrawal of Russian troops from its territory . ( Catherine herself was just about to change favorites for the final time , replacing Dmitriev @-@ Mamonov with Platon Zubov . ) Back on the Turkish front , Potemkin advanced towards the fortress of Bender on the Dniester river .
The summer and autumn of 1789 saw numerous victories against the Turks , including the Battle of Focşani in July ; in early September , the Battle of Rymnik and the capture of both Kaushany and Hadjibey ( modern day Odessa ) ; and finally the surrender of the Turkish fortress at Akkerman in late September . The massive fortress at Bender surrendered in November without a fight . Potemkin opened up a lavish court at Jassy , the capital of Moldavia , to " winter like a sultan , revel in his mistresses , build his towns , create his regiments — and negotiate peace with [ the Turks ] ... he was emperor of all he surveyed " . Potemkin even established a newspaper , Le Courrier de Moldavie . His preferred lover at the time — though he had others — was Praskovia Potemkina , an affair which continued into 1790 . Potemkin renamed two ships in her honor . As part of the diplomatic machinations , Potemkin was given the new title of " Grand Hetman of the Black Sea and Yekaterinoslav Cossack Hosts " and in March he assumed personal control of the Black Sea fleet as Grand Admiral .
In July 1790 the Russian Baltic Fleet was defeated by the Swedish at the Battle of Svensksund . Despite the damage , the silver lining for the Russians was that the Swedes now felt able to negotiate on an even footing and a peace was soon signed , based on the status quo ante bellum , thus ending the threat of invasion . The peace also freed up military resources for the war against the Turks . Potemkin had moved his evermore lavish court to Bender and there were soon more successes against Turkey , including the capture of Batal @-@ Pasha and , on the second attempt , of Kilia on the Danube . By the end of November , only one major target remained : the Turkish fortress of Izmail . At Potemkin 's request , General Suvorov commanded the assault , which proved to be costly but effective . The victory was commemorated by Russia 's first , albeit unofficial , national anthem , " Let the thunder of victory sound ! " , written by Gavrila Derzhavin and Osip Kozlovsky .
After two years he returned to St. Petersburg to face the threat of war against an Anglo @-@ Prussian coalition in addition to the war with Turkey . His return was widely celebrated with the " Carnival of Prince Potemkin " . The Prince came across as polite and charming though his latest mistress , Princess Ekaterina Dolgorukaya , appeared sidelined and Potemkin found himself embroiled in court intrigue whilst trying to force Zubov out . Catherine and Potemkin fought over military strategy ; the Empress wanted no compromise , while Potemkin wanted to buy time by appeasing the Prussians . Fortunately for the Russians , the Anglo @-@ Prussian alliance collapsed and a British ultimatum that Russia should accept the status quo ante bellum was withdrawn . In this way , the threat of a wider war receded . Though Russia was still at war with the Ottomans , Potemkin 's focus was now Poland . Potemkin had conservative allies including Felix Potocki , whose schemes were so diverse that they have yet to be fully untangled . For example , one idea was for Potemkin to declare himself king .
Success on the Turkish front continued , mostly attributable to Potemkin . He now had the opportunity to confront the Turks and dictate a peace , but that would mean leaving Catherine . His procrastination soured Catherine 's attitude towards him , a situation compounded by Potemkin 's choice of the married Princess Paskovia Adreevna Golitsyna ( née Shuvalova ) as his latest mistress . In the end , Potemkin was given the requisite authority to negotiate with the Turks ( and , afterwards , to pursue his Polish ambitions ) , and dispatched by Catherine back to the south . She sent a note after him , reading " Goodbye my friend , I kiss you " .
= = = Death = = =
Potemkin fell ill in the fever @-@ ridden city of Jassy , though he kept busy , overseeing peace talks , planning his assault on Poland and preparing the army for renewed war in the south . He fasted briefly and recovered some strength , but refused medicine and began to feast once again , consuming a " ham , a slated goose and three or four chickens " . On October 13 [ O.S. October 2 ] , he felt better and dictated a letter to Catherine before collapsing once more . Later , he awoke and dispatched his entourage to Nikolayev . On October 16 [ O.S. October 5 ] 1791 Potemkin died in the open steppe , 40 miles from Jassy . Picking up on contemporary rumor , historians such as the Polish Jerzy Łojek have suggested that he was poisoned because his madness made him a liability , but this is rejected by Montefiore , who suggests he succumbed to bronchial pneumonia instead .
Potemkin was embalmed and a funeral was held for him in Jassy . Eight days after his death , he was buried . Catherine was distraught and ordered social life in St. Petersburg be put on hold . Derzhavin 's ode Waterfall lamented his death ; likewise many in the military establishment had looked upon Potemkin as a father figure and were especially saddened by his death . Polish contemporary Stanisław Małachowski claimed that Aleksandra von Engelhardt , a niece of Potemkin and wife to Franciszek Ksawery Branicki , a magnate and prominent leader of the Targowica Confederation , also worried for the fate of Poland after the death of the man who had planned to revitalise the Polish state with him as its new head . Potemkin had used the state treasury as a personal bank , preventing the resolution of his financial affairs to this day . Catherine purchased the Tauride Palace and his art collection from his estate , and paid off his debts . Consequently , he left a relative fortune . Catherine 's son Paul , who succeeded to the throne in 1796 , attempted to undo as many of Potemkin 's reforms as possible . The Tauride Palace was turned into a barracks , and the city of Gregoripol , which had been named in Potemkin 's honor , was renamed .
Potemkin 's grave survived a destruction order issued by Paul and was eventually displayed by the Bolsheviks . His remains now appear to lie in his tomb at St. Catherine 's Cathedral in Kherson . The exact whereabouts of some of his internal organs , including his heart and brain first kept at Golia Monastery in Jassy , remain unknown .
= = Personality and reputation = =
Potemkin " exuded both menace and welcome " ; he was arrogant , demanding of his courtiers and very changeable in his moods but also fascinating , warm and kind . It was generally agreed among his female companions that he was " amply endowed with ' sex appeal ' " . Louis Philippe , comte de Ségur described him as " colossal like Russia " , " an inconceivable mixture of grandeur and pettiness , laziness and activity , bravery and timidity , ambition and insouciance " . The internal contrast was evident throughout his life : he frequented both church and numerous orgies , for example . In Ségur 's view , onlookers had a tendency to unjustly attribute to Catherine alone the successes of the period and to Potemkin the failures . An eccentric workaholic , Potemkin was vain and a great lover of jewelry ( a taste he did not always remember to pay for ) , but he disliked sycophancy and was sensitive about his appearance , particularly his lost eye . He only agreed to having portraits made of him twice , in 1784 and again in 1791 , both times by Johann Baptist von Lampi and from an angle which disguised his injury .
Potemkin was also an intellectual . The Prince of Ligne noted that Potemkin had " natural abilities [ and ] an excellent memory " . He was interested in history and generally knowledgeable . Potemkin loved the classical music of the period , as well as opera . He liked all food , both peasant and fine ; particular favorites included roast beef and potatoes , and his anglophilia meant that English gardens were prepared wherever he went . A practical politician , his political ideas were " quintessentially Russian " , and he believed in the superiority of the Tsarist autocracy ( he once described the French revolutionaries as " a pack of madmen " ) . Potemkin 's habits included biting his nails , to the point where he developed hangnail . One evening , at the height of his power , Potemkin declared to his dinner guests :
Everything I have ever wanted , I have ... I wanted high rank , I have it ; I wanted medals , I have them ; I loved gambling , I have lost vast sums ; I liked giving parties , I 've given magnificent ones ; I enjoy building houses , I 've raised palaces ; I liked buying estates , I have many ; I adore diamonds and beautiful things – no individual in Europe owns rarer or more exquisite stones . In a word , all my passions have been sated . I am entirely happy !
Ultimately Potemkin proved a controversial figure . Criticisms include " laziness , corruption , debauchery , indecision , extravagance , falsification , military incompetence and disinformation on a vast scale " but supporters hold that only " the sybaritism [ devotion to luxury ] and extravagance ... are truly justified " , stressing Potemkin 's " intelligence , force of personality , spectacular vision , courage , generosity and great achievements " . Though not a military genius , he was " seriously able " in military matters . Potemkin 's contemporary Ségur was quick to criticise , writing that " nobody thought out a plan more swiftly [ than Potemkin ] , carried it out more slowly and abandoned it more easily " . Another contemporary , the Scotsman Sir John Sinclair , added that Potemkin had " great abilities " but was ultimately a " worthless and dangerous character " . Russian opponents such as Semyon Vorontsov agreed : the Prince had " lots of intelligence , intrigue and credit " but lacked " knowledge , application and virtue " .
= = Family = =
Potemkin had no legitimate descendants , though it is probable he had illegitimate issue . Four of his five sisters lived long enough to bear children , but only the daughters of his sister Marfa Elena ( sometimes rendered as ' Helen ' ) received Potemkin 's special attention . The five unmarried Engelhardt sisters arrived in court in 1775 on the direction of their recently widowed father Vassily . Legend suggests Potemkin soon seduced many of the girls , one of whom was twelve or thirteen at the time . An affair with the third eldest , Varvara , can be verified ; after that had subsided , Potemkin formed close — and probably amorous — relationships successively with Alexandra , the second eldest , and Ekaterina , the fifth .
Potemkin also had influential relatives . Potemkin 's sister Maria , for example , married Russian senator Nikolay Samoylov : their son Alexander was decorated for his service under Potemkin in the army ; their daughter Ekaterina married first into the Raevesky family , and then the wealthy landowner Lev Davydov . She had children with both husbands , including highly decorated General Nikolay Raevsky , Potemkin 's great @-@ nephew . His wider family included several distant cousins , among them Count Pavel Potemkin , another decorated military figure , whose brother Mikhail married Potemkin 's niece Tatiana Engelhardt . A distant nephew , Felix Yusupov , helped murder Rasputin in 1916 .
= = Legacy = =
Despite attempts by Paul I to play down Potemkin 's role in Russian history , his name found its way into numerous items of common parlance . The phrase Potemkin village entered common usage in Russia and globally , despite its fictional origin . A century after Potemkin 's death , the Battleship Potemkin was named in his honour . The ship became famous for its involvement in the Russian Revolution of 1905 and subsequent dramatization in The Battleship Potemkin , a Soviet movie by Sergey Eisenstein , which at one point was named the greatest film of all time . The name of the giant seaside staircase in Odessa , featured in the movie , eventually became known as the Potemkin Stairs .
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= Hard Ball =
" Hard Ball " ( also known as " Negotiation " ) is the fifteenth episode of NBC 's first season of 30 Rock . It was written by one of the season 's co @-@ producers , Matt Hubbard , and directed by one of the season 's supervising producers , Don Scardino . It aired on February 22 , 2007 in the United States . Guest stars who appeared in the episode were David Alan Basche , Gregg Bello , Katrina Bowden , Kevin Brown , Grizz Chapman , Rachel Dratch , Keith Powell , Lonny Ross and Gregory Wooddell . Tucker Carlson and Chris Matthews also appear as themselves in the episode .
The episode focuses on Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) trying to clear her name after being misquoted in an interview for Maxim Magazine . Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) begins negotiations to Josh Girard 's ( Lonny Ross ) new contract . Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) becomes the newest member of Tracy Jordan 's ( Tracy Morgan ) entourage .
= = Plot = =
When Josh 's contract is due for renewal , Jack enters negotiation mode . Jack is looking to save money with the negotiations outcome , so Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) warns Josh to be careful . Later , thinking Josh is ill , Liz goes to order some soup and on her way , sees Josh . He meets with a producer from The Daily Show , which angers Liz , who decides to help Jack negotiate . When Josh and his agent return to negotiate , believing that an offer from the Daily Show was on the table , Jack promptly reveals that he was able to get the offer from the Daily Show pulled and thus leave Josh with no negotiating power . Jack then offers Josh the same terms as his previous contract , but Liz , upset that Josh was not made to suffer for his " betrayal " by speaking with another show , orders Josh to start doing the worm .
Meanwhile , Jenna gets into trouble after she is misquoted in Maxim magazine , allegedly saying that she hates the troops . This happened due to Jenna mishearing the interviewer and thinking he meant theater troupes . The resulting outrage prompts Jack to get her an interview on Hardball with Chris Matthews to clear up the confusion over her comments . During the interview , Jenna confuses Osama bin Laden and then @-@ Senator Barack Obama , who was running for the Democratic Party nomination for President . A further attempt to clear Jenna 's name backfires when swastikas are accidentally brandished on the TGS with Tracy Jordan stage .
Tracy allows Kenneth into his entourage , but in the process discovers that Grizz ( Grizz Chapman ) and Dot Com ( Kevin Brown ) have been allowing him to win at things such as Halo , Trivial Pursuit , and basketball . Tracy " fires " Grizz and Dot Com from the entourage , but the union between Tracy and Kenneth does not jell . Grizz and Dot Com come to the rescue after Tracy is surrounded by a mob outside 30 Rockefeller Plaza , which is protesting against the controversy caused by Jenna .
= = Production = =
Rachel Dratch , longtime comedy partner and fellow Saturday Night Live alumna of Fey , was originally cast to portray Jenna . Dratch played the role in the show 's original pilot , but in August 2006 , Jane Krakowski was announced as Dratch 's replacement . Executive producer Lorne Michaels announced that while Dratch would not be playing a series regular , she would appear in various episodes in a different role . In this episode , Dratch played Martha Blanch , the activist who is leading the protests , outside of 30 Rockefeller Center , against Jenna .
= = Reception = =
In the U.S. , the episode remained the lowest @-@ rated episode of the series , in total viewers , until the fifth season . This episode was viewed by 4 @.@ 6 million viewers and received a rating of 2 @.@ 4 / 5 in the key adults 18 – 49 demographic according to the Nielsen ratings system . The 2 @.@ 4 refers to 2 @.@ 4 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and the 5 refers to 5 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . " Hard Ball " held 86 % of 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old viewers who had viewed the Scrubs episode " My Therapeutic Month " which aired at 9 : 00PM EST , before " Hard Ball " at 9 : 30 .
Julia Ward of TV Squad exclaimed that the episode 's three storylines were " all brilliant " . She praised Alec Baldwin , saying that " his negotiation scenes were gold as was his line delivery " . She felt that Baldwin 's great acting was " not unique to this episode " , and was what earned him the Golden Globe . Ward finished her review by saying that it was " satisfying to see a show come together as 30 Rock [ had in the ] past few weeks - settling into its rhythm [ and ] finding its feet " . Eric Goldman of IGN felt that this episode " did a very skillful job of juggling three different storylines , all of which delivered solid laughs " . He thought that the crew of 30 Rock had figured out " better uses for Jenna , and this episode offered some nice moments for her " . He also enjoyed Tracy and Kenneth 's subplot , saying it " was a decent one " .
" Hard Ball " was nominated for a total of three awards , winning one . Jeff Richmond was nominated for a Creative Arts Emmy Award in the category of Outstanding Original Main Title Theme Music for his work on this episode . Matt Hubbard , the writer of this episode , was also nominated for a Writers Guild of America Award in the category of Best Episodic Comedy . The episode was also submitted to voters for the Primetime Emmy Awards category Outstanding Comedy Series , which it won .
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= Coatbridge =
Coatbridge ( Scots : Cotbrig or Coatbrig , Scottish Gaelic : Drochaid a ' Chòta ) is a town in North Lanarkshire , Scotland , about 10 miles ( 16 km ) east of Glasgow city centre , set in the central Lowlands . The town , with neighbouring Airdrie , is part of the Greater Glasgow urban area . While the earliest known settlement of the area dates back to the Stone Age era , the founding of the town can be traced to the 12th century when a Royal Charter was granted to the Monks of Newbattle Abbey by King Malcolm IV . Coatbridge , along with its neighbour Airdrie , forms the area known as the Monklands .
It was during the last years of the 18th century that the area developed from a loose collection of hamlets into the town of Coatbridge . The town 's development and growth have been intimately connected with the technological advances of the industrial revolution , and in particular with the hot blast process . Coatbridge was a major Scottish centre for iron works and coal mining during the 19th century and in this period was described as ' the industrial heartland of Scotland ' and the ' Iron Burgh ' .
Coatbridge also had a notorious reputation for air pollution and the worst excesses of industry . By the time of the 1920s however , coal seams were exhausted and the iron industry in Coatbridge was in rapid decline . After the Great Depression the Gartsherrie ironwork was the last remaining iron works in the town . One publication has commented that in modern @-@ day Coatbridge ' coal , iron and steel have all been consigned to the heritage scrap heap ' .
Coatbridge today is best described as a working class town anchored to Glasgow , the largest city in Scotland . It has also been described as " populated largely by people of Irish descent " .
= = History = =
There are various explanations for the origin of the town 's name . The place name Coatbridge first appears on a number of 19th century maps , although Roy 's 1750 map notes ' Cottbrig ' as a hamlet in the Old Monkland area . Older Scots ' Cot ( t ) ' ( cottage ) and ' brig ' ( bridge ) . ( This reflected in the way locals refer to the town or its centre as ' The Brig ' : " I 'm just going up the Brig. " ) One source states ' Coatbridge ' is either derived from the Middle English ' cote ' , ( cottage ) or from the Old Welsh ' coed ' meaning ' wood ' .
An alternative explanation is that from around the 13th century the local area was owned by the Colt family , sometimes known as Coats , and their estate generated place @-@ names such as Coatbridge , Coatdyke , Coathill and Coatbank . Drummond and Smith suggest the name derives from the granting of land to Ranulphus le Colt around the time of the 12th century . However , Early Scots / ol / had vocalized to / o ̞ u / by the 16th century and subsequently diphthongised to / ʌu / in Modern Scots , so that ' Colt ' would have become ' Cowt ' rather than ' Coat ' . Modern Scots ' Cot ' ( cottage ) is realized / kot / .
= = = Early history : from Bronze Age to Middle Ages = = =
Settlement of the Coatbridge area dates back 3000 years to the Mesolithic Age . A circle of Bronze Age stone coffins was found on the Drumpellier estate in 1852 . A number of other Bronze Age urns and relics have been found in Coatbridge . An Iron Age wood and thatch crannóg dwelling was sited in the Loch at the present day Drumpellier Country Park . Dependent upon the water level in the loch , the remains can still be seen today .
Roman coins have been unearthed in Coatbridge , and there are the remains of a Roman road on the fringes of the town near the M8 motorway .
= = = Middle Ages to late 18th century = = =
The ' Monklands ' area inherited its name after the area was granted to the Cistercian monks of Newbattle Abbey by King Malcolm IV in 1162 . 1n 1323 the Monklands name appeared for the first time on Stewards ' charter . The Monks mined coal and farmed the land until the time of the reformation when the land was taken from them and given to private landowners . In 1641 the parish of Monklands was divided between New Monkland ( present day Airdrie ) and Old Monkland ( present day Coatbridge ) . In 1745 Bonnie Prince Charlie 's Jacobite army seized Coatbridge from government troops on their march to Edinburgh in an action described as the ' Canter of Coatbridge ' . Coatbridge was described in the 1799 Statistical Account as an ' immense garden ' with ' extensive orchards ' , ' luxurious crops ' where ' rivers abound with salmon ' .
= = = 19th century = = =
The Monkland Canal was constructed at the end of the 18th century initially to transport coal to Glasgow from the rich local deposits . The invention of the hot blast furnace process in 1828 meant that Coatbridge 's ironstone deposits could be exploited to the maximum by the canal link and hot blast process . The new advances meant that iron could be produced with two thirds less fuel . By the mid 19th century there were numerous hot blast furnaces in operation in Coatbridge .
The prosperous industry which had sprung up around the new iron industry required vast numbers of largely unskilled workers to mine ironstone and work in the blast furnace plants . Coatbridge therefore became a popular destination for vast numbers of Irish ( especially from County Donegal in Ulster ) arriving in Scotland . The iron bars and plates produced in Coatbridge iron works were the raw materials needed throughout the British Empire for railways , construction , bridge building and shipbuilding . One example of uses Coatbridge ' iron was put to included armour plating for British ships fighting in the Crimean War .
Over the course of the following forty years the population of Coatbridge grew by 600 % . The character of the Coatbridge area changed from a rural , Presbyterian landscape of small hamlets and farmhouses into a crowded , polluted , Irish Catholic industrial town . In 1840 , Rev William Park wrote that :
One contemporary observer at this time noted that Coatbridge is ' not famous for its sylvan beauties of its charming scenery ' and ' offers the visitor no inducements to loiter long ' . However , ' a visit to the large Gartsherrie works is one of the sights of a lifetime ' .
Most of the town 's population lived in tight rows of terraced houses built under the shadow of the iron works . These homes were often owned by their employers . Living conditions for most were appalling , tuberculosis was rife .
For a fortunate few though fortunes could be won ' with a rapidity only equalled by the princely gains of some of the adventurers who accompanied Pizarro to Peru ' , noted one observer . Among the most notable success stories were the six sons of Coatbridge farmer Alexander Baird . The Baird family had become involved in coal mining but opened an iron foundry in order to exploit the new hot blast process of iron smelting invented by James Beaumont Neilson . The Baird 's subsequently constructed numerous iron foundries in Coatbridge including the famous Gartsherrie iron works . The waste heap or ' bing ' from the Baird 's Gartsherrie works was said to be as large as the great pyramid in Egypt . One son , James Baird , was responsible for erecting sixteen blast @-@ furnaces in Coatbridge between 1830 and 1842 . Each of the six sons of Alexander Baird was reputed to have become a millionaire .
The town was vividly described by Robert Baird in 1845 :
In the 19th century , the Baird family wielded a pervasive influence over Coatbridge . They were responsible for the design of the lay out of present @-@ day Coatbridge town centre . The land for the Town Hall and the land which later came to form Dunbeth Park was given to the town by the Bairds . Gartsherrie church was built by the Baird family . The Bairds donated the site on the Main Street for the erection of St. Patrick 's Catholic Church . However , they also used patronage of the Orange Order to try and undermine the local trade union movement .
= = = 20th / 21st centuries = = =
By 1885 , the once plentiful Monklands ironstone deposits had been largely exhausted . It became increasing expensive to produce iron in Coatbridge as raw materials had to be imported from as far afield as Spain . The growth of the steel industry ( in nearby Motherwell ) had also led to a start of a decline in demand for the pig iron Coatbridge produced . Living conditions remained grim . In the 1920s Lloyd George 's ' Coal and Power ' report described the living conditions in the Rosehall area of Coatbridge :
George Orwell 's book The Road to Wigan Pier was illustrated by a photograph of homes in the Rosehall area of Coatbridge . In 1934 there was an exodus to Corby in England when the local Union Plant relocated . This had the effect of a hammer blow impact on the town 's iron industry and ushered in the end of serious iron production . The decline of the Clydeside shipbuilding industry in the 1950s meant the demand for iron finally collapsed . A legacy of ' devastating ' unemployment , appalling housing conditions and some of the worst overcrowding in Scotland left its stamp on the Coatbridge of the early 1930s . As late as 1936 Coatbridge was the most overcrowded place in Scotland .
In the 1930s and 1950s however massive programmes of state @-@ sponsored house building saw thousands of new homes built in Coatbridge and some of the worst examples of slum housing were cleared away . By the early 1980s 85 % of homes in Coatbridge were part of local authority housing stock . The last of the blast furnaces , William Baird 's famous Gartsherrie works , closed in 1967 .
Since the 1970s there have been various initiatives to attempt to regenerate Coatbridge . Urban Aid grants , European Union grants and , more recently , Social Inclusion Partnership 's have attempted to breathe new life into Coatbridge . Despite these efforts the town 's population has continued to fall and in recent years the town has been dubbed the ' most dismal in Scotland ' .
= = Geography = =
At 55 ° 51 ′ 44 ″ N 4 ° 1 ′ 46 ″ W ( 55 @.@ 861 ° , -4.047 ° ) , Coatbridge is situated in Scotland 's Central Lowlands . The town lies 88 metres ( 288 ft ) above sea level , 9 miles ( 14 @.@ 5 km ) east of Glasgow , 6 miles ( 10 km ) south of Cumbernauld and 2 miles ( 3 km ) west of Airdrie . Although Coatbridge has no major river running through it , the North Calder Water runs east @-@ west to the south and the now defunct Monkland Canal used to run straight through the centre of the town toward Glasgow . The canal route through Coatbridge can still be seen today . There are also several smaller burns which run through Coatbridge , most of which drain to the North Calder Water . Coatbridge has four significant public parks . Dunbeth park , West End park , Whifflet park and Drumpellier Country park . Woodend and Witchwood Loch are situated on the north @-@ west edge of Coatbridge .
= = = Topography = = =
The topography of Coatbridge was an important feature in the towns development during the industrial revolution . Coatbridge rests 60 metres below the ' Slamannan plateau ' which neighbouring Airdrie sits on the edge of . The low @-@ lying flat ground of Coatbridge was a vital factor in the siting of the towns ' blast furnaces and the Monkland Canal route . Although Airdrie was an already established town and had local supplies of ironstone , the Monkland Canal link did not extend into Airdrie because of its higher elevation . The Clyde Valley plan of 1949 described Coatbridge as ' situated over a flooded coalfield ' . Tenement buildings in Coatbridge were not built to the same level as Glasgow tenements due to danger of local subsidence from centuries of local mining .
= = = Geology = = =
Dunbeth hill where the present local authority municipal buildings stand is a wedge of rock which was probably squeezed upwards by the force of two ( now @-@ extinct ) fault lines . There are the remains of spreads of glacial sands along the crest of Drumpellier , the west bank of Gartsherrie Burn and along modern day Bank Street . Kirkwood , Kirkshaws and Shawhead sit on a sandstone capped ridge looking south over the Clyde Valley . The vital Coatbridge black band coal field extended from Langloan to beyond the eastern edge of the town .
= = = Climate = = =
Like much of the British Isles , Coatbridge experiences a temperate maritime climate with relatively cool summers and mild winters . The prevailing wind is from the west . Regular but generally light precipitation occurs throughout the year .
= = Culture = =
Coatbridge is the home of ' Scotland 's Noisiest Museum ' , Summerlee Heritage Park , which contains an insight into the life in industrial Coatbridge . A row of 1900s @-@ 1960s cottages , a working tram line and a real coal mine can all be experienced on site . The park is situated on the remains of one of Coatbridge 's historic blast furnaces . In recent years there has been something of a cultural renaissance in the town , largely rooted in the St. Patrick 's Day Festival .
= = = Literature , theatre and film = = =
Janet Hamilton , the nineteenth century poet and essayist , died in Langloan in 1873 . Present @-@ day writers Anne Donovan ( Orange prize winner ) , Brian Conaghan ( the author of three novels The Boy Who Made it Rain ' ( 2011 ) ' When Mr Dog Bites ' ( 2014 ) and ' The Bombs That Brought Us Together ' ( 2016 ) ) and award @-@ winning author Des Dillon are all from Coatbridge . Coatbridge has regularly featured in Des Dillon 's work . Two of his books about Coatbridge have been turned into plays .
Mark Millar is a Coatbridge comic book writer whose Wanted comic book series has been translated into a feature film starring Angelina Jolie and Morgan Freeman , as well as the highly successful graphic novel Kickass which was adapted into the successful film of the same name in 2010 . Coatbridge born Dame Laurentia McLachlan was the Benedictine abbess of the Stanbrook Community whose correspondence with George Bernard Shaw and Sydney Cockerell was the subject of the film The Best of Friends . Coatbridge is also home to the annual Deep Fried Film Festival . Local filmmakers Duncan and Wilma Finnigan have been described by The List as ' the John Cassavetes and Gena Rowlands of Coatbridge ' .
= = = Music = = =
Thomas McAleese ( alias Dean Ford ) was the lead singer of The Marmalade who had a UK number one single in 1969 with a cover of The Beatles ' ' Ob @-@ La @-@ Di , Ob @-@ La @-@ Da ' . Coatbridge brothers Greg Kane and Pat Kane are the band Hue and Cry . Coatbridge born Alan Frew is the ex @-@ pat lead singer of Canadian group Glass Tiger . Cha Burns ( deceased ) , Jimme O 'Neill and JJ Gilmour of The Silencers are from Coatbridge . Coatbridge sisters Fran and Anna were a famous duo on the Scottish traditional music scene .
= = = Coatbridge and Ireland = = =
Coatbridge is especially noted for its historical links with Ireland . This is largely due to large scale immigration into the town from Ulster ( especially from County Donegal ) in the 19th century and throughout most of the 20th century . Indeed , the town has been called ' little Ireland ' .
The most obvious manifestation of these links can be seen in the annual St. Patrick 's Day Festival . The festival is sponsored by the Irish Government and Guinness . The festival runs for over a fortnight and includes lectures , film shows , dance / Gaelic football competitions and music performances . The festival is the largest Irish celebration in Scotland .
= = = Coatbridge accent = = =
The Coatbridge accent has been categorised as making less use of the Scots tongue and exhibiting a tendency to stress the ' a ' vowel differently from general Scots usage . Examples of this are seen the pronunciation of the words stair ( sterr ) , hair ( herr ) , fair ( ferr ) and chair ( cherr ) . This different enunciation has been attributed to the impact of successive influxes of Ulster Catholic immigrants into Coatbridge . However , the distinctiveness of the Coatbridge accent and pronunciation has diminished as the various surrounding populations ( especially Glasgow ) have mingled with that of Coatbridge .
= = Sports = =
Coatbridge 's local football team are Albion Rovers . Albion Rovers play in the Scottish Football League , and Cliftonhill is where they play their home games . The " Wee Rovers " were founded in 1882 when two local Coatbridge clubs , Rovers and Albion , amalgamated to form the club bearing the name . The club 's greatest success came in 1920 when they reached the final of the Scottish Cup at Hampden Park . Noted Albion Rovers players from the past have included Jock Stein , Bernie Slaven and Tony Green . Former Celtic players John Hughes , John McNamee , Gerry Creaney and Peter Grant are all from Coatbridge . Scottish football international Chris Iwelumo was born in Coatbridge . Another former player Alec Reid from Coatbridge went on to be a very successful DJ and entertainer and is very well known around the district . Coatbridge CC a local amateur club founded in 1976 became Scottish Champions in 1986 and again in 1988 , the club was founded by Jim McCann , Frank Webb , Gerry Gallagher , and Jim Dickson . The club started life in the Central Scottish Amateur league but moved to the Caledonian League in 1984 after reaching the Scottish cup final for the first time . They went on to win the Scottish cup in 1986 and in 1988 won both the Scottish cup and West of Scotland cup all finals played at Hampden Park . The club was managed by a number of Managers including Jim McCann and Gordon Dishington but Willie Cox and Coach Alfie Conn of Rangers and Celtic were the most successful winning three National Cups .
Drumpellier Cricket Club has been in continuous existence for around 150 years and the club have a ground in the Drumpellier area .
Greyhound and Speedway racing also took part in the town , using the Albion Rovers FC ground . Greyhound Racing began on 11 December 1931 and lasted until 1986 . The Edinburgh Monarchs rode there in 1968 @-@ 69 ( as the Coatbridge Monarchs ) after losing their track at Meadowbank Stadium to the developers for the 1970 Commonwealth Games . Glasgow Tigers moved from Hampden Park to Coatbridge in 1973 , and stayed there until June 1977 , when they were forced out by the greyhound racing .
The Coatbridge Indoor bowling club hosted the World Indoor Bowls Championships from 1979 until 1987 .
Coatbridge was the home of former boxer Bert Gilroy , Scotland 's longest @-@ reigning champion . Coatbridge is also home to the WBO World Super @-@ Featherweight Champion Ricky Burns . Walter Donaldson , former World Snooker champion , also hailed from Coatbridge .
There are two golf courses : the municipal course bordering Drumpellier Country Park and the nearby private member 's club Drumpellier Golf Course . Clare Queen , Scotland 's number one female golfer on the women 's European tour , is from Coatbridge .
= = Coat of arms = =
Coatbridge was given burgh status in 1885 , and was granted a coat of arms by the Lord Lyon in 1892 . The arms have a black field and on it a flaming tower to represent a blast furnace and Coatbridge 's industrial tradition . The crest is a monk holding a stone in his left hand . The stone relates to the old parish of Monklands and the legend of the ' aul ' Kirk stane ' . The legend of the ' aul ' Kirk stane ' is that a pilgrim undertaking a penance from Glasgow carried a stone in the direction of Monklands . When he could carry the stone no further ( or in another version of the legend , when an angel spoke to him ) he laid the stone down . It was where the stone came to rest that he was to build a church . The church is the present day Old Monkland Kirk , at which the stone can still be seen .
The Latin motto ' Laborare est orare ' translates as ' to work is to pray ' , which originates in the writings of St. Benedict and is commonly associated with the Cistercian Order whose monks came to Monklands in the 12th century .
= = Local government = =
Coatbridge is represented by three tiers of elected government . North Lanarkshire Council , the unitary local authority for Coatbridge , is based at Motherwell , and is the executive , deliberative and legislative body responsible for local governance . The Scottish Parliament is responsible for devolved matters such as education , health and justice , while reserved matters are dealt with by the Parliament of the United Kingdom .
Up until 1975 , Coatbridge had its own Burgh Council . Between 1975 and 1996 , Coatbridge was part of Monklands District Council and Strathclyde Regional Council . During the by @-@ election campaign in Monklands East of 1994 , there were accusations of sectarianism and nepotism in favour of Coatbridge over neighbouring Airdrie by Monklands District Council . See Monklandsgate and Monklands East by @-@ election , 1994 . The fact that all 17 Labour councillors were Roman Catholic led to Coatbridge being seen as a ' Catholic town ' . Subsequent inquiries showed no evidence of sectarianism , but allegations of nepotism were shown to be true .
Coatbridge is presently part of the burgh constituency of Coatbridge , Chryston and Bellshill , electing one Member of Parliament ( MP ) to the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . Before the constituency 's creation in 2005 , Coatbridge lay in the Coatbridge and Chryston constituency . Tom Clarke of the Scottish Labour Party has been the MP since 1982 . For the purposes of the Scottish Parliament , Coatbridge forms part of the Coatbridge and Cryston constituency , which is represented by Elaine Smith MSP , also Labour . Coatbridge is further represented by seven regional MSPs from the Central Scotland electoral region . A small part of the eastern fringes of the town forms part of the Airdrie and Shotts constituency .
Notable politicians from Coatbridge are Baroness Liddell , a former MP who was formerly both Secretary of State for Scotland and Britain 's High Commissioner in Australia , and Lord Reid , also a former MP who was the former Secretary of State for Northern Ireland and Home Secretary . Lord Reid is a former Chairman of Celtic FC .
= = Demography = =
According to the United Kingdom Census 2001 , the census locality of Coatbridge had a total resident population of 41 @,@ 170 , or 13 % of the total of North Lanarkshire . This figure , combined with an area of 6 @.@ 818 square miles ( 17 @.@ 7 km2 ) , provides Coatbridge with a population density figure of 6 @,@ 038 inhabitants per square mile ( 2 @,@ 331 / km2 ) .
The median age of males and females living in Coatbridge was 35 and 38 years respectively , compared to 37 and 39 years for those in the whole of Scotland . Thirty four percent were married , 6 @.@ 1 % were cohabiting couples , 14 @.@ 7 % were lone parent families and 32 @.@ 5 % of households were made up of individuals .
The place of birth of the town 's residents was as follows : 98 @.@ 7 % United Kingdom ( including 96 % from Scotland ) , 0 @.@ 32 % Republic of Ireland , 0 @.@ 30 % from other European Union countries , and 0 @.@ 72 % from elsewhere in the world . The economic activity of residents aged 16 – 74 was 39 @.@ 3 % in full @-@ time employment , 9 @.@ 4 % in part @-@ time employment , 3 @.@ 6 % self @-@ employed , 5 @.@ 3 % unemployed , 2 @.@ 5 % students with jobs , 3 @.@ 2 % students without jobs , 13 @.@ 4 % retired , 5 @.@ 7 % looking after home or family , 12 @.@ 0 % permanently sick or disabled , and 5 @.@ 7 % economically inactive for other reasons . Compared with the average demography of Scotland , Coatbridge has low proportions of people born outside the United Kingdom , and people over 75 years of age .
During the 19th century , Irish people began to arrive in large numbers in Coatbridge . The 1851 census recorded that the Irish constituted 35 @.@ 8 % of the local population . Although while a significant proportion of these emigrants were Protestant , the majority were Catholic . By 1901 , the percentage of Irish @-@ born people in Coatbridge had fallen to around 15 % , but remained the highest of all the major towns in Scotland . In the 2001 census Irish ethnicity was recorded at just over 1 % , although just over half the population claimed their religious denomination as Roman Catholicism . In 1985 , 56 % of the population of Coatbridge were Roman Catholic .
In 2006 , Coatbridge ( along with Port Glasgow and Clydebank ) was identified as ' the least Scottish town in Scotland ' due to having the highest percentage of Irish names in the country . Reportedly more than 28 % of adults in Coatbridge had names with Irish origins .
Other immigrants to Coatbridge have included in the 1880s a small number of Lithuanians . In 1905 , part of a ' wave ' of immigrants from Monte Cassino in Italy settled in Coatbridge . A small number of Polish people had stayed in Coatbridge after a Polish tank regiment was stationed in the town during WWII . The 1960 Coatbridge town plan forecast the population to reach 76 @,@ 000 by 1990 .
One local author argued that despite the population apparently remaining relatively static during the 1970s , Coatbridge 's population has declined by around 15 @,@ 000 due to emigration .
= = Economy = =
21st century Coatbridge is the site of Scotland 's inland container base . Coatbridge was chosen as the site in part due to the proximity of various rail and motorway networks . Makers of PA systems and loudspeakers Tannoy Ltd. are headquartered in Coatbridge . Lees Foods Plc is a local confectionery and bakery products company and are the manufacturers of the Lees Macaroon bar . William Lawson 's Scotch Whisky distillery has been located in Coatbridge since 1967 . Coatbridge was home to one of the first B & Q Depots , which was closed in 2006 and moved to the new retail park . The oldest family business in Coatbridge and Airdrie is funeral directors , Donald McLaren Ltd , which was founded in 1912 .
In terms of housing , property prices in Coatbridge have undergone rapid growth since 2000 . In 2005 , house prices rose by 35 % , reportedly the largest such increase in Scotland .
= = Landmarks = =
The built environment around Coatbridge 's town centre is characterised by its mixture of late nineteenth- and early twentieth @-@ century sandstone buildings and late twentieth @-@ century precast concrete shops . The leafy Blairhill and Dunbeth conservation areas to the west and north of the town centre comprise detached , semi @-@ detached and terraced sandstone residential buildings . The bulk of the remaining surrounding areas consist of various twentieth @-@ century local authority housing buildings . Several high rise flats dominate the skyline . Due to the decline of industries , several private housing estates have been built on reclaimed land .
In 2007 Coatbridge was awarded Prospect architecture magazine 's carbuncle award for being the ' most dismal town in Scotland ' . The town was also described by Scottish comedian Frankie Boyle as ' like Bladerunner ... without the special effects ' .
Drumpellier Country Park is set around Woodend Loch . There are extensive woodlands , a visitor centre and a butterfly house . Monkland Canal runs through a section of the park . The Time Capsule is a multi @-@ purpose leisure centre containing a swimming pool , an adventure pool set in a prehistoric environment , an ice skating facility , sauna / steam room and a sports complex with gym halls and other facilities . The Showcase Leisure Park contains a 14 @-@ screen cinema , a 10 @-@ pin bowling complex and numerous restaurants .
Landmarks in Coatbridge include :
Coatbridge Leisure Centre – Peter Womersley 1970s brutalist , modernist cantilevered building sited on the main road into Coatbridge
Coatbridge Library – an Andrew Carnegie @-@ sponsored 1905 pink sandstone structure . Imposing B @-@ listed structure sited on Academy Street
St. Augustine 's Church and buildings - Built in 1873 and located in the Dundyvan area . A red sandstone B listed Rowand Anderson Gothic church
The Quadrant Shopping Centre - Has been described in one article ; ' ... from the set of Camberwick Green . A new clock tower , which looks as if it was designed on the back of a beer mat , marks the town centre , a throwaway gesture compounded by the addition of some appalling public art @-@ cum street furniture'
St Andrew 's Church - 1839 early Victorian Gothic church by Scott Stephen & Gale in the Whitelaw hill area . Its steeple towers over the town centre
Coatbridge railway bridges - The B @-@ listed 1898 bridges span Bank Street , West Canal Street and the former Monkland Canal . The bridges underwent specialist restoration in 2009
St Mary 's Church - B listed Gothic church in Whifflet designed by Pugin and Pugin in 1896 . Contains an elaborate and ornate interior ceiling
The former Cattle Market Building - erected in 1896 , B listed façade of the sandstone cattle market building within the Blairhill and Dunbeth conservation area
Summerlee Heritage Park 2008 extension - Spaceship style glass and metal addition to existing building by North Lanarkshire Council 's in @-@ house Design Services Team
= = Transport = =
The Monkland Canal ( completed 1791 ) was used in the 19th and 20th century to transport coal and iron to Glasgow . The town centre section of the canal was interred in pipe between Sikeside and Blair Road in the mid @-@ 1970s . Some sections of the Monkland Canal can still be seen today between Townhead and Drumpellier . Coatbridge is adjacent to the M8 and M73 motorways . The M74 motorway is also a short drive away . The major cities of Edinburgh , Stirling and Glasgow are all within commuting distance .
Due to the number of rail lines running through Coatbridge , it was once dubbed the " Crewe of the North " . There are six railway stations on the four railway lines that bisect the town : Motherwell @-@ Cumbernauld Line ; Argyle Line ; Whifflet Line ; and North Clyde Line . The six stations within Coatbridge and on these lines are : Blairhill ; Coatbridge Central ; Coatbridge Sunnyside ; Coatdyke ; Kirkwood ; and Whifflet .
Coatbridge has had additional passenger stations , such as Langloan and Calder Station ( Greenend ) ; these stations have been closed for many years .
= = Neighbourhoods = =
The earliest map showing Coatbridge is by Timothy Pont published in Johan Blaeu 's Nether warde of clyds @-@ dail ( 1654 ) . The districts of Dunpelder , Gartsherrie , Langloan , Kirkwood , Kirkshaws , Whifflet are all evident .
The present day neighbourhoods of Coatbridge are Barrowfield , Blairhill , Brownshill , Carnbroe , Cliftonville , Cliftonhill , Coatbank , Coatdyke , Cuparhead , Drumpellier , Dunbeth , Dundyvan , Espieside , Gartsherrie , Greenhill , Greenend , Kirkshaws , Kirkwood , Langloan , Old Monkland , Rosehall , Shawhead , Sikeside , Summerlee , Sunnyside , Townhead and Whifflet . Victoria Park is a relatively new area close the town centre which was built on a brownfield site once occupied by heavy industry . The Blairhill and Dunbeth neighbourhoods are part of the Blairhill and Dunbeth conservation area .
Whitelaw is the area which the town centre is in but is a term which has not been used for many years . The fountain which is situated at the town centre on the corner of Main Street and South Circular Road is officially called the Whitelaw Fountain .
= = Education = =
Coatbridge College was built as Scotland 's first college in the late 19th century . As Coatbridge has moved away from the traditional heavy industries the teaching focus has shifted from traditional industry courses towards commerce , care and the arts . St Ambrose , St Andrew 's and Coatbridge High are the best @-@ known secondary schools serving Coatbridge . The first two are Roman Catholic . St Ambrose was the subject of an HMI follow @-@ up assessment visit in January 2009 . Sports journalist and broadcaster Bob Crampsey was formerly headmaster of St Ambrose . Singer and television presenter Michelle McManus and musician Tony Donaldson are former pupils of that school .
As previously mentioned , Coatbridge has 3 secondary schools : St. Andrew 's H.S ( which opened in 2006 ) , Coatbridge H.S ( opened in 2008 ) and St. Ambrose H.S ( which opened in 2013 ) . St. Andrew 's H.S is made up of staff and pupils of the two former schools St. Patrick 's H.S ( formerly located in the area of the new Coatbridge H.S ) and St. Columba H.S , both schools have since been demolished around the date of the schools opening in October 2006 .
Coatbridge H.S is made up of staff and pupils of the original Coatbridge H.S ( now Greenhill Primary and Drumpark Primary ) as well as staff and pupils of the former Rosehall H.S ( formerly located in the boundary of St. Andrew 's H.S ) .
Coatbridge also has several special needs schools including Pentland School ( Primary school ) , Portland High School , Drumpark School , Willowbank School ( High School ) and Buchanan High School .
= = Public services = =
Coatbridge forms part of the Western water and sewerage regions of Scotland . Waste management is provided by the North Lanarkshire local authority . Water supplies are provided by Scottish Water , a government @-@ owned corporation of the Scottish Government . Coatbridge 's Distribution Network Operator for electricity is Scottish Power . Coatbridge is served by Monklands Hospital , sited on the Airdrie side of the Coatbridge / Airdrie border . The NHS board is NHS Lanarkshire . Scottish Fire and Rescue Service is the statutory fire and rescue service which operates in Coatbridge . Policing in Coatbridge is provided by the Police Service of Scotland ( Lanarkshire Division ) . The Strathclyde Partnership for Transport , a public body in Scotland , has direct operational responsibilities , such as supporting ( and in some cases running ) local bus services , and managing integrated ticketing in Coatbridge and other areas from the former Strathclyde region . Transport Scotland manages the local rail network .
The local authority responsible for community @-@ based service in Coatbridge is North Lanarkshire Council . The council provides local services related to education , social work , the environment , housing , road maintenance and leisure .
= = Notable people from Coatbridge = =
Admiral Sir James Stirling , first Governor of Western Australia .
Jock Cunningham , miner , mutineer and Republican Brigade commander during the Spanish Civil War
Neil Smith , Air Chief Marshal of the Royal Air Force ( DBS squadron ) ; the hero of ' Pipe Ridge ' ( DFC and bar )
Charlie Doyle , Coatbridge @-@ born union organiser and Communist in the United States who was imprisoned and deported as an undesirable alien ; in 1953 he led strike action at Battersea Power Station and was tagged " the most hated man in Britain "
Anti @-@ child sexual abuse and bullying activist , Sandra Brown , attended Coatbridge High School
Rev Dr Peter Marshall ( 27 May 1902 – 26 January 1949 ) Chaplain of the United States Senate , whose biography was the basis of the Oscar @-@ nominated film A Man Called Peter , was born in Coatbridge
Robert Lees , member of the Wisconsin State Senate
Willie McDonald , footballer for Manchester United and Coventry City
Cha Burns ( 1957 - 2007 ) , Guitarist with the Scottish folk band , The Silencers .
James ( Jinky ) Gilmour , Vocalist with the Scottish folk band , The Silencers .
John Stein ( footballer and football manager ) who led Celtic to the European Cup in 1967 , the first British club to win this trophy , played for Albion Rovers .
Tommy Burns ( footballer and football manager ) played with Celtic and Scotland and managed Celtic lived in Coatbridge
Prof James Clark Gentles FRSE , first specialist in fungal diseases of the human body
George Graham ( footballer and football manager ) played with Aston Villa , Chelsea , Arsenal , Manchester United and managed Arsenal and Tottenham Hotspur lived in Bargeddie
Sheena Easton ( singer ) lived in Belshill
Alan Stewart ( entertainer ) attended Coatbridge High School
Hue and Cry a successful band from the 1980s ; brothers Greg and Pat Kane are from the Blairhill area of Coatbridge
Frank Gallagher , actor ( River City , Taggart , etc . ) was born in Coatbridge
Bill Carroll , radio host
Heather Suttie , DJ and radio presenter
Gerry Maher QC ( Jurist ) , Professor of Criminal Law , University of Edinburgh , attended St. Patrick 's High School
Neil Walker ( Jurist ) , Professor of Public Law and the Law of Nure and Nations , University of Edinburgh attended Coatbridge High School
Paul Watchman ( Jurist ) , Honorary Professor of Law , University of Glasgow attended Coatbridge High School
Mark Kerr , Scottish footballer , played for Aberdeen FC
Iain Munro ( footballer ) St. Mirren , Hibernian , Glasgow Rangers , Sunderland Stoke and Scotland taught at Coatbridge High
Hugh Murray , rugby union player
Johnny Russell , Dundee United footballer attended Coatbridge High School
Joe Kissock , former New Zealand international footballer
Ricky Burns ( boxer ) , World Super Featherweight Champion
Edward Reid ( comedy singer ) , reached the semi @-@ finals of Britain 's Got Talent in 2011
Tony Watt , Celtic FC striker , scored for Celtic in win against FC Barcelona in 2012
Mark Millar , Writer ( Wanted , Kick @-@ Ass , Super Crooks and many other creator owned , Marvel & DC titles . )
Martin Greechan , founder of the Deep Fried Film Festival , stand up comedian and media consultant
Jock Kane , intelligence officer and GCHQ whistleblower
Len Gould , former editor of National Tabloid ' The People'
Alec Reid footballer with Albion Rovers and Chesterfield 1966 to 1971 , Professional DJ 1974 to 2006
= = Twin towns = =
Coatbridge is twinned with St. Denis , France ; Campi Bisenzio , Italy ; and Gatchina , Russia .
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= Lactarius vinaceorufescens =
Lactarius vinaceorufescens , commonly known as the yellow @-@ staining milkcap or the yellow @-@ latex milky , is a poisonous species of fungus in the family Russulaceae . It produces mushrooms with pinkish @-@ cinnamon caps up to 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) wide held by pinkish @-@ white stems up to 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) long . The closely spaced whitish to pinkish buff gills develop wine @-@ red spots in age . When it is cut or injured , the mushroom oozes a white latex that rapidly turns bright sulfur @-@ yellow . The species , common and widely distributed in North America , grows in the ground in association with conifer trees . There are several other Lactarius species that bear resemblance to L. vinaceorufescens , but most can be distinguished by differences in staining reactions , macroscopic characteristics , or habitat .
= = Taxonomy and classification = =
The species was first described by American mycologists Lexemuel Ray Hesler and Alexander H. Smith in 1960 , based on specimens collected in Muskegon , Michigan in 1936 . In the same publication , they also named the variety Lactarius vinaceorufescens var. fallax to account for individuals with prominently projecting pleurocystidia measuring 9 – 12 µm broad , but they reduced this to synonymy with the main species in their 1979 monograph of North American Lactarius species . The fungus is classified in the subsection Croceini of the subgenus Piperates in the genus Lactarius , along with other species with latex that stains the fruit body tissue yellow , or with latex that slowly become yellow upon exposure to air .
The specific epithet vinaceorufescens is derived from the Latin word meaning " becoming wine reddish " . The mushroom is commonly known as the " yellow @-@ latex milky " or the " yellow @-@ staining milkcap " .
= = Description = =
The cap of L. vinaceorufescens is initially convex , then becomes broadly convex to nearly flat , and reaches diameters of 4 – 12 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) wide . The cap margin is rolled inwards at first , but later expands , becoming somewhat uplifted and uneven with age . The cap surface is smooth , pale pinkish @-@ cinnamon with pinkish @-@ buff at the margin when young , becoming darker pinkish @-@ cinnamon to orangey @-@ cinnamon when older , faintly zoned with bands or water spots of nearly the same color . The gills are attached to slightly decurrent , narrow , close together , and often forked near the stem . There are several tiers of lamellulae ( short gills that do not fully extend to the stem from the cap margin ) . The gills are initially whitish to pinkish @-@ buff , later spotting wine red ( vinaceous ) to pinkish @-@ brown or dark reddish @-@ brown . The latex that is exuded when the mushroom is cut or injured is initially white , but rapidly turns sulfur @-@ yellow .
The stem is 4 – 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 8 in ) long by 1 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 0 in ) thick , nearly equal in width throughout or enlarged slightly downward , and hollow . The stem surface is nearly smooth , with white to brownish stiff hairs at the base , pinkish @-@ white overall , and darkening with age . The flesh is moderately thick , white to pinkish , staining bright sulfur yellow . It has an acrid taste . The spore print is white to yellowish . The mushrooms are poisonous ; as a general rule , several guide books recommend to avoid the consumption of Lactarius species with latex that turns yellow .
The spores are roughly spherical to broadly ellipsoid , hyaline ( translucent ) , amyloid , and measure 6 @.@ 5 – 9 by 6 – 7 µm . They are ornamented with warts and ridges that sometimes form a partial reticulum , with prominences up to 0 @.@ 8 µm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four @-@ spored , and measure 28 – 33 by 8 – 10 µm . The pleurocystidia ( cystidia found on the gill faces ) are roughly cylindrical to narrowly club @-@ shaped when they are young , but soon broaden in the mid portion and taper to an abrupt point ; they reach dimensions of 40 – 68 ( up to 80 µm ) by 9 – 13 µm . The cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edges ) are roughly club @-@ shaped or ventricose with acute apices , and measure 32 – 44 by 6 – 10 µm . Clamp connections are absent in the hyphae . The cap cuticle is a thin ixocutis composed of gelatinous hyphae that are typically 2 – 4 µm wide . Projecting out from the cuticle surface are the ends of numerous connective hyphae , about 5 – 15 µm long .
= = Similar species = =
Lactarius xanthogalactus has nearly identical microscopic features to L. vinaceorufescens , but macroscopically , it does not have the reddish @-@ vinaceous stains that develop on the cap , gills , and stem of L. vinaceorufescens , and it grows on the ground under oak . Another lookalike is L. colorascens , but it may be distinguished from L. vinaceorufescens by several features : a smaller fruit body ; a whitish cap that becomes brownish @-@ red with age and does not spot vinaceous or brown ; bitter to faintly acrid latex ; and slightly smaller spores . L. chrysorrheus is also similar , but it has a whitish to pale yellowish @-@ cinnamon cap with slightly darker spots and grows under hardwoods ( especially oak ) on well @-@ drained , often sandy soil , and its gills do not discolor or spot vinaceous or brown .
Other superficially similar species include L. rubrilacteus , L. rufus , L. subviscidus , L. fragilis and L. rufulus , but none of these species have the yellow staining reaction characteristic of L. vinaceorufescens . The edible species Lactarius helvus has an orange @-@ brown to light grayish @-@ brown cap with thin bands of dark grayish @-@ brown , a watery latex , and whitish to tan flesh with an odor resembling maple sugar or burnt sugar . Lactarius theiogalus , the " sulfur @-@ milk Lactarius " , has an oranger cap and white latex that slowly changes yellow upon exposure to air ; it is typically found in broadleaf and mixed woods .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The fruit bodies of Lactarius vinaceorufescens grow scattered or in groups on the ground under pine between August and October . The species is known to develop mycorrhizal associations with Douglas fir ( Pseudotsuga menziesii ) . It is a fairly common and widely distributed species in North America . The mushroom has been found in boreal forests and high @-@ elevation forests of the Southern Appalachians , associated with the tree genera Picea , Abies , and Pinus . In California , it has been noted to commonly co @-@ occur with L. fragilis , L. rubrilacteus , Russula emetica , and R. cremoricolor .
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= Hawker Hunter =
The Hawker Hunter is a transonic British jet aircraft developed in the late 1940s and early 1950s . The single @-@ seat Hunter entered service as a manoeuvrable fighter aircraft , and later operated in fighter @-@ bomber and reconnaissance roles in numerous conflicts . Two @-@ seat variants remained in use for training and secondary roles with the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) and Royal Navy until the early 1990s . The Hunter was also widely exported , serving with 21 other air forces . Sixty years after its original introduction it was still in active service , operated by the Lebanese Air Force until 2014 .
On 7 September 1953 , the modified first prototype broke the world air speed record for jet @-@ powered aircraft , achieving 727 @.@ 63 mph ( 1 @,@ 171 @.@ 01 km / h ; 632 @.@ 29 kn ) . Hunters were also used by two RAF display teams : the " Black Arrows " , who on one occasion looped a record @-@ breaking 24 examples in formation , and later the " Blue Diamonds " , who flew 16 aircraft . Overall , 1 @,@ 972 Hunters were produced by Hawker Siddeley and under licence . In British service , the aircraft was replaced by the English Electric Lightning , the Hawker Siddeley Harrier and the McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 4 Phantom II .
= = Development = =
= = = Origins = = =
At the end of the Second World War , it was apparent that jet propulsion would be the future of fighter development . Many companies were quick to come up with airframe designs for this new means of propulsion . Hawker Aviation 's chief designer , Sydney Camm , proposed the Hawker P.1040 for the RAF , but the demonstrator failed to interest them . Further modifications to the basic design resulted in the Hawker Sea Hawk carrier @-@ based fighter . The Sea Hawk had a straight wing and used the Rolls @-@ Royce Nene turbojet engine , both features that rapidly became obsolete .
Seeking better performance and fulfilment of the Air Ministry Specification E.38 / 46 , Sydney Camm designed the Hawker P.1052 , which was essentially a Sea Hawk with a 35 @-@ degree swept wing . First flying in 1948 , the P.1052 demonstrated good performance and conducted several carrier trials , but did not warrant further development into a production aircraft . As a private venture , Hawker converted the second P.1052 prototype into the Hawker P.1081 with swept tailplanes , a revised fuselage , and a single jet exhaust at the rear . First flown on 19 June 1950 , the P.1081 was promising enough to draw interest from the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) , but further development was stalled by difficulties with the engine reheat . The sole prototype was lost in a crash in 1951 .
= = = P.1067 = = =
In 1946 , the Air Ministry issued Specification F.43 / 46 for a daytime jet @-@ powered interceptor . Camm prepared a new design for a swept @-@ winged fighter powered by the upcoming Rolls @-@ Royce Avon turbojet . The Avon 's major advantage over the Rolls @-@ Royce Nene , used in the earlier Sea Hawk , was the axial compressor , which allowed for a much smaller engine diameter and provided greater thrust ; this single engine gave roughly the same power as the two Rolls @-@ Royce Derwents of the Gloster Meteors that would be replaced by the new fighter . In March 1948 , the Air Ministry issued a revised Specification F.3 / 48 , which demanded a speed of 629 mph ( 1 @,@ 010 km / h ) at 45 @,@ 000 ft ( 13 @,@ 700 m ) and a high rate of climb , while carrying an armament of four 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) or two 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 18 in ) cannon ( rather than the large @-@ calibre gun demanded by earlier specifications ) . Initially fitted with a single air intake in the nose and a T @-@ tail , the project rapidly evolved into the more familiar Hunter shape . The intakes were moved to the wing roots to make room for weapons and radar in the nose , and a more conventional tail arrangement was devised as a result of stability concerns .
The P.1067 first flew from RAF Boscombe Down on 20 July 1951 , powered by a 6 @,@ 500 lbf ( 28 @.@ 91 kN ) Avon 103 engine . The second prototype , which was fitted with production avionics , armament and a 7 @,@ 550 lbf ( 33 @.@ 58 kN ) Avon 107 turbojet , first flew on 5 May 1952 . As an insurance against Avon development problems , Hawker modified the design to accommodate another axial turbojet , the 8 @,@ 000 lbf ( 35 @.@ 59 kN ) Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire 101 . Fitted with a Sapphire , the third prototype flew on 30 November 1952 .
The Ministry of Supply ordered the Hunter into production in March 1950 . The Hunter F.1 , fitted with a 7 @,@ 600 lbf ( 33 @.@ 80 kN ) Avon 113 turbojet , flew on 16 March 1953 . The first 20 aircraft were , in effect , a pre @-@ production series and featured a number of " one @-@ off " modifications such as blown flaps and area ruled fuselage . On 7 September 1953 , the sole Hunter Mk 3 ( the modified first prototype , WB 188 ) flown by Neville Duke broke the world air speed record for jet @-@ powered aircraft , achieving 727 @.@ 63 mph ( 1 @,@ 171 @.@ 01 km / h ) over Littlehampton . The record stood for under three weeks before being broken on 25 September 1953 by an RAF Supermarine Swift flown by Michael Lithgow .
= = Design = =
= = = Overview = = =
The Hunter entered service with the Royal Air Force as an interceptor aircraft . It was the first jet aircraft produced by Hawker for the RAF . From the outset it was clear that the type had exceptional performance , being the first RAF aircraft capable of effectively matching the English Electric Canberra bomber . The Hunter also set numerous aviation records , including absolute speed records . The type was also lauded for its quick turnaround time , enabled by features such as its removable gun pack , pressurised fuelling system , and easy handling in flight .
The definitive version of the Hunter was the FGA.9 , on which the majority of export versions were based . Although the Supermarine Swift had initially been politically favoured by the British Government , the Hunter proved far more successful , and had a lengthy service life with various operators , in part due to its low maintenance requirements and operating costs .
As the RAF received newer aircraft capable of supersonic speeds to perform the air interceptor role , many Hunters would be modified and re @-@ equipped for undertaking ground @-@ attack and reconnaissance missions instead . Hunters deemed surplus to the RAF 's requirements were also quickly refurbished for continued service abroad . The Hunter would be procured by a considerable number of foreign nations . In addition to former RAF aircraft , roughly half of the nearly 2 @,@ 000 Hunters produced had been manufactured specifically for overseas customers . The Hunter would be in operational service with the RAF for over 30 years . As late as 1996 , hundreds were still in active service with various operators across the world .
= = = Armament and equipment = = =
The single @-@ seat fighter versions of the Hunter were armed with four 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 18 in ) ADEN cannon , with 150 rounds of ammunition per gun . The cannon and ammunition boxes were contained in a single pack that could be removed from the aircraft for rapid re @-@ arming and maintenance . Unusually , the barrels of the cannon remained in the aircraft while the pack was removed and changed . In the two @-@ seat version , either a single 30 mm ADEN cannon was carried or , in some export versions , two , with a removable ammunition tank . Later versions of the Hunter were fitted with SNEB Pods ; these were 68 mm ( 2 @.@ 68 in ) rocket projectiles in 18 @-@ round Matra pods , providing an effective strike capability against ground targets .
The Hunter featured a nose @-@ mounted ranging radar , providing automatic ranging for aiming various armaments . Other equipment included pylon @-@ mounted underwing external fuel tanks , a forward @-@ facing gun camera , and large streamlined pods for collecting expended shell cases beneath the gun pack . It was the placing of those pods which led to the plane getting the humorous nickname " Huntress " , because they resemble breasts . Several variants were fitted with tail @-@ mounted brake parachutes . Typically , export Hunters were equipped to be compatible with additional types of missiles , such as the AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder air @-@ to @-@ air missile and the AGM @-@ 65 Maverick air @-@ to @-@ surface missile .
= = = Layout and structure = = =
The Hunter is a conventional swept wing all @-@ metal monoplane . The fuselage is of monocoque construction , with a removable rear section for engine maintenance . The engine is fed through triangular air intakes in the wing roots and has a single jetpipe in the rear of the fuselage . The mid @-@ mounted wings have a leading edge sweep of 35 ° and slight anhedral , the tailplanes and fin are also swept . The Hunter 's aerodynamic qualities were increasingly infringed upon by modifications in later production models , such as the addition of external containers to collect spent gun cartridges , underwing fuel tanks to increase range , leading edge extensions to resolve pitch control difficulties , and a large ventral air brake .
The airframe of the Hunter consists of six interchangeable major sections : the forward fuselage ( housing the cockpit and armament pack ) , center fuselage ( including the integral wing roots and air duct intakes ) , rear fuselage , tail unit assembly , and two individually produced wings . Production was divided up so major sections could be completed individually and manufacturing of the type could be dispersed to reduce vulnerability to attack . Establishing initial full @-@ rate production for the type was difficult , as manufacturing the Hunter required the development of 3 @,@ 250 tool designs and the procurement of 40 @,@ 000 fixtures , jigs , and tools .
= = = Engine = = =
The P.1067 first flew from RAF Boscombe Down on 20 July 1951 , powered by a 6 @,@ 500 lbf ( 28 @.@ 91 kN ) Rolls @-@ Royce Avon 103 engine from an English Electric Canberra bomber . The second prototype was fitted with a 7 @,@ 550 lbf ( 33 @.@ 58 kN ) Avon 107 turbojet . Hawker 's third prototype was powered by an 8 @,@ 000 lbf ( 35 @.@ 59 kN ) Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire 101 . Production Hunters were fitted with either the Avon or the Sapphire engine .
Early on in the Hunter 's service the Avon engines proved to have poor surge margins , and worryingly suffered compressor stalls when the cannon were fired , sometimes resulting in flameouts . The practise of " fuel dipping " , reducing fuel flow to the engine when the cannon were fired , was a satisfactory solution . Although the Sapphire did not suffer from the flameout problems of the Avon and had better fuel economy , Sapphire @-@ powered Hunters suffered many engine failures . The RAF elected to persevere with the Avon to simplify supply and maintenance , since the Canberra bomber used the same engine .
The RAF sought more thrust than was available from the Avon 100 series ; in response Rolls @-@ Royce developed the Avon 200 series engine . This was an almost wholly new design , equipped with a new compressor to put an end to surge problems , an annular combustion chamber , and an improved fuel control system . The resulting Avon 203 produced 10 @,@ 000 lbf ( 44 @.@ 48 kN ) of thrust , and was the engine for the Hunter F.6.
= = Operational history = =
= = = Royal Air Force = = =
The Hunter F.1 entered service with the Royal Air Force in July 1954 . It was the first high @-@ speed jet aircraft equipped with radar and fully powered flight controls to go into widespread service with the RAF . The Hunter replaced the Gloster Meteor , the Canadair Sabre , and the de Havilland Venom jet fighters in service . Initially , low internal fuel capacity restricted the Hunter 's performance , giving it only a maximum flight endurance of about an hour . A tragic incident occurred on 8 February 1956 , when a flight of eight Hunters was redirected to another airfield owing to adverse weather conditions . Six of the eight aircraft ran out of fuel and crashed , killing one pilot .
Another difficulty encountered during the aircraft 's introduction was the occurrence of surging and stalling with the Avon engines . The F.2 , which used the Armstrong @-@ Siddeley Sapphire engine , did not suffer from this issue . Further problems occurred ; ejected cannon ammunition links had a tendency to strike and damage the underside of the fuselage , and diverting the gas emitted by the cannon during firing was another necessary modification . The original split @-@ flap airbrakes caused adverse changes in pitch trim and were quickly replaced by a single ventral airbrake . This meant , however , that the airbrake could not be used for landings .
To address the problem of range , a production Hunter F.1 was fitted with a modified wing that featured bag @-@ type fuel tanks in the leading edge and " wet " hardpoints . The resulting Hunter F.4 first flew on 20 October 1954 , and entered service in March 1955 . A distinctive Hunter feature added on the F.4 was the pair of blisters under the cockpit , which collected spent ammunition links to prevent airframe damage . Crews dubbed them " Sabrinas " after the contemporary movie star . The Sapphire @-@ powered version of the F.4 was designated the Hunter F.5.
The RAF later received Hunters equipped with an improved Avon engine . The Avon 203 produced 10 @,@ 000 lbf ( 44 @.@ 48 kN ) of thrust and was fitted to XF833 , which became the first Hunter F.6. Some other revisions on the F.6 included a revised fuel tank layout , the centre fuselage tanks being replaced by new ones in the rear fuselage ; the " Mod 228 " wing , which has a distinctive " dogtooth " leading edge notch to alleviate the pitch @-@ up problem ; and four " wet " hardpoints , finally giving the aircraft a good ferry range . The Hunter F.6 was given the company designation Hawker P.1099.
During the Suez Crisis of 1956 , Hunters of No. 1 and No. 34 Squadrons based at RAF Akrotiri in Cyprus flew escort for English Electric Canberra bombers on offensive missions into Egypt . For most of the conflict the Hunters engaged in local air defence due to their lack of range .
During the Brunei Revolt in 1962 , the Royal Air Force deployed Hunters and Gloster Javelins over Brunei to provide support for British ground forces ; Hunters launched both dummy and real strafing runs on ground targets to intimidate and pin down rebels . In one event , several Bruneian and expatriate hostages were due to be executed by rebels . Hunter aircraft flew over Limbang while Royal Marines from 42 Commando rescued the hostages in a fierce battle . In the following years of the Borneo Confrontation , Hunters were deployed along with other RAF aircraft in Borneo and Malaya .
The Hunter F.6 was retired from its day fighter role in the RAF by 1963 , being replaced by the much faster English Electric Lightning interceptor . Many F.6s were then given a new lease of life in the close air support role , converting into the Hunter FGA.9 variant . The FGA.9 saw frontline use from 1960 to 1971 , alongside the closely related Hunter FR.10 tactical reconnaissance variant . The Hunters were also used by two RAF display units ; the " Black Arrows " of No. 111 Squadron who set a record by looping and barrel rolling 22 Hunters in formation , and later the " Blue Diamonds " of No. 92 Squadron who flew 16 Hunters .
In Aden in May 1964 , Hunter FGA.9s and FR.10s of No. 43 Squadron RAF and No. 8 Squadron RAF were used extensively during the Radfan campaign against insurgents attempting to overthrow the Federation of South Arabia . SAS forces would routinely call in air strikes that required considerable precision , and , predominantly using 3 @-@ inch high explosive rockets and 30 mm ADEN cannon , the Hunter proved an able ground @-@ attack platform . Both squadrons continued operations with their Hunters until the UK withdrew from Aden in November 1967 .
Hunters were flown by No.63 , No. 234 and No. 79 Squadrons acting in training roles for foreign and Commonwealth students . These remained in service until after the Hawk T.1 entered service in the mid @-@ 1970s . Two @-@ seat trainer versions of the Hunter , the T.7 and T.8 , remained in use for training and secondary roles by the RAF and Royal Navy until the early 1990s ; when the Blackburn Buccaneer retired from service , the requirement for Hunter trainers was nullified and consequently all were retired .
= = = Indian Air Force = = =
In 1954 , India arranged to purchase Hunters as a part of a wider arms deal with Britain , ordering 140 Hunter single @-@ seat fighters at the same time that Pakistan announced its purchase of several North American F @-@ 86 Sabre jet fighters . The Indian Air Force ( IAF ) was the first to operate the Hunter T.66 trainers , placing an initial order in 1957 . The more powerful engine was considered beneficial in a hot environment , allowing for greater takeoff weights . During the 1960s , Pakistan investigated the possibility of buying as many as 40 English Electric Lightnings , but Britain was unenthusiastic about the potential sales opportunity because of the damage it would do to its relations with India , which at the time was still awaiting the delivery of large numbers of ex @-@ RAF Hunters .
By the outbreak of the Sino @-@ Indian War in 1962 , India had assembled one of the largest air forces in Asia , and the Hunter was the nation 's primary and most capable interceptor . During the conflict , the Hunter demonstrated its superiority over China 's Russian @-@ sourced MiGs and gave India a strategic advantage in the air . India 's aerial superiority deterred Chinese Ilyushin Il @-@ 4 bombers from attacking targets within India . In 1962 , India had selected to procure its first supersonic @-@ capable fighter , the Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich MiG @-@ 21 ; large numbers of Russian @-@ built fighters had increasingly supplemented the aging Hunters in the interceptor role by 1970 .
The Hunter was to play a major role during the Indo @-@ Pakistani War of 1965 ; along with the Gnat the Hunter was India 's primary air defence fighter , and regularly engaged in dogfights with the Pakistani F @-@ 86 Sabres and F @-@ 104 Starfighters . The aerial war saw both sides conducting thousands of sorties in a single month . Both sides claimed victory in the air war , Pakistan claimed to have destroyed 104 aircraft against its own losses of 19 , while India claimed to have destroyed 73 enemy aircraft and lost 35 of its own . Despite the intense fighting , the conflict was effectively a stalemate .
IAF Hunters performed extensive operations during the Indo @-@ Pakistani War of 1971 ; India had six combat @-@ ready squadrons of Hunters at the start of the conflict . Pakistani infantry and armoured forces attacked the Indian outpost of Longewala in an event now known as the Battle of Longewala . Six IAF Hunters stationed at Jaisalmer Air Force Base were able to halt the Pakistani advance at Longewala by conducting non @-@ stop bombing raids . The aircraft attacked Pakistani tanks , armoured personnel carriers and gun positions and contributed to the increasingly chaotic battlefield conditions , which ultimately led to the retreat of Pakistan 's ground forces . Hunters were also used for many ground @-@ attack missions and raids inside Pakistan 's borders , such as the high @-@ profile bombing of the Attock Oil refinery to limit Pakistani fuel supplies . In the aftermath of the conflict , Pakistan claimed to have shot down a total of 32 of India 's Hunters .
Due to unfavourable currency conditions and conflicting pressures on the military budget , several prospective procurements of modern aircraft such as the SEPECAT Jaguar and the British Aerospace Sea Harrier were put on hold following the 1971 war ; the indigenously developed HAL HF @-@ 24 Marut had also not been as successful as hoped , thus the IAF decided to retain the ageing fleets of Hunters and English Electric Canberra bombers . After considering several foreign aircraft to replace the Hunter , including the Dassault Mirage F1 , the Saab 37 Viggen , and several Soviet models , the Indian government announced its intention to procure 200 Jaguars , a large portion of which were to be assembled domestically , in October 1978 . In 1996 , the last of the IAF 's Hunters were phased out of service , the remaining single squadron operating the Hunter converting to the newer Sukhoi Su @-@ 30MKI .
= = = Swedish Air Force = = =
In the early 1950s , the Swedish Air Force saw the need for an interceptor that could reach enemy bombers at a higher altitude than the J 29 Tunnan that formed the backbone of the fighter force . A contract for 120 Hawker Hunter Mk 50s ( equivalent to the Mk 4 ) was therefore signed on 29 June 1954 and the first aircraft was delivered on 26 August 1955 . The model was designated J 34 and was assigned to the F 8 and F 18 wings that defended Stockholm . The J 34 was armed with four 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 18 in ) cannon and two Sidewinders . The Swedish Air Force 's aerobatic team Acro Hunters used five J 34s during the late 1950s . The J 34s were gradually replaced by supersonic J 35 Draken and reassigned to less prominent air wings , F 9 in Gothenburg and F 10 in Ängelholm , during the 1960s .
A project to improve the performance of the J 34 resulted in one Hunter being fitted with a Swedish @-@ designed afterburner in 1958 . While this significantly increased the engine 's thrust , there was little improvement in overall performance , thus the project was shelved . The last of the J 34s was retired from service in 1969 .
= = = Swiss Air Force = = =
In 1957 , the Swiss Air Force performed an extensive evaluation of several aircraft for a prospective purchase ; competitors included the North American F @-@ 86 Sabre , the Folland Gnat , and the Hawker Hunter ; a pair of Hunters were loaned to the Swiss for further trials and testing . In January 1958 , the government of Switzerland chose to terminate their independent fighter aircraft project , the in @-@ development FFA P @-@ 16 , instead choosing to order 100 Hunters to replace their existing fleet of de Havilland Vampire fighters. further development of the indigenous P @-@ 16 was discontinued . This initial order for 100 single @-@ seat Hunters consisted of 12 refurbished RAF F.6s , and 88 new @-@ built F.58s.
Swiss Hunters were operated as interceptors , with a secondary ground @-@ attack role ; from 1963 onwards , the outboard wing pylons were modified to carry two AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder air @-@ to @-@ air missiles . In the ground @-@ attack role , the Swiss Air Force maintained an arsenal of conventional iron bombs , a number of compatible napalm bombs were also maintained for intended use by the Hunters . In the interceptor role , the Hunters were supplemented by a surface @-@ to @-@ air missile ( SAM ) defence system also procured from the United Kingdom , based on the Bristol Bloodhound . A portion of the Hunter fleet was permanently placed in reserve as " sleeper squadrons " , housed in remote mountain @-@ side hangars . It was planned that in a large @-@ scale conflict , these aircraft would fly from adjacent highways , using them as improvised runways .
The Patrouille Suisse flight demonstration team were prominent fliers of the Hawker Hunter for several decades . Squadron aircraft were fitted with smoke generators on the engine exhausts and , later on , were painted in a distinctive red @-@ and @-@ white livery . The group officially formed on 22 August 1964 , and used the Hunter as its display aircraft until it was withdrawn from use in 1994 , the team continued to perform flight display using newer aircraft .
The Hunter fleet endured several attempts to procure successor aircraft to the type ; in the case of the Dassault Mirage III this had been due to excessive cost overruns and poor project management rather than the attributes of the Hunter itself . A second attempt to replace the Hunter resulted in a competition between the French Dassault Milan and the U.S. LTV A @-@ 7 Corsair II . Although the A @-@ 7 was eventually chosen as the winner , it would not be purchased and further 30 refurbished Hunters ( 22 F.58As and eight T.68 trainers ) were purchased in 1974 instead .
By 1975 , plans were laid to replace the Hunter in the air @-@ to @-@ air role with a more modern fighter aircraft , the Northrop F @-@ 5E Tiger II . The Hunter remained in a key role within the Swiss Air Force ; like the RAF 's Hunter fleet , the type transitioned to become the country 's primary ground attack platform , replacing the Venom . While the Swiss Hunters already had more armament options than the RAF aircraft , being cleared to carry Oerlikon 80 mm rockets instead of the elderly 3 @-@ inch rockets used by the RAF , to carry bombs from both inner and outer pylons and to launch AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder air @-@ to @-@ air missiles , the change to a primary air @-@ to @-@ ground role resulted in the Hunter 80 upgrade , adding chaff / flare dispensers , BL755 cluster bombs and the ability to carry AGM @-@ 65 Maverick missiles .
In the 1990s , the discovery of wing cracking lead to the quick scrapping of all Hunter F.58As. The end of the Cold War also allowed Switzerland to retire its Hunters earlier than expected , even before taking delivery of the McDonnell Douglas F / A @-@ 18 Hornets that had been ordered as replacements for the type ; the Hunter was completely withdrawn from Swiss service in 1994 . Author Fiona Lombardi stated of the retirement of the Hunter , the Swiss Air Force " definitively lost the capability to carry out air @-@ to @-@ ground operations " .
= = = Republic of Singapore Air Force = = =
Singapore was an enthusiastic operator of the Hunter , first ordering the aircraft in 1968 during a massive expansion of the city @-@ state 's armed forces ; deliveries began in 1971 and were completed by 1973 . At the time , considerable international controversy was generated as Britain ( and , as was later revealed , the U.S. ) had refused to sell Hunters to neighbouring Malaysia , sparking fears of a regional arms race and accusations of favouritism . The Republic of Singapore Air Force ( RSAF ) eventually received 46 refurbished Hunters to equip two squadrons .
In the late 1970s , the Singaporean Hunter fleet was upgraded and modified by Lockheed Aircraft Services Singapore ( LASS ) with an additional hardpoint under the forward fuselage and another two inboard pylons ( wired only for AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinders ) before the main gears , bringing to a total of seven hardpoints for external stores and weapons delivery . As a result of these upgrades , they were redesignated as FGA.74S , FR.74S and T.75S. The RSAF Black Knights , Singapore Air Force 's aerobatic team , flew Hunters from 1973 until 1989 .
By 1991 , Singapore 's fleet of combat aircraft included the General Dynamics F @-@ 16 Fighting Falcon , the Northrop F @-@ 5 Tiger II , as well as the locally modernised and upgraded ST Aerospace A @-@ 4SU Super Skyhawk ; the Hunters were active but obsolete in comparison . The type was finally retired and phased out of service in 1992 , with the 21 surviving airframes being sold off to an Australian warbird broker , Pacific Hunter Aviation Pty , in 1995 .
= = = Lebanese Air Force = = =
The Lebanese Air Force operated Hawker Hunters from 1958 to 2014 . A Lebanese Hunter shot down an Israeli jet over Kfirmishki in the early 1960s ; its pilot was captured by the Lebanese Armed Forces . One Hunter was shot down on the first day of the Six @-@ Day War by the Israeli Air Force . They were used infrequently during the Lebanese Civil War , and eventually fell out of usage and went into storage during the 1980s .
In August 2007 , the Lebanese Armed Forces planned to put its Hunters back into service following the 2007 Lebanon conflict , to deal with Fatah al @-@ Islam militants in the Nahr el @-@ Bared camp north of Tripoli . The programme was delayed by lack of spare parts for the aircraft , such as cartridges for the Martin @-@ Baker ejection seats . On 12 November 2008 , 50 years after its original introduction , the Lebanese Air Force returned four of its eight Hunters to service with 2nd Squadron , based at Rayak AB : one two @-@ seater and three single @-@ seaters ′ . Military exercises were conducted with Hunters , such as those that took place on 12 July 2010 . The Hunters were retired from service during 2014 .
= = = Others = = =
= = = = Africa = = = =
During the 1950s , the Royal Rhodesian Air Force was an important export customer of Britain , purchasing not only Hunters but De Havilland Vampires and Canberra bombers as well . Rhodesia later deployed its Hunter FGA.9s extensively against ZANLA and ZIPRA guerrillas during the Rhodesian Bush War in the late 1960s and throughout the 1970s , occasionally engaging in cross @-@ border raids over Zambia and Mozambique . The Zimbabwean Air Force Hunters were flown to support Laurent Kabila 's loyalists during the Second Congo War , and were reported to be involved in the Mozambican Civil War . In Somalia , the Siad Barre regime 's fleet of ageing Hunters , often piloted by former Rhodesian servicemen , carried out several bombing missions against rebel units in the late 1980s .
= = = = Belgium and the Netherlands = = = =
The Belgian Air Force received 112 Hunter F.4s between 1956 and 1957 to replace the Gloster Meteor F.8. The aircraft were built under licence in both Belgium and the Netherlands in a joint programme , some using U.S. offshore funding . SABCA and Avions Fairey built 64 aircraft in Belgium and a further 48 were built in the Netherlands by Fokker . The Hunters were used by Nos. 1 , 3 and 9 Wings but did not serve for long ; the aircraft with 1 Wing were replaced in 1958 by the Avro Canada CF @-@ 100 Canuck , and most were scrapped afterwards .
The Belgian and Dutch governments subsequently ordered the improved Hunter F.6 , with Nos. 1 , 7 and 9 Wings of the Belgian Air Force receiving 112 Fokker @-@ built aircraft between 1957 and 1958 . Although built in the Netherlands , 29 aircraft had been assembled from kits in Belgium by SABCA and 59 by Avions Fairey , and were operated by 7 and 9 Wings . No. 9 Wing was disbanded in 1960 , and by 1963 the Hunter squadrons in 7 Wing had also been disbanded . A large number of the surviving Hunters were sold to Hawker Aircraft and re @-@ built for re @-@ export to India and Iraq , with others to Chile , Kuwait and Lebanon .
= = = = Middle East = = = =
Between 1964 and 1975 , both Britain and France delivered significant quantities of arms , including Hunters , to Iraq . The Hunters were far more effective in fighting guerrilla activity than the Russian MiG @-@ 17s then operated by Iraq . In 1967 , Hunters of the Iraqi Air Force saw action after the Six @-@ Day War between Israel and several neighbouring Arab nations . During the War of Attrition Iraqi Hunters usually operated from bases in Egypt and Syria . While flying a Hunter from Iraqi Airbase H3 , Flight Lieutenant Saiful Azam , on exchange from the Pakistan Air Force , shot down three Israeli jets including a Sud Aviation Vautour and a Mirage IIICJ . Some missions were also flown by the Royal Jordanian Air Force , but most of the Jordanian Hunters were destroyed on the ground on the first day of the Six @-@ Day War . Replacement Hunters for Jordanian service were acquired from both Britain and Saudi Arabia in the war 's aftermath . These were used with considerable success in ground attacks against Syrian Army tanks during the Black September Crisis .
= = = = South America = = = =
During the 1960s and 1970s , Chile completed the acquisition of Hunters from Britain for service in the Chilean Air Force . In June 1973 , the Liberian oil tanker Napier ran aground on Guamblin Island , accidentally releasing 30 @,@ 000 tons of oil . After the rescue of the crew , the vessel was fired upon and set on fire by Chilean Hunters in an effort to burn the oil to avoid further environmental contamination .
During the 1973 Chilean coup d 'état , some of the Hunters were used by military officers as part of the effort to successfully overthrow the socialist president of Chile , Salvador Allende , on 11 September 1973 . On 10 September 1973 , coup leaders ordered the Hunters to relocate to Talcahuano in preparation . The following morning , the aircraft were used to conduct bombing missions against the presidential palace , Allende 's house in Santiago , and several radio stations loyal to the government . The UK had signed contracts prior to the Chilean coup d 'état for delivery of a further seven Hunters , as well as performing engine overhauls and the delivery of other equipment . The government under Prime Minister James Callaghan delayed the delivery of the aircraft , along with vessels and submarines also on order ; the trade unions took action to block delivery of refurbished Hunter engines at the East Kilbride plant until October 1978 . The action was led by Rolls Royce workers , Bob Fulton , Robert Sommerville and John Keenan , who hid the engines in the factory . The Government of Chile bestowed on 16 April 2015 , its highest civilian medal the Order Bernardo O 'Higgins Medal on the three workers for their action of solidarity . In 1982 , after the Falklands War , a number of Hunters were air freighted to Chile as part of the arrangements for providing support for UK operations in the South Atlantic .
The purchase of Hunters by Chile may have been a factor in the decision by the Peruvian Air Force to acquire Hunters of their own . Britain was keen to sell to Peru as the decision to sell Hunters to Chile became a controversial political issue for the British government following the Chilean coup ; the sale also upheld Britain 's concept of regional " balancing " .
= = Variants = =
= = Operators = =
= = = Military operators = = =
Abu Dhabi
Belgium
Chile
Denmark
Iraq
India
Jordan
Kenya
Kuwait
Lebanon
Netherlands
Oman
Peru
Qatar
Rhodesia
Saudi Arabia
Singapore
Somalia
Sweden
Switzerland
United Kingdom
Zimbabwe
= = = Civil = = =
A number of civil organisations operate or have operated Hunters for use as aerial targets and for threat simulation under contract with the military . Other Hunters are owned and operated for public display and demonstration :
AeroGroup
The American company AeroGroup previously owned and operated 11 different Hunter aircraft for government work including F.6 , F.58 and the T.8 trainer .
Airborne Tactical Advantage Company ( ATAC )
An American company based at Williamsburg International Airport in Newport News , Virginia , the company operates 14 former Swiss F.58s on United States government contracts .
Apache Aviation
Contracted by the French Navy , Apache is based at Istres in Provence , France , with frequent deployments to Lorient and Landivisiau in Brittany , other locations as required . Operates two single @-@ seater and one two seat Hunters . Operations are associated with Lortie Aviation .
Delta Jets
Operated between 1995 and 2010 from Kemble Airport near Cirencester , England with three operational Hunters . The company went into liquidation in 2010 , Hunter G @-@ FFOX ( WV318 ) is now operated by the Hunter Flight academy .
Dutch Hawker Hunter Foundation .
Operates a Hunter T.8C two @-@ seater in RNLAF markings and a single @-@ seat Hunter F.6A in Dutch markings , based at Leeuwarden Air Base in the Netherlands .
Embraer
Operates an ex @-@ Chilean Air Force Hunter T.72 as a flight test chase plane .
Hawker Hunter Aviation .
Based at RAF Scampton , it operates a fleet of 12 Mk 58 and three two @-@ seaters ( T.7 and T.8 ) , as well as other aircraft to provide " high speed Aerial Threat Simulation , Mission Support Training and Trials Support Services " .
Heritage Aviation
Operates " Miss Demeanour " , a Mk.58A privately owned and flown as a display aircraft .
Hunter Flight Academy .
Operates a Hunter T.7a G @-@ FFOX ( WV318 ) callsign " FireFox " is a two @-@ seat Hunter in 111sqn " Black Arrows " colours and markings . The Hunter T.7a is based at North Weald Airfield in the UK .
Hunter Flying Ltd . ( now Horizon Aircraft Services Ltd . )
Based at MOD St Athan in Wales , Hunter Flying Ltd maintain over 15 privately owned examples of the Hunter .
Lortie Aviation
A Canadian company ( formerly known as Northern Lights Combat Air Support ) is based in Quebec City and owns 21 Hunters ( mainly ex @-@ Swiss F.58 variants ) that are leased out for military training duties .
Thunder City
Three flyable Hunters are based at Thunder City at Cape Town International Airport in South Africa . Four ( of the seven ) Hunters owned by Thunder City were up for auction in April 2013
= = On display = =
Hunter F.4 at Royal Museum of the Armed Forces and Military History , Brussels , Belgium
Hunter F.6 at Militärhistorisches Museum Flugplatz Berlin @-@ Gatow Germany
Hunter WT694 at Caernarfon Airworld Museum , Wales
Hunter WV396 at RAF Valley , Wales
Hunter GA.11 WV382 on static display at East Midlands Aeropark
Hunter F.6A XE627 at the Imperial War Museum Duxford , Cambridgeshire
Hunter FR.10 on static display at East Midlands Aeropark
Hunter T.7 XL565 at Bruntingthorpe Aerodrome , Leicestershire ( including sections of WT745 & XL591 )
Hunter XL 568 at RAF Museum Cosford
Hunter T.7 XL569 on static display at East Midlands Aeropark
Hunter T.8M XL580 at the Fleet Air Arm Museum , Somerset
Hunter T.7 XL623 mounted in the town centre of Woking , Surrey
Hunter F.51 E419 at the North East Aircraft Museum , Sunderland
Hunter F.51 E412 at the Brooklands Museum , Weybridge , Surrey
Hunter F.51 E421 at the Brooklands Museum , Weybridge , Surrey
Hunter FGA.78 N @-@ 268 at Yorkshire Air Museum , Elvington , North Yorkshire
Hunter T.7 XL572 painted blue to represent the Blue Diamonds formation teams lead
Hunter T.7 XL571 at Yorkshire Air Museum , Elvington , North Yorkshire
Hunter T.7 XL618 at Newark Air Museum , Newark @-@ on @-@ Trent , Nottinghamshire
Hunter F.1 WT651 at Newark Air Museum , Newark @-@ on @-@ Trent , Nottinghamshire
Hunter F.1 WT680 at the Anglia Motel , on the A17 East of King 's Lynn in Fleet Hargate , Lincolnshire
Hunter F.6 XF527 at Gate guard RAF Halton , Halton , Buckinghamshire
Hunter F.6A XF375 at Boscombe Down Aviation Collection , Wiltshire
= = Accidents and incidents = =
8 February 1956 – Hawker Hunter multiple aircraft accident after a sudden deterioration in the weather during a dogfight exercise in Norfolk , England
5 April 1968 – unauthorised flight through Tower Bridge in London
6 July 2006 – A Hawker Hunter jet ( N58MX ) flown by pilot Robert " Bob " Guilford , crashed after takeoff . After the plane was airborne , Guilford climbed about 1500 feet into the air and made a right turn . He came back around towards the Hillsboro Airport , and after his turn and passed by the airport losing altitude and speed quickly . Soon after , the Mk.58 Hunter stalled and impacted the ground in a fireball . Four houses were damaged and the pilot died on impact , but there were no casualties on the ground . After the crash , the rest of the air show was canceled . The jet had been on static display at the show , and was not an aerial performer . The pilot had taken off to return to his home in California near the end of the show when the crash occurred .
18 May 2012 – Hawker Hunter crash in Ventura County , California
29 October 2014 – Hawker Hunter crash in Ventura County , California
22 August 2015 – A Hunter T7 ( G @-@ BXFI / WV372 ) crashed onto the A27 arterial road ( dual carriageway ) between Lancing and Shoreham @-@ by @-@ Sea , West Sussex , England , while taking part in the 2015 Shoreham Airshow . Eleven people on the ground were killed and several others were injured , including the pilot of the plane . Witnesses told local TV that the jet appeared to have crashed when it failed to pull out of a loop manoeuvre .
= = Specifications ( Hunter F.6 ) = =
Data from The Great Book of Fighters
General characteristics
Crew : One
Length : 45 ft 11 in ( 14 @.@ 00 m )
Wingspan : 33 ft 8 in ( 10 @.@ 26 m )
Height : 13 ft 2 in ( 4 @.@ 01 m )
Wing area : 349 ft ² ( 32 @.@ 42 m ² )
Empty weight : 14 @,@ 122 lb ( 6 @,@ 405 kg )
Loaded weight : 17 @,@ 750 lb ( 8 @,@ 050 kg )
Max. takeoff weight : 24 @,@ 600 lb ( 11 @,@ 158 kg )
Powerplant : 1 × Rolls @-@ Royce Avon 207 turbojet , 10 @,@ 145 lbf ( 45 @.@ 13 kN )
Performance
Maximum speed : Mach 0 @.@ 94 , 620 kn ( 715 mph , 1 @,@ 150 km / h ) at sea level
Combat range : 385 nmi ( 445 mi , 715 km )
Ferry range : 1 @,@ 650 nmi ( 1 @,@ 900 mi , 3 @,@ 060 km ) with external fuel
Service ceiling : 50 @,@ 000 ft ( 15 @,@ 240 m )
Rate of climb : 17 @,@ 200 ft / min ( 87 @.@ 4 m / s )
Wing loading : 51 @.@ 6 lb / ft ² ( 251 @.@ 9 kg / m ² )
Thrust / weight : 0 @.@ 56
Armament
Guns : 4 × 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 18 in ) ADEN revolver cannon in a removable gun pack with 150 rpg
Hardpoints : 4 underwing ( 7 hardpoints on Singaporean FGA / FR.74S , essentially refurbished FGA.9 derived from F.6 ) with a capacity of 7 @,@ 400 lb ( 3 @,@ 400 kg ) and provisions to carry combinations of :
Rockets : 4 × Matra rocket pods ( each with 18 × SNEB 68 mm ( 2 @.@ 68 in ) rockets ) or
32 × Hispano SURA R80 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 15 in ) rockets
Missiles : 4 × AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder Air @-@ to @-@ air missiles , mounted on Singaporean FGA / FR.74S ( two on Swiss Mk.58 Dutch F6 's and Swedish Mk.50 )
4 × AGM @-@ 65 Maverick Air @-@ to @-@ surface missiles , mounted on Singaporean FGA / FR.74S ( two on Swiss Mk.58 )
Bombs : a variety of unguided iron bombs
Other : 2 × 230 US gallons ( 870 l ; 190 imp gal ) drop tanks for extended range / loitering time
Avionics
Ekco ARI 5820 ranging radar
= = Notable appearances in media = =
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= Edward Sainsbury =
Edward Sainsbury ( 5 July 1851 – 28 October 1930 ) was an English cricketer who represented , and captained , Somerset County Cricket Club in the late 19th century . During a 10 @-@ year first @-@ class cricket career , he also represented Gloucestershire and the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) .
Most commonly employed as a right @-@ handed opening batsman , Sainsbury was one of Somerset 's most talented batsman during their formative years . His slow underarm bowling was effective in second @-@ class cricket , but in an era when overarm bowling was becoming the standard , he was used sparingly in the first @-@ class game . During his time at Somerset , the county gained first @-@ class status . After being led for three seasons by Sainsbury 's Lansdown team @-@ mate Stephen Newton , Sainsbury was given the Somerset captaincy for the 1885 season . A combination of poor results and not being able to raise a full eleven during that season led to the county 's removal from the first @-@ class game , although Sainsbury remained as captain until 1888 . By the time Somerset had improved sufficiently to return to first @-@ class cricket in 1891 , Sainsbury had moved to neighbouring county Gloucestershire , where he saw out his county cricket career .
= = Early life = =
Edward Sainsbury was born on 5 July 1851 in Bath , Somerset , the youngest son of John Popham Sainsbury . He attended Sherborne School , an independent school in north @-@ west Dorset . Playing for the school 's cricket eleven he acquired a reputation for his slow underarm bowling , which could deceive even the most wary opponent into conceding his wicket . He was considered an even better batsman , and often opened the innings for the school .
= = Club and second @-@ class county cricket = =
Sainsbury played alongside his older brother , Francis , for Lansdown Cricket Club from at least 1865 . His first recorded appearance for a representative county side was in August 1877 , when he played for Somerset , against their Dorset neighbours . He opened the batting for the Somerset team alongside Hamilton Ross . Both had been scoring plenty of runs for Lansdown in club cricket , and Sainsbury made 32 , a respectable score in the match , which Somerset won by an innings . Only Edward Lloyd scored more , posting an unbeaten 110 , one of the earliest centuries scored for a Somerset county side . Sainsbury also opened the bowling during the match , but he claimed only one wicket over the two innings and bowled just 13 of the 104 overs . A few days later he appeared again for the county side , against Clifton , who had the Australian Test cricketer , Billy Midwinter , in their team . Sainsbury scored 96 not out , including a " resolute " partnership with Stephen Newton , before rain forced the game to be drawn . Subsequently , he scored 7 and 81 against the Wiltshire Wanderers , and took ten wickets in the match , including six in the first innings . In two further appearances for Somerset in 1877 , Sainsbury did not surpass the score he reached against Dorset but claimed two further wickets , both against the Gentlemen of Wiltshire . Sainsbury finished the season top of Somerset 's batting averages , having scored 230 runs at an average of 46 @.@ 00 .
Sainsbury added himself to the list of early Somerset centurions during 1878 , hitting 105 while batting at number 6 against Hertfordshire . In doing so , he batted for over four hours , and shared an eighth wicket partnership of 114 with Francis Reed , out of a Somerset total of 249 . His bowling was also on form during the match , and after collecting two wickets in the first innings , he claimed five in the second . The Somerset side during the late 1870s reflected the strength of the Lansdown club : of the eleven players that represented Somerset in their match against the Marylebone Cricket Club in early August 1878 , five of them also represented Lansdown when the London club travelled down to Bath . In between these two matches against the MCC , Sainsbury scored a half @-@ century for Somerset during their match against Devon . Toward the end of August , Sainsbury 's bowling once again came to the fore , as he claimed five wickets in the first innings against Worcestershire to help defend Somerset 's lead and propel them to an innings victory . He once again led the Somerset batting averages , scoring 211 runs at an average of 35 @.@ 16 , while his 13 wickets were the second most in the team , at an average of 9 @.@ 69 .
Sainsbury batting scores dipped in county cricket during 1879 ; in nine appearances for Somerset during the year , his highest score was 39 . He performed better with the ball , twice taking four wickets during an innings , against both Bedfordshire and the MCC . The following county season began more positively for Sainsbury , as he collected nine wickets in the match against Sussex at Lansdown 's ground in Bath , claiming six wickets for 54 runs in the second innings of the game . He claimed another eight wickets when Somerset travelled to Leicestershire , during which Sainsbury and Arnold Fothergill took five wickets each in Leicestershire 's first innings , restricting the home side to 51 runs . Somerset won the low @-@ scoring contest by 85 runs , Sainsbury having scored a valuable 28 during his side 's first innings . Somerset 's visit to Sussex saw Sainsbury continue his success against the county , this time with the bat rather than the ball . Sussex built on their 63 run first innings lead with a second innings total of 183 , leaving Somerset the task of scoring 247 runs to win the match . Sainsbury scored his second century for Somerset , remaining 101 not out when Somerset reached the winning total . He was assisted by a half @-@ century from Stephen Newton , and scores in the twenties by Bill Fowler and Frederick Smith . Later that month , his batting was once again instrumental in setting up a Somerset victory , when he top @-@ scored with 87 as Somerset beat the MCC by an innings .
During the 1881 season , Sainsbury was joined at Somerset by his older brother Francis , who appeared four times for the county . Sainsbury performed consistently with the bat during the season , regularly scoring between 20 and 40 runs in an innings . His highest score was made against Gloucestershire , when he reached his only half @-@ century of the season , scoring 56 while batting at number seven . Sainsbury bowled less frequently during 1881 , and rarely opened the bowling for Somerset . His best bowling performance of the season for his county came against Hampshire , when – having not bowled in the first innings – he claimed four wickets as Hampshire followed on . On this occasion he was the fifth bowler used by Somerset , but he bowled the highest number of overs .
= = First @-@ class cricket = =
= = = Somerset 's leading batsman = = =
Towards the end of the 1870s , journalists had suggested that Somerset chose their players " upon breeding rather than skill " . The best players in the county , many of whom were not wealthy men , were unable to afford to play for Somerset . In turn , the cricket club could not afford to pay professionals to play for them , and were regarded as an occasional amateur outfit by many , rather than a side that could truly represent the strength of cricket within the county . The arrival of two professional players , and the acquisition of a permanent home ground in Taunton helped strengthen the club so that in 1882 they were admitted as a first @-@ class county . Bill Roe , at the time a schoolboy , rated Sainsbury as " by far the best batsman in the side " during their pre @-@ first @-@ class years . On 8 June 1882 , Somerset played their first match to be universally considered first @-@ class , against Lancashire . After losing the toss and fielding for over 150 overs as Lancashire scored 237 , Somerset responded with a first innings total of 29 – their second lowest total ever in first @-@ class cricket . Sainsbury and his fellow opening batsman , Fowler , top @-@ scored for Somerset with 9 runs each , and both were once again the highest scorers in the second innings , when Fowler scored 18 and Sainsbury 17 runs out of a total of 51 . Somerset were beaten by an innings and 157 runs , and batted for less than 70 overs . The county suffered further heavy defeats in their next two matches , losing to Gloucestershire and Hampshire , with no Somerset batsman reaching a half @-@ century in either match . Sainsbury reached his first half @-@ century in first @-@ class cricket when Somerset hosted Hampshire at the County Ground – team mates Robert Ramsay and Stephen Newton also passed 50 for the county in this match , which helped Somerset to their maiden first @-@ class victory . Sainsbury claimed a wicket in each innings of the match , during which he bowled just eight overs : in the first innings he bowled one over , conceding one run and claiming one wicket . In first @-@ class matches in 1882 , Sainsbury scored 255 runs at an average of 17 @.@ 00 , exceeding 50 on only one occasion . He bowled infrequently , claiming four wickets at an average in excess of 40 .
Sainsbury reached a half @-@ century on his first appearance for Somerset in first @-@ class cricket in 1883 , scoring 51 runs against the MCC . He did not reach 50 in his next three appearances for the county , but against Gloucestershire he top @-@ scored for his side in their first innings with 59 , and then when Somerset were forced to follow on , he scored his only century in first @-@ class cricket , amassing 116 runs before he became one of W. G. Grace 's eleven victims in the match . Sainsbury played in seven matches during 1883 , and achieved his highest batting average in a season , his century and two fifties boosting him to 27 @.@ 92 . Although he played another 31 first @-@ class matches during his career , he did not score more than 40 runs in an innings after 1883 . He also recorded his best bowling average in 1883 , claiming his nine first @-@ class wickets at 18 @.@ 55 . In early June 1884 , Sainsbury played for a side representing the South of England , scoring 3 and 29 during a 66 @-@ run victory for the South . Playing for Lansdown against the touring Gentlemen of Philadelphia the following month , he scored the only century of the match , reaching 108 , and sharing a first wicket partnership of 149 with E. M. Grace . He batted poorly for Somerset during 1884 , failing to reach double figures in most of his innings , and hitting a top score of 30 for the county . His season average was dramatically lower than the previous season , dropping below 10 .
= = = Troubled captaincy = = =
Following the departure of Somerset captain Stephen Newton , who played all his first @-@ class cricket in London from the 1885 season onwards , Sainsbury was given the club captaincy . Somerset 's first county match of the season took place in mid @-@ July , almost two months after four of the counties had contested matches . The match , played against Hampshire , showed little sign of the troubles that were to come . Sainsbury scored 0 and 13 opening the batting for his side , but the bowling of Edward Bastard , who claimed eight wickets in the first innings and three in the second , helped Somerset to a five @-@ wicket victory . The county 's next match , played two weeks later against Gloucestershire , was their heaviest defeat when losing by an innings to that point . Gloucestershire won the toss and elected to bat , totalling 448 in 190 overs ; Somerset bowlers James Parfitt and Charles Winter both conceding over 100 runs . In reply , five of the Somerset batsman were out for ducks ; Sainsbury , Parfitt and Albert Clapp were the only ones to reach double figures . Sainsbury top @-@ scored with 40 runs , but a team total of 100 meant that Gloucestershire forced his side to follow @-@ on . The second innings progressed even more poorly for Somerset . Sainsbury was one of eight batsmen who failed to reach double figures , and the team was dismissed for 80 runs , resulting in an innings and 268 run loss .
Matches were played more frequently in August , and Sainsbury and his Somerset team had just four days to recover from their defeat before travelling to The Oval to face Surrey . Sainsbury once again lost the toss and was forced to field . Surrey batted for 222 @.@ 1 overs as they accumulated 635 runs . Opening bowlers Parfitt and Winter once again conceded a century of runs apiece , and four of Somerset 's other bowlers conceded over 50 runs each . In total , Sainsbury tried seven different bowlers during the innings to try to get wickets , including Herbie Hewett , who completed his career of 106 matches with just two first @-@ class wickets . Sainsbury himself was the most successful of the bowlers , taking four wickets for 74 runs , his best first @-@ class bowling performance . In reply , Somerset were bowled out for 83 runs , with Clapp recorded as " absent hurt " . Following on , Somerset mustered a more respectable total of 251 , aided primarily by a century from Octavius Radcliffe and 85 from Hewett . Sainsbury himself added 21 to the score in the second innings after being dismissed for one in the first . The defeat was heavier still than the one suffered a week earlier ; Surrey won by an innings and 301 runs .
Morale was low at Somerset , and the county could not raise a full team to face Hampshire at Southampton a week later . They travelled with nine players , among their number Farrant Reed , who played eight first @-@ class matches in his life , Ernest Murdock , who played five , Egerton Hall , three , and Edward Spurway , two . Somerset scored 117 runs in their first innings , of which Sainsbury contributed nine . The bowling of Bastard , who took eight for 59 , helped to restrict Hampshire to 162 . Despite their low numbers , Somerset reached 166 in their second innings , Sainsbury scoring ten from number five in the batting order . With Bastard unable to replicate his first innings performance , Hampshire reached the winning total of 123 from 60 @.@ 3 overs . Somerset played Surrey and Gloucestershire in their final two matches of the season and lost both heavily , although they did succeed in avoiding any further record defeats ; Surrey won by an innings and five runs , and Gloucestershire by nine wickets . Sainsbury 's highest score in his four innings was 14 . In the six matches that he played that season , all for Somerset , Sainsbury scored 119 runs at an average of 9 @.@ 91 , a marginal improvement on his previous season .
= = Return to second @-@ class cricket = =
Somerset were stripped of their first @-@ class status for three reasons : they had not organised and played enough first @-@ class fixtures during the season , their performances were not what was expected from a first @-@ class county , and they had not succeeded in fielding a full side of eleven players in all their matches . An emergency meeting was held in Taunton , during which a new club secretary was appointed , rules were altered , and wealthy benefactors were sought . Despite these widespread changes , Sainsbury retained the club captaincy . In Somerset 's first match of 1886 , Sainsbury hit his highest score for the county in almost three years , scoring 90 out of a Somerset total of 241 . The bowling of Arnold Fothergill helped to restrict their opponents , Warwickshire , in the second innings ; but faced with requiring 150 in their second innings for victory , Somerset were bowled out for 58 . Throughout 1886 , Sainsbury 's batting continued to be more fruitful than his efforts in the previous two years of first @-@ class cricket , and he regularly made scores in the twenties and thirties . He hit 94 from the middle order against the MCC in mid @-@ August , his highest score of the season . Toward the end of the 1886 season the arrival of Sammy Woods and George Nichols vastly improved the quality of the bowling for the county , but 1887 was nevertheless marked by a slow start . A victory over Essex , in which Sainsbury scored 71 , was bracketed by heavy losses to Warwickshire and Gloucestershire . Against Hampshire , Sainsbury reached his highest total for Somerset , scoring 164 out of a total of 315 , to help his side on their way to a six @-@ wicket victory . A big win over Warwickshire followed , and the county was said to be " a ship heading out for an ocean of prosperity " .
Sainsbury 's scores dipped again for Somerset in 1888 ; his highest total for the county was an unbeaten 42 against the MCC . In contrast , in a match played for the MCC , Sainsbury struck his highest total for the side , scoring 180 runs against Wiltshire at Lord 's . Somerset were rated as the best of the second @-@ class counties in both 1887 and 1888 , but at the club 's annual general meeting , a long discussion took place regarding the captaincy of the club . Sainsbury was unable to be present for the meeting , but had sent a letter advising that if he was removed as captain , he did not feel he could play for the county any more . His letter was not well received at the meeting , and it was decided to replace him as captain with another player who lived closer to Taunton , and was able to play more of the county matches , as Sainsbury had missed a number during 1888 . Roe was selected as his replacement , with Hewett as vice @-@ captain . A vote of thanks was given to Sainsbury for his service to the county club .
= = Move to Gloucestershire = =
Over the following two seasons , 1889 and 1890 , Sainsbury played club cricket for Lansdown , but no county cricket , as he served his residential qualification for Gloucestershire . At Gloucestershire 's annual meeting in April 1891 , W. G. Grace welcomed Sainsbury to the club , and there was some mirth at the expense of Somerset regarding his move . His first appearance for his new county was in match in early May between " Club and Ground " sides from Gloucestershire and Glamorgan ; his first @-@ class debut for the county was against Kent later that month , when he scored 12 runs during a rain @-@ affected match . He was not the only former Somerset player to appear for Gloucestershire in the match – his fellow opening partner at Somerset , Octavius Radcliffe , had moved across the county border in 1886 . Sainsbury played 13 times for Gloucestershire that season , with his highest score being 36 , made against Yorkshire at Bramall Lane , Sheffield . He scored 259 runs at an average of 13 @.@ 63 , and did not bowl . An appearance for Lansdown that summer , against the Royal Agricultural College , Cirencester , saw him score 228 runs in a drawn match . The following year was his last in first @-@ class cricket , during which he made five appearances , all for Gloucestershire , scoring 100 runs , at an average of 10 @.@ 00 . He continued to play for Lansdown , who he captained in 1893 , scoring over 1 @,@ 000 runs that season , Clifton , and the MCC for a number of years .
= = Captaincy = =
During Sainsbury 's first year as Somerset captain , the county suffered two of its heaviest defeats in first @-@ class cricket at the hands of Gloucestershire and Surrey , and was stripped of its first @-@ class status . But it was the club secretary who was replaced at the end of that season , and Sainsbury remained in position as club captain , perhaps indicating that the club felt it was a lack of resources , rather than Sainsbury 's captaincy , that was to blame for the poor performances . In From Sammy to Jimmy : An Official History of Somerset County Cricket Club , Peter Roebuck suggests that Sainsbury was key in the improvements made by the county in 1888 , but fellow cricket historian David Foot appears to portray a more negative image in his book Sunshine , Sixes and Cider , suggesting that during Sainsbury 's time as captain he may have included players in the team " on the strength of [ their ] social charm and ability to drink into the early hours " .
= = Later life and death = =
Sainsbury married Mary Stevens Chamen on 28 August 1883 at Christ Church , Wanstead , Essex . He established an eponymous oil cake company in Bristol . He died on 28 October 1930 , aged 79 in Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , Somerset , and his funeral was held at St Paul 's Church in Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare . He was survived by at least two sons and two daughters . One of those sons , E. A. Sainsbury , played cricket for Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare and the Gloucestershire Colts . At the time of his death , he had a gross estate worth just over £ 9 @,@ 234 . His grandson , John Sainsbury , played two first @-@ class matches for Somerset in 1951 .
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= University of the Philippines Los Baños College of Forestry and Natural Resources =
The University of the Philippines Los Baños College of Forestry and Natural Resources ( also referred to as CFNR ) is one of the 11 degree @-@ granting units of the University of the Philippines Los Baños ( UPLB ) . It started as the Forest School under the UP College of Agriculture in 1910 , making it the oldest forestry school in the Philippines . It is one of the five founding units of UPLB upon its establishment in 1972 .
The college has been identified as a " Center of Excellence " in forestry by the Philippine Commission on Higher Education since January 2000 . CFNR offers one undergraduate degree program ( Bachelor of Science in Forestry ) along with four other graduate degree programs and one two @-@ year certificate program . Two of its professors , including its current dean , are members of the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change , the 2007 recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize .
= = History = =
CFNR traces its roots to the Forest School founded in April 14 , 1910 , through an Act 1989 by the Insular Government of the Philippines and efforts by Secretary of the Interior , Dean Conant Worcester . It was originally established as a department in the newly established of the College of Agriculture , and all of its early faculty were from the Bureau of Forestry . The Forest School became independent of the College of Agriculture in February 1916 through Act 2578 . Since then directors of the bureau had acted as ex officio deans of the school . The Forest School changed its name to School of Forestry in 1924 by effect of Act 3095 .
Arthur F. Fischer , the School of Forestry 's first dean , retired as director of the Bureau of Forestry in February 1936 . He was replaced by Florencio Tamesis who became the School of Forestry 's second dean , as well as its first Filipino dean .
The Second World War devastated the campus . All the School of Forestry buildings , including student and faculty houses , were destroyed . Large parts of the Makiling Forest Reserve , which is administered by the school were likewise damaged . Only four faculty including Tamesis and silviculture professor Teodoro C. Delizo , along with five students returned upon the resumption of classes . Classes were held under trees until its buildings could be reconstructed through the help of war reparation funds worth ₱ 59 @,@ 300 ( US $ 1 @,@ 380 ) .
The School of Forestry became the College of Forestry on June 14 , 1949 , by effect of RA 352 , with the College of Forestry finally separated from the Bureau of Forestry in 1957 , effectively putting it under direct administration of the University of the Philippines .
In 1954 the College of Forestry signed an agreement with Cornell University for providing academic and financial assistance . The College of Forestry received visiting professors from Cornell and grants that were used for construction and forestry research , while faculty and students were awarded scholarships for pursuing master 's degrees at US universities .
Domingo M. Lantican became the dean of the College of Forestry in May 1966 . Lantican implemented a 5 @-@ year campus development program which included construction of new buildings and designating areas for dormitories and staff housing .
The College of Forestry was reorganized to become the College of Forestry and Natural Resources on June 25 , 1998 . Since 2004 the event has been celebrated in concurrence with the Philippine Arbor Day , a nationwide event marked by extensive tree planting .
= = Campus = =
The campus of the College of Forestry and Natural Resources , referred to as the " upper campus " , is situated on the northeastern slope of Mount Makiling . The campus contains academic buildings , dormitories , hosted institutions ( such as the ASEAN Center for Biodiversity ) , and the 4 @,@ 347 @-@ hectare Makiling Forest Reserve ( MFR ) , which serves as an outdoor laboratory for forestry students and is believed to contain more tree species than the continental United States .
Aside from being the location of the college , the MFR is also the site of the College of Public Affairs , National Arts Center , Philippine High School for the Arts , the venue of the National Jamboree of the Boy Scouts of the Philippines ( BSP ) , the Center for Philippine Raptors and the Bureau of Plant Industry @-@ Makiling Botanic Gardens , one of the oldest parts of the campus . The gardens occupy the site where the tents were used as classrooms during the first four months of the university .
The MFR serves as an outdoor laboratory to students , primarily of the College of Forestry and Natural Resources . ₱ 5 million ( US $ 156 @,@ 000 ) was designated for its conservation and development in 2011 . The MFR was created in 1910 under the Bureau of Forestry . Jurisdiction over the MFR was transferred to the UP in 1960 . NAPOCOR acquired complete jurisdiction of the MFR , however , in 1987 as part of the Philippines ' energy development program under President Corazon Aquino . The MFR was returned to UPLB three years later by effect of RA 6967 . In 2008 representative Del De Guzman of the 2nd district of Makati filed HB 1143 which , if passed into law , would have transferred jurisdiction of the MFR to the Boy Scouts of the Philippines . The bill was strongly opposed by the UPLB , citing possible mismanagement and deforestation of the site if placed under the BSP among others .
= = Organization and administration = =
The College of Forestry and Natural Resources is managed by a dean , currently Juan M. Pulhin , who is appointed by the UP Board of Regents , and assisted by an associate dean . Prior to the college 's separation from the Bureau of Forestry in 1957 , the deans of the College of Forestry and its predecessors were not appointed by the board but were the directors of the Bureau of Forestry acting as ex officio heads of the college . Due to the distance of the Bureau of Forestry in Manila from the Forest School in Los Baños ( about 64 kilometers ) , directors of the bureau appointed foresters @-@ in @-@ charge to manage the school , a practice which continued until 1957 .
The College of Forestry and Natural Resources is a founding member of the Asia Pacific of Forestry Research Institutions , and the CFNR Institute of Agroforestry is a member of the Philippine Agroforestry Education and Research Network .
= = Academics = =
CFNR offers one undergraduate degree program ( Bachelor of Science in Forestry ) , four graduate degree programs and one certificate program . It started offering master 's and doctor 's degrees in 1966 and 1973 , respectively . The college produces about 100 graduates every year and has been identified as a " Center of Excellence " in forestry by the Philippine Commission on Higher Education since January 2000 .
Admission to the BS Forestry program is done through the University of the Philippines College Admission Test , while a Certificate in Forestry applicants are screened by a test administered by CFNR . Admission to graduate programs are managed by the Graduate School . Of its 394 students in 2008 , 61 and 295 were enrolled in its Certificate in Forestry and BS Forestry programs , respectively , while the rest are in its graduate degree programs . As of 2009 it had 393 students enrolled in all of its programs . 38 of its faculty hold PhDs .
While all of its 20 students when the Forest School opened were male , more than 60 % of the students of the college were female as of 2003 . Women first enrolled in the college in 1951 . Other forestry schools in the Philippines have also experienced a similar increase in female enrollment .
The graduates of the college has maintained substantially good performance in the forestry license exams conducted by the Professional Regulation Commission . For instance , the mean passing rates of its graduates in the exams for the years 2008 – 2010 is 92 @.@ 49 % . This is almost double of the mean national passing rate for the same period . Furthermore , six of its graduates belonged to the top ten best performing students in the 2010 exam , while four belonged to the top ten in both 2008 and 2009 exams . ( see table )
= = = Libraries and collections = = =
The CFNR Library holds about 30 @,@ 000 publications which mostly focus on forestry and related disciplines . The library has a floor area of 974 @.@ 64 sq. m , and is open 40 hours a week .
The Museum of Natural History of the University of the Philippines Los Baños , established in 1976 , is located in the campus . It holds over 200 @,@ 000 biological specimens ; including half of the samplings from the Philippine Water Bug Inventory Project . More than half of the museum 's specimens are in its entomological collection . While most of the museum 's collections are in its main building , some are housed in other UPLB units .
= = = Research = = =
In 2002 the college had 94 researchers working in its eight research units . This includes the Makiling Center for Mountain Ecosystems , believed to be the first institution in the Philippines devoted to the study of mountain ecology . It also manages the Makiling Forest Reserve and has launched programs promoting its conservation .
The Forest Products Research and Development Institute , founded as the Forest Products Laboratory under the Bureau of Forestry in 1954 , is hosted in the campus . Managed by the Department of Science and Technology of the government of the Philippines , it is engaged in paper science and bioenergy research , among others . It has also generated technologies such as those for biomass energy generation and construction . Its facilities , believed to be the " largest and best equipped in the eastern hemisphere " by the time of its construction , were patterned after the University of Wisconsin 's Forest Products Laboratory . It was built using US grants worth US $ 239 @,@ 552 and funding from the Philippine government worth ₱ 518 @,@ 000 ( US $ 12 @,@ 000 ) . It had a total budget of almost ₱ 87 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 01 million ) in 2011 , with about ₱ 51 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 18 million ) of this appropriated for research .
= = Extension = =
The Training Center for Tropical Resources and Ecosystems Sustainability , established in June 1998 by the UP Board of Regents , offers more than 300 training programs in forest and land management , logging , and related disciplines . It has a satellite office in Baguio which offers similar programs . Its programs are designed for professionals in working in the agroforestry @-@ related disciplines and the wood industry .
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= 2008 NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championship =
The 2008 NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Tournament was held from May 10 through May 26 , 2008 . This was the 38th annual Division I NCAA Men 's Lacrosse Championship tournament . Sixteen NCAA Division I college men 's lacrosse teams met after having played their way through a regular season , and for some , a conference tournament .
The first round of the single @-@ elimination tournament was played on May 10 and May 11 at the home field of the top @-@ seeded team . The quarterfinals were held on May 17 and May 18 on two separate neutral fields : the Navy @-@ Marine Corps Memorial Stadium in Annapolis , Maryland , and Schoellkopf Field in Ithaca , New York . The tournament culminated with the semifinals and finals held on Memorial Day weekend at Gillette Stadium in Foxborough , Massachusetts . The championship weekend , which included the Division II and Division III championships , was hosted by Harvard University and the Eastern College Athletic Conference . The championship was won by Syracuse University , beating Johns Hopkins University 13 – 10 , in front of a title game record crowd of 48 @,@ 970 fans .
= = Qualifying teams = =
The Division I NCAA Men ’ s Lacrosse Committee was responsible for selecting the teams that competed in the championship tournament . The qualifying teams , along with the seeding for each team in the tournament , were announced on Sunday , May 4 , 2008 . Seven conferences received automatic bids to the tournament for its top team . The remaining nine teams were selected as " at large " bids by the committee .
Five conferences held a conference tournament championship to award the conferences ' bid . Canisius earned an automatic bid by winning the Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference ( MAAC ) championship . This marks the first time that Canisius College has gained entry to the National Championship tournament . Colgate earned an automatic bid by winning its first @-@ ever Patriot League championship . Hofstra earned an automatic bid by winning Colonial Athletic Association ( CAA ) championship , Notre Dame earned an automatic bid by winning Great Western Lacrosse League ( GWLL ) championship , and UMBC earned an automatic bid by winning America East Conference championship .
Two conferences award their bids based on regular season conference records . Loyola earned an automatic bid by winning the Eastern College Athletic Conference ( ECAC ) championship with a 6 – 1 conference record . The Ivy League 's automatic bid was awarded to Cornell . Cornell and Brown had identical conference records , but due to a victory by Cornell in head to head competition earlier in the season the tiebreaker was given to Cornell .
The Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) conference tournament champion was Duke . However , the ACC does not receive an automatic bid to the NCAA tournament because a conference must have at least six members competing ( for 2 years ) in order to be awarded an automatic bid .
The following teams were awarded at @-@ large bids by the NCAA Selection Committee : Duke ( ACC ) , Virginia ( ACC ) , Syracuse ( Independent ) , North Carolina ( ACC ) , Johns Hopkins ( Independent ) , Maryland ( ACC ) , Denver ( GWLL ) , Navy ( Patriot ) , and Ohio State ( GWLL ) .
= = Tournament bracket = =
* = Overtime
= = Game summaries = =
= = = First Round = = =
The first round of the 2008 championship tournament saw upsets , an overtime game , and the NCAA career points record broken .
Unseeded Ohio State bested # 8 Cornell 15 – 7 . The opening goal of this game was scored by Ohio State goaltender Stefan Schroder , who ran the length of the field to put one past the Big Red netminder . Navy upset # 4 seeded North Carolina in Chapel Hill with a final score of 8 – 7 on the strong play of the Midshipmen defense and the four goal effort of Tim Paul , who was honored with Nike Player of the Week honors . Notre Dame , who was hosting its first NCAA Tournament game , topped Colgate in a contest that was settled in overtime . In a victory over Loyola , Duke 's Matt Danowski broke the NCAA career points record , eclipsing Joe Vasta 's mark . Syracuse ended Canisius 's first ever appearance in the tournament early with a 20 – 3 victory . Johns Hopkins was led by Paul Rabil 's four goals in a 10 – 4 win over Hofstra . Virginia 's Garrett Billings third goal of the game with 6 : 50 left in the game sealed the Cavaliers win over UMBC . Maryland beat GWLL 's Denver 10 – 7 .
= = = Quarterfinals = = =
The quarterfinals were held at two separate locations the weekend of May 17 and May 18 . On Saturday , 17 @,@ 017 people attended the quarterfinals at Navy @-@ Marine Corps Memorial Stadium . This set an attendance record for most number of people to attend the quarterfinal round of the lacrosse championships . Fans in attendance saw Johns Hopkins defeat Navy 10 – 4 . Navy was held without a goal for both the second and third quarters . The other game played in Annapolis was Maryland versus Virginia , which went into overtime . Ben Rubeor scored the game @-@ winning goal in the extra period to send the Cavaliers to the semifinals .
On Sunday , at Cornell 's Schoellkopf Field , Syracuse defeated Notre Dame 11 – 9 on the play of midfielder Dan Hardy who recorded four points , including three goals and the game winning score . Also , Duke routed Ohio State 21 – 10 on the offensive efforts of Zack Greer who recorded a career @-@ high eleven points on six goals and five assists .
= = = Final Four = = =
On Saturday , May 24 , 48 @,@ 224 fans were spectators for the 2008 Division I Final Four doubleheader held at Gillette Stadium in Foxborough , Massachusetts . The first game featured Syracuse versus Virginia , and the second was a rematch of last year 's championship game between Johns Hopkins and Duke .
= = = = Syracuse vs. Virginia = = = =
In the first game of the Final Four doubleheader , Syracuse defeated Virginia 12 – 11 in a double overtime thriller .
Virginia commanded the first half of the contest due in part to extra @-@ man opportunities resulting from penalties by Syracuse . In the second quarter , the Cavaliers went on a run of five unanswered goals and entered half @-@ time with a 6 – 3 lead , and the game 's momentum . The game remained in Virginia 's favor through the third quarter , prior to the Orange fourth quarter comeback .
Syracuse 's Mike Leveille scored five goals , including a goal with 3 : 00 remaining in the game to send the game into overtime , and the eventual game @-@ winner in the second overtime period to propel the Orange into the Championship game . Syracuse 's come @-@ from @-@ behind victory included scoring six of the final eight goals of the contest .
Syracuse 's Junior midfielder Matt Abbott , known more for his groundball and clearing game , tallied three goals in the second half for his first career hat trick to spark to second half rally . Extra possessions earned by face @-@ off specialist Danny Brennan , including both opportunities in the overtime periods and 70 % total for the game , helped the Orange stage the comeback . While , Syracuse goalkeeper John Galloway settled down in the second half and made a number game saving stops as regulation time expired .
Virginia scoring was led by Danny Glading with three goals and one assist , while Garret Billings scored two goals . Ben Rubeor , a Tewaaraton Trophy finalist , was held to one point on an assist .
= = = = Johns Hopkins vs. Duke = = = =
Johns Hopkins defeated Duke 10 – 9 in the second game of the Final Four doubleheader . The heavily favored Duke team , who had beaten the Blue Jays earlier in the season 17 – 6 , were handed only their second loss of the season .
Hopkins controlled the deliberate tempo of the game , and held a 4 – 2 lead going into halftime . After scoring first after halftime , Hopkins saw Duke pull even with three goals in 45 seconds during the third quarter , including back @-@ to @-@ back goals just 7 seconds apart .
In fourth quarter , the speed of the game accelerated as Duke began to push offensively . Johns Hopkins goaltender Michael Gvozden was up to the task . He recorded 7 of his 17 saves in the fourth quarter , including one as time expired to seal the victory .
Hopkins was led by Senior Kevin Huntley who netted four goals in the contest .
= = = Championship : Syracuse vs. Johns Hopkins = = =
On Memorial Day , Monday May 26 , Syracuse defeated Johns Hopkins in the national championship game 13 – 10 in front of 48 @,@ 970 fans at Gillette Stadium . This game set the attendance record for the NCAA lacrosse championship game and for any NCAA outdoor championship . This marks the 10th victory in a national championship game for the Syracuse program . This is John Desko 's , Syracuse 's Head coach , fourth championship in his ten @-@ year career at Syracuse .
The Orange were led by midfielder Dan Hardy with a team @-@ high three goals , fifth @-@ year Senior face @-@ off specialist Danny Brennan who scored his first career goal , and attackman Mike Leveille , the tournament 's Most Outstanding Player honoree and 2008 Tewaaraton Trophy winner , who recorded three points on one goal and two assists .
Syracuse goalkeeper John Galloway became the first true freshman goaltender in NCAA history to record 16 wins in one season , and just the fourth to win an NCAA title .
Johns Hopkins ' Paul Rabil played an outstanding game leading his team with career @-@ high six goals and one assist in the losing effort . In addition , Blue Jay netminder Michael Gvozden made 20 saves , the most saves in a Championship game since Maryland 's Brian Dougherty in 1995 .
= = Record by conference = =
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= Smyth Report =
The Smyth Report is the common name of an administrative history written by physicist Henry DeWolf Smyth about the Manhattan Project , the Allied effort to develop atomic bombs during World War II . The full title of the report is A General Account of the Development of Methods of Using Atomic Energy for Military Purposes . It was released to the public on August 12 , 1945 , just days after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9 .
Smyth was commissioned to write the report by Major General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , the director of the Manhattan Project . The Smyth Report was the first official account of the development of the atomic bombs and the basic physical processes behind them . It also served as an indication as to what information was declassified ; anything in the Smyth Report could be discussed openly . For this reason , the Smyth Report focused heavily on information , such as basic nuclear physics , which was either already widely known in the scientific community or easily deducible by a competent scientist , and omitted details about chemistry , metallurgy , and ordnance . This would ultimately give a false impression that the Manhattan Project was all about physics .
The Smyth Report sold almost 127 @,@ 000 copies in its first eight printings , and was on The New York Times best @-@ seller list from mid @-@ October 1945 until late January 1946 . It has been translated into over 40 languages .
= = Background = =
Henry D. Smyth was a professor of physics and chairman of the physics department of Princeton University from 1935 to 1949 . During World War II , he was involved in the Manhattan Project from early 1941 , initially as a member of the National Defense Research Committee ’ s S @-@ 1 Uranium Committee , and later as an associate director of the Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago . In late 1943 , the President of Princeton University , Harold W. Dodds , began insisting that Smyth work part @-@ time at Princeton , where there was a shortage of physicists because so many of them were engaged in war work . Princeton had commitments to teach army and navy personnel , and he needed physicists like Smyth to meet those commitments . Smyth therefore became a consultant at Chicago , where he was in charge of designing a nuclear reactor that used heavy water as a neutron moderator , and commuted from Princeton , working in Chicago on alternate weeks .
In early 1944 , Smyth raised the possibility of producing an unclassified report for the general public on the achievements of the Manhattan Project . The director of the Metallurgical Laboratory , Arthur Compton , supported the idea . He arranged a meeting with James B. Conant , the President of Harvard University and one of the senior administrators of the Manhattan Project , who had similar thoughts . Conant took up the matter with the Manhattan Project 's director , Major General Leslie R. Groves , Jr .. In April , Smyth received a formal letter from Groves asking him to write such a report . Both the report and the choice of Smyth as its author were approved by the Manhattan Project ’ s governing body , the Military Policy Committee , in May 1944 .
The Report was to serve two functions . First , it was to be the public and official U.S. government account of the development of the atomic bombs , outlining the development of the then @-@ secret laboratories and production sites at Los Alamos , New Mexico , Oak Ridge , Tennessee , and Hanford , Washington , and the basic physical processes responsible for the functioning of nuclear weapons , in particular nuclear fission and the nuclear chain reaction . Second , it served as a reference for other scientists as to what information was declassified — anything said in the Smyth Report could be said freely in open literature . For this reason , the Smyth Report focused heavily on information already available in declassified literature , such as much of the basic nuclear physics used in weapons , which was either already widely known in the scientific community or could have been easily deduced by a competent scientist .
Smyth stated the purpose of the Smyth Report in the Preface :
The ultimate responsibility for our nation 's policy rests on its citizens and they can discharge such responsibilities wisely only if they are informed . The average citizen cannot be expected to understand clearly how an atomic bomb is constructed or how it works but there is in this country a substantial group of engineers and scientists who can understand such things and who can explain the potentialities of atomic bombs to their fellow citizens . The present report is written for this professional group and is a matter @-@ of @-@ fact , general account of work in the USA since 1939 aimed at the production of such bombs . It is neither a documented official history nor a technical treatise for experts . Secrecy requirements have affected both the detailed content and general emphasis so that many interesting developments have been omitted .
This contrasted somewhat with what Groves wrote in the foreword :
All pertinent scientific information which can be released to the public at this time without violating the needs of national security is contained in this volume . No requests for additional information should be made to private persons or organizations associated directly or indirectly with the project . Persons disclosing or securing additional information by any means whatsoever without authorization are subject to severe penalties under the Espionage Act .
= = Writing = =
Smyth passed security clearances necessary to visit project sites , access documents and to discuss the work with the research personnel . Groves approved Smyth 's request to hire another Princeton physicist , Lincoln G. Smith , as a research assistant . A letter to the Manhattan Project 's senior managers , Kenneth Nichols , Robert Oppenheimer , Ernest Lawrence , Harold Urey , and Franklin Matthias , explained :
The purpose is to give clearly and promptly recognition to those who have worked so long and necessarily so anonymously ... To accomplish his purpose , Dr. Smyth must have rather complete information concerning your phase of the project including access to necessary documents ... [ and ] information and advice from you and your principal assistants .
Since Smyth still had his commitments at Princeton and Chicago , he could only work on the report part @-@ time . He wrote the report in his office in Princeton 's Palmer Laboratory . Bars were installed on the windows of Smyth 's office and the one adjacent to it . The hallway door to his office was locked and blocked by a large safe so that the only access was through the adjacent office , where there was an armed guard . The guards worked in eight @-@ hour shifts , and one was present around the clock . When Smyth sent papers to Groves in Washington , D.C. , they went by military courier .
Smyth sent an outline and rough draft of the report to Groves for approval in August 1944 , followed in February 1945 by drafts of the first twelve chapters , leaving only the final chapter to be completed . Groves and Conant reviewed the drafts , and made several criticisms . They felt that it was too technical for general readers , did not mention the names of enough participants , and dwelt too much on the activities at the Los Alamos Laboratory . Groves was particularly anxious that deserving people be mentioned , as he felt that this would lessen the danger of security breaches . After Smyth made a series of changes in response to this , Groves sent the manuscript to his scientific adviser , Richard Tolman . Tolman was assisted by two physicists who were working in his office at the National Defense Research Committee as technical aides , Paul C. Fine from the University of Texas , and William Shurcliff from Harvard University . They had the dual task of editing and censoring the manuscript .
Smyth and Tolman accepted a set of criteria , agreeing that information could be released under the conditions :
I. ( A ) That it is important to a reasonable understanding of what had been done on the project as a whole or ( B ) That it is of true scientific interest and likely to be truly helpful to scientific workers in this country and
II . ( A ) That it is already generally known by competent scientists or ( B ) that it can be deduced or guessed by competent scientists from what is already known , combined with the knowledge that the project was in the overall successful or
III . ( A ) That it has no real bearing on the production of atomic bombs or ( B ) That it could be discovered by a small group ( 15 of whom not over 5 would be senior men ) of competent scientists working in a well @-@ equipped college lab in a year 's time or less .
Writing to Oppenheimer in April 1945 , Smyth noted that
All discussion of ordnance work is also to be removed . There is no objection to including the general statement of the ordnance problem and all the other parts of the problem , but the approaches to solution that have been made will be omitted . On the other hand , the feeling is that there is no objection to including the nuclear physics . The General believes that the metallurgical work and a considerable amount of the chemistry work should be excluded on the ground that it would be extremely difficult for the average scientist to carry out any of this work without supplies and material which would not be available to him . I am not entirely clear how this criterion should be applied , but it probably means the elimination of the metallurgical work on plutonium and at least of some of the chemistry .
Tolman and his assistants finished making their changes in July 1945 , and Groves had copies sent out by courier to selected personnel . Each submitted a written report , which was returned with the courier and the manuscript . These were busy people who sometimes only had a few days or even hours to look at the manuscript . Many , but not all , merely signed a statement saying that they were happy with it . Nichols , the commander of the Manhattan District , sent back a detailed review . He had concerns about the amount of credit being given to different people and organizations , and recommended that " full credit be given to H. D. Smyth for preparing it and that the statement be made that the Army has no responsibility for the report except for asking him to do it . " Smyth was given credit , but no such statement was issued . To prepare the final draft for the printer , Groves brought typists with the required security clearances to Washington , D.C. , from the Manhattan District 's headquarters in Oak Ridge .
Because the Manhattan Project was an Allied endeavor , Groves had to obtain permission from the British and American governments to publish the Smyth Report . A meeting was held on August 2 , 1945 in the office of the Secretary of War , Henry Stimson . Accompanying Stimson were his two assistants , Harvey Bundy and George L. Harrison , and his military aide , Colonel William H. Kyle . Groves , Conant , and Tolman represented the Manhattan Project . James Chadwick , the head of the British scientific mission to the Manhattan Project , and Roger Makins from the British Embassy represented Britain . The meeting went on for two hours , as Groves and Conant sought to reassure Stimson that the report would not give vital secrets away to the Soviet Union .
For his part , Chadwick , who had not yet read the manuscript , could not fathom why the Americans wanted to publish such a document . When he did read it , he became quite alarmed . His concerns were addressed in a meeting with Groves and Conant , and he accepted their point of view . " I am now convinced , " he wrote , " that the very special circumstances arising from the nature of the project , and of its organization , demand special treatment , and a report of this kind may well be necessary to maintain security of the really essential facts of the project . "
= = Publication = =
A thousand copies of the report were printed by lithography at the Pentagon , and deposited in Groves 's office in the New War Department Building in Washington , DC , where they were kept securely locked away . Final approval was sought from the President , Harry S. Truman , in a meeting at the White House on August 9 , 1945 , three days after the bombing of Hiroshima . Stimson , Harrison , Groves , Conant , Vannevar Bush , and Fleet Admiral William D. Leahy presented their views , and Truman authorized the immediate release of the report . The War Department released the thousand copies of the report that had been kept in Groves 's office to the media for use by the radio broadcasters with an embargo time of 9 : 00 pm on August 11 , 1945 , and for the newspapers of August 12 .
The original title of the report , before it was published in book form , was Nuclear Bombs : A General Account of the Development of Methods of Using Nuclear Energy for Military Purposes Under the Auspices of the United States Government , 1940 – 1945 . The word " nuclear " was changed to " atomic " because while the former was favoured by physicists , it was not in common use by the general public at that time . This was the title used on the copyright certificate . The book was copyrighted to Smyth but issued with the statement that " reproduction in whole or in part is authorized and permitted " . Groves had the report copyrighted by Smyth in order to prevent someone else from copyrighting it .
Groves was concerned about the security implications of the title , so instead of having " Atomic Bombs " on the cover , it was left blank , and a rubber stamp was made . The intention was for this to be used on each copy before it was distributed . This was done for the copyright deposit copies , but not those given to the press or the public . The lumbering subtitle therefore became the title . A side effect of this was that it became generally known as the " Smyth Report " . Over the years , the term " nuclear " gradually gained traction , and by 1960 it had become more common than " atomic " .
In mid @-@ 1945 , Smyth approached Datus C. Smith , the director of Princeton University Press , about the possibility of renting his printing plant to the government during a two @-@ week summer shutdown so that Smyth could produce 5 @,@ 000 copies of a top secret report . Smith ’ s response was that he found it hard to imagine anyone needing to print 5 @,@ 000 copies of a top secret report . He found it much easier to imagine delays due to unexpected printing problems , and his workers returning from summer vacation to find themselves locked out of a plant filled with top secret material . Under the circumstances , he felt that he could not risk this .
After the Smyth Report was officially released , Smith immediately offered to publish it . Smyth patiently explained that anyone was free to publish it , but Princeton University Press was only willing to do so on the understanding that this would be " Smyth 's edition " . Meanwhile , Smyth approached McGraw @-@ Hill about publishing it . The editors at McGraw @-@ Hill found the manuscript dull and somewhat technical for a general audience and suggested a rewrite . Smyth balked at this , as it would have meant going through the censorship process again . James S. Thompson , the president of McGraw @-@ Hill , pointed out the U.S. Government Printing Office would be putting out an edition , probably more cheaply than he could , and there would likely be little profit in a McGraw @-@ Hill edition . Smyth then turned back to Princeton University Press . He had only one condition : that he receive no royalties . Princeton University Press agreed , but added a stipulation of its own : that Groves 's approval be secured . Smyth obtained this in a letter dated August 25 , 1945 .
Princeton University Press received a copy of the typescript lithograph edition with hand corrections from Smyth on August 17 , 1945 . The typographers had already started work from another copy . Maple Press of York , Pennsylvania , was lined up to do the printing . Because of wartime shortages , one of a publisher ’ s biggest worries was finding adequate supplies of paper . Smith approached Manny and Leonard Relles from Central Paper , told them about the Smyth Report and its significance , and asked them if they could deliver 30 short tons ( 27 t ) of paper to Maple Press in twelve days . They found a carload of paper on a siding in New England and sent it to York , providing enough paper for 30 @,@ 000 copies , only half what Princeton University Press wanted . The first edition of 30 @,@ 000 copies was printing when word was received that paper had been found for another 30 @,@ 000 copies . The presses were held for three hours while the train made its way to a siding in York , where the paper was unloaded and brought to the printing plant by trucks .
There were minor differences between the original text and the version published by Princeton . In the Princeton publication , first and middle names were added instead of the previous use of abbreviations . In response to public concerns about radioactivity , Groves had text added to paragraph 12 @.@ 18 explaining how the height of the explosions over Hiroshima and Nagasaki reduced fallout and allowed fission products to be drawn up into the upper atmosphere . He also had a one @-@ sentence allusion to a poisoning effect of fission products in the production reactors redacted . This deletion was soon noticed by the Russian translators , and only served to highlight its importance to the Soviet atomic bomb project .
Later editions also incorporated changes . Four typographical errors were found , and the word " photon " in paragraph 1 @.@ 44 aroused so much correspondence from readers who mistakenly believed that it should be " proton " that it was decided to re @-@ word the paragraph . The British government became concerned that the Smyth report did not cover the British part in the project , and issued its own 40 @-@ page report , which was incorporated into the fifth printing in November 1945 as Appendix 7 . A two @-@ page report by the Canadian government was added as Appendix 8 .
The Smyth Report was translated into over 40 different languages . In addition to Princeton University Press , it was also published by the Government Printing Office , the Infantry Journal , and His Majesty 's Stationery Office , and was reprinted in the October 1945 issue of Reviews of Modern Physics .
= = Reception = =
The first copies were delivered to bookstores on September 10 . Many were wary of it , due to its technical nature , and feared that sales would be low . An exception was Scribner 's Bookstores , which placed large early orders . At Oak Ridge , the Manhattan Project 's major production site , 8 @,@ 000 copies were sold through the employee welfare organization . Similar arrangements were made for Los Alamos and Richland , which were located in areas where bookstores were scarce .
The Smyth Report was on The New York Times bestseller list from October 14 , 1945 , until January 20 , 1946 . Between 1946 and when the Smyth Report went out of print in 1973 , it went through eight printings , and Princeton University Press sold 62 @,@ 612 paperback and 64 @,@ 129 hardback copies .
Groves did not intend the Smyth Report to be the last word on the project . It formed an addendum to the Manhattan District History , the official history of the project . This eventually consisted of 35 volumes with 39 appendices or supplements . It was written in the immediate postwar years by the chemists , metallurgists , physicists , and administrators who had worked on the project . Since there were no security restrictions , it covered every aspect of the Manhattan Project , but was itself classified . Most of it was declassified in the 1960s and 1970s and became available to scholars , except for some technical details on the construction of the bombs .
In her 2008 PhD dissertation , Rebecca Schwartz argued that Smyth 's academic background and the Smyth Report 's security @-@ driven focus on physics at the expense of chemistry , metallurgy , and ordnance promoted a public perception of the Manhattan Project as primarily the achievement of physics and physicists . According to Schwartz , postwar histories and popular writing tended to follow the Smyth report in this regard , creating a lasting historiographical legacy . " Ever since " , wrote Jon Agar , " the atomic bomb has been seen as an achievement of physics . " In particular , the prominence given to Einstein 's mass – energy equivalence equation indelibly associated it with the Manhattan Project . The Smyth Report , wrote Robert P. Crease , " more than any other single document made E = mc2 an emblem of atomic energy and weaponry . "
Groves felt that :
on the whole , and considering the rather difficult conditions under which it was prepared , the Smyth Report was extraordinarily successful in its efforts to distribute credit fairly and accurately . It would have been impossible to have prepared any document for publication covering the work of the Manhattan District that every reader would have found to his liking . But the fact is that all those who had the greatest knowledge of the subject were nearly unanimous in approving its publication as it was finally written . And there can be no question that it excellently served its purpose as an essential source of accurate information , particularly for a news @-@ hungry America in the early days after Nagasaki .
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= Italian cruiser Francesco Ferruccio =
Francesco Ferruccio was a Giuseppe Garibaldi @-@ class armored cruiser built for the Royal Italian Navy ( Regia Marina ) in the first decade of the 20th century . The ship made several deployments to the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant during her career . At the beginning of the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 she bombarded Tripoli and then Beirut in early 1912 before being transferred to Libya . During World War I , Francesco Ferruccio 's activities were limited by the threat of Austro @-@ Hungarian submarines and she became a training ship in 1919 . The ship was struck from the naval register in 1930 and subsequently scrapped .
= = Design and description = =
Francesco Ferruccio had an overall length of 111 @.@ 8 meters ( 366 ft 10 in ) , a beam of 18 @.@ 2 meters ( 59 ft 9 in ) and a deep draft ( ship ) of 7 @.@ 3 meters ( 23 ft 11 in ) . She displaced 7 @,@ 350 metric tons ( 7 @,@ 230 long tons ) at normal load . The ship was powered by two vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one shaft , using steam from 24 coal @-@ fired Belleville boilers . The engines produced 14 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a speed of approximately 19 – 20 knots ( 35 – 37 km / h ; 22 – 23 mph ) . She had a cruising range of 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Her complement ordinarily consisted of 555 officers and enlisted men and 578 when acting as a flagship .
Her main armament consisted of one 254 @-@ millimeter ( 10 in ) gun in a turret forward of the superstructure and two 203 @-@ millimeter ( 8 in ) guns in a twin turret aft . Ten of the 152 @-@ millimeter ( 6 in ) guns that comprised her secondary armament were arranged in casemates amidships ; the remaining four 152 @-@ millimeter guns were mounted on the upper deck . Francesco Ferruccio also had ten 76 @-@ millimeter ( 3 in ) and six 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) guns to defend herself against torpedo boats . She was fitted with four single 450 @-@ millimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes .
The ship 's waterline armor belt had a maximum thickness of 150 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) amidships and tapered to 80 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) towards the ends of the ship . The conning tower , casemates , and gun turrets were also protected by 150 @-@ millimeter armor . Her protective deck armor was 37 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) thick and the 152 @-@ millimeter guns on the upper deck were protected by gun shields 50 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick .
= = Construction and service = =
Francesco Ferruccio , named after the condottiere Francesco Ferruccio , was laid down at the Naval Dockyard in Venice on 19 August 1899 and launched on 23 April 1902 , when she was named by the Duchess of Genoa . She was completed on 1 September 1905 . During the 1905 fleet maneuvers , she was assigned to the " hostile " force blockading La Maddalena , Sardinia . Together with her sister ships Giuseppe Garibaldi and Varese , the ship was in Marseilles , France on 15 – 16 September 1906 to participate in a fleet review for Armand Fallières , President of France , on the latter date . Francesco Ferruccio made a cruise to the Levant in July 1909 and was deployed to Crete from 26 June 1910 to January 1911 , returning to Taranto on 25 January .
When the Italo @-@ Turkish War began on 29 September 1911 , Francesco Ferruccio assigned to the 4th Division of the 2nd Squadron of the Mediterranean Fleet , together with her sisters Giuseppe Garibaldi and Varese . Francesco Ferruccio and Giuseppe Garibaldi bombarded Tripoli on 3 – 4 October while Varese stood offshore to watch for any Ottoman ships . The desultory bombardment killed 12 Ottoman soldiers and severely wounded 23 more in addition to 7 dead civilians . On 13 October , the three sisters sailed to Augusta , Sicily to recoal . Francesco Ferruccio and Giuseppe Garibaldi bombarded Beirut on 24 February 1912 , sinking the elderly Ottoman ironclad Avnillâh and forced the torpedo boat Ankara to scuttle itself . Varese is sometimes credited with participating also in the bombardment . The bombardment killed over 140 civilians and wounded more than 200 more . The ship was then transferred to Libya and remained there for the rest of the war . During the First Balkan War , she was deployed to Albania from 18 February to 5 June 1913 and then made another deployment there from 4 January to 7 February 1914 .
When Italy declared war on the Central Powers in May 1915 , she was assigned to the 5th Cruiser Division , based at Brindisi . On 5 June the division bombarded rail lines near Ragusa and departed Brindisi on the evening of 17 July to do the same near Ragusa Vecchia the following morning . Shortly after beginning the bombardment at 04 : 00 , Giuseppe Garibaldi was torpedoed by the Austro @-@ Hungarian submarine U @-@ 4 . Struck by a single torpedo , the cruiser sank within minutes , although only 53 crewmen were killed . The division immediately retreated to avoid further attacks , leaving three destroyers behind to rescue survivors . The loss of Giuseppe Garibaldi and the sinking of the armored cruiser Amalfi by another submarine on 7 July severely restricted the activities of the other ships based in the Adriatic Sea . Francesco Ferruccio was briefly stationed in the Levant from 19 November to 22 December before returning to Brindisi where she escorted convoys to Albania and patrolled the Albanian coast for the rest of the war .
Francesco Ferruccio became a cadet training ship in 1919 and was finally converted for the role in 1924 . She was stricken on 1 April 1930 and scrapped .
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= Cold Feet ( series 5 ) =
The fifth series of the British comedy drama television series Cold Feet was broadcast on the ITV network from 23 February to 16 March 2003 . This was the final series of the drama and while the number of episodes was halved compared to the previous series , the running time was increased from 46 minutes to 72 minutes per episode , necessitating a 95 @-@ minute timeslot . The plot of the series follows three couples : Adam ( James Nesbitt ) and Rachel ( Helen Baxendale ) getting to grips with bringing up baby Matthew ( born in the final episode of the previous series ) , the return of Pete ( John Thomson ) and Jo ( Kimberley Joseph ) from their honeymoon , and the subsequent breakdown of their marriage , and the divorce proceedings between Karen ( Hermione Norris ) and David ( Robert Bathurst ) .
The producers had originally intended to end the programme in 2001 but pressure for another run meant it came back for one last series . Critics welcomed the decision to end the series and the final episode gained the highest viewing figure in the history of the programme , with 10 @.@ 7 million people watching Rachel 's funeral . Numerous accolades were endowed on the programme ( particularly for the final episode , which rated highly in viewer polls ) including the prestigious Best Comedy Award at the British Comedy Awards .
= = Episodes = =
= = Production = =
Mike Bullen vowed that he would not write a fifth series after the fourth ended so well in 2001 , but was persuaded to write it when executive producer Andy Harries suggested he should kill off a character . James Nesbitt was not keen to return to do another series but Bullen persuaded him to by offering to have Adam 's cancer return with fatal consequences ( the character had recovered from a testicular cancer scare in the second series ) . Despite this , Bullen was unable to make Adam 's death funny and , following a meeting with Harries , decided it should be Rachel who died . Harries scheduled a meeting with Helen Baxendale at the Groucho Club , where they discussed the development . The scenes where Adam talks to Rachel 's spirit were inspired by Truly , Madly , Deeply and Ghost . Bullen co @-@ wrote the script of episode three with Matt Greenhalgh .
Richard Armitage secured the role of Lee when he arrived at his audition wearing a pair of old boots , something that greatly impressed producer Spencer Campbell . In order to match the scripted description of his character , Armitage began a heavy workout regimen and took aqua @-@ aerobics lessons to better understand Lee 's profession . His first scene was a sex scene with Ramona . Despite leaving the series in 2001 , Fay Ripley was persuaded to return to the programme for one last appearance as Jenny in the final episode . To make sure the rest of the cast agreed to return , their salaries were increased to £ 75 @,@ 000 per episode , a 50 % increase on their pay for the fourth series ( though Joseph earned less ) .
Episodes one and two were directed by Ciaran Donnelly , episode three by Simon Delaney and episode four by Tim Sullivan . Ripley was in the late stages of pregnancy and permitted to work for only a short amount of time , so the fourth episode was filmed before the third . Ripley did not travel to Portmeirion with the rest of the cast , so a make @-@ up artist stood in as Jenny in the beach ad clifftop scenes , wearing the prosthetic stomach originally made for Ripley in the first series . A close @-@ up of Jenny standing next to Jo was filmed in front of a similar backdrop in Manchester and edited into the location footage . The producers endeavoured to film on location once per series but the high cost of the Sydney episode and the rising salaries of the cast meant the budget could not permit travel any further than Portmeirion , a village most famous as the location in The Prisoner . Rachel 's car accident was filmed on location in Moston , Greater Manchester in the early hours of 6 October 2002 . Following the completion of filming , the sets were dismantled and moved to landfill sites .
Robert Bathurst was displeased with the development of David and Robyn 's relationship ; he told The Times , " I had a long run @-@ in with the producers . Here was an opportunity for the character to have his first friendship and they used the stock telly drama for friendship of having a shag . I said it 's shallow and it 's sordid . So they wrote a scene with a self @-@ disgusted David saying ' It 's shallow and it 's sordid . ' "
Mark Russell composed an extended score for the scenes depicting Rachel 's death and its aftermath , using music software to recreate the acoustics of the Cathedral of Chartres : " We decided what we wanted was quite an elegiac piece of music that becomes more and more emotional so it doesn 't reflect the frenzy of the hospital . "
= = Broadcast = =
The four episodes were broadcast in a Sunday night timeslot from 9 p.m. to 10 @.@ 35 p.m.
= = Reception = =
The first and second episodes each secured overnights of 8 million , with the first taking a 33 % audience share . Ratings grew as the series progressed ; episode three scored 9 @.@ 4 million viewers and the finale drew 10 @.@ 2 million , with a 42 % share . Final figures took it to 10 @.@ 7 million , making it the eighth most @-@ watched drama and 15th most @-@ watched terrestrial programme of 2003 . During production of the series , tabloid newspapers published stories that four funeral scenes had been filmed and a final decision on which would air would be made close to the broadcast ; The Sun reported the original plot of Adam 's fatal cancer relapse and Rachel 's death in a car accident , though also suggested Karen could die from an alcohol @-@ related accident and that Pete might suffer a heart attack during sex . The Sunday Mirror quoted Andy Harries as being " undecided " over who would die in a report published in September 2002 , though by this time production on the last episodes was well under way .
Critical reviews were favourable and the decision to end the series was welcomed ; Paul Hoggart of The Times called the formula of the series " less surprising " and audiences had only " residual interest in the characters " . Writing in New Statesman , Andrew Billen compared the appearance of Rachel 's ghost to that of Gary Shepherd in thirtysomething , and its inspiration The Big Chill . Billen was unsurprised when Mark told Karen he was a " child hater " and that Jo married Pete solely to stay in the country , suggesting that viewers had seen the plots coming for a long time . Reviewing for BBC News Online , Darren Waters wrote that the finale had a " thankful lack of sentimentality " , though called the scenes in Portmeirion an " unnecessary coda " . The Spectator 's Simon Hoggart believed that Baxendale 's portrayal of Rachel as a " fraught and snippy woman " was detrimental to the character , causing him to have less sympathy for her and more for Matthew . He praised the strengths and flaws of all the female characters .
Tesco Personal Finance recorded a 20 % increase in calls from people wanting to take out life insurance policies . A spokesman attributed the surge to people watching Rachel 's death in a car accident .
The series secured the Best Comedy Drama award at the 2003 British Comedy Awards and Nesbitt was voted Most Popular Comedy Performer at the National Television Awards in the same year . Other viewer polls placed Rachel 's car crash as " Best Drama Moment " at the BBC 's annual " TV Moments " ceremony in 2004 and a poll conducted by cable provider NTL in the same year placed the finale as the fourth best of all time . Adam 's speech at Rachel 's funeral came 69th in the Channel 4 poll The 100 Greatest Tearjerkers , broadcast in February 2005 . In 2008 , Rachel 's car crash was ranked at number three in Sky One 's 50 Greatest TV Endings .
= = Home media = =
Video Collection International ( VCI ) released Cold Feet : The Complete 5th Series on region 2 DVD on 24 March 2003 . The four 72 @-@ minute episodes were reconfigured into six quasi @-@ episodes of varying lengths , which were rated by the British Board of Film Classification ( BBFC ) on 17 March 2003 ; episode " 1 " was rated 15 , episodes " 2 " , " 4 " and " 6 " as 12 , and episodes " 3 " and " 5 " as PG . The series was re @-@ released in new packaging by Granada Media on 20 March 2006 . A DVD of the final episode was made available in 2005 in a joint promotional venture between The Sun and Woolworths .
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= Above and Beyoncé : Video Collection & Dance Mixes =
Above and Beyoncé : Video Collection & Dance Mixes is a remix and video album by American R & B singer Beyoncé . Consisting of two discs , the album features music videos on one disc and dance remixes on the other . It was initially released on June 16 , 2009 through Wal @-@ Mart stores and J & R exclusively , although it was later made available through other retailers . Above and Beyoncé peaked at number thirty @-@ five on the Billboard 200 , and was received positively by Andy Kellman of Allmusic , who rated it three out of five stars . It also appeared on Billboard 's component charts , Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums and Dance / Electronic Albums . The remix version of " Ego " included on the album was nominated for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration at the 52nd Grammy Awards .
= = Background and release = =
Above and Beyoncé comprises two discs . The first contains the music videos of six of the singles from her 2008 studio album , I Am ... Sasha Fierce : " If I Were a Boy " , " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " , " Diva " , " Halo " , Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " and " Ego " . It also features a " fan exclusive " cut of the " Ego " video and behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage of the shooting of the videos . The second disc hosts electronica dance remixes of the songs , as well as of the album 's sixth single , " Sweet Dreams " . A mix of " Ego " with a rap verse from Kanye West closes the album . On June 15 , 2009 , the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage was broadcast on BET 's Access Granted . The remix video for " Ego " premiered afterwards .
The cover art of Above and Beyoncé was previewed by People magazine in May 2009 . The album was originally released exclusively to Wal @-@ Mart stores and J & R , on June 16 , 2009 . The dance mixes only were made available via MP3 format through Amazon.com on June 16 , and the whole album was released to the online store on November 3 , 2009 . The iTunes Store began selling the remixes on February 1 , 2010 .
= = Reception = =
Allmusic 's Andy Kellman called the album " a nice set for devoted fans who haven 't already shelled out for all the mixes " , and awarded it three out of five stars . In 2011 , Maura Gavaghan , writing for MTV , said : " The creative title of this video album alone is a reason for every devoted fan ... to buy a copy " . She added that the dance remixes of the songs make a " dance party in a neatly packaged DVD set " . Above and Beyoncé debuted at number thirty @-@ six on the Billboard 200 chart dated July 4 , 2009 , selling 14 @,@ 000 copies that week . It later peaked at number thirty @-@ five , spending fourteen weeks on the chart . On the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart , Above and Beyoncé debuted and peaked at number twenty @-@ three , lasting forty @-@ three weeks in the chart . Among the Dance / Electronic Albums chart , the album debuted at number two , placing below Lady Gaga 's The Fame . It spent a total of forty @-@ eight weeks on the component chart , including twenty @-@ four weeks in the top ten . Above and Beyoncé was ranked at number nine on the year @-@ end Dance / Electronic Albums Chart for 2009 , and number twenty @-@ one on the 2010 chart .
= = Track listing = =
= = = Digital download version EP = = =
( * ) denotes remix and additional production
= = Credits = =
Credits for Above and Beyoncé 's ' , adapted from Allmusic and CD 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= French battleship Saint Louis =
Saint Louis was the last of the three Charlemagne @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the French Navy in the mid @-@ 1890s . She spent most of her career assigned to the Mediterranean Squadron ( escadre de la Méditerranée ) and usually was chosen to serve as a flagship . The ship was involved in two accidental ramming incidents with two other French warships in her career , one of which sank a submarine .
When World War I began , she escorted Allied troop convoys for the first two months . Saint Louis was ordered to the Dardanelles in November 1914 to guard against a sortie into the Mediterranean by the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben . In 1915 , she was transferred to the Eastern Mediterranean where she participated in bombarding Turkish positions in Palestine and the Sinai Peninsula . The ship returned to the Dardanelles in May and provided fire support during the Gallipoli Campaign . Saint Louis was transferred to the squadron assigned to prevent any interference by the Greeks with Allied operations on the Salonica front in May 1916 , after a lengthy refit in France . The ship was placed in reserve in April 1917 and briefly became a training ship in 1919 – 20 . She was converted to serve as an accommodation hulk in 1920 and listed for disposal as scrap in 1931 . Saint Louis did not find a buyer , however , until 1933 .
= = Design and description = =
Saint Louis was 117 @.@ 7 metres ( 386 ft 2 in ) long overall and had a beam of 20 @.@ 3 metres ( 66 ft 7 in ) . At deep load , she had a draught of 7 @.@ 4 metres ( 24 ft 3 in ) forward and 8 @.@ 4 metres ( 27 ft 7 in ) aft . She displaced 11 @,@ 275 metric tons ( 11 @,@ 097 long tons ) at deep load . Her crew consisted of 30 officers and 702 sailors as a private ship , or 41 officers and 744 men as a fleet flagship .
The ship used three 4 @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion steam engines , one engine per shaft . Rated at 14 @,@ 500 PS ( 10 @,@ 700 kW ) , they produced 14 @,@ 900 metric horsepower ( 11 @,@ 000 kW ) during the ship 's sea trials using steam generated by 20 Belleville water @-@ tube boilers . Saint Louis reached a top speed of 18 @.@ 5 knots ( 34 @.@ 3 km / h ; 21 @.@ 3 mph ) on her trials . She carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 050 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 030 long tons ) of coal which allowed her to steam for 4 @,@ 200 miles ( 3 @,@ 600 nmi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Saint Louis carried her main armament of four 40 @-@ calibre Canon de 305 mm Modèle 1893 guns in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one each fore and aft . The ship 's secondary armament consisted of ten 45 @-@ calibre Canon de 138 mm Modèle 1893 guns , eight of which were mounted in individual casemates and the remaining pair in shielded mounts on the forecastle deck amidships . She also carried eight 45 @-@ calibre Canon de 100 mm Modèle 1893 guns in shielded mounts on the superstructure . The ship 's anti @-@ torpedo boat defences consisted of twenty 40 @-@ calibre Canon de 47 mm Modèle 1885 Hotchkiss guns , fitted in platforms on both masts , on the superstructure , and in casemates in the hull . Saint Louis mounted four 450 @-@ millimetre ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , two on each broadside . Two of these were submerged , angled 20 ° from the ship 's axis , and the other two were above the waterline . They were provided with twelve Modèle 1892 torpedoes . As was common with ships of her generation , she was built with a plough @-@ shaped ram .
The Charlemagne @-@ class ships carried a total of 820 @.@ 7 tonnes ( 807 @.@ 7 long tons ) of Harvey armour . They had a complete waterline armour belt that was 3 @.@ 26 metres ( 10 ft 8 in ) high . The armour belt tapered from its maximum thickness of 400 mm ( 15 @.@ 7 in ) to a thickness of 110 mm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) at its lower edge . The armoured deck was 55 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) thick on the flat and was reinforced with an additional 35 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) plate where it angled downwards to meet the armoured belt . The main turrets were protected by 320 mm ( 12 @.@ 6 in ) of armour and their roofs were 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick . Their barbettes were 270 mm ( 10 @.@ 6 in ) thick . The outer walls of the casemates for the 138 @.@ 6 @-@ millimetre ( 5 @.@ 46 in ) guns were 55 mm thick and they were protected by transverse bulkheads 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick . The conning tower walls were 326 mm ( 12 @.@ 8 in ) thick and its roof consisted of 50 mm armour plates . Its communications tube was protected by armour plates 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick .
= = Construction and career = =
Saint Louis , named after King Louis IX , a Catholic saint , was authorised on 30 September 1895 as one of the three Charlemagne @-@ class battleships . The ship was laid down at the Arsenal de Lorient on 25 March 1895 and launched on 2 September 1896 . She was commissioned on 15 September 1900 after completing her sea trials at the cost of 26 @,@ 981 @,@ 000 francs . Even before Saint Louis was formally commissioned , she participated in a naval review conducted by the President of France , Émile Loubet , at Cherbourg in July 1900 .
The ship was assigned to the Mediterranean Squadron and arrived in Toulon on 24 September . Saint Louis became the squadron flagship on 1 October and retained that duty until 24 February 1904 . She transported Louis André , the Minister of War and Jean de Lanessan , the Minister of Marine on their tours of Corsica and Tunisia later in October . The following year , Saint Louis and the Mediterranean Squadron participated in an international naval review by President Loubet in Toulon with ships from Spain , Italy and Russia .
On 25 June 1903 , the ship received King Alfonso XIII of Spain aboard while visiting Cartagena . In April 1904 , she was one of the ships that escorted President Loubet during his state visit to Italy . Saint Louis visited Morocco in December 1906 and did not return to Toulon until the following month . She became the flagship of the Second Battleship Division on 18 March and then became the flagship of the 4th Division on 17 April 1908 . The ship was briefly transferred to the Northern Squadron ( escadre du Nord ) , where she became its flagship , in October 1910 , and she participated in a large naval review by President Armand Fallières off Cap Brun on 4 September 1911 . Two days later , Saint Louis was struck by the destroyer Poignard during manoeuvers off Hyères . She was relieved as the Northern Squadron flagship on 11 November and began repairs , combined with a refit , at Cherbourg . This was completed in April 1912 and the ship resumed her role as the squadron flagship on 15 April .
Less than two months later , she accidentally rammed the submarine Vendémiaire on 8 June off the Casquets , killing all 24 of the submarine 's crew . Saint Louis was transferred to the Mediterranean Squadron a few months later and arrived in Toulon on 9 November . She became the flagship of the Second Division of the Third Squadron on 18 March 1913 and then was transferred to the Supplementary Division ( division de Complement ) and became its flagship on 10 February 1914 .
= = = World War I = = =
Together with the older French pre @-@ dreadnoughts , the ship 's first mission in the war was to escort troop convoys from North Africa to France . On 23 September , Saint Louis was ordered to Port Said to escort a British convoy carrying troops from India . She remained on escort duties until November when she was ordered to the Dardanelles to guard against a sortie by the German battlecruiser Goeben . The ship remained on station there until January 1915 when she was given a brief refit at Bizerte . Upon its completion , Saint Louis was ordered to the Eastern Mediterranean where she became the flagship of the newly formed Syrian Squadron ( escadre de Syrie ) on 9 February . These ships were intended to attack Turkish positions and lines of communication in Syria , Lebanon , Palestine and the Sinai Peninsula . Saint Louis participated in the bombardment of Gaza and El Arish in April before she was transferred back to the Dardanelles in May .
By this time , however , naval operations were limited to bombarding Turkish positions in support of Allied troops . The ship became the flagship of the Dardanelles Squadron ( escadre des Dardanelles ) on 26 August until she was relieved for a major refit at Lorient in October . When the refit was completed in May 1916 , Saint Louis was ordered to Salonica where she joined the French squadron assigned to prevent any interference by the Greeks with Allied operations in Greece where she arrived on 22 May . She became flagship of the Eastern Naval Division ( division navale d 'Orient ) on 26 October until she was transferred to Bizerte in February 1917 . The ship was placed in reserve in April and remained there until January 1919 when she was transferred to Toulon .
Saint Louis was disarmed and decommissioned on 8 February and became a training ship for stokers and engineers in Toulon . The ship was condemned on 20 June 1920 , although she was converted into an accommodation hulk . Saint Louis listed for disposal on 29 June 1931 , but was not purchased , for 600 @,@ 230 francs , until 24 May 1933 .
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= Rod Steiger =
Rodney Stephen " Rod " Steiger ( April 14 , 1925 – July 9 , 2002 ) was an American actor , noted for his portrayal of offbeat , often volatile and crazed characters . Cited as " one of Hollywood 's most charismatic and dynamic stars " , he is closely associated with the art of method acting , embodying the characters he played , which at times led to clashes with directors and co @-@ stars . He starred as Marlon Brando 's mobster brother Charlie in On the Waterfront ( 1954 ) , the title character Sol Nazerman in The Pawnbroker ( 1964 ) , and as police chief Bill Gillespie opposite Sidney Poitier in the film In the Heat of the Night ( 1967 ) . His In the Heat of the Night performance won him the Academy Award for Best Actor .
Steiger was born in Westhampton , New York , the son of a vaudevillian . He had a difficult childhood , with an alcoholic mother from whom he ran away at the age of 16 . After serving in the South Pacific Theater during World War II , he began his acting career with television roles in 1947 , and went on to garner critical acclaim for his portrayal of the main character in the teleplay " Marty " ( 1953 ) . He made his stage debut in 1946 , in a production of Curse you , Jack Dalton ! at the Civic Repertory Theatre of Newark , and subsequently appeared in productions such as An Enemy of the People ( 1950 ) , Clifford Odets 's Night Music ( 1951 ) , Seagulls Over Sorrento ( 1952 ) and Rashomon ( 1959 ) .
Steiger made his film debut in Fred Zinnemann 's Teresa in 1951 , and subsequently appeared in films such as The Big Knife ( 1955 ) , Oklahoma ! ( 1955 ) , Across the Bridge ( 1957 ) and Al Capone ( 1959 ) . After Steiger 's performance in The Pawnbroker in 1964 , in which he played an embittered Jewish Holocaust survivor working as a pawnbroker in New York City , he portrayed an opportunistic Russian politician in David Lean 's Doctor Zhivago ( 1965 ) . In the Heat of the Night ( 1967 ) won five Academy Awards , including Best Picture and Best Actor for Steiger , who was lauded for his performance as a Mississippi police chief who learns to respect an African @-@ American officer ( Poitier ) as they search for a killer . The following year , he played a serial killer of many guises in No Way to Treat a Lady .
During the 1970s , Steiger increasingly turned to European productions in his search for more demanding roles . He portrayed Napoleon Bonaparte in Waterloo ( 1970 ) , a Mexican bandit in Sergio Leone 's Duck , You Sucker ! ( 1971 ) , Benito Mussolini in Last Days of Mussolini ( 1975 ) , and ended the decade playing a disturbed priest in The Amityville Horror ( 1979 ) . By the 1980s , heart problems and depression took its toll on Steiger 's career , and he found it difficult to find employment , agreeing to appear in low @-@ budget B movies . One of his final roles was as judge H. Lee Sarokin in the prison drama The Hurricane ( 1999 ) , which reunited him with In the Heat of the Night director Norman Jewison . Steiger was married five times , and had a daughter , opera singer Anna Steiger , and a son , Michael Steiger . He died of pneumonia and complications from surgery for a gall bladder tumor on July 9 , 2002 , aged 77 , in Los Angeles , and was survived by his fifth wife Joan Benedict Steiger .
= = Early life and acting background = =
Steiger was born on April 14 , 1925 in Westhampton , New York , the only child of Lorraine ( née Driver ) and Frederick Steiger , of French , Scottish and German descent . Rod was raised as a Lutheran . He never knew his father , a vaudevillian who had been part of a traveling song @-@ and @-@ dance team with Steiger 's mother , but was told that he was a handsome Latino @-@ looking man , who was a talented musician and dancer . Biographer Tom Hutchinson describes him as a " shadowy , fugitive figure " , one who " haunted " Rod throughout his life and was an " invisible presence and unseen influence " .
Hutchinson described Steiger 's mother as " plump , energetic and small , with long auburn hair " . She had a good singing voice and nearly became a Hollywood actress , but after a leg surgery permanently impaired her walking ability , she gave up acting and turned to alcohol . As a result , she quit show business and moved away from Westhampton to raise her son . They moved through several towns , including Irvington and Bloomfield , before settling in Newark , New Jersey . Her alcoholism caused Steiger much embarrassment , and the family was frequently mocked by other children and their parents within the community . At the age of five he was sexually abused by a pedophile who lured him in with a butterfly collection . Steiger said of his troubled family background : " If you had the choice of having the childhood you experienced , with your alcoholic mother and being the famous actor you are today , or having a loving , secure childhood and not being famous , which would you take ? A loving , secure childhood in a New York minute " . During the last 11 years of her life , Steiger 's mother stayed sober and regularly attended Alcoholics Anonymous meetings . Steiger recalled : " I was so proud of her . She turned herself around . She came alive again " .
During his childhood , and owing to his considerable strength and bulk , Steiger became known as " The Rock " . Despite being mocked over his mother 's alcoholism , he was a popular figure at school and an able softball player . He displayed an interest in writing poetry and acting during his adolescent years , and appeared in several school plays while at West Side High School in Newark . Tired of fighting with his mother , he ran away from home at age sixteen to join the United States Navy during World War II .
He enlisted on May 11 , 1942 , and received his training at the U.S. Naval Training Station in Newport , Rhode Island . He joined the newly commissioned USS Taussig ( DD @-@ 746 ) on May 20 , 1944 . While serving as a torpedoman on destroyers , he saw action in the South Pacific , including the Battle of Iwo Jima . Steiger later commented : " I loved the Navy . I was stupid enough to think I was being heroic " . His experiences during the war haunted him for the rest of his life , particularly the loss of Americans during the Battle of Iwo Jima , as well as the sinking of vessels by the Taussig which were known to have women and children aboard . On December 17 , 1944 , Steiger and the Taussig encountered a severe typhoon , which became known as Halsey 's Typhoon , that created winds reaching one hundred knots ( 115 mph ) and 80 foot ( 24 m ) waves off the coast of Luzon in the Philippines . As a result , three U.S. destroyers were lost , but the Taussig survived , with Steiger tying a rope to himself on deck and flattening himself as waves engulfed the ship .
After the war , the GI Bill of Rights paid for his rent at a room on West 81st Street in New York City , an income of just over $ 100 a month , and four years of schooling . He initially found a job oiling machines and washing floors . He decided to attend a drama class , primarily because of its membership of attractive young women . Known as the Civil Service Little Theater group , it was conducted by the Office of Dependants and Beneficiaries , where he was employed at the time . This led him to start a two @-@ year course at the New School for Social Research , run by German émigré Erwin Piscator . During one audition , Steiger was cast after barely uttering a few words , the director exclaiming he had a " fresh , wonderful quality " . Another talented pupil at the time was Walter Matthau , who dubbed the institution " The Neurotic School for Sexual Research " . Steiger was surprised to discover his own talent as an actor , and he was encouraged to pursue further studies at the Dramatic Workshop . One of the main reasons he wanted to be an actor was to regain public respect for his family name , which had so humiliated him during childhood . Another important factor was his belief that he did not " have the temperament for a regular job " , and would have ended up a miserable , violent alcoholic . His only role model as an actor was Paul Muni , whom he thought was " the greatest " , though he also had a deep respect for French actor Harry Baur and , according to biographer Hutchinson , he admired Charlie Chaplin " to the point of adoration " .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career and breakthrough ( 1946 – 1956 ) = = =
Steiger made his stage debut in a production of Curse you , Jack Dalton ! ( 1946 ) at the Civic Repertory Theatre of Newark . Subsequent to this , he received an invitation from one of his teachers , Daniel Mann , to attend the Actors Studio , established by Elia Kazan in October 1947 . It was here , along with Marlon Brando , Karl Malden and Eli Wallach , that he studied method acting , which became deeply engrained in him . Lacking matinée idol looks , much like Malden and Wallach , he began pursuing a career as a character actor rather than as a leading man . Steiger 's stage work continued in 1950 , with a minor role as a townperson in a stage production of An Enemy of the People at the Music Box Theatre . His first major role on Broadway came in Clifford Odets 's production of Night Music ( 1951 ) , where he played A. L. Rosenberger . The play was held at the ANTA Playhouse . The following year , he played a telegraphist in the play Seagulls Over Sorrento , performed at the John Golden Theatre beginning on September 11 , 1952 .
Steiger 's early roles , although minor , were numerous , especially in television series during the early 1950s , when he appeared in more than 250 live television productions over a five @-@ year period . He was spotted by Fred Coe , NBC 's manager of program development , who increasingly gave him bigger parts . Steiger considered television to be what repertory theatre had been for an earlier generation , and saw it as a place where he could test his talent with a plethora of different roles . Soon afterward he began receiving positive reviews from critics such as John Crosby , who noted that Steiger regularly gave " effortless persuasive performances " . Among Steiger 's credits were Danger ( 1950 – 53 ) , Lux Video Theatre ( 1951 ) , Out There ( 1951 ) , Tales of Tomorrow ( 1952 – 53 ) , The Gulf Playhouse ( 1953 ) , Medallion Theatre ( 1953 ) , Goodyear Television Playhouse ( 1953 ) , and as Shakespeare 's Romeo in " The First Command Performance of Romeo and Juliet ( 1957 ) " episode of You Are There in 1954 , under director Sidney Lumet . He continued to make appearances in various playhouse television productions , appearing in five episodes of Kraft Theatre ( 1952 – 54 ) , which earned him praise from critics , six episodes of The Philco Television Playhouse ( 1951 – 55 ) and two episodes of Schlitz Playhouse of Stars ( 1957 – 58 ) . Steiger made his big screen debut in 1953 , with a small role in Fred Zinnemann 's Teresa , shot in 1951 . Steiger , who described himself as " cocky " , won over Zinnemann by praising his direction . Zinnemann recalled that Steiger was " very popular , extremely articulate and full of remarkable memories " , and the two remained highly respectful of each other for life .
On May 24 , 1953 , Steiger played the title role in Paddy Chayefsky 's " Marty " episode of the Goodyear Television Playhouse . The role had originally been intended for Martin Ritt , who later became a director . " Marty " is the story of a lonely and homely butcher from the Bronx in search of love . The play was a critical success that increased Steiger 's public exposure ; Tom Stempel noted that he brought " striking intensity to his performance as Marty , particularly in giving us Marty 's pain " . As Steiger refused to sign a seven @-@ year studio contract , he was replaced with Ernest Borgnine in the film Marty ( 1955 ) , which won the Academy Award for Best Picture , as well as the Best Actor Oscar for Borgnine . 1953 proved to be Steiger 's breakthrough year ; he garnered Sylvania Awards for Marty and four other best performances of the year — as Vishinsky and Rudolph Hess in two episodes of You Are There , as gangster Dutch Schultz in a thriller , and as a radar operator in My Brother 's Keeper .
For his role as Charley " the Gent " , the brother of Marlon Brando 's character in Elia Kazan 's On the Waterfront ( 1954 ) , Steiger was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor . Film writer Leo Braudy wrote that the " incessantly repeated images of its taxicab confrontation between Brando and Rod Steiger have made the film iconic " . The taxicab scene took eleven hours to shoot and was heavily scripted , despite Brando fuelling the popular myth in his autobiography that the scene was improvised . Brando stated that seven takes were needed because Steiger could not stop crying , which Steiger found to be unfair and inaccurate . Though Steiger retained great respect for Brando as an actor , he disliked him as a person and frequently complained during the production of Brando 's " predilection for leaving the set " immediately after shooting his scenes . Steiger later remarked : " We didn 't get to know each other at all . He always flew solo and I haven 't seen him since the film . I do resent him saying he 's just a hooker , and that actors are whores " . Steiger also responded unfavorably when he learned that Kazan had been awarded an honorary Oscar by the Academy in 1999 . In a 1999 interview with BBC News , Steiger said he probably would not have done On the Waterfront if he had known at the time that Kazan provided the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee with names of performers suspected of being Communists .
Steiger played Jud Fry in the film version of the Rodgers and Hammerstein musical Oklahoma ! ( 1955 ) , in which he performed his own singing . It was one of the biggest location film productions of the 1950s , shot near Nogales , Arizona with a crew of 325 people and some 70 trucks . Steiger portrayed a disturbed , emotionally isolated version of Jud , which television channel Turner Classic Movies ( TCM ) believed brought a " complexity to the character that went far beyond the stock musical villain " . Steiger observed that James Dean , who auditioned for the role that went to Gordon MacRae , was a " nice kid absorbed by his own ego , so much so that it was destroying him " , which he thought led to his death . Dean reportedly gave Steiger his prized copy of Ernest Hemingway 's book Death in the Afternoon , and had underlined every appearance of the word " death " .
Later in 1955 , Steiger played an obnoxious film tycoon , loosely based on Columbia boss Harry Cohn , opposite Jack Palance and Ida Lupino in Robert Aldrich 's film noir The Big Knife . Steiger bleached his hair for the part , sought inspiration for the role from Russian actor Vladimir Sokoloff , read a book about the Treblinka extermination camp to understand his character thoroughly , and visited the perfume department of a store in Beverly Hills , California , to try to understand his character 's contempt for women . Steiger and Palance did not get along during the production , and in one scene Palance threw several record albums at Steiger in frustration , feeling that he was trying to steal the scene . Steiger earned critical acclaim later that year for a role as a prosecuting major in Otto Preminger 's The Court @-@ Martial of Billy Mitchell , alongside Gary Cooper and Charles Bickford .
Steiger portrayed the character " Pinky " in Columbia Pictures ' western , Jubal ( 1956 ) , which co @-@ starred Glenn Ford and Ernest Borgnine . Steiger 's character is a rancher , a " sneering baddie " , who becomes jealous when his former mistress becomes attracted to Ford 's character .. Ford noted Steiger 's deep commitment to method acting during production , considering him to be a " fine actor but a real strange fellow " . Steiger disliked the experience and frequently clashed with director Delmer Daves , who was more favorable to Ford 's lighthearted take on the film . Upon its release in April 1956 , a writer for Variety was impressed with the " evil venom " displayed by his character , and remarked that there had not " been as hateful a screen heavy around in a long time " . In Mark Robson 's The Harder They Fall , Steiger played a crooked boxing promoter who hires a sports journalist ( Humphrey Bogart in his last role ) . Steiger referred to Bogart as " a professional " who had " tremendous authority " during filming .
= = = Struggling actor ( 1957 – 1963 ) = = =
Steiger apperared in three films released in 1957 . The first was John Farrow 's film noir The Unholy Wife , in which he played a wealthy Napa Valley vintner who marries a femme fatale named Phyllis ( Diana Dors ) . In its original review of the film , The New York Times described Steiger 's performance as " curious " further stating that the actor 's voice modulation " ranges from Marlon Brando to Ronald Colman and back . " During the production of Samuel Fuller 's Run of the Arrow , in which he played a confederate veteran who refuses to accept defeat following the surrender of General Robert E. Lee at Appomattox at the end of the American Civil War , Steiger badly sprained his ankle before shooting one of the battle scenes and was unable to walk , let alone run . Fuller instead got one of the Native American extras to run in Steiger 's place , which is why the scene was shot showing only the feet , instead of using close @-@ ups . Steiger had researched the history behind the film and decided to play the character as an Irishman , becoming " the first Irish cowboy " as he put it . Later that year , Steiger took the lead role in the British thriller Across the Bridge , in which he played a German conman with British citizenship who goes into hiding in Mexico after embezzling company funds . Film critic Dennis Schwartz stated that Steiger gave " one of his greatest performances " .
Steiger portrayed a mastermind criminal seeking to obtain a $ 500 @,@ 000 ransom , opposite James Mason and Inger Stevens , in Andrew L. Stone 's Cry Terror ! ( 1958 ) for Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer . Paul Beckley of the Herald Tribune had thought Steiger " superbly laconic " , but Dennis Schwartz dismissed the film as " an ill @-@ conceived attempt " with " too many coincidences and contrived plot points to sustain interest " . The following year , Steiger appeared with Claire Bloom ( whom he later married ) in a Fay and Michael Kanin stage production of Akira Kurosawa 's 1950 film , Rashomon , where he enacted the role of the bandit originally played by Toshiro Mifune . A major success , it was lauded by critics and nominated for three Tony awards . Robert Coleman of the Daily Mirror described Steiger 's performance as " magnificently animalish " , while Kenneth Tynan of The New Yorker thought the acting helped set new standards for Broadway . The same year , Steiger portrayed iconic mobster Al Capone in the film of the same name . Steiger was particularly keen on demonstrating the showiness of Capone , speaking thunderously , slinging a camel @-@ hair coat over his shoulders and wearing his hat at a jaunty angle . The film , noted for its deglamorized portrayal of the subject , earned Steiger a Laurel Award for Best Male Dramatic Performance nomination . Though Hutchinson , author of Rod Steiger : Memoirs of a friendship , perceived Steiger 's portrayal of Capone to be more of a caricature , George Anastasia and Glen Macnow , authors of the book The Ultimate Book of Gangster Movies , described it as one of the best screen portrayals of Capone .
Following the success of Al Capone , Steiger played sophisticated thief Paul Mason , who masterminds a caper to steal $ 4 million in French francs from the underground vault of the casino of Monte Carlo , in the Henry Hathaway heist film Seven Thieves ( 1960 ) . Bosley Crowther of The New York Times gave a positive review of the film , praising the " nerve @-@ rackingly delicate plot " and the " most elaborate roles " of Steiger and his co @-@ star , Edward G. Robinson . The following year , he took the part of a prison psychiatrist who tries to cure the psychological demons of Stuart Whitman 's character in The Mark . Steiger 's performance was so convincing that , after the film was released , he received a call from a psychiatric institution asking him to attend one of their board meetings . The Mark was followed by a role in the European film production of World in My Pocket alongside Nadja Tiller . Steiger increasingly played in films in Italy and France during this period . Not only did he believe he had greater credibility and esteem as an actor in Europe , but he approved of the more relaxed filming schedule prevalent there at that time .
In 1962 , Steiger appeared on Broadway in Moby Dick — Rehearsed , at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre , as well as playing a detective searching for a scientist 's ( Alan Ladd 's ) mugger in Philip Leacock 's 13 West Street for Columbia Pictures . Steiger played the role of a destroyer commander in the large ensemble cast of The Longest Day , which included John Wayne , Richard Todd , Robert Mitchum , Richard Burton , Sean Connery and Henry Fonda . According to co @-@ star Richard Burton , Steiger had admitted to him that he was in financial trouble at the time and had had a face lift , which Burton thought made him look like " one half of a naked ass @-@ hole " . The following year , Steiger played ruthless Neapolitan land developer and city councilman Edoardo Nottola , who uses his political power to make personal profit in a large scale suburban real estate deal , in Francesco Rosi 's Italian production , Hands over the City ( 1963 ) . According to biographer Francesco Bolzoni , Rosi had cast Steiger in the Italian language film because he had wanted " a rich interpreter of great capacity " in the part of the land developer .
= = = Mainstream film acclaim ( 1964 – 1969 ) = = =
Shortly after Hands over the City , Steiger agreed to appear in another Italian film , Time of Indifference ( 1964 ) , in which he starred opposite Claudia Cardinale and Shelley Winters . Though Steiger 's powerful performance was unaffected , the production was marred by a dispute between director Francesco Maselli and producer Franco Cristaldi , with one wanting it to be a purely political film and the other wanting emphasis on the erotic subplot and his relationship with Cardinale . In Sidney Lumet 's gritty drama The Pawnbroker ( 1964 ) , Steiger played an embittered , emotionally withdrawn survivor of the Holocaust living in New York City . Richard Harland Smith of TCM notes that Steiger 's career was waning at the time , and he had to " scramble for paying gigs for a decade " . Steiger agreed to a reduced fee of $ 50 @,@ 000 . He read Lumet 's novel and the script many times to develop an intimate understanding of the character , and insisted on reducing his lines to make his character more realistic and alienated from society . Lumet noted that during the production Steiger had a tendency to be overly dramatic , stating : " Sure , Rod has weaknesses of rhetoric , but you can talk them through with him . I explained that this solitary Jew could not rise to heights of emotion ; he had been hammered by life and by people . The faith he had to find was in other people , because God had betrayed him . " Steiger remarked of the film : " I think my best work is in The Pawnbroker . The last scene , where I find the boy dead on the street . I think that 's the highest moment , whatever it may be , with my talent . " He drew upon inspiration for this climactic scene , in which he appears to show his frustration through a silent scream , from Picasso 's " Guernica " , which depicts war @-@ ravaged villagers . Cecil Wilson of the Daily Mail wrote that Steiger 's character " seems to encompass all the agony ever inflicted on man " . Although the film attracted controversy and was accused of anti @-@ Semitism , Steiger was widely acclaimed for his performance , which garnered him the prize for Best Actor at the Berlin International Film Festival and his second Best Actor nomination at the Oscars . Steiger was so certain that he had produced an Oscar @-@ winning performance that he was shocked when he lost to Lee Marvin .
In 1965 , Steiger played an effeminate embalmer in Tony Richardson 's comedy The Loved One , about the funeral business in Los Angeles , based on the 1948 short satirical novel by Evelyn Waugh . His curly @-@ haired appearance in the film was modeled on a bust of Apollo he once saw while meeting Richardson . Steiger offended Bosley Crowther of The New York Times , who found his character repellent . His next role , as Komarovsky , a Russian politician and " villainous opportunist " who rapes Julie Christie 's character in David Lean 's Doctor Zhivago ( 1965 ) , was one of his favorites . Steiger , one of only two Americans in the cast , was initially apprehensive about working with such great British actors as Ralph Richardson and Alec Guinness , and was pleased when the film was completed that he did not stand out as an American . The film was the biggest international box office draw of the 1960s , grossing $ 200 million worldwide . It has since been acclaimed as one of the greatest films ever made , and in 1998 was selected as the 39th best American film in the original AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies list by the American Film Institute .
Steiger had intended returning to the stage , and had signed on to play the title character in Bertolt Brecht 's Galileo , at the Lincoln Center Repertory Company in April 1967 , but the production was cancelled when he became ill . Steiger won the Best Actor Oscar for his portrayal of Chief of Police Bill Gillespie in In the Heat of the Night , opposite Sidney Poitier . He played a Southern police chief searching for a murderer . Prejudiced against blacks , he jumps to the conclusion that the culprit is Virgil Tibbs ( Poitier ) , an African @-@ American man passing through town after visiting his mother , who later turns out to be an experienced homicide detective from Philadelphia . The film deals with the way the two men interact and join forces in solving the crime , as Steiger 's Gillespie learns to greatly respect the black man he initially took to be a criminal . Steiger drew upon his experience in the Navy with a Southerner named " King " , remembering his accent . Poitier considered Steiger and Spencer Tracy to have been the finest actors he had ever worked with , remarking in 1995 , " He 's so good he made me dig into bags I never knew I had . " A. D. Murphy of Variety described Steiger 's performance as " outstanding " , writing : " Steiger 's transformation from a diehard Dixie bigot to a man who learns to respect Poitier stands out in smooth comparison to the wandering solution of the murder . " Steiger won a plethora of other awards , including a BAFTA , a Golden Globe , a Laurel Award and awards for Best Actor from the National Society of Film Critics and the New York Film Critics Circle .
In 1968 , Steiger played a deranged serial killer opposite George Segal in Jack Smight 's black comedy thriller No Way to Treat a Lady . During the course of the film , he adopts various disguises , including those of a priest , a policeman , a plumber , and a hairdresser , to avoid being identified , and to put his victims at ease , before strangling them and painting a pair of lips on their foreheads with garish red lipstick . The film and Steiger 's performance were critically acclaimed , with Vincent Canby of The New York Times highlighting Steiger 's " beautifully uninhibited performance as a hammy " , and a writer for Time Out describing him as " brilliant as a sort of Boston strangler , son of a great actress who has left her boy with a mother fixation " . Later in 1968 , Steiger played a repressed gay non @-@ commissioned officer opposite John Phillip Law in John Flynn 's The Sergeant for Warner Bros.-Seven Arts , which earned him the David di Donatello Award for Best Foreign Actor . Despite the award win , film critic Pauline Kael of The New Yorker was particularly critical of the casting of Steiger as a homosexual and felt that he was " totally outside his range " , to which Steiger concurred that he was ineffective .
Steiger was cast as a short @-@ tempered tattooed man with soon @-@ to @-@ be ex @-@ wife Claire Bloom in the science fiction picture The Illustrated Man ( 1969 ) . The film was a critical and commercial failure , and Ray Bradbury , who wrote the screenplay , said : " Rod was very good in it , but it wasn 't a good film ... the script was terrible " . Steiger had better luck alongside Bloom later that year in Peter Hall 's British drama Three into Two Won 't Go , playing an Irishman who cheats on his wife with a young hiker . It was entered into the Berlin International Film Festival and became the 19th most popular film at the UK box office in 1969 .
= = = Historical roles and declining fortunes ( 1970 – 1981 ) = = =
Steiger was offered the title role in Patton ( 1970 ) , but turned it down because he did not want to glorify war . The role was then given to George C. Scott , who won the Best Actor Oscar for his performance . Steiger called this refusal his " dumbest career move " , remarking , " I got on my high horse . I thought I was a pacifist . " Instead , he chose to portray Napoleon Bonaparte opposite Christopher Plummer in Sergei Bondarchuk 's Waterloo ( 1970 ) , a co @-@ production between the Soviet Union and Italy . One commentator wrote : " I watched with extraordinary respect , no , that is not the right word , with enthusiasm , the acting of Rod Steiger in the role of Napoleon in Waterloo , " while literary critic Daniel S. Burt describes Steiger 's Napoleon as an " unusual interpretation " , finding him less convincing than Plummer 's Wellington .
In 1971 , Steiger played a chauvinistic big game hunter , explorer and war hero opposite Susannah York in Mark Robson 's Happy Birthday , Wanda June , before agreeing to star alongside James Coburn as Mexican bandit Juan Miranda in Sergio Leone 's Duck , You Sucker ! , which was alternatively titled A Fistful of Dynamite . Leone was initially dissatisfied with his performance in that he played his character as a serious , Zapata @-@ like figure . As a result , tension grew between Steiger and Leone , including one incident that ended with Steiger walking off during the filming of the scene where Juan 's stagecoach is destroyed . After the film 's completion , Leone and Steiger were content with the final result , and Steiger praised Leone for his skills as a director . Steiger auditioned for the role of Michael Corleone in Francis Ford Coppola 's The Godfather ( 1972 ) , a film adaptation of Italian American author Mario Puzo 's 1969 novel of the same name , but Puzo felt that Steiger was too old for the part and rejected him .
Steiger played a rural Tennessee patriarch and brother of Jeff Bridges , at odds with Robert Ryan 's character , in Lolly @-@ Madonna XXX ( 1973 ) , which received mixed reviews . Later that year he was cast as the turban @-@ wearing German officer Guenther von Lutz in Duccio Tessari 's Italian war comedy The Heroes , opposite Rod Taylor , and appeared as " foul @-@ mouthed Sicilian mobster " Eugenio Giannini opposite Gian Maria Volontè 's Lucky Luciano in Francesco Rosi 's film of the same name .
In 1975 , Steiger portrayed Italian dictator Benito Mussolini in Carlo Lizzani 's Last Days of Mussolini , which received a positive critical reception . He appeared in Claude Chabrol 's French picture Innocents with Dirty Hands , playing the role of Louis Wormser , the wealthy alcoholic husband of Romy Schneider 's character Julie Wormser . It was poorly received by critics , and Steiger found the director , whom he had admired , a bitter disappointment . He was highly critical of Chabrol 's lack of communication and aloofness from the production , and preference for playing chess on set instead of talking through scenes . Vincent Canby of The New York Times dismissed it as " little more than a soap opera " , writing : " The performances are of a piece — uniformly atrocious . Mr. Steiger surpasses his own earlier records for lumbering busyness . Within his first few minutes on screen he ( 1 ) gets drunk , ( 2 ) whines , ( 3 ) pleads for understanding , ( 4 ) weeps and ( 5 ) goes to bed alone . " Later that year , Steiger starred as an Irish Republican Army terrorist who plans to blow up the Houses of Parliament in Don Sharp 's British thriller Hennessy . John Simon of New York Magazine wrote : " This fellow Hennessy , as played by Rod Steiger , is about as interesting and likable as a Guy Fawkes dummy . "
The following year , Steiger portrayed the comic actor W. C. Fields in an Arthur Hiller biopic , W. C. Fields and Me , for Universal Pictures . The screenplay , which was based on a memoir by Carlotta Monti , who was Fields ' mistress for the last 14 years of his life , was penned by Bob Merrill . Steiger read extensively about Fields in preparation for the role , and developed an encyclopaedic knowledge of his career and personal life . He concluded that he would base his characterization around his performance in The Bank Dick ( 1940 ) . One day , Fields ' mistress Monti turned up on set , and watched the scene where he briefly thanks everybody . Nervous that she might not approve , he broke down in tears after Monti met him after the scene and fondly said " Woody , Woody , Woody , My Woody " , a nickname used only by those very close to Fields . Despite the energy Steiger put into the picture , like the actor 's previous recent films , it was poorly received by critics . Canby called it " dreadful " and described Steiger 's portrayal of Fields as a " wax dummy of a character " . Lucia Bozzola of The New York Times later referred to Steiger 's portrayal of Fields as " superb " , but noted that his Hollywood career had " undeniably fallen from his 1950s and ' 60s heights " .
Steiger played Pontius Pilate in Franco Zeffirelli 's TV miniseries Jesus of Nazareth ( 1977 ) . Stacy Keach , who portrayed Barabbas , expressed his joy at the opportunity to work with Steiger , describing him as " generous and opinionated " . In 1978 , Steiger played a senator in Norman Jewison 's F.I.S.T. , opposite Sylvester Stallone , who played a Cleveland warehouse worker involved in the labor union leadership of the fictional organisation named Federation of Inter @-@ State Truckers . Love and Bullets , later that year , in which Steiger appeared as a mafia boss , was poorly received ; Roger Ebert dismissed it as a " hopelessly confused hodgepodge of chases , killings , enigmatic meetings and separations , and insufferably overacted scenes by Steiger alternating with alarmingly underacted scenes by [ Charles ] Bronson " . The following year , Steiger was cast as a general opposite Richard Burton and Robert Mitchum in Andrew V. McLaglen 's war film Breakthrough , set on the Western Front . In The Amityville Horror ( 1979 ) , Steiger appeared as a disturbed priest , who is invited to perform an exorcism on a haunted house . Again Steiger was accused of overacting ; Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote : " Mr. Steiger bellows and weeps and overdoes absolutely everything . He won 't even pick up the phone before it 's rung 12 or 15 times . " Pauline Kael thought that Steiger 's " spiritual agony was enough to shatter the camera lens " .
In 1980 , Steiger received two Genie Award for Best Performance by a Foreign Actor nominations for his roles in Klondike Fever and The Lucky Star , both Canadian productions . Klondike Fever is based on Jack London 's journey from San Francisco to the Klondike gold fields in 1898 . Steiger revisited his role as Mussolini in Lion of the Desert , a production that was financed by Muammar Gaddafi , and which co @-@ starred Anthony Quinn as Bedouin tribal leader Omar Mukhtar , fighting the Italian army in the years leading up to World War II . The Italian authorities reportedly banned the film in 1982 , as it was considered damaging to the army , and it was not shown on Italian television until a state visit by Gaddafi in 2009 . It received critical acclaim in Britain , where it was praised in particular for the quality of its battle scenes . Later in 1981 , Steiger won the Montréal World Film Festival Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of white @-@ bearded Orthodox rabbi Reb Saunders in Jeremy Kagan 's The Chosen . Janet Maslin commented that Steiger 's " slow , rolling delivery " was more " numbing than prepossessing " , though a critic from Variety thought it an " exceptional performance as the somewhat tyrannical but loving patriarch " .
= = = B @-@ movies and criticism ( 1982 – 1994 ) = = =
After his open @-@ heart surgery in 1979 , clinical depression and health problems during the 1980s directly impacted Steiger 's career , and he often turned to B @-@ movies , low @-@ budget , independent productions and TV miniseries . He admitted that during this period he accepted " everything I was offered " , and knew that many of the films he appeared in were not great , but wanted to demonstrate his strong work ethic despite his issues . He later regretted the poorer films in which he appeared during the 1980s , and wished he had done more stage work . He sank into an even deeper depression when he was not involved in acting , but it bothered him more that his acting career had taken a turn for the worse and was no longer challenging . The major studio producers were wary of his problems and considered him a liability . Steiger spoke about the experience to a younger colleague while advising : " Never tell anyone if you 've got heart problems , kid . Never . " His reputation as a fine character actor remained intact , and Joel Hirschhorn at the time considered his talent to be " as strong as ever " .
In 1984 , Steiger starred as a detective assigned to investigate the murder of a Chicago psychoanalyst ( Roger Moore ) , a man whom he detests from a previous case , in Bryan Forbes 's The Naked Face . Richard Christiansen of the Chicago Tribune referred to it as a " wimpy suspense movie shot in Chicago in the fall of 1983 , [ that ] doesn 't do much good for the city or for anyone connected with it " , and considered Steiger to be " acting in his high hysteria gear " , who " snarls and whines and overacts " . Steiger took a break from cinema in the mid @-@ 1980s , during which he appeared in the Yorkshire Television mini @-@ series The Glory Boys ( 1984 ) with Anthony Perkins , and Hollywood Wives ( 1985 ) with Angie Dickinson . Steiger and Perkins were at loggerheads during the production of The Glory Boys . Perkins resented the fact that Steiger insisted on a bigger trailer and felt that Steiger was trying to steal scenes from him , while Steiger had thought Perkins " so jittery and jinxed by the chemicals he was taking " that he felt sorry for him and believed that he was jeopardizing the success of the film . Steiger also performed on Joni Mitchell 's 1985 album Dog Eat Dog , where he provided the voice of an evangelist in the song " Tax Free " .
Steiger appeared in the Argentine @-@ American film Catch the Heat ( 1987 ) , a martial arts picture about a Brazilian drug baroness who smuggles drugs into the United States inside her breast implants . According to director Fred Olen Ray , it was pulled from distribution within a week of release . In 1988 , Steiger and Yvonne De Carlo played a spooky elderly couple with developmentally delayed children in John Hough 's horror film American Gothic . Universally panned by the critics , Caryn James of The New York Times wrote : " Mr. Steiger addresses the camera as if he were reciting Shakespeare , he is truly , straightforwardly , hilariously bad . " During the last year of the decade he played authority figures , including a mayor in The January Man , and as Judge Prescott in Tennessee Waltz . Although Steiger admitted that his performance in The January Man was " way over the top " , he enjoyed the experience , thereby marking a positive turning point after a period of clinical depression .
In 1990 , Steiger starred in Men of Respect , a crime drama film adaptation of William Shakespeare 's play Macbeth . He played a character based on King Duncan , opposite John Turturro as Mike Battaglia ( Macbeth ) , who plays a Mafia hitman who climbs his way to the top by killing Steiger 's character . The film was critically panned , with Roger Ebert awarding it one star out of four , describing the concept as a " very , very bad idea " . Steiger played another mobster , Sam Giancana , two years later in the miniseries Sinatra ( 1992 ) .
Steiger portrayed a reverend living in a small town in the American South in the macabre Merchant Ivory film production The Ballad of the Sad Café ( 1991 ) , co @-@ starring Vanessa Redgrave and Keith Carradine . The film met with generally lukewarm reviews , though it was entered into the 41st Berlin International Film Festival . Steiger auditioned for the part of an elderly Irishman in Ron Howard 's Far and Away , starring Tom Cruise and Nicole Kidman . Steiger , who had long been bald , was ordered by Howard to wear a wig to the audition . He resented the fact that Howard insisted on taping the audition , which he believed to be a form of humiliation for actors , serving as after @-@ dinner entertainment for the Hollywood executives . Steiger never forgave Howard , whom he referred to as a " cocksucker " , for rejecting him for the part and giving it to Cyril Cusack .
In 1993 , Steiger portrayed an aging gynaecologist who terrorizes his urban neighbors in a rural community in Burlington , Vermont in The Neighbor . Dennis Schwartz considered it to have been one of Steiger 's creepiest roles , though he thought that the poor script had rendered the role awkward and " mildly entertaining in the sense that Steiger is asked to carry the film and hams it up " . The following year , Steiger agreed to play a Cuban mob boss opposite Sylvester Stallone and Sharon Stone in Luis Llosa 's thriller The Specialist , citing its purpose as a " $ 40 million commercial " to show a new generation that he existed . Critics panned the film , which has a four percent approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 27 reviews as of July 2015 . The role earned Steiger a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Supporting Actor nomination , and the film was listed in The Official Razzie Movie Guide as one of " The 100 Most Enjoyably Bad Movies Ever Made " .
= = = Later work and final years ( 1995 – 2002 ) = = =
Following The Specialist ( 1994 ) , Steiger appeared in Tom Clancy 's Op Center ( 1995 ) , a film that was edited down into a TV miniseries , and featured in a Columbo television film , Strange Bedfellows . The following year , he took a minor role as Doc Wallace in the Dale Rosenbloom family drama Shiloh . He reprised the role three years later in the sequel . Also in 1996 , Steiger played a " jingoistic top general " who " petitions the president to go nuclear in the middle of a global crisis " in the ensemble production of Mars Attacks ! .
In 1997 , Steiger played Tony Vago , the mob boss of Vincent Gallo 's character in Kiefer Sutherland 's Truth or Consequences , N.M. , a gritty noir about a drug heist gone wrong . Steiger played judges in Antonio Banderas 's comedy @-@ drama Crazy in Alabama and in the prison drama , The Hurricane , both in 1999 , the latter of which tells the story of former middleweight boxer Rubin Carter , who was wrongly convicted of a triple homicide in a bar in Paterson , New Jersey . The Hurricane reunited Steiger with Norman Jewison , who had directed him in In the Heat of the Night . Steiger portrayed H. Lee Sarokin , the judge responsible for freeing Carter . Sarokin thought it was a " marvellous film " that was Oscar @-@ worthy , but found Steiger 's portrayal as overacted and a " little arrogant and pompous " .
After a minor role as a " bombastic priest " in End of Days ( 1999 ) , Steiger was one of the lead actors in Burt Reynolds 's The Last Producer ( 2000 ) , a film about a washed @-@ up , veteran producer ( Reynolds ) who tries to re @-@ enter the movie business by producing a new film . Steiger 's last film role was as the billiard hall manager , Nick , in Poolhall Junkies ( 2002 ) ; it was poorly received by critics .
= = Personal life and death = =
Steiger was married five times : he married actress Sally Gracie ( 1952 – 1958 ) , actress Claire Bloom ( 1959 – 1969 ) , secretary Sherry Nelson ( 1973 – 1979 ) , singer Paula Ellis ( 1986 – 1997 ) and actress Joan Benedict Steiger ( married 2000 until his death ) . He had a daughter , opera singer Anna Steiger ( born in 1960 ) by Bloom , and a son , Michael Steiger ( born in 1993 ) , from his marriage to Ellis . In an interview with journalist Kenneth Passingham , Steiger stated that Bloom was " all I ever wanted in a woman " , and that " maybe our marriage was better than most because we were both established when we met " . The couple bought a home in Malibu , California , a community that appealed to Steiger but which Bloom found boring . They also purchased an apartment in Manhattan and a cottage in County Galway , in close proximity to John Huston 's home . Financial considerations led Steiger to sell their New York apartment in the mid @-@ 1970s . It upset him greatly when his marriage with Bloom ended in 1969 and that she quickly remarried Broadway producer Hillard Elkins the same year , a man whom Steiger had entrusted to care for her while he was away shooting Waterloo . Steiger was also close friends with actress Elizabeth Taylor .
Steiger was outspoken on McCarthyism . He was particularly critical of Charlton Heston 's stance on weapons , and publicly referred to him as " America 's favorite fascist " . In one clash in a column in the Los Angeles Times , Steiger responded to a letter sent by Heston saying that he was shocked that the American Film Institute had not honored Elia Kazan because of his testimony to the Un @-@ American Activities Committee . Steiger wrote that he was " appalled , appalled , appalled " at actors and writers who had been forced to drive cabs because they were blacklisted and had even committed suicide as a result . Heston did not reply .
Steiger suffered from depression throughout much of his life . He described himself as " incapacitated for about eight years with clinical depression " before his Oscar win for In The Heat of the Night . His career problems from the 1970s onwards were often exacerbated by health issues . He underwent open @-@ heart surgery in 1976 and 1979 and struggled with obesity , though certain roles , such as Napoleon , required him to intentionally gain weight . After the decline of his third marriage in 1979 , a deep depression , partly a side effect of his surgery , during the 1980s negatively affected his career . He became increasingly reclusive during this period , often confining himself to his apartment , watching American football for several hours . He said of the experience : " You begin to lose self @-@ esteem . You don 't walk , you don 't shave and if no one was watching you 'd go to the bathroom right where you were sitting " . He would lie in bed at night thinking " You 'll never act again . Why bother ? You 're no good " . Despite these challenges , Steiger continued to act into the 1990s and early 2000s . In one of his final interviews , he stated that there was a stigma wrongfully attached to sufferers of depression and that it was caused by a chemical imbalance , not a mental disease . He commented : " Pain must never be a source of shame . It 's a part of life , it 's part of humanity . "
Steiger died of pneumonia and complications from surgery for a gall bladder tumor on July 9 , 2002 , in Los Angeles , and was buried in Forest Lawn – Hollywood Hills Cemetery . The film Saving Shiloh , released in 2006 , was dedicated to his memory .
= = Acting style = =
Steiger was one of Hollywood 's most respected character actors ; Hutchinson described him as " one of Hollywood 's most charismatic and dynamic stars " . Yet for Hutchinson , Steiger remained " out of sympathy with Hollywood " during his career , believing that accomplished actors often struggle to find challenging films as they got older . Steiger was an " effusive talent " according to Lucia Bozzola of The New York Times , and was particularly noted for his intense portrayal of offbeat , often volatile and crazed characters . After On the Waterfront ( 1954 ) , Steiger became somewhat typecast for playing tough characters and villains , and grew increasingly frustrated playing the " Mafia heavy or a near @-@ psychopath " during the 1970s , roles which he could play menacingly , but provided little opportunity for him to showcase his talent . Gossip columnist Louella Parsons hailed him as " the Screen 's No.1 Bad Man " , while the newspaper London Evening News referred to him as " the man you would love to hate if you had the coverage " . A 1960 publication by Dean Jennings of The Saturday Evening Post referred to Steiger as an " angry , hot @-@ tempered newcomer of prodigious acting talents , [ who ] works best only at emotional white heat " , and remarked that he found it " stimulating to carry theatrical fantasy into his private life " . Pauline Kael found his performances so powerful that she believed he " often seems to take over a picture even when he isn 't in the lead " . The journal Films and Filming , surveying his career in 1971 , noted that his talent " developed steadily through films good and bad " , and that the secret of his success was that he stayed grounded , citing a 1956 interview where he said " I pity the player who can 't keep his feet on the ground . It 's too easy to trade on success and forget that no performer can stand still . "
A product of the Actors Studio , Steiger is closely associated with method acting , embodying the characters he played . Writer James F. Scott notes that during his career , he " many times put aside his own personality to think his way into an alien psyche " . Steiger once said :
" I don 't like the term Method , but for the sake of argument method acting is a means to an end . It is something that helps you get involved in the part personally so that you can communicate with the audience . No matter what , the American actor of the fifties changed acting the world over . Montgomery Clift was perhaps the actor who started it , Brando caused the sensation and [ James ] Dean made it a cult " .
Steiger was so devoted to his craft that during the 1970s he turned to many foreign productions , especially in Italy , to obtain the sort of roles he desired , but often clashed with directors over his method acting techniques . In one of his last interviews , Steiger said : " What is the greatest thing an artist in any profession can give to a person ? — that would be a constructive , warm memory . Because that gets into your brain and therefore into your life , so to speak . And that 's it , when somebody says to me ' I 'll never forget ' , that 's worth more to me than five Academy Awards , I 'm in that person 's life " .
Film writer Paul Simpson notes how closely Steiger prepared for his roles , and how he " effortlessly " recreated the mannerisms of figures such as Mussolini , in a " compelling take on an enigmatic figure " . Judith Crist of New York Magazine , reviewing Duck , You Sucker ! , commented that Steiger was " totally without mannerisms , always with manner " , and noted that his " silences are stunningly effective " . Roger Ebert later echoed this statement , concurring that Steiger lacked mannerisms , writing , " When he gets a character worth playing with , he creates it new from the bottom up , out of whole cloth . I don 't know how he does it . It 's almost as if he gets inside the skin of the guy he 's playing and starts being that person for a while " . Steiger said : " I always tried to do things different . If I got a role which was similar to another I 'd try to do it a little different . " His explosive screen performances were an influence on many later actors , including Robert De Niro , who used Steiger 's portrayal of Al Capone as a reference for his own performance in The Untouchables ( 1987 ) . Elvis Presley was highly impressed with Steiger 's " powerful and wrenching performance " in The Pawnbroker .
Despite Steiger 's acclaim as an actor , he was frequently accused of overacting and won his fair share of critics , particularly during the 1970s and 1980s . His acting was so dynamic at times that critics found him excessive and overbearing , and even uncomfortable or laughable to watch . Steiger once clashed with Armenian director Rouben Mamoulian , during a theatrical production of Oklahoma ! , as he was intolerant of Steiger 's " unusual acting technique " . Steiger ignored the director 's concerns that he was mumbling his lines , and when he began chomping loudly on an apple during a scene with Gordon MacRae , Mamoulian exclaimed : " Get out of my theater . Get out of my life ! " , and fired him . Even Kazan found several of the Actors Studio 's techniques disagreeable , preferring " more humor and verve and less self @-@ indulgence , self @-@ pity and self @-@ awareness " . Kazan felt that Steiger often displayed a competitive edge as an actor and tried to steal scenes from his co @-@ stars . Steiger rejected these claims , insisting that he was merely " trying to take the medium of acting to as far as I can go , and that why I sometimes go over the edge " .
Several co @-@ stars found Steiger difficult ; Warren Oates , according to director Norman Jewison , viewed Steiger as " somebody who had a tendency to go over the top " during the making of In The Heat of the Night . Writer Richard Dyer highlights the contrast in the film between the acting styles of Steiger and Poitier , with " Poitier 's stillness and implied intensity " and " Steiger 's busy , exteriorised method acting " . Humphrey Bogart , Steiger 's co @-@ star of The Harder They Fall , referred to Steiger 's method acting as the " scratch @-@ your @-@ ass @-@ and @-@ mumble school of acting " . Director Robert Aldrich notes that Steiger had a habit of changing his lines , which often confused his co @-@ stars . Aldrich stated : " Usually I lie awake at nights trying to think of ways to improve an actor 's performance . With Steiger , the problem is to try and contain him " . Steiger was particularly aggressive towards director Kenneth Annakin during the making of Across the Bridge , insisting on rewriting most of the script and changing many of the lines to better fit Steiger 's idea of the character . Annakin stated that he had " never known an actor to put so much thought and preparation into a performance " as Steiger . Hutchinson revealed that Steiger often suffered from panic during filming and that fear of failure haunted him throughout his life , but fear also provided him with a source of strength in his acting .
= = Filmography and theatre credits = =
Rod Steiger on screen and stage
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= Live to Tell =
" Live to Tell " is a song by American singer Madonna from her third studio album True Blue ( 1986 ) . Originally composed by Patrick Leonard for the score of the film Fire with Fire , the song was shown to Madonna , who decided to use it for then @-@ husband Sean Penn 's film At Close Range . Madonna wrote the song 's lyrics and co @-@ produced it with Leonard . The song was released as the lead single from True Blue on March 26 , 1986 by Sire Records . It later appeared on compilation albums The Immaculate Collection ( 1990 ) , Something to Remember ( 1995 ) , and Celebration ( 2009 ) .
A pop ballad , the song includes instrumentation from guitars , keyboards , drums and a synthesizer , and its lyrics deal with deceit , mistrust and childhood scars . It is also about being strong , which Madonna recalled in an interview that she thought about her relationship with her parents , while writing the lyrics . The music video , directed by James Foley , shows Madonna 's first image makeover , featuring her with a cleaner look , shoulder @-@ length wavy golden blond hair , conservative wardrobe and subtle make @-@ up . This toned down blond appearance was again inspired by Marilyn Monroe .
" Live to Tell " was generally well received by music critics , who frequently referred to it as the best ballad of her career . It was also a commercial success , becoming Madonna 's third number @-@ one single on the Billboard Hot 100 and her first number @-@ one on the Adult Contemporary chart . The song faced controversy when Madonna performed it on her 2006 Confessions Tour wearing a crown of thorns while hanging on a giant mirrored cross . The performance at Rome 's Olympic Stadium was condemned as an act of hostility toward the Roman Catholic Church by religious leaders .
= = Background and writing = =
After Madonna finished The Virgin Tour , she asked producers Patrick Leonard and Stephen Bray to write some songs with her and produce her third studio album , True Blue ( 1986 ) . " Live to Tell " was originally composed by Leonard for the score of Paramount 's romantic drama film Fire with Fire . " My managers represented the guy who was directing the film ; it was his first film . I saw a little piece of the film , and I had the script . I wrote a theme and I said , ' What if I could get Madonna to write the lyrics for it ? ' " , said Leonard .
However , Paramount rejected the song , believing that Leonard was incapable of creating the score for the film . It was then that Leonard presented the track to Madonna . She decided to use it for At Close Range , the new film of her then @-@ husband , actor Sean Penn . Madonna wrote the lyrics of the song onspot , and made a demo recording on a cassette . She presented the song to the film 's director James Foley , who after hearing the track , decided to enlist Leonard as the person to write the score for the film , as per suggestions by Madonna .
Leonard was working with Michael Jackson , on some transcriptions for his Bad album , when Penn called him at the home of Foley . There he got to know that Madonna had suggested he write the score for At Close Range , and had also asked who was going to sing " Live to Tell " , since the song was written from a man 's perspective . Leonard , although he had initially envisioned a male voice interpreting the song , decided to use Madonna as the main vocalist and used the demo version as the main vocal with backup drums only . He later recalled that " it was so innocent and so shy . It 's as naive , as raw , as raw can be and that 's part of what gave it all its charm . " In a 1986 interview , Madonna said that the mood on the song was inspired by a different facet of her image makeover and her desire to focus on something different .
= = Composition = =
" Live to Tell " is a pop ballad , with background instrumentation from a keyboard , a synthesizer , a funk guitar and a mix of synthesized and real drumming . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Alfred Publishing , the song is written in the key of F major , is set in common time and moves at a moderate tempo of 112 beats per minute . The song starts with an instrumental introduction , performed by a synthesizer with the bass pedals set on D minor . Then the key suddenly changes to its relative major , F.
Madonna 's vocal range spans two octaves , from G3 to G5 . As she begins to sing the first verse , the bass pedal changes to C major , changes back to F during the chorus , and back to D minor during the chorus closure . This process is repeated during the second verse and chorus , which abruptly ends in a silence , with only the low and lifeless sound of the synthesizer , set in D minor . Madonna then starts to sing the bridge ( or middle part ) — " If I ran away , I 'd never have the strength " — between the tonal keys of D and F , closing with the repetition of the chorus until the song gradually fades out . The original composition of the song did not have the background synths , instead Leonard created a basic structure on piano , and Madonna added the words on top of that melody . According to Leonard , Madonna came up with the bridge by herself , extending it from the music that he was playing .
Lyrically , " Live to Tell " portrays the complexity of deceit and mistrust . The song is also about childhood scars and had an extreme emotional pitch . According to the book The Heart of Rock & Soul by Dave Marsh , the archetype of songs like " Live to Tell " is The Platters ' song " The Great Pretender " . In an interview about the song , Madonna said , " I thought about my relationship with my parents and the lying that went on . The song is about being strong , and questioning whether you can be that strong but ultimately surviving . "
= = Critical response = =
" Live to Tell " was generally well received by music critics . In a review of the album True Blue , Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic called it a " tremendous ballad that rewrites the rules of adult contemporary crossover " . Jim Farber from Entertainment Weekly called the song " her best ballad to date " . In a review of her compilation album The Immaculate Collection , David Browne from the same magazine called it " one of her few successful shots at being a balladeer " . Alfred Soto from Stylus Magazine felt that " the song 's set of lyrics remain her best " and that the vocals " seethes with a lifetime 's worth of hurts which she nevertheless refuses to share " . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine called the song " striking " adding that it " rewrote the rules of what a pop song was supposed to sound like " . Edna Gundersen from USA Today called the song " a moody heart @-@ tugger , may be her best song ever . "
Adam Sexton , author of Desperately Seeking Madonna : In Search Of The Meaning Of The World 's Most Famous Woman , felt that " Live to Tell " made a provocative companion to " Papa Don 't Preach " , the second single from the album . He added that " Madonna appropriately measured the safety of silence against the urge to unburden herself . " Sexton also complimented the production , saying that the " music itself suggests a threatened annihilation , a fact that makes it more haunting . " Allen Metz and Carol Benson , authors of The Madonna Companion : Two Decades of Commentary , felt that the track expanded Madonna 's musical horizons . According to them " Live to Tell " was a compelling track which Madonna sang with moving conviction . J. Randy Taraborrelli , author of Madonna : An Intimate Biography , was pleased with the track , denoting it as a vehicle of growth for Madonna . Erica Wexler from Spin , while reviewing True Blue , called " Live to Tell " as " dark and moody , dense with dramatic mystery . In this mushy tale of lost innocence , Madonna very theatrically conveys a lost fatalism . Her fragile voice aches for reassurance and healing when she sings ' Will it grow cold ? The secret that I hide , Will I grow old ? " Rolling Stone called the song " as cutting as it is melancholic " and said that it was " arguably [ Madonna 's ] finest and most distinctive ballad . "
= = Chart performance = =
" Live to Tell " was released in the United States in March 1986 . It debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 49 , reaching the top position eight weeks later , becoming Madonna 's third number @-@ one single in the US , and her second number @-@ one that is featured in a film after " Crazy for You " . The song was a crossover success , topping the Adult Contemporary chart for three weeks , and peaking at number three on the Hot Dance Singles Sales chart . In Canada the song debuted at number 79 of the RPM singles chart in April 1986 , and reached the top of the chart for two weeks in May 1986 , staying on the chart for a total of 23 weeks , It was ranked at the second position of the 1986 RPM Singles year @-@ end chart . The single also peaked at number 1 on the CHUM Chart on May 24 , 1986 , and became its final number @-@ one single .
In the United Kingdom , " Live to Tell " was released on April 21 , 1986 . The next week , the song debuted at number ten on the UK Singles Chart , peaked at number two , and stayed 13 weeks on the chart . It was held from the top spot by Falco 's " Rock Me Amadeus " . " Live to Tell " was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) in May 1986 , for shipment of 250 @,@ 000 copies of the single across the United Kingdom . According to the Official Charts Company , the song has sold 280 @,@ 000 copies in the UK .
Across Europe , " Live to Tell " topped the Eurochart Hot 100 for two weeks , and the singles chart in Italy , as well as peaking inside the top ten in Belgium , France , Ireland , the Netherlands , Norway , and Switzerland . It was also certified silver by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) for shipment of 250 @,@ 000 copies in France .
= = Music video = =
In December 1985 , Madonna starred in the film Shanghai Surprise , where she toned down her appearance , inspired again by Marilyn Monroe . Madonna held the look for the " Live to Tell " video . In it her make @-@ up was pale and subtle , her shoulder @-@ length hair was wavy and golden blond , and her clothes consisted of a simple 1930s @-@ style floral dress . In an interview with music critic Stephen Holden from The New York Times , she commented about her new look :
" After a while I got sick of wearing tons of jewelry — I wanted to clean myself off . I see my new look as very innocent and feminine and unadorned . It makes me feel good . Growing up , I admired the kind of beautiful glamorous woman — from Brigitte Bardot to Grace Kelly — who doesn 't seem to be around much anymore . I think it 's time for that kind of glamor to come back . In pop music generally , people have one image . You get pigeonholed . I 'm lucky enough to be able to change and still be accepted . If you think about it , that 's what they do in the movies ; play a part , change characters , looks and attitudes . I guess I do it to entertain myself . "
In addition to At Close Range , Foley also directed the song 's video . David Naylor and Sharon Oreck were in charge of the production . The video serves as a publicity campaign for the movie , as it includes brief scenes of the film that indicate the conflict the young man in the movie — played by Sean Penn — feels .
The locations in the film are separated visually from the shots of Madonna , who is singing in a darkened studio . Unlike her previous videos , Madonna portrays a narrator , whose song comments on the story , appearing in shots completely different from the narrative action . She appears to speak for the character , addressing his problems directly , like the chorus of a classical tragedy .
= = Live performances = =
Madonna premiered the song at a benefit concert at Madison Square Garden to raise money for medical research for AIDS . She dedicated the song to the memory of her friend , artist Michael Burgoyne . Madonna has since performed the song on three of her world tours . In 1987 , during the Who 's That Girl World Tour , she performed the song standing motionless in a single spotlight , wearing a black ensemble with tassels , golden tips and ribbing , designed by Marlene Stewart . Two different performances of the song on this tour can be found on the videos : Who 's That Girl : Live in Japan , filmed in Tokyo , Japan , on June 22 , 1987 , and Ciao Italia : Live from Italy , filmed in Turin , Italy , on September 4 , 1987 .
Three years later on her Blond Ambition World Tour , Madonna evoked Catholic images during the performance . She wore a black kaftan and a neon crucifix , while singing on a confession bench , with Roman columns and a platform full of votive candles in the background . Two different performances were taped and released on video , the Blond Ambition Japan Tour 90 , taped in Yokohama , Japan , on April 27 , 1990 , and the Blond Ambition World Tour Live , taped in Nice , France , on August 5 , 1990 .
Madonna 's performance of the song was the subject of controversy during the 2006 Confessions Tour . She was raised from the floor hanging on a mirrored cross wearing a red blouse and velvet pants , with a crown of Thorns on her head . During the performance , the number 12 million flashed above her on the stage 's backdrop screens , along with images of African children . This was intended to detail the estimated number of children who have been orphaned by the AIDS pandemic in Africa .
German prosecutors in Düsseldorf threatened to sue her for blasphemy , and Protestant bishop Margot Käßmann said that " maybe the only way an aging superstar can attract attention is to offend people 's religious sentiments . " The Russian Orthodox Church and the Federation of Jewish Communities of Russia ( FJCR ) described Madonna 's performance as amoral , and urged all members to boycott her upcoming concert in Moscow . The performance at Rome 's Olympic Stadium — located near the Vatican — was condemned as an act of hostility toward the Roman Catholic Church by religious leaders . Italian cardinal Ersilio Tonini called the concert " a blasphemous challenge to the faith " and a " profanation of the cross " , also calling for Madonna to be excommunicated . Reverend Manfredo Leone described it as " disrespectful , in bad taste and provocative " .
Muslim and Jewish leaders also criticized the performance . Mario Scialoja , the head of Italy 's Muslim League commented " I think her idea is in the worst taste and she 'd do better to go home . " Riccardo Pacifici , the spokesman for Rome 's Jewish community said " It 's a disrespectful act , and to do it in Rome is even worse . " Madonna released a statement about the controversy :
I am very grateful that my show was so well received all over the world . But there seems to be many misinterpretations about my appearance on the cross and I wanted to explain it myself once and for all .
There is a segment in my show where three of my dancers ' confess ' or share harrowing experiences from their childhood that they ultimately overcame . My ' confession ' follows and takes place on a Crucifix that I ultimately come down from . This is not a mocking of the church . It is no different than a person wearing a Cross or ' Taking Up the Cross ' as it says in the Bible . My performance is neither anti @-@ Christian , sacrilegious or blasphemous . Rather , it is my plea to the audience to encourage mankind to help one another and to see the world as a unified whole . I believe in my heart that if Jesus were alive today he would be doing the same thing .
My specific intent is to bring attention to the millions of children in Africa who are dying every day , and are living without care , without medicine and without hope . I am asking people to open their hearts and minds to get involved in whatever way they can . The song ends with a quote from the Bible 's Book of Matthew : ' For I was hungry and you gave me food . I was naked and you gave me clothing . I was sick and you took care of me and God replied , " Whatever you did for the least of my brothers ... you did it to me.'
Please do not pass judgement without seeing my show .
= = Cover versions and usage in media = =
" Live to Tell " has been covered by numerous artists . In 1992 , American guitarist Bill Frisell covered the song in his fourth album , Have a Little Faith . In 1998 , Blonde Ambition released a dance single of the song featuring 6 different hi @-@ NRG remix versions . Italian singer Lucrezia made an uptempo dance version of the song that was remixed by David Morales . It peaked at number two for two weeks on Billboard 's Hot Dance Club Play , and was included in the 2001 album Logic Pride , Vol . 4 . Canadian jazz singer Carol Welsman , covered it on her eponymous 2007 album .
New wave band Berlin covered the song for the 1999 album Virgin Voices : A Tribute to Madonna , Vol . 1 . In an interview with CNN , Berlin 's lead vocalist Terri Nunn said that the tribute was necessary , commenting that " she [ Madonna ] has influenced a lot of people " , adding that " Live to Tell " is the only song from Madonna that she would touch . Other covers of the song on tribute albums include Semi Moore on The Material Girl : A Tribute to Madonna , released in 2000 , an instrumental version on the 2002 album The String Quartet Tribute to Madonna , a folk version by Winter Flowers on the 2007 album Through the Wilderness , and a hi @-@ NRG version by Melissa Totten on her 2008 album , Forever Madonna . In the American police procedural television series Cold Case , the song features in the finale of the first season episode " Churchgoing People " .
= = Formats and track listing = =
U.S. / Canada / Germany / U.K. 7 " single
" Live to Tell " ( Edit ) – 4 : 37
" Live to Tell " ( Instrumental ) – 5 : 49
U.S. / Canada / Germany / U.K. 12 " maxi @-@ single
" Live to Tell " ( LP Version ) – 5 : 49
" Live to Tell " ( Edit ) – 4 : 37
" Live to Tell " ( Instrumental ) – 5 : 49
Germany / U.K. CD Maxi Single ( 1995 )
" Live to Tell " ( LP Version ) – 5 : 49
" Live to Tell " ( Edit ) – 4 : 37
" Live to Tell " ( Instrumental ) – 5 : 49
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – lyrics , producer , vocals
Bruce Gaitsch – guitars
Patrick Leonard – drum programming , keyboards , lyrics , producer
Jonathan Moffett – drums
Michael Verdick – audio mixing , engineer
Credits adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Eduard Streltsov =
Eduard Anatolyevich Streltsov ( Russian : Эдуа ́ рд Анато ́ льевич Стрельцо ́ в ; IPA : [ ɪdʊˈart ɐnɐˈtolʲɪvʲitɕ strʲɪlʲˈtsof ] , 21 July 1937 – 22 July 1990 ) was a footballer from the Soviet Union who played as a forward for Torpedo Moscow and the Soviet national team during the 1950s and 1960s . A powerful and skilful attacking player , he scored the fourth @-@ highest number of goals for the Soviet Union and has been called " the greatest outfield player Russia has ever produced " . He is sometimes dubbed " the Russian Pelé " .
Born and raised in east Moscow , Streltsov joined Torpedo at the age of 16 in 1953 and made his international debut two years later . He was part of the squad that won the gold medal at the 1956 Melbourne Olympics , and came seventh in the 1957 Ballon d 'Or . Early the next year his promising career was interrupted by a rape scandal . The 20 @-@ year @-@ old Streltsov was accused of raping a woman shortly before the 1958 World Cup ; told he could still play if he admitted his guilt , he confessed , despite inconclusive evidence against him . He was instead convicted and sentenced to twelve years in the Gulag system of forced labour camps .
Streltsov was released after five years in the camps and in 1965 he resumed his career with Torpedo Moscow . In the first season of his comeback , the club won the Soviet championship ; in 1968 Torpedo won the Soviet Cup . Streltsov was restored to the Soviet national team in 1966 , and in 1967 and 1968 named Soviet Footballer of the Year . By the time of his retirement in 1970 he had pioneered innovations such as the back @-@ heeled pass , which became known in Russia as " Streltsov 's pass " . He died in Moscow in 1990 . Six years later , Torpedo renamed their home ground " Eduard Streltsov Stadium " in his honour . In the 21st century , statues of Streltsov stand outside the stadium bearing his name and the Luzhniki Olympic Complex in Moscow .
= = Early life = =
Eduard Anatolyevich Streltsov was born in Perovo , an eastern district of Moscow , on 21 July 1937 , the son of Anatoly Streltsov , a front @-@ line soldier and intelligence officer , and Sofia Frolovna . Anatoly did not return to the family following the Second World War , instead choosing to settle alone in Kiev ; Sofia therefore raised her son on her own , working at the Fraser Cutting Instruments Factory to support Eduard and herself . As a result , Streltsov had a modest upbringing , the highlights of which were playing football and following his favoured team , Spartak Moscow .
The factory recognised his talent from a young age : Streltsov became the Fraser Factory football team 's youngest ever player when he was 13 years old . Three years later in 1953 , a friendly match was organised between Fraser and a youth team from Torpedo Moscow . Streltsov impressed the Torpedo coach , Vasily Provornov , and after befriending him , left Fraser to play for Torpedo .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Aged 16 , Streltsov made his debut for Torpedo during the 1954 season , appeared in every league game and scored four goals . The team finished ninth in the league , a drop from third the previous year . In his second season Streltsov was the league 's most prolific goalscorer , scoring 15 goals in 22 games as his side rose to fourth place . Streltsov was selected for the Soviet national team for the first time in 1955 , halfway through the season ; his debut came in a friendly match against Sweden in Stockholm on 26 June , when he scored a hat @-@ trick within the first 45 minutes as the Swedish team was defeated 6 – 0 . On his second appearance , a friendly home game against India , he scored three goals again . A further game in Hungary and a goal against France meant that by the start of 1956 , Streltsov had scored seven goals for the Soviet Union in four matches . After scoring in a match against Denmark in April 1956 , he missed three international matches before returning in September with a goal after three minutes in a 2 – 1 away victory over West Germany . Streltsov continued to score regularly for Torpedo , managing 12 league goals during the 1956 season , but appeared in two successive defeats for the Soviets before they travelled in November 1956 to the Olympic Games in Melbourne . Streltsov scored three goals in a 16 – 2 victory over Australia in an unofficial match on 15 November before scoring a late winning goal in the first tournament match against the Unified Team of Germany nine days later . The Soviets required a replay to overcome Indonesia in the quarter @-@ finals and met Bulgaria in the semi @-@ final .
The match finished 0 – 0 after 90 minutes , and with defender Nikolai Tishchenko and Streltsov 's fellow Torpedo forward Valentin Ivanov both injured , the Soviet team had only nine fit players when Bulgaria scored early in extra time . Streltsov 's performance was later described by journalist Jonathan Wilson as " magnificent " ; he scored an equaliser after 112 minutes and then set up Boris Tatushin of Spartak Moscow four minutes later to score the winning goal . Streltsov missed the final against Yugoslavia as the team manager , Gavriil Kachalin , believed the two forward players should be club team @-@ mates ; as Ivanov was unfit , Streltsov was dropped as well . Nikita Simonyan , who took his place , offered Streltsov his gold medal following a 1 – 0 victory over the Yugoslavs , an offer which the Torpedo player refused , saying " Nikita , I will win many other trophies " . Streltsov received two votes in that year 's Ballon d 'Or .
Streltsov scored the first goal in a 2 – 0 win in a World Cup qualifying play @-@ off match in Poland which meant the Soviet Union qualified for the 1958 World Cup . At club level , he scored 12 goals in 15 league matches during the 1957 season . Torpedo , never league champions and traditionally overshadowed by local rivals such as CSKA , Dynamo and Spartak , finished as runners @-@ up of the Soviet Top League . At the end of that season , Streltsov came seventh in the 1957 Ballon d 'Or , gaining 12 votes ; by the start of the World Cup year , 1958 , his international record stood at 18 goals in 20 games . Streltsov scored five goals in the first eight league matches of the 1958 Top League season , and appeared in a 1 – 1 friendly draw with England in Moscow on 18 May 1958 .
= = = Rape conviction = = =
= = = = Accusation = = = =
Streltsov was known for womanising , drinking heavily and leading an extravagant life outside of football , as well as for wearing his hair in the British " Teddy Boy " style . As a key player for his club and for the Soviet national side , these traits combined to create an impression in government circles that , in Wilson 's words , " Streltsov was becoming rather too much of a celebrity " . The problem was brought to a head by an alleged relationship between the footballer and Svetlana Furtseva , the 16 @-@ year @-@ old daughter of the first female Politburo member Ekaterina Furtseva . With the young Svetlana besotted by the 19 @-@ year @-@ old Torpedo forward , her mother first met him at a Kremlin ball held early in 1957 to celebrate the Olympic victory of 1956 . Furtseva suggested he might marry her daughter , to which Streltsov replied " I already have a fiancée and I will not marry her [ Svetlana ] . " While drunk , he was later heard to remark either " I would never marry that monkey " or " I would rather be hanged than marry such a girl " ( both quotes were reported ) , humiliating Furtseva , a minister close to Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev .
Streltsov became secretly engaged to Alla Demenko before leaving for the Olympics , and the couple married on 25 February 1957 , halfway through preparations for the Soviet season . The Department of Soviet Football criticised both the player and his club over the timing of the ceremony . The Communist Party also seemed to distrust him , considering him a possible defector after he attracted the interest of French and Swedish clubs during tours overseas with Torpedo . His file in the party archives included the comment : " [ a ] ccording to a verified source , Streltsov said to his friends in 1957 that he was always sorry to return to the USSR after trips abroad . " After he was sent off during a game in Odessa in April 1957 , the official government sports newspaper Sovetsky Sport published an article about him titled " This is not a hero " as well as letters purportedly written by members of the proletariat , which described Streltsov as an " example of the evils of western imperialism " .
A week after appearing against England in a warm @-@ up match in Moscow for the 1958 World Cup , Streltsov was invited to a party by a Soviet military officer , Eduard Karakhanov , to be held on 25 May . Streltsov and the rest of the Soviet squad were on a pre @-@ World Cup training camp at Tarasovka , just outside Moscow , but the team had been given the day as holiday . At the end of such days , the players had to report to the authorities at Dynamo Stadium at 4 : 30 pm , but Streltsov and two team @-@ mates , Spartak players Mikhail Ogonkov and Boris Tatushin , ignored this rule and went to the party anyway . Held at Karakhanov 's dacha , it was also attended by a 20 @-@ year @-@ old woman named Marina Lebedeva , whom Streltsov had never met . The following morning , Streltsov , Ogonkov and Tatushin were all arrested and charged with raping her .
Journalist Kevin O 'Flynn writes that since heavy drinking had taken place at the party , the evidence against Streltsov was " confused and contradictory " , even from Lebedeva herself . But the Soviet team coach , Gavriil Kachalin , claimed shortly before Streltsov 's death that influence from high up in the Communist Party dictated that the player could not be helped ; Kachalin said that police told him of Khrushchev 's personal involvement , fuelled by a grudge held by Furtseva . According to Soviet Union team @-@ mate Nikita Simonyan , speaking in 2006 , Streltsov wrote home to his mother " saying he was taking the blame for someone else " . Streltsov and Lebedeva did sleep together , Simonyan said , and he did not believe their meeting had been set up , but he was unsure about whether or not Streltsov had raped her . Simonyan proposed that consensual sex could have been twisted into a rape accusation by " the system " , which he said bore ill will towards the Torpedo forward . However , in the same interview Simonyan revealed incriminating photographs of both Lebedeva and Streltsov from the time of the trial , including one in which the Torpedo player 's face " was streaked from nose to cheekbone with three parallel scratches " . " [ T ] here is the possibility that the photographs were doctored or the injuries inflicted at a later date " , Wilson comments , " but Soviet justice rarely required such damning evidence . " Streltsov 's wife of just over a year , Alla , filed for divorce soon after the accusations were made . Apart from Streltsov himself , the only members of the team present at his trial were Ogonkov and Tatushin , who appeared as witnesses .
= = = = Conviction ; the Gulag = = = =
Streltsov confessed to the crime after being told this would allow him to keep his place in the Soviet team for the 1958 World Cup . This did not happen , however ; far from remaining in the national side , Streltsov was sentenced to twelve years in the forced labour camps of the Gulag , and barred from ever returning to professional football of any kind . Plans for a march by 100 @,@ 000 workers at Moscow 's ZiL car factory , the base of the Torpedo club , to show support during the trial , were abandoned when Streltsov was sentenced before the march could be arranged . Ogonkov and Tatushin , meanwhile , were banned from playing any kind of organised football for three years , and barred from representing the USSR for life . In the camp where he was incarcerated , Streltsov was initially victimised by a young criminal who inflicted so much physical harm on him that he spent four months in the prison hospital , suffering from injuries caused by blows from either an " iron bar or a shoe heel " . Camp authorities later started to include Streltsov in football matches to calm down the inmates in times of trouble ; one prisoner , Ivan Lukyanov , later said : " [ w ] e loved Streltsov , we believed he would return to football . And not only us . "
Meanwhile , the Soviet team travelled to Sweden for the World Cup without Streltsov , Ogonkov or Tatushin . The world 's press claimed that two of the competing teams were severely weakened : England by the Munich air disaster , and the Soviets by the loss of Streltsov . The Soviets reached the quarter @-@ finals , losing 2 – 0 to hosts Sweden , a team defeated 6 – 0 by the Soviet Union during Streltsov 's 1955 debut . Without Streltsov , Torpedo dropped from their second @-@ place finish in 1957 to seventh in 1958 , though the team also reached the Soviet Cup final before losing to Spartak . Streltsov 's place as the club 's leading scorer was taken by the 21 @-@ year @-@ old forward Gennadi Gusarov , who had turned professional with Torpedo during 1957 . The team rose to fifth in 1959 before winning the Double of Top League and Cup during the following year , with Gusarov leading the league in goals with 20 . Torpedo then finished as runners @-@ up in both competitions in 1961 , with Gusarov scoring 22 . Two mid @-@ table finishes followed as Gusarov was sold to city rivals Dynamo between the 1962 and 1963 seasons , but Torpedo once again came second in 1964 , losing a championship play @-@ off against Dinamo Tbilisi after the two clubs finished equal on points .
= = = Release and return to football = = =
= = = = Amateur play = = = =
Streltsov was released on 4 February 1963 , five years into his twelve @-@ year sentence , and owing to the ban from professional play began to split his time between work at the ZiL factory and the study of automotive engineering at the attached technical college . After failing to patch up his differences with Alla , he married Raisa Mikhailovna in September 1963 . He started to play for the amateur factory team , which caused it to attract large crowds , both at home and away . When the ZiL side travelled to Gorky for an away match late in the 1964 season , the team 's coach received orders from above not to play Streltsov , something which spectators noticed immediately when the match started ; during the first half , they began to riot and threatened to burn down the stadium , chanting Streltsov 's name . Worried that the angry crowd might go through with this , the Gorky factory chief ordered the ZiL coach to send Streltsov out for the second half . On stepping onto the field , the former Gulag prisoner received a standing ovation .
With Streltsov in the team , ZiL topped the factory league after winning all 11 matches . Although he was not allowed to play for Torpedo , Streltsov attended matches at his old club throughout the season . In October 1964 , Khrushchev was replaced as the Communist Party 's First Secretary by Leonid Brezhnev , who shortly after taking office received a letter signed by tens of thousands of people , including heroes of Socialist Labour and national and regional Supreme Soviet members , requesting the reversal of Streltsov 's professional ban . Some party members were wary of a potential comeback , fearing that Streltsov 's inclusion in a Torpedo squad that regularly travelled to Western Europe could lead to an international incident , but Brezhnev repealed the ban , arguing that as a free man Streltsov should be able to use his trained profession . He was cleared to return to Torpedo before the 1965 season .
= = = = Return to professionalism = = = =
Streltsov was enthusiastically welcomed back by supporters . Although he had lost some of his strength and agility , his footballing intelligence was still intact ; his presence helped Torpedo to win the 1965 Soviet championship , with Streltsov scoring 12 goals from 26 league matches . At the end of the season , he came second in the voting for the Soviet Footballer of the Year behind Torpedo team @-@ mate Valery Voronin . It was the second time that Torpedo had won the league ; the club had won its first title five years earlier , during Streltsov 's imprisonment . Streltsov made his debut in continental club competition on 28 September 1966 , playing in a 1 – 0 defeat away to Inter Milan in the European Cup . He was recalled to the Soviet national team on 16 October 1966 in a 2 – 0 home defeat against Turkey , and scored the first international goal of his comeback a week later in a 2 – 2 draw with East Germany . An appearance in a 1 – 0 away defeat against Italy followed two weeks later . Torpedo reached the final of the Soviet Cup in 1966 , but lost 2 – 0 to Dynamo . Streltsov matched his previous seasonal tally of 12 league goals during the 1966 Top League season .
Streltsov successfully re @-@ established himself in the Soviet team over the following year , as he appeared in eight consecutive USSR matches , starting with a 2 – 0 friendly victory over Scotland in Glasgow in May 1967 . He scored two goals during this run in the national side : one each in a 4 – 2 win against France in Paris on 3 June 1967 and a 4 – 3 European Championship qualifying home victory over Austria eight days later . After losing his place for the 1968 European Championship qualifying match against Finland on 30 August 1967 , Streltsov missed three Soviet Union matches . He regained his place for an away friendly match against Bulgaria on 8 October , scoring a goal as the Soviets fought back from 1 – 0 to record a 2 – 1 win . He retained his place for the rest of the calendar year , and scored a hat @-@ trick away against Chile on 17 December . He was voted Soviet Footballer of the Year at the end of the season , although he scored a relatively low six league goals during 1967 , his lowest for a full season since his debut year of 1954 .
Streltsov was dropped from the Soviet team for the first three national team matches of 1968 . After featuring in a home friendly win over Belgium in April , he made his final appearance for the USSR in the 2 – 0 1968 European Championship quarter @-@ final first leg loss to Hungary on 4 May 1968 . The Soviets beat Hungary 3 – 0 in Moscow a week later , without Streltsov , to qualify for the final tournament on aggregate . Streltsov was left out of the tournament squad , and never played for the USSR again ; after his final appearance , his international tally stood at 25 goals in 38 matches . Torpedo won the Soviet Cup during the 1968 season , overcoming Uzbek side Pakhtakor Tashkent 1 – 0 in the final . Streltsov retained his title of Soviet Footballer of the Year after scoring the highest seasonal total of his career , 21 ( in the league ) , but was moved back to midfield before the 1969 season and did not score in 23 league matches during his final two years . He retired from football in 1970 , at the age of 33 , leaving his final league record for Torpedo over both spells standing at 99 goals from 222 games .
= = Post @-@ retirement career = =
Following a footballing career spent exclusively with Torpedo , Streltsov , a supporter of Spartak Moscow , repeatedly complained about his failure to play for his favourite team . After his retirement , Torpedo continued to pay his salary to fund his study of football coaching at the Institute of Physical Culture . Streltsov returned to Torpedo in the capacity of youth team manager following his qualification ; he also spent a brief spell as manager of the first team before returning to the youth team in 1982 . He also took part in matches contested by former players before dying in 1990 from throat cancer , which his first wife Alla later claimed had been brought about by irradiated food served to him in the camps . Seven years later , Marina Lebedeva , the woman Streltsov had confessed to raping , was seen laying flowers at his grave in Moscow on the day after the anniversary of his death .
Olympic policy in 1956 was to award gold medals only to members of the winning football squad who had played in the final match . Since Streltsov did not play in the final , he did not receive a medal . He was posthumously given a gold medal in 2006 , after this policy was changed retroactively to allow all members of winning Olympic squads to receive medals .
= = Style of play and legacy = =
Many critics consider Streltsov to be one of the finest footballers ever from Russia or the Soviet Union : British journalist and author Jonathan Wilson describes him as " the greatest outfield player Russia has ever produced ... a tall , powerful forward , possessed of a fine first touch and extraordinary footballing intelligence " , while Russian author Aleksandr Nilin writes that " the boy came to us from the land of wonder " . Streltsov 's skilful , innovative style of play helped him to stand out in Soviet football , and his pioneering of the back @-@ heeled pass resulted in it becoming known in Russia as " Streltsov 's pass " . During his early career , this technical ability combined with considerable speed and physical presence to create a formidable all @-@ round forward player . In his later years , with his physical attributes reduced , he emphasised his skill and on @-@ field intelligence to become more of a playmaker , playing further back and setting up attacking moves for team @-@ mates rather than leading them himself . Indeed , for his final two seasons , Streltsov played in an attacking midfield role rather than up front . Despite the eight @-@ year gap between his two spells as a member of the Soviet national team , Streltsov , nicknamed " The Russian Pelé " , was the fourth highest international goalscorer in the country 's history .
Torpedo Moscow 's ground , Torpedo Stadium , was redubbed the " Eduard Streltsov Stadium " in 1996 . A year later , the Russian Football Union introduced the Strelyets prizes as the most prestigious individual honours in Russian football , awarded annually to the best manager in the Russian league and the best players in each position until discontinued in 2003 . A statue of Streltsov was constructed within Moscow 's Luzhniki Olympic Complex in 1998 , and another was erected by Torpedo outside the stadium bearing his name during the following year .
The Streltsov Committee , formed in 2001 , was founded to attempt to have Streltsov 's conviction of rape posthumously overturned . The campaign 's leader , chess champion Anatoly Karpov , claimed in 2001 that the conviction had prevented Streltsov from becoming the world 's best player . The Central Bank of the Russian Federation paid tribute to Streltsov in 2010 , when it minted a commemorative two @-@ ruble coin bearing his likeness . The coin was one of three minted as part of the " Outstanding Sportsmen of Russia " series ; the other two pieces bore the faces of footballers Lev Yashin and Konstantin Beskov , respectively .
= = Honours and achievements = =
= = = Torpedo Moscow = = =
Soviet Top League : 1965
Soviet Cup : 1968
Runner @-@ up
Soviet Top League : 1957
Soviet Cup : 1966
= = = International = = =
1955 – 68 : 38 caps , 25 goals
Summer Olympics gold medal : 1956
= = = Individual = = =
Soviet Footballer of the Year : 1967 , 1968
Soviet Top League top goalscorer : 1955 ( 15 goals from 22 matches )
Ballon d 'Or : 13th place ( 1956 ) , 7th place ( 1957 )
= = Career statistics = =
Statistics for domestic cup competitions unknown at this time save 1968 Soviet Cup .
= = = International goals = = =
Scores and results list the Soviet Union 's goal tally first .
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= Doctor Who missing episodes =
The Doctor Who missing episodes are the portions of the long @-@ running British science @-@ fiction television programme Doctor Who no longer held by the BBC . Between 1967 and 1978 the BBC routinely deleted archive programmes , for various practical reasons ( lack of space , scarcity of materials , a lack of rebroadcast rights ) . As a result of the cull , 97 of 253 episodes from the programme 's first six years are currently missing , primarily from seasons 3 through 5 , leaving 26 serials incomplete . Many more were considered lost until recovered from various sources , mostly overseas broadcasters .
Doctor Who is not unique in its losses , as many broadcasters regularly cleared their archives in this manner . Until the BBC changed its archiving policy in 1978 , thousands of hours of programming , in all genres , were deleted . Other affected BBC series include Dad 's Army , Z @-@ Cars , The Wednesday Play , Steptoe and Son , and Not Only ... But Also . ITV regional franchises also deleted many programmes , including early videotaped episodes of The Avengers .
Doctor Who is unusual , however , in that each of its 97 missing episodes survives in audio form , recorded off @-@ air by fans at home . Most episodes are also represented by stills or short video clips . Furthermore , after careful restoration , all 1970s episodes exist in full colour , which is not always the case for other series .
Efforts to locate missing episodes continue , both by the BBC and by fans of the series . Recovered episodes have been extensively restored for release on VHS and DVD ; surviving soundtracks have been released on cassette and CD . Many missing episodes have had their visuals reconstructed , either through specially commissioned animation or use of surviving footage and photographs .
= = Background = =
Between approximately 1967 and 1978 , large quantities of videotape and film stored in the BBC 's Engineering department and film libraries , respectively , were wiped or destroyed to make way for newer programmes . This happened for several reasons , primarily the belief that there was no practical value to its retention .
The actors ' union Equity had actively fought against the introduction of TV recording since the 1950s , when it first became a practical proposition . Prior to the development of workable television recording , if a broadcaster wished to repeat a programme ( usually a one @-@ off play ) , they had to re @-@ hire the actors to perform it again , live , for additional fees . Equity 's concern was that if broadcasters kept recordings of the original performances , they would be able to re @-@ broadcast them indefinitely , which would reduce the amount of new production and threaten the livelihoods of its members . Although Equity could not prevent recording altogether , it added standard clauses to its members ' contracts that stipulated that recordings could only be repeated a limited number of times within a specific timeframe , and deliberately set the fees for further use so high that broadcasters would consider it unjustifiable to spend so much money repeating an old programme rather than making a new one . Consequently , recordings whose repeat rights had expired were considered to be of no further domestic use to the broadcasters .
Most Doctor Who episodes were made on two @-@ inch videotape for initial broadcast and then telerecorded onto 16 mm film by BBC Enterprises for further commercial exploitation . Enterprises used 16 mm for overseas sales as it was considerably cheaper to buy and easier to transport than videotape . It also circumvented the problem of different countries ' incompatible video standards , as film was a universal medium whereas videotape was not . The BBC had no central archive at the time ; the Film Library kept programmes that had been made on film , while the Engineering Department was responsible for storing videotapes . BBC Enterprises only kept copies of programmes they deemed commercially exploitable . They had little dedicated storage space , and tended to place piles of film canisters wherever they could find space for them at their Villiers House property .
The Engineering Department had no mandate to archive the programme videotapes they held , although typically they would not be wiped or junked until the relevant production department or BBC Enterprises indicated that they had no further use for the tapes . The first Doctor Who master videotapes to be junked were those for the serial The Highlanders , which were erased on 9 March 1967 , a mere two months after Episode 4 's original transmission . Further erasing and junking of Doctor Who master videotapes by the Engineering Department continued into the 1970s . Eventually , every master videotape of the programme 's first 253 episodes ( 1963 – 69 ) was destroyed or wiped . The final 1960s master tapes to be erased were those for the 1968 serial Fury from the Deep , in late 1974 .
Despite the destruction of these masters , BBC Enterprises held a near @-@ complete archive of the series in the form of their 16 mm film telerecording copies until approximately 1972 . From around 1972 to 1978 , BBC Enterprises also disposed of much of their older material , including many episodes of Doctor Who .
= = = The purge of the archives = = =
Enterprises ' episodes were usually junked because their rights agreements with the actors and writers to sell the programmes abroad had expired . With many broadcasters around the world now switching to colour transmission , it was not deemed worthwhile extending agreements to sell the older black @-@ and @-@ white material .
The BBC Film Library , meanwhile , had no responsibility for storing programmes that had not originated on film , and there were conflicting views between the Film Library and BBC Enterprises over which party held the responsibility for archiving programmes . As each body believed it the other 's responsibility to archive the material , each thought nothing of destroying its own copies as necessary . This lack of communication contributed to the erasure of much of the Corporation 's film archive of older black @-@ and @-@ white programming . While thousands of other programmes have been destroyed in this way around the world , the missing Doctor Who episodes are probably the best @-@ known example of how the lack of a consistent programme archiving policy risks permanent loss .
Following the purges and subsequent recoveries , gaps in the Doctor Who archive are spread unevenly through its first eleven seasons . Major losses mostly affect First and Second Doctor serials ; although two stories are missing just one episode each ( The Tenth Planet , Episode 4 and The Web of Fear Episode 3 ) , other stories are lost altogether . Patrick Troughton 's era as the Second Doctor is particularly affected ; of the fourteen stories comprising his first two seasons , only The Tomb of the Cybermen and The Enemy of the World are complete , and these only exist due to telerecordings later returned from Hong Kong and Nigeria , respectively .
All stories starring Jon Pertwee as the Third Doctor are complete , though many episodes no longer survive on their original videotapes and have needed to be restored to colour using other methods . In order of original transmissions , the very last Doctor Who master videotapes to be wiped were the first episodes of the 1974 serials Invasion of the Dinosaurs and Death to the Daleks . The latter was recovered from overseas , initially from a tape in the NTSC format , and later in the original PAL format on a tape returned from Dubai .
For four years , Episode 1 of Invasion of the Dinosaurs was the only Pertwee episode to be entirely missing from the archives , until a black @-@ and @-@ white 16 mm copy was returned to the Corporation in June 1983 . The story was released on DVD with a partially recolourised version of Episode 1 , alongside a higher @-@ quality monochrome transfer of the episode , in The UNIT Files box set . With one exception , archival holdings from Death to the Daleks Episode 2 onwards are complete on the original broadcast videotapes .
Unrelated to the regular archive purges , the final shot of The Deadly Assassin Episode 3 ( 1976 ) has been excised from the master copy . The shot was removed after its initial UK transmission , following complaints from Mary Whitehouse of the National Viewers ' and Listeners ' Association . Subsequent repeats and commercial releases have restored the shot from off @-@ air video copies .
= = = The end of the junkings = = =
Internally , the wiping policy officially came to an end in 1978 , when the means to further exploit programmes by taking advantage of the new market for home videocassette recordings started to become apparent . The prevailing view had also begun to shift toward the attitude that archive programmes should , in any case , be preserved for posterity and historical and cultural reasons .
The BBC Film Library was turned into a combined Film & Videotape Library for the preservation of both media . The Film Library at the time held only 47 episodes of 1960s Doctor Who ; they had once held 53 , but six episodes had either been junked or gone missing . Junkings at BBC Enterprises , however , continued until the intervention of Ian Levine , a record producer and fan of the programme . Following the transfer of episodes still held by Enterprises , there were 152 episodes of Doctor Who no longer held by the BBC , although subsequent efforts have reduced that number to 97 .
Arguably the most sought @-@ after lost episode is Episode 4 of the final William Hartnell serial , The Tenth Planet , which ends with the First Doctor 's regeneration into the Second . The only portion of the episode still in existence , bar a few poor @-@ quality silent 8mm clips , is the final 27 seconds , comprising the regeneration itself and a few seconds leading up to it . The sequence had been shown in a 1973 episode of Blue Peter , and was retained in that show 's archive .
Even after the end of the purge , other archive issues persist . Serials from Seasons 22 – 26 were shown in Germany , with soundtracks dubbed into German language ; some of these episodes no longer exist in German television archives .
= = = Continuing search = = =
On 20 April 2006 it was announced on Blue Peter that a life @-@ sized Dalek would be given to anyone who found and returned one of the missing episodes .
In January 2007 ITV began a campaign called " Raiders of the Lost Archive " and although the campaign was run by ITV , they were also looking to find Doctor Who episodes and other BBC shows . One episode of the Raiders of the Lost Archive show aired in January 2007 and a further two episodes in July 2009 .
In December 2012 the Radio Times listings magazine announced it was launching the hunt for more Doctor Who episodes , to tie @-@ in with the show 's 50th anniversary . The Radio Times issued its own list of missing episodes . The magazine has also set up an email address specifically for Doctor Who missing episodes that the public can use to contact it if they have any information .
= = = Compared with other series = = =
Compared with other BBC series broadcast in the 1960s , Doctor Who is well @-@ represented in surviving episodes . Of the 253 episodes broadcast during the 1960s , 156 still exist – mainly due to copies produced for overseas sales . For example , Seasons 1 and 2 , the most widely @-@ sold abroad of the 1960s era , are missing only 9 and 2 episodes , respectively . By contrast , the less well @-@ sold Seasons 4 and 5 respectively have no , and only 2 , complete serials ( The Tomb of the Cybermen and The Enemy of the World ) . Doctor Who 's popularity and high profile have also helped to ensure the return of episodes which , for other less well @-@ remembered programmes , might never have occurred .
Of all ongoing BBC series from the 1960s , only Steptoe and Son has a better survival record , with all episodes existing in some form . Other long @-@ running programmes have few or no surviving episodes ; for example , the soap operas Compact ( 6 out of 43 episodes surviving ) , The Newcomers ( 2 out of 375 ) , and United ! ( 0 out of 147 ) .
Doctor Who is also comparatively rare amongst contemporaries in that all of its 1970s episodes exist as masters or telerecordings , while other series such as Z @-@ Cars and Dixon of Dock Green are missing episodes from as late as 1975 .
= = List of missing episodes = =
As of October 2013 , 97 episodes are unaccounted for . The missing episodes span 26 serials , including 10 full serials . Most of the gaps are from seasons 3 , 4 , and 5 , which currently lack a total of 79 episodes across 21 ( out of 26 ) serials . By contrast , seasons 1 , 2 , and 6 are missing a total of just 18 episodes , across 5 ( out of 25 ) serials . Of the missing stories , all but three – Marco Polo , " Mission to the Unknown " , and The Massacre of St Bartholomew 's Eve – have surviving clips . All episodes also have full surviving audio tracks .
While the Patrick Troughton era is missing more episodes ( 53 as compared to 44 for William Hartnell ) , there are more Hartnell stories completely missing ( 6 as compared to 4 ) . Serials highlighted in red are missing all episodes . Serials highlighted in yellow are missing more than half of their episodes . All others listed are missing at least one , but no more than half , of their episodes .
= = = Orphaned episodes = = =
Serials that are over 50 % complete ( e.g. , The Reign of Terror , The Tenth Planet ) are issued as standalone releases , with the missing episodes bridged using animation , visual reconstructions , or narration to the camera . Surviving episodes which form 50 % or less of a complete story – referred to as " orphaned " episodes – have been released by the BBC in compilations ( e.g. , Lost in Time ) , or as extras on releases of complete serials . A few four @-@ episode serials of which 50 % remain ( e.g. , The Underwater Menace , The Moonbase ) have also been issued as standalone releases .
= = = Unaired missing episodes = = =
In addition to the official list of missing episodes , also missing is the original Episode 1 of The Daleks . At some point after the recording , it was discovered that a technical problem had caused backstage voices to be heard on the resulting videotape ; in early December 1963 , the episode was remounted with a different costume for Susan . The only surviving portion is the reprise at the beginning of Episode 2 .
Planet of Giants is another odd example , having originally been recorded as four episodes , with the first three directed by Mervyn Pinfield , and the last one by Douglas Camfield . To create a faster @-@ paced climax , Episodes 3 & 4 were combined and reduced to form a single episode , which was credited to Camfield only . This decision , made by then @-@ Head of Drama Sydney Newman , resulted in a one @-@ episode gap at the end of the second production block ( leading to the creation of " Mission to the Unknown " ) ; the unused portions of Episodes 3 and 4 are believed to have been destroyed .
The serial 's 2012 DVD release features a reconstruction of the original episodes , directed by Ian Levine . The production rebuilds the deleted scenes using CGI , footage from elsewhere in the serial , and re @-@ recorded dialogue from Carole Ann Ford , William Russell , and actors impersonating the rest of the cast .
= = Recovery = =
When the BBC 's complete holdings ( both the BBC Film & Videotape Library and BBC Enterprises ) were first audited in 1978 , the following 50 episodes were absent from their collective archives , but have subsequently been returned to the Corporation through various methods . The nine stories highlighted have all episodes existing as a result . Except where indicated , all episodes were returned as 16 mm telerecording negatives or prints .
= = = = BBC holdings = = = =
= = = = = Film Library oddities = = = = =
When the BBC audited its Film Library in 1977 , 47 episodes were found to exist . These Film Library copies were a random sampling of viewing prints for various episodes , along with seven of the nine episodes that had originally been telerecorded onto film for editing and / or transmission , rather than recorded to videotape . These film @-@ originated masters were stored in the Film Library , rather than in the Engineering Department with the videotapes . The presence of the viewing prints is less easily explained .
The Film Library 's remit covers material originated on film , not on videotape – yet it lacked two of the film @-@ originated episodes of Doctor Who , while it held such unexplained material as 16 mm copies of The Tenth Planet Episodes 1 – 3 , presumably viewing prints which were mistakenly returned to them at some point instead of BBC Enterprises . Most surprisingly of all , they also retained a 16 mm telerecording copy of the original untransmitted pilot , presumably a viewing print made in 1963 and subsequently lodged at the Library .
The Film Library also held high @-@ quality original film sequences made for insertion into videotaped episodes . Some of these , such as those from Episodes 1 – 2 of The Daleks ' Master Plan , survive to this day . Other junked sequences were mistakenly entered into a film library computer system , leading to an impression that they had existed for years afterward , and inaccurate speculation that the BBC was still destroying clips well into the early 1980s .
= = = = = Engineering Department = = = = =
Following the establishment of the Film and Videotape Library , an audit of the Engineering Department found 60 of the 128 Third Doctor episodes starring Jon Pertwee , which in addition to the Film Library 's copies of the film @-@ originated Spearhead from Space , brought that Doctor 's episode count up to 64 out of 128 .
= = = = = Villiers House = = = = =
In 1978 , Ian Levine located another 65 episodes from the show 's first six seasons ( plus fourteen previously existing episodes ) , at the BBC Enterprises film vault at Villiers House in London . The episodes comprise 17 full serials , mostly from seasons 1 and 2 . According to Levine , many of the prints were flagged to be junked that very day .
Levine alerted the new Film and Videotape Library 's archive selector , Sue Malden , who paid her own visit to Villiers House and found every remaining Jon Pertwee episode ( albeit as a 16 mm black @-@ and @-@ white telerecording ) , except for two from his final season : Death to the Daleks and Invasion of the Dinosaurs , Episodes 1 .
In August 1988 , ten years after Levine 's and Malden 's visits , Episodes 1 and 4 – 6 of the six @-@ part story The Ice Warriors , were discovered in a cupboard at Villiers House when the Corporation was in the process of moving out of the building .
= = = = National Film and Television Archive = = = =
Shortly after the junking process was halted and the BBC established its Film and Videotape Library for the purpose of storage and preservation , archive selector Sue Malden began to audit what material remained in the BBC 's stores . When investigations revealed large gaps in the collection , Malden turned her inquiries to the National Film and Television Archive – which promptly returned three full Second Doctor serials – The Dominators , The Krotons , and The War Games , adding seven more episodes and completing two of those serials . These all were standard 16 mm film telerecordings with the exception of The Dominators Episode 3 , which was a 35 mm print .
Episodes 4 and 5 of The Dominators originated from a foreign broadcaster , and had been slightly edited ; the missing footage was restored later , through a mix of censor clips and more complete prints held by private collectors .
= = = = Overseas broadcasters that purchased missing episodes = = = =
An appeal to broadcasters in other countries who had shown the programme ( notably Australia and African nations such as Nigeria ) produced " lost " episodes from the archives of their television companies . The Tomb of the Cybermen , for example , was recovered in this manner from Rediffusion Television in Hong Kong in 1992 . Of the 50 episodes recovered since the original BBC audit of its holdings , 25 have been returned from overseas broadcasters :
Note that on occasion some broadcasters purchased Doctor Who telerecordings ( usually 16 mm ) but subsequently cancelled the order .
Nigerian television has been a particularly fruitful source for episode recovery ; a total of 15 out of the 50 episodes recovered since 1978 have been reclaimed from Nigeria , leading to the completion of three full serials ( The Time Meddler , The War Machines , and The Enemy of the World ) .
= = = = Private collectors = = = =
Several episodes have been returned by private film collectors , who at some point acquired 16 mm film prints intended for sale to foreign broadcasters .
= = = = = The Abominable Snowmen and Invasion of the Dinosaurs = = = = =
Roger Stevens was working for the BBC as a film editor in the 1980s , and one morning , as he was travelling to work by train , he bumped into a BBC co @-@ worker and they began to talk about Doctor Who episodes . The BBC projectionist mentioned that he had nine episodes of Doctor Who that Stevens could buy for £ 25 . In the summer of 1981 , Stevens bought The Space Museum episode one , The Abominable Snowmen episode two , The Moonbase episode four , Invasion of the Dinosaurs episode one , and three episodes of Carnival of Monsters . Stevens then contacted Ian Levine to find out what was missing from the BBC archive ; Levine confirmed that The Abominable Snowmen episode two and Invasion of the Dinosaurs episode one were currently missing .
Stevens gave these prints to Levine , who returned The Abominable Snowmen to the BBC in February 1982 , although he held back Invasion of the Dinosaurs from the BBC for a while . This was later returned to the BBC by Levine in June 1983 , who then made a copy and returned the original to Levine .
= = = = = The Reign of Terror = = = = =
The Reign of Terror was recovered by Bruce Campbell when he attended a film fair in the 1980s and began chatting to a stall holder who informed him that one of his regular customers had in their possession The Reign of Terror episode six . Campbell got in contact with the customer , bought the missing episode for £ 50 , and then , in May 1982 , donated it to the BBC through Ian Levine .
= = = = = The Wheel in Space = = = = =
The Doctor Who Magazine ( April 1984 , issue 87 ) ran a story about a rumour of a missing Doctor Who episode that was in Portsmouth ; this led to The Wheel in Space episode three being returned to the BBC in April 1984 by David Stead to allow for a copy to be made . The original was returned to Stead and released on VHS in 1992 with poor results . Later the print was borrowed again and a new copy made using D3 videotape . Stead recollects that he purchased the episode for £ 15 .
= = = = = The Faceless Ones and The Evil of the Daleks = = = = =
In 1982 , novice film collector Gordon Hendry purchased 16 mm copies of The Faceless Ones , episode 3 , and The Evil of the Daleks , episode 2 , from a film fair in Buckingham . At that time Hendry was unaware of the episodes ' value ( only one episode of The Faceless Ones and none of The Evil of the Daleks were known to exist ) .
In 1985 , a cinema owner in Brighton persuaded Hendry to lend him the films , so as to screen the episodes for profit during Panopticon VI . Saied Marham , an associate of Hendry 's , visited Panopticon to generate interest in the showing , only to be dismissed as a hoaxster .
After the event , Paul Vanezis spent 15 months attempting to retrieve the episodes from Marham . Eventually in 1987 , a charity fundraising convention called Tellycon aired The Faceless Ones , episode 3 , in tribute to the recently deceased Patrick Troughton .
In the following weeks , Vanezis and Ian Levine negotiated the return of both episodes to the BBC archive .
= = = = = The Crusade = = = = =
Although the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation received copies of The Crusade , it never broadcast the story due to a prohibitive rating from the censor board . After rejecting the serial , NZBC never returned its film prints to the BBC or actively destroyed them .
In 1998 collector Bruce Grenville purchased a 16 mm copy of The Crusade episode 1 from a stall at a New Zealand film fair , containing various material previously rescued from a rubbish tip . Through a series of chance meetings , the episode eventually was returned to the BBC in January 1999 .
= = = = = Galaxy 4 and The Underwater Menace = = = = =
In 1975 , the Australian Broadcasting Corporation returned all eight broadcast prints of Galaxy 4 and The Underwater Menace to the BBC to be disposed of . In the mid @-@ 1980s , former ITV engineer Terry Burnett purchased episode 3 of Galaxy 4 and episode 2 of The Underwater Menace from another collector , unaware of their value ( the only extant episode of the former serial , and one of just two from the latter ) . In December 2011 , after a chance encounter with Doctor Who Restoration Team member Ralph Montagu , Burnett returned the episodes to the BBC .
= = = = Other sources = = = =
= = = = = The Daleks ' Master Plan = = = = =
The Daleks ' Master Plan never was sold abroad ; only Australia requested viewing copies ( excepting Episode 7 , " The Feast of Steven " ) , and eventually declined to purchase the serial . The fate of these viewing prints is currently unknown .
Nevertheless , three out of the serial 's twelve episodes have been recovered . 16 mm copies of episodes 5 and 10 were returned in the early 1980s , under unclear circumstances ( with rumour claiming they were found in the basement of a Mormon church ) . Episode 2 was returned in 2004 by former BBC engineer Francis Watson . He had come across the film in the 1970s , while clearing a projector testing room at the BBC 's Ealing Studios . Instead of disposing of the film as instructed , he brought it home – eventually to return it to the Corporation when he realised the value of the material .
= = = = = The Enemy of the World and The Web of Fear = = = = =
Following months of rumours , in October 2013 a BBC press conference announced the return of a total of 11 episodes ( two previously existing ) from a television relay station in the city of Jos , Nigeria . In the course of his work abroad , Philip Morris of Television International Enterprises Archives had discovered episodes 1 @-@ 6 of The Enemy of the World and episodes 1 @,@ 2 @,@ 4 @,@ 5 @,@ 6 of The Web of Fear . The return of the nine missing episodes was the single largest recovery of Doctor Who episodes in 25 years , resulting in only the second full serial from Troughton 's first two seasons to be restored to the BBC .
Both serials were promptly released on iTunes , with DVD releases following over the next few months . Both on the iTunes and the DVD release , episode 3 of The Web of Fear was represented by a tele @-@ snap reconstruction , edited by John Kelly . Later , in September 2015 , Morris revealed that episode 3 had been part of the same find , but that by the end of protracted negotiations for the return of the film cans , the episode had disappeared from the cache ; he presumes it was sold to a private collector .
= = = Incomplete recovered episodes = = =
Of the 50 recovered episodes , several are missing short segments – due either to overseas censorship or to damage to the surviving film print . The following table shows all affected episodes , and the total duration of missing material .
= = = Clips = = =
Of the 97 missing episodes , 36 are represented by short " orphan " clips , recovered from various sources . These clips span 17 of the 26 serials affected by missing episodes , 7 of which are otherwise completely missing . The only serials lacking any footage whatsoever are Marco Polo , " Mission to the Unknown " , and The Massacre of St Bartholomew 's Eve . The following table shows all recovered excerpts , together with which pertinent episodes , format of the clips , and the source of recovery . Otherwise missing serials are highlighted in red .
= = = = = Excised clips = = = = =
Some overseas viewing prints were physically edited for content by local censor boards , prior to transmission . Hence , episodes recovered from these sources ( Australia , New Zealand ) are missing these segments .
Later discoveries turned up a large number of excised clips , held by interested parties as proof of the edits . In October 1996 , Australian Doctor Who fans Damian Shanahan and Ellen Parry discovered a collection in the records of the National Archives of Australia , provided as evidence by the Commonwealth Film Censorship Board ( now the Classification Board ) . These clips include The Smugglers , episodes 1 , 3 @-@ 4 ; The Highlanders , episode 1 ; The Underwater Menace , episodes 2 , 4 ; The Macra Terror , episode 3 ; Fury From The Deep , episodes 2 , 4 @-@ 5 ; and The Wheel In Space , episode 4 .
The clips from The Underwater Menace , episode 2 were later found to precisely match the edits to the print discovered in late 2011 , suggesting that the recovered episode was exactly the same print that had been censored decades before .
In an interview for the fanzine The Disused Yeti , Shanahan stated that although he and Parry had found paper records relating to the censoring of early to mid William Hartnell stories , the excised portions for all stories from An Unearthly Child to The Gunfighters had been destroyed some time prior to Shanahan and Parry 's investigation .
In 2002 , New Zealand fan Graham Howard uncovered excised clips from The Web of Fear and The Wheel in Space , episode 5 .
= = = = = 8mm clips = = = = =
A fan in Australia has returned small excerpts of off @-@ screen footage , recorded from repeat showings using an 8mm cine film camera . The missing episodes covered include The Reign of Terror , episode 4 ; Galaxy 4 , episode 1 ; The Myth Makers , episodes 1 @-@ 2 , 4 ; The Savages , episodes 3 @-@ 4 ; The Tenth Planet , episode 4 ; The Power Of The Daleks , episodes 1 @-@ 2 ; The Macra Terror , episode 3 ; and The Faceless Ones , episode 2 .
= = = = = From other Doctor Who episodes = = = = =
Due to the show 's habit of repeating cliffhanger footage , sometimes missing episode material can be found in surviving neighbor episodes . Episode 2 of The Daleks uses a prefilmed reprise from the original recording of Episode 1 , which later had to be remounted ; the original version of Episode 1 is presumed to have been destroyed .
A brief clip from Episode 4 of The Crusade exists at the very start of The Space Museum . Episode 1 of the latter serial begins with the characters in period costume , briefly frozen in place . An off @-@ camera cough heard on both soundtracks shows that the clip was a filmed insert from the previous ( and currently missing ) episode .
In its lead @-@ in to an upcoming repeat , The Wheel in Space episode 6 contains a short three @-@ frame clip from The Evil of the Daleks episode 1 , alongside a reprise from the existing episode 2 of that serial .
Other episodes contain straight excerpts from earlier serials , such as episode 10 of The War Games , which employs model shots from the first episodes of Fury from the Deep and The Wheel in Space .
= = = = = From other television programmes = = = = =
Clips from some missing episodes also survive due to their use in other surviving programmes . For example , excerpts from Episode 4 of The Daleks ' Master Plan were used in a 1973 edition of Blue Peter , and scenes from The Power of the Daleks in an Australian programme called Perspective : C for Computer .
In 2005 , two further short clips from The Power of the Daleks – along with a higher @-@ quality version of one of the extant scenes – were discovered in a 1966 episode of the BBC science series Tomorrow 's World . The clips , lasting less than 10 seconds each and on film ( as opposed to film recordings ) , came to light when the Tomorrow 's World segment was broadcast as part of the 11 September 2005 edition of the clip @-@ based nostalgia show Sunday Past Times on BBC Two . After being alerted to the footage , Paul Vanezis of the Doctor Who Restoration Team tracked down the uncut version of the clip .
The 1977 documentary Whose Doctor Who indirectly led to a lengthy excerpt from " Four Hundred Dawns , " episode 1 of the 1965 serial Galaxy 4 . The film 's producers used an excerpt from a viewing print of the episode , which they further cut down in the editing . Rather than discard the unused portion , the film 's advisor Jan Vincent @-@ Rudzki asked to keep the film trims . Later in the 1990s , Vincent @-@ Rudzki returned the clip to the archives . At a total of 5m 53s , this clip is the longest piece of surviving footage from an otherwise missing episode , accounting for a quarter of the total running time .
Apart from actual episode footage , rare behind @-@ the @-@ scenes material also was discovered for The Smugglers , The Evil of the Daleks , The Abominable Snowmen , and Fury from the Deep . Also from the latter serial exists some raw footage from the filming of Episode 6 , featuring some alternate camera angles from what was eventually broadcast .
= = = Audio soundtracks = = =
Though numerous episodes are still missing , full @-@ length audio soundtracks for all missing episodes are held by the BBC . These come from off @-@ air recordings made by fans , often made by use of a microphone attached to a tape recorder placed close to the television set . While the quality of these off @-@ air recordings varies greatly , multiple fan recordings exist for every episode .
Starting in the early 1990s , the BBC began to release existing audio of serials with missing episodes , with linking narration provided by former series actors such as Jon Pertwee , Tom Baker , Colin Baker , Peter Purves , and Frazer Hines . By December 2005 , the soundtracks for all of the missing episodes had been released , albeit with copyright @-@ uncleared music replacements where necessary ( e.g. , a Beatles song in Evil of the Daleks ) , slightly rejigged sequences for reasons of clarity , and with overdubbed narration .
Between 2010 – 12 BBC Audiobooks collected the individual narrated soundtracks in a series of five CD box sets , entitled " Doctor Who : The Lost TV Episodes . " For the sets , some serials ( such as The Evil of the Daleks ) were re @-@ released with improved audio restoration , changed linking narration , and in some instances with scenes unavailable in the first release . In addition to the soundtracks , the sets include special features such as the Archive on 4 documentary , " Doctor Who - The Lost Episodes " and high @-@ quality scans of the original camera scripts in PDF format .
For more information , see List of Doctor Who audio releases .
= = Restoration = =
For the first eleven seasons of Doctor Who , often the surviving materials are in a very different format or condition from their original broadcast masters . Surviving 1960s material is recorded on film stock of varying quality , while early 1970s material is available in a patchwork of professional and consumer formats . To present the material in a form approximating its original broadcast masters requires extensive technical work , and a certain amount of invention .
= = = Motion restoration = = =
In its original form , the videotape used to record Doctor Who captures images at 50 interlaced fields per second , resulting in a smooth , " live " feel to motion . To transfer the episodes to film , the film camera is timed to combine two video fields in each frame , converting 50 fields to 25 frames per second ; on playback , the omission of in @-@ between images results in a choppier " film " style motion . To recreate the original " live " video feel , early telerecorded episodes are processed through a digital tool known as VidFIRE , which approximates the missing motion between film frames .
In addition to the telerecorded material , some early 1970s material survives only , or in color only , on NTSC videotapes produced for North American transmission ( e.g. , TV Ontario and CKVU in Vancouver ) . NTSC runs at a different framerate than PAL video , and has a different number of scanlines . The conversion process used in the 1970s was primitive by modern standards , resulting in a noticeable amount of picture and motion loss . Converting the NTSC tapes back to PAL introduces more artifacts , creating a blurry picture and juddering motion . To rectify the problem , in 2005 a new Reverse Standards Conversion process , which attempts to unpick the original video conversion , was introduced for the DVD release of The Claws of Axos .
= = = Colour restoration = = =
Several early 1970s colour serials , starring Jon Pertwee , were retained only as black @-@ and @-@ white film prints . In addition to the motion issue shared by all telerecorded episodes , for years the loss of colour presented a major challenge for restoration .
Some of the telerecorded Pertwee episodes also survive on NTSC colour videotapes , recorded over @-@ air on consumer hardware . In the early 1990s , an early form of the Doctor Who Restoration Team attempted to pair the low @-@ resolution colour signal from these sources with the high @-@ resolution black @-@ and @-@ white signal from the black @-@ and @-@ white film recordings . In this way , several Jon Pertwee stories were returned to a rough form of colour : Doctor Who and the Silurians , Terror of the Autons , and The Dæmons . Off @-@ air NTSC colour tapes were also recovered for all of The Ambassadors of Death , but were considered of too poor a quality to permit more than a partial restoration .
= = = = Colour recovery = = = =
In 2007 , BBC archive specialist James Insell established the Colour Recovery Working Group , an online project to find new ways of restoring black @-@ and @-@ white telerecordings to colour . In 2008 , Reverse Standards Conversion inventor Richard Russell , developed a technique involving the use of chroma dots embedded in the black @-@ and @-@ white signal to recreate the missing color . The technique was pioneered , enhanced by traditional computer colourisation , on episode 3 of Planet of the Daleks .
Subsequently , chroma dots were used to restore the colour to Episodes 2 – 4 , 6 , and 7 of The Ambassadors of Death and episodes 2 – 5 of The Mind of Evil . Episode 1 of Invasion of the Dinosaurs presented a unique challenge , in that the chroma dots only contained red and green colour information , requiring that blue be added manually . Given the rough result , the DVD includes both the reconstructed colour and the black @-@ and @-@ white version .
Unfortunately , episode 1 of The Mind of Evil contains no colour information . In principle , BBC engineers were supposed to filter out the chroma dots upon telerecording , to create a cleaner picture . In most cases they failed to do so , allowing the colour recovery process to work . For this one episode , the filter had been correctly applied – so there was no colour to recover . To complete the serial for DVD , the episode was manually colourised by Stuart Humphryes and Peter Crocker – thereby returning the final Pertwee episode to its original colour presentation .
= = = Reconstruction = = =
In addition to short video clips and audio soundtracks , for many episodes off @-@ screen photographs − known as " tele @-@ snaps " − exist , taken by photographer John Cura . From the 1940s to the 1960s , Cura was hired by various interested parties to document the transmission of many popular TV programmes , including Doctor Who . Typically the photographs were used for promotion , or as keepsakes for cast and crew in the days before home video recorders . In many cases , they form the only remaining visual record of missing television programmes .
Since the late 1990s , fan groups such as Loose Cannon Productions have reconstructed the missing episodes , using original camera scripts to match Cura 's tele @-@ snaps and other visual material to the surviving audio tracks . Although technically infringing copyright , these " recons " generally have been tolerated by the BBC , provided they are not sold for profit .
" Official " high @-@ quality recons have also been used on commercial releases , including cut @-@ down reconstructions – The Ice Warriors VHS ( a 12 @-@ minute " highlights " reconstruction bridging the missing Episodes 2 and 3 ) ; and Marco Polo ( a 30 @-@ minute reconstruction on The Beginning DVD box set ) – and full @-@ length presentations , including The Tenth Planet VHS ( containing a full reconstruction of the missing Episode 4 ) ; Galaxy 4 ( a reconstruction of the three missing episodes to accompany the recently recovered episode 3 , " Air Lock , " presented on The Aztecs Special Edition DVD ) ; The Web of Fear digital and DVD releases ( containing a reconstruction of Episode 3 , alongside the rest of the newly rediscovered serial ) .
In June 2005 , BBC Audio released a reconstruction of The Power of the Daleks as part of their " MP3 CD " line . When played on a home PC , the disc contained the same audio content as the previous audio CD release , synchronized with a Macromedia Flash slideshow of tele @-@ snaps and publicity photographs . For technical reasons , the surviving clips could not be included . Due to poor sales , future planned releases in this format were abandoned .
= = = = Animated episodes = = = =
In several cases , to " complete " serials with only one or two missing episodes , producers of the Doctor Who DVD range have commissioned original black @-@ and @-@ white animation , synced to the programme 's original audio tracks .
The first such effort , Cosgrove Hall 's animation of The Invasion episodes 1 and 4 , was released to DVD alongside the surviving episodes in November 2006 . The animation had been paid for by an earlier surplus in the Doctor Who website budget , allowing it to be used in the DVD release as a test for the concept , at no extra cost . Despite the DVD 's success , the sales were not high enough to offset the animation cost for any future collaboration . Eventually other animation studios were commissioned to continue the reconstruction . In June 2011 , 2 Entertain announced that the missing episodes 4 and 5 of The Reign of Terror would be animated by Planet 55 Studios , using the " Thetamation " process . The serial was released on DVD in January 2013 . Planet 55 would later go on to animate Episode 4 of The Tenth Planet ( November 2013 ) , and episodes 1 and 3 of The Moonbase ( January 2014 ) .
In August 2013 , BBC Worldwide announced that episodes 2 and 3 of The Ice Warriors would be animated by Qurios Entertainment for a DVD release later that month .
In December 2013 , 2 Entertain commissioning editor Dan Hall mentioned that Planet 55 had again been commissioned to complete The Underwater Menace , for what he hoped would be an early 2014 release . However , in September 2015 Doctor Who Magazine confirmed that the much @-@ delayed DVD , now scheduled for October 26 , was instead to contain tele @-@ snap reconstructions of the missing episodes 1 and 4 .
= = = = = Unreleased and unofficial animations = = = = =
In 2008 , after future collaboration with Cosgrove Hall had been rejected due to expense , 2 Entertain was approached by David Busch of US animation studio Titmouse , Inc . , who offered to do the work more cheaply as a result of the favourable exchange rate between the UK and the US , and put together a test trailer of scenes animated from various missing serials , including The Power of the Daleks , The Moonbase , The Macra Terror , The Web of Fear , and Fury from the Deep . While 2 Entertain decided not to commission anything from Titmouse , the trailer was eventually seen by Ian Levine , who offered to try and raise the money for a full episode reconstruction to serve as a prototype . The episode chosen was " Mission to the Unknown " , as it was a self @-@ contained episode featuring the Daleks with a limited number of characters and sets , thus keeping the budget down . Although completed , the animated version of " Mission to the Unknown " has never been officially released , although it has been posted on various video streaming sites .
With the advent of ever @-@ more @-@ powerful home computers and more specialist programs for them , many fans are also working on unofficial animations of the missing episodes , and this is widespread with many clips being shown on @-@ line .
= = = = Narrated links = = = =
In some cases missing episodes are bridged by narration to the camera – often by a surviving actor from the serial , occasionally in @-@ character . For their VHS releases , The Reign of Terror and The Crusade were presented by actors Carole Ann Ford and William Russell – while Episodes 1 and 4 of The Invasion were bridged by Nicholas Courtney .
Although not strictly a missing serial , production of the 1979 Tom Baker story Shada was curtailed by a technician 's strike partway through recording . To prevent the half @-@ finished material from being junked , incoming Doctor Who producer John Nathan @-@ Turner placed a preservation order on it with an intention to later finish the production . Although repeated attempts to remount the serial failed , a clip from Episode 1 was later used in the 1983 story The Five Doctors after Tom Baker declined to reprise his role .
Eventually in 1992 , the surviving material was released on home video , accompanied by in @-@ camera narration by Tom Baker to bridge the unrecorded content . In later years , Shada was reinterpreted in several forms including an audio play featuring Eighth Doctor Paul McGann ( also presented on the Web , accompanied by basic Flash animation ) and a novelization by Gareth Roberts .
= = = = Recreations = = = =
Although the BBC has invested in the reconstruction of episodes using animation , it has never attempted to do anything in the way of complete re @-@ staging of missing episodes ; the closest that it has come to this was the recreation of parts of various serials , including the completely missing Marco Polo , in the docudrama An Adventure in Space and Time produced for the 50th anniversary in 2013 . However , in 2012 a reimagined version of The Power of the Daleks , written by , directed by , and starring Nick Scovell , was released on YouTube in three parts prior to being shown in its entirety at the Power : Reimagined convention in September 2012 .
= = Further research = =
= = = Books and periodicals = = =
Between 1973 and 1994 , each missing Doctor Who serial was novelized and published by Target Books .
Richard Molesworth 's Wiped ! Doctor Who 's Missing Episodes ( Telos Publishing , 2010 ) explores in detail the paper trail and recovery efforts surrounding the hunt for missing episodes . A revised edition was published in March 2013 .
= = = = Nothing at the End of the Lane = = = =
Issue # 1 of " Nothing at the End of the Lane " ( July 1999 ) includes articles about fan @-@ made reconstructions of the missing episodes , audio of missing episodes , and the archive status of footage from Seasons 1 @-@ 3 .
Issue # 2 ( June 2005 ) includes articles about John Cura ( the photographer behind Doctor Who 's Tele @-@ snaps ) , recent discoveries of missing episodes , Junking of videotapes in the 1960s and ' 70s , a look at telerecordings , and the archive status of footage from Seasons 4 @-@ 6 .
Issue # 3 ( January 2012 ) includes articles about the 26 off @-@ screen photographs taken by Chris Thompson ( Production Designer ) from The Evil of the Daleks episode one , and new location photographs .
= = = = Doctor Who Magazine = = = =
Issue # 444 of Doctor Who Magazine ( February 2012 ) , titled " How the Daleks Exterminated Doctor Who 's History " , examines the overseas sales of the missing episodes and the chances of their survival .
Issue # 466 ( October 2013 ) focuses on the rediscovery of " The Enemy of the World " and " The Web of Fear " by Philip Morris .
Three special editions of Doctor Who Magazine ( # 34 @-@ 36 ) , titled " The Missing Episodes – The First Doctor " , " The Missing Episodes – The Second Doctor Volume 1 " , and " The Missing Episodes – The Second Doctor Volume 2 " , were released between March – December 2013 ; each issue features a 100 + page guide to the missing episodes which exist in tele @-@ snap form , with details how they came to be wiped .
= = = Documentaries = = =
Doctor Who – Missing in Action ( 1993 ) – a documentary about the missing episodes , featuring Ian Levine .
The Missing Years ( 1998 ) – a documentary about the lost Doctor Who episodes and recovery attempts , available on Doctor Who : The Missing Years VHS and ( in an updated form ) on the Lost In Time DVD box set .
The National Lottery : Amazing Luck Stories ( 1999 ) – a short segment about the recovery of the Doctor Who episode from New Zealand .
Time Shift – Missing Believed Wiped ( 2003 ) – a general documentary about archive television , featuring some clips and discussions about Doctor Who .
WOTAN Assembly ( 2008 ) – a short DVD featurette about restoring The War Machines , which shows how the Doctor Who Restoration Team manages to create a near @-@ complete version this serial using clips from various sources around the world . Narrated by Anneke Wills .
Colour Silurian Overlay ( 2008 ) – a DVD featurette about restoring Doctor Who and the Silurians , using the surviving 16 mm telerecordings and an off air NTSC Betamax recording as a colour source .
Multi @-@ Colourisation ( 2009 ) – a DVD featurette about how chroma dots were used to restore Planet of the Daleks episode three back to full colour .
The One Show ( 2013 ) – the 11 October edition of the show featured a short documentary about how Doctor Who episodes became lost , the recovery of audio from episodes , and the finding of episodes from The Enemy of the World and The Web of Fear .
" Restoring Doctor Who " ( 2014 ) – a 4 @-@ minute documentary by " Paul Vanezis " of the Doctor Who Restoration Team , which shows the process of cleaning and restoring the nine episodes recovered in 2013 .
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= Battle of Tabu @-@ dong =
The Battle of Tabu @-@ dong was an engagement between United Nations ( UN ) and North Korean ( NK ) forces early in the Korean War from September 1 to September 18 , 1950 , in the vicinity of Tabu @-@ dong , north of Taegu in South Korea . It was a part of the Battle of Pusan Perimeter , and was one of several large engagements fought simultaneously . The battle ended in a victory for the United Nations after large numbers of United States ( US ) and Republic of Korea ( ROK ) troops repelled a strong North Korean attack .
Holding positions north of the crucial city of Taegu , the US Army 's 1st Cavalry Division stood at the center of the Pusan Perimeter defensive line , tasked with keeping the United Nations Command headquarters secured from attacks from the North Korean People 's Army . On September 1 , the NK 3rd Division attacked as part of the Great Naktong Offensive .
What followed was a two @-@ week battle around Tabu @-@ dong and Waegwan in which the North Koreans were able to gradually push the 1st Cavalry Division back from its lines . However , the North Koreans were not able to force the US troops to withdraw completely or push the UN out of Taegu . When the UN counterattacked at Inchon , the North Koreans were forced to abandon their attack on Tabu @-@ dong .
= = Background = =
= = = Pusan Perimeter = = =
From the outbreak of the Korean War and the invasion of South Korea by the North , the North Korean People 's Army had enjoyed superiority in both manpower and equipment over both the Republic of Korea Army and the United Nations forces dispatched to South Korea to prevent it from collapsing . The North Korean strategy was to aggressively pursue UN and ROK forces on all avenues of approach south and to engage them aggressively , attacking from the front and initiating a double envelopment of both flanks of the unit , which allowed the North Koreans to surround and cut off the opposing force , which would then be forced to retreat in disarray , often leaving behind much of its equipment . From their initial June 25 offensive to fights in July and early August , the North Koreans used this strategy to effectively defeat any UN force and push it south . However , when the UN forces , under the Eighth United States Army , established the Pusan Perimeter in August , the UN troops held a continuous line along the peninsula which North Korean troops could not flank , and their advantages in numbers decreased daily as the superior UN logistical system brought in more troops and supplies to the UN army .
When the North Koreans approached the Pusan Perimeter on August 5 , they attempted the same frontal assault technique on the four main avenues of approach into the perimeter . Throughout August , the NK 6th Division , and later the NK 7th Division engaged the US 25th Infantry Division at the Battle of Masan , initially repelling a UN counteroffensive before countering with battles at Komam @-@ ni and Battle Mountain . These attacks stalled as UN forces , well equipped and with plenty of reserves , repeatedly repelled North Korean attacks . North of Masan , the NK 4th Division and the US 24th Infantry Division sparred in the Naktong Bulge area . In the First Battle of Naktong Bulge , the North Korean division was unable to hold its bridgehead across the river as large numbers of US reserve forces were brought in to repel it , and on August 19 , the NK 4th Division was forced back across the river with 50 percent casualties . In the Taegu region , five North Korean divisions were repulsed by three UN divisions in several attempts to attack the city during the Battle of Taegu . Particularly heavy fighting took place at the Battle of the Bowling Alley where the NK 13th Division was almost completely destroyed in the attack . On the east coast , three more North Korean divisions were repulsed by the South Koreans at P 'ohang @-@ dong during the Battle of P 'ohang @-@ dong . All along the front , the North Korean troops were reeling from these defeats , the first time in the war their strategies were not working .
= = = September push = = =
In planning its new offensive , the North Korean command decided any attempt to flank the UN force was impossible due to the support of the UN navy . Instead , they opted to use frontal attack to breach the perimeter and collapse it as the only hope of achieving success in the battle . Fed by intelligence from the Soviet Union the North Koreans were aware the UN forces were building up along the Pusan Perimeter and that it must conduct an offensive soon or it could not win the battle . A secondary objective was to surround Taegu and destroy the UN and ROK units in that city . As part of this mission , the North Korean units would first cut the supply lines to Taegu .
On August 20 , the North Korean commands distributed operations orders to their subordinate units . The North Koreans called for a simultaneous five @-@ prong attack against the UN lines . These attacks would overwhelm the UN defenders and allow the North Koreans to break through the lines in at least one place to force the UN forces back . Five battle groupings were ordered . The center attack called for the NK 3rd Division , NK 13th Division , and NK 1st Division break through the US 1st Cavalry Division and ROK 1st Division to Taegu .
= = Battle = =
While four divisions of the NK II Corps attacked south in the P 'ohang @-@ dong , Kyongju , and Yongch 'on area , the remaining three divisions of the corps @-@ the 3rd , 13th , and 1st conducted their converging attack on Taegu from the north and northwest . The NK 3rd Division was to attack in the Waegwan area northwest of Taegu , the NK 13th Division down the mountain ridges north of Taegu along and west of the Sangju @-@ Taegu road , and the NK 1st Division along the high mountain ridges just east of the road .
Defending Taegu , the US 1st Cavalry Division had a front of about 35 miles ( 56 km ) . Division Commander Major General Hobart R. Gay outposted the main avenues of entry into his zone and kept his three regiments concentrated behind the outposts . At the southwestern end of his line Gay initially controlled the US 3rd Battalion , 23rd Infantry Regiment , 2nd Infantry Division , which had been attached to the 1st Cavalry Division . On September 5 the British 27th Commonwealth Brigade , in its first commitment in the Korean War , replaced that battalion . Next in line northward , the US 5th Cavalry Regiment defended the sector along the Naktong around Waegwan and the main Seoul highway southeast from there to Taegu . Eastward , the US 7th Cavalry Regiment was responsible for the mountainous area between that highway and the hills bordering the Sangju road . The US 8th Cavalry Regiment , responsible for the latter road , was astride it and on the bordering hills .
= = = Hill 518 = = =
Eighth United States Army commander Lieutenant General Walton Walker ordered the 1st Cavalry Division to attack north on September 1 in an effort to divert some of the North Korean strength from the US 2nd and 25th Infantry Divisions in the south . Gay 's initial decision upon receipt of this order was to attack north up the Sangju road , but his staff and regimental commanders all joined in urging that the attack instead be against Hill 518 in the US 7th Cavalry zone . Only two days before , Hill 518 had been in the ROK 1st Division zone and had been considered a North Korean assembly point . The US 1st Cavalry Division , accordingly , prepared for an attack in the 7th Cavalry sector and for diversionary attacks by two companies of the 3rd Battalion , 8th Cavalry , on the 7th Cavalry 's right flank . This left the 8th Cavalry only one infantry company in reserve . The regiment 's 1st Battalion was on the hill mass to the west of the Bowling Alley and north of Tabu @-@ dong ; its 2nd Battalion was astride the road .
This planned attack against Hill 518 coincided with the defection of NK Major Kim Song Jun of the NK 19th Regiment , NK 13th Division . He reported that a full @-@ scale North Korean attack was to begin at dusk that day . The NK 13th Division , he said , had just taken in 4 @,@ 000 replacements , 2 @,@ 000 of them without weapons , and was now back to a strength of approximately 9 @,@ 000 men . Upon receiving this intelligence , Gay alerted all front @-@ line units to be prepared for the attack .
Complying with Eighth Army 's order for a spoiling attack against the North Koreans northwest of Taegu , Gay ordered the 7th Cavalry to attack on September 2 and seize Hill 518 . Hill 518 , also called Suam @-@ san , is a large mountain mass 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) northeast of Waegwan and 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) east of the Naktong River . It curves westward from its peak to its westernmost height , Hill 346 , from which the ground drops abruptly to the Naktong River . Situated north of the lateral Waegwan @-@ Tabu – dong road , and about midway between the two towns , it was a critical terrain feature dominating the road between the two places . After securing Hill 518 , the 7th Cavalry attack was to continue on to Hill 314 . Air strikes and artillery preparations were to precede the infantry attack .
On the morning of September 2 the US Air Force delivered a 37 @-@ minute strike against Hills 518 and 346 . The artillery then laid down its concentrations on the hills , and after that the planes came over again with napalm , leaving the heights on fire . Just after 10 : 00 , and immediately after the final napalm strike , the 1st Battalion , US 7th Cavalry , attacked up Hill 518 . The heavy air strikes and the artillery preparations had failed to dislodge the North Koreans . From their positions they delivered mortar and machine gun fire on the climbing infantry , stopping the weak , advanced US force short of the crest . In the afternoon the US battalion withdrew from Hill 518 and attacked northeast against Hill 490 , from which other North Korean troops had fired in support of the North Koreans on Hill 518 .
The next day at 12 : 00 , the newly arrived 3rd Battalion resumed the attack against Hill 518 from the south , as did the 1st Battalion the day before , in a column of companies that resolved itself in the end into a column of squads . Again the attack failed . Other attacks failed on September 4 . A North Korean forward observer captured on Hill 518 said that 1 @,@ 200 North Koreans were dug in on the hill and that they had large numbers of mortars and ammunition to hold out .
= = = North Korean flanking moves = = =
While these attacks were in progress on its right , the 2nd Battalion , 5th Cavalry Regiment , on September 4 attacked and captured Hill 303 . The next day it had difficulty in holding the hill against counterattacks . By September 4 it had become clear that the NK 3rd Division in front of the 5th and 7th Cavalry Regiments was also attacking , and despite continued air strikes , artillery preparations , and infantry efforts on Hill 518 , it was infiltrating large numbers of its troops to the rear of the attacking United States forces . That night large North Korean forces came through the gap between the 3rd Battalion on the southern slope of Hill 518 and the 2nd Battalion westward . The North Koreans turned west and occupied Hill 464 in force . By September 5 , Hill 464 to the rear of the US 7th Cavalry had more North Koreans on it than Hill 518 to its front . North Koreans cut the Waegwan to Tabu @-@ dong road east of the regiment so that its communications with other US units now were only to the west . During the day the 7th Cavalry made a limited withdrawal on Hill 518 , giving up on capturing the hill .
On the division right , Tabu @-@ dong was in North Korean hands , on the left Waegwan was a no @-@ man 's land , and in the center strong North Korean forces were infiltrating southward from Hill 518 . The 7th Cavalry Regiment in the center could no longer use the Waegwan @-@ Tabu @-@ dong lateral supply road behind it , and was in danger of being surrounded . After discussing a withdrawal plan with Walker , Gay on September 5 issued an order for a general withdrawal of the 1st Cavalry Division during the night to shorten the lines and to occupy a better defensive position . The movement was to progress from right to left beginning with the 8th Cavalry Regiment , then the 7th Cavalry in the Hill 518 area , and finally the 5th Cavalry in the Waegwan area . This withdrawal caused the 3rd Battalion , 8th Cavalry , to give up a hill it had just attacked and captured near the Tabu @-@ dong road on the approaches of the Walled City of Ka @-@ san . In the 7th Cavalry sector the 1st , 3rd , and 2nd Battalions were to withdraw in that order , after the withdrawal of the 1st Battalion , 8th Cavalry , on their right . The 2d Battalion , 5th Cavalry , on Hill 303 north of Waegwan was to cover the withdrawal of the 7th Cavalry and hold open the escape road .
= = = Further US withdrawal = = =
In his withdrawal instructions for the 7th Cavalry , Colonel Cecil Nist , the regimental commander , ordered the 2nd Battalion to disengage from the North Koreans to its front and attack to its rear to gain possession of Hills 464 and 380 on the new main line of resistance to be occupied by the regiment . Efforts to gain possession of Hill 464 by other elements had failed in the past several days .
Heavy rains fell during the night of September 5 @-@ 6 and mud slowed all wheeled and tracked vehicles in the withdrawal . The 1st Battalion completed its withdrawal without opposition . During its night march west , the 3rd Battalion column was joined several times by groups of North Korean soldiers who apparently thought it was one of their own columns moving south . They were made prisoners and taken along in the withdrawal . Nearing Waegwan at dawn , the battalion column was taken under North Korean mortar and T @-@ 34 tank fire after daybreak and sustained 18 casualties .
The 2nd Battalion disengaged from the North Korean and began its withdrawal at 03 : 00 , September 6 . The battalion abandoned two of its own tanks , one because of mechanical failure and the other because it was stuck in the mud . The battalion moved to the rear in two main groups : G Company to attack Hill 464 and the rest of the battalion to seize Hill 380 , farther south . The North Koreans quickly discovered that the 2nd Battalion was withdrawing and attacked it . The battalion commander , Major Omar T. Hitchner , and his operations officer , Captain James T. Milam , were killed . In the vicinity of Hills 464 and 380 the battalion discovered at daybreak that it was virtually surrounded by North Koreans . Nist thought that the entire battalion was lost .
Moving by itself and completely cut off from all other units , G Company , numbering only about 80 men , was hardest hit . At 08 : 00 , nearing the top of Hill 464 , it surprised and killed three North Korean soldiers . Soon after , North Korean automatic weapons and small arms fire struck the company . All day G Company maneuvered around the hill but never gained its crest . At mid @-@ afternoon it received radio orders to withdraw that night . The company left six dead on the hill and , carrying its wounded on improvised litters of ponchos and tree branches , it started down the shale slopes of the mountain in rain and darkness . Halfway down , friendly fire injured Captain Herman L. West , the G Company commander . The company scattered but West reassembled it . Cautioning his men to move quietly and not to fire their weapons , West led his men to the eastern base of Hill 464 where he went into a defensive position for the rest of the night .
= = = South flank = = =
On the division left , meanwhile , the 2nd Battalion , 5th Cavalry , on Hill 303 came under heavy attack and the battalion commander wanted to withdraw . The regimental commander , told him he could not do so until the 7th Cavalry had cleared on its withdrawal road . This battalion suffered heavy casualties before it abandoned Hill 303 on the September 6 to the North Koreans .
While G Company was trying to escape from Hill 464 , the rest of the 2nd Battalion was cut off at the eastern base of Hill 380 , to the south . Nist organized all the South Korean carriers he could find before dark and loaded them with water , food , and ammunition for the 2nd Battalion , but the carrier party was unable to find the battalion . At dawn on September 7 the men in G Company was discovered and attacked by North Korean troops in nearby positions . At this time , West heard what he recognized as fire from American weapons on a knob to his west . There , G Company was reunited with its Weapons Platoon which had become separated from him during the night .
The Weapons Platoon , after becoming separated from the rest of the company , encountered North Koreans on the trail it was following three times in the night , but in each instance neither side fired , each going on its way . At dawn , the platoon ambushed a group of North Koreans , killing 13 and capturing three North Koreans . From the body of a North Korean officer the men took a briefcase containing important documents and maps . These showed that Hill 464 was an assembly point for part of the NK 3rd Division in its advance from Hill 518 toward Taegu .
Later in the day on September 7 , Captain Melbourne C. Chandler , acting commander of the 2nd Battalion , received word of G Company 's location on Hill 464 from an aerial observer and sent a patrol which guided the company safely to the battalion at the eastern base of Hill 380 . The battalion , meanwhile , had received radio orders to withdraw by any route as soon as possible . It moved southwest into the 5th Cavalry sector .
= = = North Korean advance = = =
East of the 2nd Battalion , the North Koreans attacked the 1st Battalion in its new position on September 7 and overran the battalion aid station , killing four and wounding seven men . That night the 1st Battalion on division orders was attached to the 5th Cavalry Regiment . The rest of the 7th Cavalry Regiment moved to a point near Taegu in division reserve . During the night of September 7 @-@ 8 the 5th Cavalry Regiment on division orders withdrew still farther below Waegwan to new defensive positions astride the main Seoul @-@ Taegu highway . The North Korean 3rd Division was still moving reinforcements across the Naktong . Observers sighted barges loaded with troops and artillery pieces crossing the river 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of Waegwan on the evening of the 7th . On the 8th the North Korean communiqué claimed the capture of Waegwan .
The next day the situation grew worse for the 1st Cavalry Division . On its left flank , the NK 3rd Division forced the 1st Battalion , 5th Cavalry , to withdraw from Hill 345 , 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) east of Waegwan . The North Korean pressed forward and the 5th Cavalry was immediately locked in hard , seesaw fighting on Hills 203 and 174 . The 1st Battalion , 7th Cavalry , before it left that sector to rejoin its regiment , finally captured the latter hill after four attacks .
Only with difficulty did the 5th Cavalry Regiment hold Hill 203 on September 12 . Between midnight and 04 : 00 on September 13 , the North Koreans attacked again and took Hill 203 from E Company , Hill 174 from L Company , and Hill 188 from B and F Companies . In an afternoon counterattack the regiment regained Hill 188 on the south side of the highway , but failed against Hills 203 and 174 on the north side . On the 14th , I Company again attacked Hill 174 , which had by now changed hands seven times . In this action the company suffered 82 casualties . Even so , the company held only one side of the hill , the North Korean held the other , and grenade battles between the two continued for another week . The battalions of the 5th Cavalry Regiment were so low in strength at this time that they were not considered combat effective . This seesaw battle continued in full 8 miles ( 13 km ) northwest of Taegu .
= = = North Korean withdrawal = = =
The UN counterattack at Inchon collapsed the North Korean line and cut off all their main supply and reinforcement routes . On September 19 the UN discovered the North Koreans had abandoned much of the Pusan Perimeter during the night , and the UN units began advancing out of their defensive positions and occupying them . Most of the North Korean units began conducting delaying actions attempting to get as much of their army as possible into North Korea . The North Koreans withdrew from the Masan area first , the night of September 18 – 19 . After the forces there , the remainder of the North Korean armies withdrew rapidly to the North . The US units rapidly pursued them north , passing over the Naktong River positions , which were no longer of strategic importance .
= = Aftermath = =
The North Korean 3rd Division was almost completely destroyed in the battles . The division had numbered 7 @,@ 000 men at the beginning of the offensive on September 1 . Only 1 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 800 men from the division were able to retreat back into North Korea by October . The majority of the division 's troops had been killed , captured or deserted . All of NK II Corps was in a similar state , and the North Korean army , exhausted at Pusan Perimeter and cut off after Inchon , was on the brink of defeat .
By this time , the US 1st Cavalry Division suffered 770 killed , 2 @,@ 613 wounded , 62 captured during its time at Pusan Perimeter . This included about 600 casualties , with around 200 killed in action it had already suffered during the Battle of Taegu the previous month . American forces were continually repulsed but able to prevent the North Koreans from breaking the Pusan Perimeter . The division had numbered 14 @,@ 703 on September 1 , but was in excellent position to attack despite its casualties .
Sgt. John Raymond Rice , a Ho Chunk Indian awarded the Bronze Star in World War II , was killed at Tabu @-@ dong on Sept . 6 , 1950 leading a squad of Company A , 8th Cavalry Regiment . When his remains were returned for burial in Sioux City , Iowa the public cemetery denied him a burial because of his race . President Truman personally intervened , and arranged for his burial with full military honors at Arlington National Cemetery . A subsequent U.S. Supreme Court case determined in 1954 that racial segregation at public cemeteries was legal .
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= Johnny Jeter =
John " Johnny " Jeter ( born December 14 , 1981 ) is an American semi @-@ retired professional wrestler . He is best known for his appearances with World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) in 2006 under the ring name Johnny as a member of The Spirit Squad , a stable of male cheerleaders .
Jeter was trained by professional wrestler Nick Dinsmore and debuted in 2001 . He began working for Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) , which led to him signing a developmental contract with World Wrestling Entertainment in 2003 . In January 2006 , Jeter and four other OVW alumni began appearing on WWE programming as The Spirit Squad . The stable won the World Tag Team Championship before disbanding in November 2006 . Jeter subsequently had brief stints as a solo wrestler with OVW , Raw , SmackDown , and ECW before being released in late 2007 . He retired from professional wrestling in 2008 .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment ( 2003 @-@ 2007 ) = = =
= = = = Ohio Valley Wrestling ( 2003 @-@ 2005 ) = = = =
Jeter was trained by Nick Dinsmore and debuted in 2001 in Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) . In 2003 , Jeter signed a contract with World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , and continued to wrestle in OVW , which was WWE 's developmental territory , although he occasionally made appearances in dark matches for WWE . In one of his earliest dark matches , Jeter teamed with Nova in a loss to Chuck Palumbo and Nunzio on the February 23 , 2003 episode of Velocity . His pay @-@ per @-@ view debut was at the 2003 Vengeance event , when Jeter appeared as the masked Conquistador # 2 in the APA 's Barroom Brawl match .
In 2004 , Jeter formed a tag team with Matt Cappotelli known as The Thrillseekers . The Thrillseekers wrestled in several dark matches before both Raw and SmackDown , defeating the teams of Johnny Nitro and Chris Cage , and MNM . On January 19 , 2005 , The Thrillseekers defeated MNM to win the OVW Southern Tag Team Championship . They successfully defended the championship against MNM and The Heart Throbs , before losing it to the Blond Bombers ( Tank and Chad Toland ) on April 6 .
On July 27 , The Thrillseekers defeated MNM to become the number one contenders to the Tag Team Championship , in a match with the added stipulation that whoever gained the pin would receive a match for the OVW Heavyweight Championship . The Thrillseekers got simultaneous pins , but it was Jeter who received the championship match . On August 3 , Jeter defeated the OVW Heavyweight Champion , Brent Albright , to win the championship , after Ken Anderson and Daniel Puder interfered on his behalf . After the match , Jeter turned into a heel ( villainous character ) by attacking Cappotelli , who had suffered an injury . In the following weeks , Jeter also attacked Albright , announcer Dean Hill , and official Danny Davis .
Jeter quickly formed an alliance with Ken Anderson , who helped him retain the championship on several occasions . They later added Paul Burchill to the alliance as an enforcer . After holding the OVW Heavyweight Championship for five months , Jeter lost it to Cappotelli in a two out of three falls match on November 9 , 2005 . Jeter challenged Cappotelli on numerous occasions Cappotelli in an attempt to regain the championship , but was unsuccessful .
= = = = The Spirit Squad ; singles appearances ( 2006 @-@ 2007 ) = = = =
In OVW , he became a part of The Spirit Squad , a faction using the in @-@ ring personas of male cheerleaders , using the name " Johnny " . On January 23 , 2006 , they had their WWE television debut as a group , appearing on Raw and helping Jonathan Coachman win a Royal Rumble qualifying match against Jerry Lawler by distracting Lawler and performing cheers for Coachman . They later became a part of the ongoing scripted feud between WWE chairman Vince McMahon and Shawn Michaels . The heel ( villainous ) McMahon brought in The Spirit Squad to attack Michaels on numerous occasions , including placing them in multiple handicap matches .
They also wrestled in the tag team division and on Raw on April 3 , The Spirit Squad won the World Tag Team Championship when Kenny and Mikey , with outside help from the other three members , defeated Kane and The Big Show . After winning the championship , all five members of The Spirit Squad were recognized as the champions , allowing any combination of them to defend the championship .
In May , McMahon signed another handicap match , with The Spirit Squad facing Michaels . The Spirit Squad instead attacked Michaels before the match started , and Triple H came out to help The Spirit Squad . Triple H felt disrespected by The Spirit Squad however , and as a result , helped Michaels instead . This led to Triple H and Michaels reforming D @-@ Generation X ( DX ) and they began a feud with The Spirit Squad . DX played various sophomoric jokes on The Spirit Squad and the McMahons , as well as defeating The Spirit Squad in handicap tag team matches at Vengeance and a clean sweep in an elimination handicap match at Saturday Night 's Main Event .
At the same time as their feud with DX and their alignment with McMahon , The Spirit Squad also wrestled other teams in Raw 's tag division over their World Tag Team Championship , successfully defending the championship against the teams of Jim Duggan and Eugene , Charlie Haas and Viscera , and Snitsky and Val Venis . They then entered a lengthy feud with The Highlanders , whom they eventually defeated to retain the championship at the Unforgiven pay @-@ per @-@ view in September . The Spirit Squad as a whole later began a losing streak with Johnny , Mikey , and Mitch losing singles matches to Ric Flair on consecutive episodes of Raw . After two consecutive losses to the debuting Cryme Tyme , Kenny announced that he was going to defeat Flair , and was successful with the help of the other members . It was then announced that Flair and a legend , selected by interactive voting , would wrestle the team for the World Tag Team Championship at the Cyber Sunday pay @-@ per @-@ view in early November . The fans chose Roddy Piper , and he and Flair defeated Kenny and Mikey to win the championship .
The group disbanded on the November 27 , 2006 episode of Raw , when they were defeated in a five @-@ on @-@ three handicap match by DX and Flair . In a backstage segment later that night , DX placed all members into a crate stamped " OVW , Louisville , Kentucky " , a reference to the developmental territory from where The Spirit Squad had come .
Following the breakup of The Spirit Squad , Johnny became the second member of the team to return to the main roster when he appeared during a 30 @-@ man battle royal on the December 18 , 2006 episode of Raw , wearing new wrestling attire .
In August 2007 , Jeter began making appearances in dark matches prior to Raw and SmackDown ! . He also wrestled at ECW live events . Beginning with the October 17 , 2007 live event in Manchester , United Kingdom , Jeter changed his ring name to " Jayden Jeter " .
= = = = Ohio Valley Wrestling and retirement ( 2007 @-@ 2008 ) = = = =
Jeter made his return to OVW on February 14 , 2007 , by defeating Deuce in a dark match prior to the television tapings . He competed in several dark matches before the OVW television tapings over the next several months , wrestling people including Domino , Cody Runnels , and Shawn Spears . In May 2007 , Jeter challenged Shawn Spears for the OVW Television Championship , but was unsuccessful . In June , he formed a team with Seth Skyfire , before returning to competing in the singles division . He challenged Paul Burchill for the OVW Heavyweight Championship in mid @-@ 2008 , but was unsuccessful .
Jeter was released from WWE in late 2007 . He wrestled several matches for OVW before retiring from professional wrestling in 2008 to train as an accountant .
= = = Chikara ( 2014 ) = = =
On August 21 , 2014 , the Chikara promotion announced that Jeter , under his Spirit Squad character , would be taking part in the 2014 King of Trios tournament , where he would team with Kenny and Mikey . After a win over Sinn Bodhi and the Odditorium ( Qefka the Quiet and Sir Oliver Grimsly ) on September 19 , the Spirit Squad was eliminated from the tournament in the second round on September 20 by the Golden Trio ( Dasher Hatfield , Icarus and Mark Angelosetti ) .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
540 kick , sometimes from the top turnbuckle ( OVW / Independent circuit ) / Johnny Go Round ( WWE )
Signature moves
Springboard moonsault
Superkick
Nicknames
" Thrillseeker "
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Ohio Valley Wrestling
OVW Heavyweight Championship ( 2 times )
OVW Southern Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Matt Cappotelli
World Wrestling Entertainment
World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) 1 – with The Spirit Squad
1Johnny defended the championship with either Kenny , Mitch , Nicky or Mikey under the Freebird Rule .
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= Agnes Mary Mansour =
Agnes Mary Mansour ( April 10 , 1931 – December 17 , 2004 ) was an American Roman Catholic nun who was given a choice from the Vatican in 1983 to end her religious vows or to resign from her position as the director of the Michigan Department of Social Services which required her to support and allocate public funding for abortions . The controversy involved her belief that that abortion was tragic but should be legal , despite her vows as a religious and the teachings of the Catholic Church .
After graduating from college in Detroit , Mansour entered religious orders then earned a doctorate degree in biochemistry . She served as the president of Mercy College of Detroit from 1971 to 1983 . She ran unsuccessfully for public office in 1982 , in the process provoking comment from the Archbishop of Detroit . The Governor of Michigan appointed her to lead the state 's social services department , and she was confirmed in early 1983 . During this time , the Bishop of Detroit and Vatican officials asked Mansour declare herself against abortion — her department was responsible for abortion services funded through Medicaid . Mansour refused to make such a statement , and two months after her confirmation as director she was required by the Vatican to decide whether she was to continue as director or as a nun . She chose to give up her vows as a nun . After serving out her appointment she was inducted into the Michigan Women 's Hall of Fame in 1988 .
= = Education and religion = =
Josephine A. Mansour was born in Detroit , Michigan to Lebanese immigrants on April 10 , 1931 , the fourth of four children in her family , all girls . She was baptized in the Antiochene Maronite branch of Eastern Catholicism .
After finishing St. Charles High School in Detroit 's East Side , she graduated from Mercy College in 1953 with a bachelor of science degree in medical technology and chemistry . She entered the Sisters of Mercy , assuming the name Sister Agnes Mary on September 7 , 1953 , transferring to the Latin Rite of the Catholic Church . She continued her education at Catholic University in Washington D.C. , earning a master of science degree in chemistry in 1958 .
On August 16 , 1959 , she took perpetual vows to become a nun . Her motto was " Free to be Faithful " . She entered Georgetown University and earned a doctorate in Biochemistry in 1964 . Regarding a harmful side effect of the use of chloroquine in the treatment of malaria , dangerous to the eyes , she co @-@ authored The Ocular Deposition of Chloroquine , with Howard Bernstein , Nathan Zvaifler and Martin Rubin . After receiving her doctorate , Mansour returned to Chicago and accepted the chairmanship of the Mercy College Department of Physical Science and Mathematics . She also coached the basketball team .
Mansour studied academic administration in the American Council on Education ( ACE ) Fellows program at the University of Kentucky . In 1971 , she began serving as president of Mercy College of Detroit , staying in the position until 1983 . As president , she greatly expanded enrollment and facilities at Mercy College , doubling the number of degree programs while balancing the budget with increased endowments . After 1987 , she served as visiting professor to Michigan State University and Wayne State University .
= = Public service = =
In 1982 , Mansour ran in a primary election for United States House of Representatives representing Michigan 's 17th congressional district , held on August 3 . She said of her campaign , " I look at politics as a legitimate extension of my work as a Sister of Mercy . " In a field of four Democratic Party candidates , Sander M. Levin won with more than seven times the votes received by Mansour , who picked up only 6 @.@ 4 % of the electorate .
Mansour 's run for office came as a surprise to Edmund Szoka , the Archbishop of Detroit . At the time , the Vatican allowed members of religious orders to hold political office , but the candidate was required to gain the approval of the local bishop . Mansour did not do so . She told reporters that canon law was an " old set of rules that are invoked when somebody wants to invoke them , and ignored when someone wants to ignore them . " Szoka accepted her excuse that she did not know to ask permission .
= = = Michigan Social Services = = =
After the general election in November 1982 , the incoming Michigan governor , James Blanchard , appointed Mansour in December to the directorship of the Michigan Department of Social Services ( DSS ) ; Michigan 's biggest agency . The administrative position involved oversight of public health programs including disbursement of some $ 5 million in federal monies from Medicaid for abortions . To accept the appointment , she asked for and received permission from her order and from Szoka . Szoka asked Mansour to publicly state her opposition to abortion ; he said he originally gave his approval on this condition . Mansour did not follow his request . Though she personally disapproved of abortion , she knew that many others felt differently , and she determined that the poor should have equal access to abortion as long as it was legal .
Mansour assumed the directorship on December 29 , 1982 , pending Michigan legislative confirmation in the position . Bishop Szoka hardened his resolve , on February 23 , 1983 , directed the Detroit Province of the Sisters of Mercy to determine whether Mansour was in violation of the teachings of the Church . He told the Detroit Sisters leadership that Mansour no longer had his permission to serve the state , and he ordered them to inform her that she was to resign the state appointment .
Detroit archdiocese spokesman Jay Berman said of the NCAN protest : " Their efforts are confusing Catholics and misrepresenting 2 @,@ 000 years of church teaching on the sanctity of human life . " Bishop Szoka told the Pastoral Council that he was disappointed they did not support him . He said , " It is a question of my absolute duty to stand for , to protect and to defend the doctrine of the Church which has to do with human life . " On March 4 , Bishop Szoka met again with the leadership of the Detroit Sisters of Mercy , and he restated his directive . The Sisters determined they did not have to obey Szoka if " a greater good was involved " , and refused to force Mansour to quit her job .
On March 8 , Mansour was confirmed in her appointment by the Michigan Senate with a vote of 28 to 9 . She said , " I recognize that we live in a morally pluralistic society that government must be respectful of , and that my morality may not be someone else 's morality . " She told the Senate that she was personally against abortion but that she could tolerate the part of her job involving the disbursement of Medicaid funds to hospitals that performed abortions on women with little or no money .
On March 10 , Bishop Szoka reported the situation to the Vatican . The Vatican delegated Archbishop Pio Laghi to address the matter , and he sent a message to Sister Theresa Kane , the national president of the Sisters of Mercy , telling Kane that she must convince Mansour to resign as director of DSS . Kane refused , as did Detroit Provincial Superior Emily George who was the Vice President of the Sisters of Mercy of the Union , and was previously ( as Mary Karl George ) the president of Mercy College , before Mansour .
On April 11 , the day after Mansour 's 52nd birthday , Sister Kane requested a formal hearing on the matter from the Congregation for Religious and Secular Institutes , a Vatican body that dealt with nuns and religious orders . On April 16 , the Congregation instructed Anthony Bevilacqua , Auxiliary Bishop of Brooklyn who was visiting Rome with other bishops , that he was " to approach Sister Agnes Mary Mansour directly and to require , in the name of the Holy See and by virtue of her vow of obedience , that she immediately resign as director " of DSS . Around this time , Mansour asked for and received permission for a leave of absence from the Sisters of Mercy , so that she could carry out her state appointment free of conflict with the Church .
Bevilacqua sent a letter directly to Mansour without communicating his intention to President Kane or any of the Detroit leaders of the Sisters of Mercy . The action was unusual because a Catholic bishop normally restricted his communications to the authorities of a religious order , not the individual members . In the letter , Bevilacqua told Mansour she was to meet him in person , and that she could bring with her two local sisters for moral support . She selected Sister Helen Marie Burns , Ph.D ( Detroit Sisters of Mercy ) and the order 's Provincial Superior , Emily George . On May 9 , 1983 , Bevilacqua met with the three women and told Mansour she must immediately decide whether to resign the directorship or her vows . Shocked at the sudden demand , for 80 minutes she contemplated the decision , then finally " with deep regret , sorrow , and limited freedom " signed the papers Bevilacqua had provided for requesting dispensation from her perpetual vows , voiding her leave of absence . After nearly 30 years of being in religious orders , she gave up her life as a nun .
The NCAN joined with the National Assembly of Religious Women ( NARW ) to issue a joint statement : " The Roman Congregation for Religious in their fear of losing ' authority ' has ignored the principle of freedom of conscience . " The NCAN and NARW requested sympathetic religious women to take part in a protest on Pentecost Sunday , May 22 , 1983 , " as a visible witness to the arrogant use of power in a male dominated church . " Small protests were organized at cathedrals in Chicago and Washington , D.C. Ms. magazine reported that Sister Donna Quinn , president of NCAN , said that the Pope 's demand for obedience " tramples on who we are as women religious in the United States " . Ms. writer Mary Kay Blakely added that she thought Mansour was correct in saying that " the Pope doesn 't understand the American people , and he doesn 't understand the American nun " . Divided over the Mansour affair , the Catholic Theological Society of America passed an unsuccessful resolution asking for dialog rather than simple administrative decisions which " violate both the theological meaning of authority in the church and the sacredness of conscience of church members " .
In 1983 , Mansour was offered money for the film rights to the story of her life . She said that she would accept on condition that the money was enough to balance Michigan 's state deficit , $ 900 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 at that time . No film rights were obtained . Mansour remained director of DSS until 1987 . Under her leadership , the department 's error rate dropped to its lowest levels in awarding food stamps , Medicaid funds , and Aid to Families with Dependent Children ( AFDC ) . She increased the investigation and conviction of fraud cases , and she achieved the highest national record of locating deadbeat parents for collecting child support . She streamlined office procedures , and she initiated programs to curtail teenage pregnancy and to assist teenage mothers . She broadened the state program benefiting victims of domestic abuse .
= = = Poverty alleviation = = =
In 1987 , Mansour accepted an executive adviser position with Mercy Health Services Special Initiative to the Poor . In 1988 , she founded the Poverty and Social Reform Institute ( PSRI ) with the mission of helping increase the health and education of children living in poverty . PSRI established two child care centers in Detroit , named " Leaps and Bounds " .
Mansour served on many executive boards , including PSRI , Sisters of Mercy Health Corporation , Women 's Economic Club , Michigan Bell Telephone , the National Bank of Detroit and the National Association of Independent Colleges and Universities .
= = Position on abortion = =
Mansour personally disapproved of abortion . However , she held the belief that , because abortion was legal , it should be equally available to all women , poor and rich . In July 1982 during her unsuccessful political campaign , Mansour wrote a " Position Paper on Abortion and Legislation " . In late summer 1984 , she joined 96 other leading theologians , nuns and priests who signed another position paper titled " A Catholic Statement on Pluralism and Abortion " , asking for Catholic discussion about abortion and requesting religious pluralism in Catholicism .
Mansour and the Sisters of Mercy made their 1980s decisions based on what they saw as the promise of freedom of conscience described in the Second Vatican Council of 1962 – 1965 presaged by the Ad Petri cathedram , a papal encyclical of 1959 which said , " Let there be unity in what is necessary , freedom in what is unsettled and charity in any case . " Mercy nuns believed that they held greater rights than simple obedience to authority . Pope John Paul II 's relatively quick and decisive action against Mansour signaled his retreat from the more liberal mid @-@ 1960s .
= = Illness = =
The Sisters of Mercy did not honor Mansour 's 1983 resignation of her vows . They continued to consider her a member of the order . Around 1993 , Mansour discovered breast cancer and survived treatment for it . When the cancer returned a decade later , spreading to her bones and lungs , she was invited to stay at McAuley Center , in Farmington Hills , Michigan ; a rest home operated by the Sisters of Mercy . Facing death , Mansour said she was not bitter about the Vatican 's action , only hurt . She wanted to be remembered , " as someone who cared deeply about the benefits of education and service , and concern for those less fortunate " .
= = Death and legacy = =
Mansour died on December 17 , 2004 , aged 73 . She was buried at Holy Sepulchre Cemetery , Southfield , Michigan , in the Sisters of Mercy cemetery plot . Sister Linda Werthman , the President of the Detroit Regional Community of the Sisters of Mercy , said , " She never stopped being a Sister of Mercy in her heart and many of us never stopped thinking of her in that way . Throughout the years , her commitment to serving those who suffer from poverty , sickness and lack of education has been unwavering . "
Theologian Richard A. McCormick wrote in 2006 that Church officials abused their authority in the Mansour case , and brought " the teaching office into disrepute " . Author Kenneth A. Briggs , former religion editor for The New York Times , wrote that the Mansour case " was in many respects the most dramatic , but not the only , instance of a particular nun singled out for punishment " . Theologian Margaret Farley , a Sister of Mercy and a professor at Yale University , said , " It was a painful truth that [ Mansour ] had to leave , that the church declared her officially not a member . There was suffering in the community , and also for her . When she left she was quoted as saying that she would always be a Sister of Mercy in her heart . And that has absolutely been the case . She continued in works of mercy all her life . "
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= Fire Emblem : Path of Radiance =
Fire Emblem : Path of Radiance , known in Japan as Fire Emblem : Sōen no Kiseki , is a tactical role @-@ playing video game developed by Intelligent Systems and Nintendo SPD , and published by Nintendo for the GameCube in 2005 . It is the ninth main installment in the Fire Emblem series , and the third to be released in the west . As with previous installments , gameplay revolves around positioning characters on a battlefield with the aim of defeating an opposing force . If characters are defeated in battle , they are removed from the rest of the game .
The story takes place in a separate world from other Fire Emblem games in Tellius , a continent inhabited by the humanoid Beorc and the shapeshifting Laguz . Protagonist Ike , a new member of his father 's mercenary group , finds a mysterious woman named Elincia Ridell Crimea during a mission . Crimea is invaded by the Beorc nation of Daein . During the group 's flight , Ike 's father is killed by a Daein general known as the Black Knight . Together with Elincia , who is the last remaining heir to the Crimean throne , Ike and his group travels Tellius to form allegiances with the other countries to free Crimea from Daein 's control , confronting racial tensions and long @-@ standing resentment between the Beorc and the Laguz during their travels .
Path of Radiance began development for the GameCube after the overseas success of the Game Boy Advance game Fire Emblem , becoming the first home console entry in the series since Fire Emblem : Thracia 776 . The game is the first entry in the series to feature 3D graphics , full motion cutscenes , and voice acting . The series ' transition to 3D caused multiple difficulties for the developers . The localization team worked closely with Intelligent Systems to ensure the localization was as true to the original Japanese as possible . Upon release , the game received widespread critical acclaim for its gameplay and story , but several journalistic sites and magazines made negative comments about the game 's graphics . The game debuted at the top of Japanese gaming charts , and was considered to have sold well . A direct sequel for the Wii , Fire Emblem : Radiant Dawn , was released in 2007 in North America and Japan , and 2008 in Europe and Australia .
= = Gameplay = =
Fire Emblem : Path of Radiance is a tactical role @-@ playing video game in which players control protagonist Ike and a group of up to 19 characters across multiple battle scenarios . At the game 's opening , multiple difficulty settings can be chosen : in the Japanese version the options are Normal , Hard , and Maniac modes , while the western versions have Easy , Normal , and Hard modes . Characters who fall in battle cannot be revived , being removed from the rest of the game , and no revival items can be used on them during a battle . If Ike falls in battle , the game will end and the level must be restarted . Between battles , characters can be managed at a Base . In this location , weapons can be managed and forged , and bonus experience points earned in battle can be given to characters . Characters ' skills can be tailored to a degree , but skills inherent to a particular character cannot be removed or changed , and the amount of skills awarded is limited by the character 's skill limit .
During battle , players have access to two species : the humanoid Beorc and the shape @-@ shifting Laguz . Beorc use weapons and magic , while Laguz use close @-@ quarters melee attacks . Laguz have a gauge which fills up during battle , filling at varying speed depending on their status and whether they are under attack . When full they transform into their animal form for a set number of turns . They are unable to attack while in human form , but the time between transformations can be shortened using special items . Playable Beorc characters are each assigned a character class . These classes affect how characters can move on the battlefield , and some are exclusive to certain characters : for example , the Ranger class is exclusive to Ike . Laguz units also have different movement speeds and strengths depending on their transformed form .
Characters used in battle gain experience levels , with larger amounts of experience being awarded depending on a character 's performance in battle : once they have 100 experience points , a character automatically levels up . At level 21 , a character 's class is automatically upgraded . This upgrade can happen at level 10 if the player uses an item called a Master Seal . Once the class changes , the character is reset to level 1 , while carrying over all the stat increases aggregated up to that point . Bonus experience is awarded by fulfilling secondary requirements outlined at the beginning of the level .
There is also a Support system , accessible through the Base , where player characters can talk with each other and improve their relationships . These actions improve affinity with a character and grant stat boots in battle . Supports are ranked from C to A , with A being the highest rank .
Battles take place on a grid @-@ based map , with multiple units attached to various sides : the player team , the enemy team , allied characters , and other unaffiliated characters . A character 's class ( animal form for the Laguz ) and the map 's terrain can effect how far they can move and how far ranged attacks can be . Gameplay is turn @-@ based , with the player moving , then other factions , with the aim being the defeat of the opposing side . Each turn ends automatically when each character is given their orders . The player can also manually end their turn . The standard commands battling including attacking units , using items , rescuing characters , trade items with other allied characters , and wait until a later turn to receive a command . Special commands include talking to characters in battle , opening chests and visiting places on the map , stealing items , and having characters escape from the map . Ike has the exclusive ability to command all free characters , and the level immediately ends if he escapes .
The series ' Weapon Triangle mechanic is present , in which the three main close @-@ combat weapons are strong or weak against each other : axes are strong against lances , lances are strong against swords , and swords are strong against axes . Other similar mechanics exist , such as fire magic being more damaging to some beasts , and arrows being more effective against airborne enemies . Weapon durability decreases over time , with weapons eventually breaking when used enough . Weapons have different levels of strength , with its assigned letter ( E to A and S ) denoting this . Weapons can also be customized with a unique name . Magic is governed by a similar system to the Weapons Triangle ; fire is weak to wind , wind is weak to thunder , and thunder is weak to fire .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
As with previous Fire Emblem games , Path of Radiance takes place in a continuity and setting separate from the rest of the series . The game 's setting is the continent of Tellius , inhabited by two species : the humanoid Beorc , and the shape @-@ shifting Laguz . According to legend , the goddess who made the world created Beorc in her image , and created the Laguz to fill the gap between herself and beasts . The two races have struggled to coexist , leading to racial tensions and conflict on both sides . By the events of Path of Radiance , Tellius is divided into seven nations which remain at peace . A key item in Tellius is Lehran 's Medallion , the world 's incarnation of the recurring Fire Emblem . It is a bronze medallion said to contain a dark deity who brought chaos to the world 800 years before and caused all the world but Tellius to be engulfed by the sea . To prevent the dark god being freed , war must be prevented in Tellius .
There are forty six characters encountered through the story that can be recruited , each offering their own contribution to the story . The majority of the main cast comes from the Greil Mercenaries group , led by its founder Greil . The protagonist is Ike , Greil 's son . He is accompanied on his travels by Mist , his sister , and Elincia Ridell Crimea , the lost heir to the Crimean Throne . Other Beorc characters include Titania , a former knight of Crimea ; and Soren , a mage and tactician . The Laguz characters include Lethe , a cat Laguz with a strong hatred of Beorc ; and Caineghis , a lion Beorc who wishes for peaceful co @-@ existence . The antagonists are Dainen generals called the Four Riders , which include the Black Knight , and King Ashnard , the ruler of Daein .
= = = Plot = = =
The game opens with Greil recruiting Ike into his mercenaries upon recognizing the threat of Daein . While on a mission , Ike finds a woman who is revealed to be Elincia Ridell Crimea , a princess who was raised in secret due to her existence being a threat to the Crimean order of succession . Daein invades shortly after this , and Greil 's mercenaries flee over the border into Gallia . They are pursued by the Black Knight who kills Greil . Ike and Elincia decide to work together and drive the forces of Daein from Crimea . Over the course of the game , Ike and his companions overcome long @-@ held racial tensions between the Beorc and Laguz in order to form an alliance against their true enemy , Ashnard , king of Daein . In particular , Ike manages to re @-@ establish relations between the Beorc nation of Begnion and the few remaining members of the heron Laguz clan , which was annihilated in an act of genocide known as the Serenes Massacre . During the course of their journey , they discover that Ashnard is provoking the war to try and release the dark deity contained inside the Medallion , using Daein 's invasion as a template for his plan . In the final assault , Ike and his mercenaries manage to defeat both the Black Knight and Ashnard , thwarting his scheme . With Ashnard defeated and the Daein occupation ended , Elincia is crowned as Crimea 's new queen , who works to make the land a place where Beorc and Laguz can live in peace .
= = Development = =
Development on Path of Radiance began at Intelligent Systems after the international success of the first localized game in the series , released overseas under the title Fire Emblem . Due to high development costs , the team had been unwilling to develop a title for the GameCube , but after Fire Emblem 's success overseas , they decided to return from portable to home consoles for its next release . Nintendo SPD was also involved in development . Path of Radiance was the first Fire Emblem to have 3D in @-@ game graphics , full @-@ motion video cutscenes and voice acting . It was also the first home console game since Fire Emblem : Thracia 776 for the Super Famicom . Transitioning from 2D graphics to 3D graphics was one of the biggest challenges during development , especially the transition from the tilted overhead view to a unit @-@ to @-@ unit battle in third @-@ person . One of the features left out due to this process was a dedicated battle arena . At the same time , they introduced the base as members of the development team wanted a place where characters could interact separate from the battlefield . As there was no combat gameplay involved , other types of activity were created , such as special support conversations . To make moves in battle and cutscenes realistic , the team used motion capture , then made sure it appeared a little over the top so the fantasy feeling of the Fire Emblem series remained intact . By the end of development , Narihiro had some regrets about the quality of the game , saying in an interview that he considered it to be only 70 % complete when released .
The character designs were done by Senri Kita , an artist new to the series . In contrast to previous Fire Emblem games , where the protagonist was of royal blood , the main character Ike was intended to be of lower social rank , a mercenary who becomes involved in royal politics and conflict rather than being born into it . Ike was born from the many ideas for new directions being suggested for the new 3D game , with many people wanting the protagonist everyone could empathize with . His status as a mercenary was a highly requested character trait by male staff . A character that returned from previous games was Jeigan , who was this time designed as a female character . Designing all the characters to be unique under the new conditions proved a challenge . This also resulted in higher @-@ quality character artwork being produced during the initial design stages . The full @-@ motion videos were created by Japanese animation studio Digital Frontier . Introducing the cutscenes into the game proved challenging for the team . The game 's subtitle does not refer to a specific object or place , but instead acts as a metaphor for the journeys of Ike and other characters .
= = Release = =
A new Fire Emblem title was first announced in April 2004 , with the full reveal coming in an issue of Weekly Shōnen Jump . The game 's title , story details and chosen platform were announced in Weekly Shōnen Jump , with a release date announced as some time during 2004 . The game was first shown publicly by Nintendo at their Nintendo World Touch DS event in early 2005 . The version of the game displayed there was an early model , and between its reveal and release , it underwent some changes to improve the usability and quality . As a pre @-@ order bonus , Nintendo created a special CD containing selected tracks form the game , and a special calendar commemorating the series ' 15th anniversary . The first western demonstration of the title was at E3 2005 . It was the third Fire Emblem title to be localized , after Fire Emblem and The Sacred Stones . Players with save data from the Game Boy Advance Fire Emblem games are able to connect with Path of Radiance and access concept art and special maps revolving around characters from those games .
= = = Localization = = =
The localization of Path of Radiance was handled by Nintendo of America 's localization branch Nintendo Treehouse . During the process , the team worked closely with Intelligent Systems staff members . The biggest challenge for the team was translating from Japanese to English , which required staff from Japan to come over and check their work . When translating the dialogue , the localization team wanted to preserve the story 's depth and serious tone , despite often having a limited text and character space for interaction and expression . While they had the option to add extra text boxes , this would potentially have made going through conversations tedious for players , so they worked to match the number of text boxes used in the Japanese version . Some character names , such as Eirika and Noel ( originally Eirik and Knowl ) were changed so they could be pronounced more easily while retaining their original meanings . The western version 's difficulty was also toned down : the Japanese version 's Maniac setting was removed , Hard Mode was toned down , and a new Easy was introduced . These adjustments were based on both western test player feedback , and feedback from Japanese players complaining about the game 's high difficulty . The amount of dialogue and text that needed translating was estimated at less than that in Animal Crossing , but still enough to take several months to complete . Due to its serious nature , the team needed to take a different approach to its localization than other Nintendo titles . As far as possible , the team remained faithful to the original script , aside from pieces like jokes which would not have made sense to people unfamiliar with Japanese humor . While most of the time they refrained from putting out @-@ of @-@ context remarks in character dialogue , an exception was Anna , a recurring Fire Emblem character who featured in optional tutorial missions . As she existed outside the game to a degree , they had more freedom to have her make pop culture references .
= = Reception = =
In Japan during its opening week , Path of Radiance sold over 100 @,@ 357 copies , selling through 64 @.@ 16 % of its initial shipment . By the end of 2005 , the game had sold 156 @,@ 413 copies . In its UK debut , it reached the top of the GameCube charts . Although no exact sales figures have been published , Nintendo cited the game as being among its successful GameCube titles for 2005 . According to the developers , the fact that it was released near the end of the GameCube 's lifespan affected sales , but it still managed to help sell the hardware and convinced Nintendo that the Fire Emblem had selling power on home consoles .
Reception of the game was generally positive : on aggregate sites GameRankings and Metacritic , it received scores of 85 % and 85 / 100 based upon 47 and 42 critic reviews respective . In IGN 's GamerMetrics List for 2005 and GameSpot 's 2005 Readers ' Choice award , Path of Radiance was at # 2 in their respective lists behind Resident Evil 4 . The game was among those nominated at the 2006 Golden Joystick Awards in the " Nintendo Game of the Year " category . The game was named by GamesRadar was one of the best GameCube games of all time in 2014 , and Destructoid listed it among the five best Fire Emblem games in the series in 2013 .
Famitsu 's reviewers each praised the gameplay , story , and the introduction of full @-@ motion movies . One reviewer cited it as the series ' new exemplar , while another pointed out rough edges in the graphical redesign and that the new 3D perspective made seeing some parts of the map difficult . 1UP.com 's Shane Betternhausen was positive overall , saying " [ Path of Radiance ] delivers a superbly paced and rewarding adventure " . RPGamer 's Chris Privitere said " While Fire Emblem : Path of Radiance doesn 't necessarily add anything new to the tactical genre , it does everything very well " , recommending it to players while stressing the need for patience . Peer Schneider of IGN called the game " yet another worthy installment in Intelligent Systems ' venerable strategy RPG series " . RPGFan reviewer Mark Tjan said that while not the best Fire Emblem game he had played , " it 's certainly a good game and worth picking up if you 're searching for an SRPG worth your time and money " . Nintendo World Report 's Karl Castaneda was also highly positive , though commenting that its graphical quality were more suited to the early days of the GameCube 's life and that it might have been a great success if released during that period . Eurogamer 's Tom Bramwell , despite feeling that the game was flawed by inherent problems in the Fire Emblem formula , enjoyed the game and was willing to replay once he had finished . Greg Kasavin , writing for GameSpot , saying that " by replacing the traditional random battles that typify most Japanese role @-@ playing games with a fun and exciting turn @-@ based combat system , and by going out of its way to deliver a memorable and genuinely emotional story , Fire Emblem : Path of Radiance accomplishes what all role @-@ playing games attempt , but very few actually manage to do " . The majority of praise went to the game 's story and gameplay , while criticism was focused on the graphical quality .
= = Legacy = =
The team 's successful return to a home console convinced them to carry on the story of Tellius in another home console release . The next entry , Fire Emblem : Radiant Dawn , began development in May 2005 for the Wii . It was released in 2007 in Japan and North America , and 2008 in Europe and Australia . Protagonist Ike has also appeared as a playable fighter in Super Smash Bros. Brawl and Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U.
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= Manuel Belgrano =
Manuel José Joaquín del Corazón de Jesús Belgrano ( 3 June 1770 – 20 June 1820 ) , usually referred to as Manuel Belgrano , was an Argentine economist , lawyer , politician , and military leader . He took part in the Argentine Wars of Independence and created the Flag of Argentina . He is regarded as one of the main Libertadores of the country .
Belgrano was born in Buenos Aires , the fourth child of Italian businessman Domingo Belgrano y Peri and Josefa Casero . He came into contact with the ideas of the Age of Enlightenment while at university in Spain around the time of the French Revolution . Upon his return to the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata , where he became a notable member of the criollo population of Buenos Aires , he tried to promote some of the new political and economic ideals , but found severe resistance from local peninsulars . This rejection led him to work towards a greater autonomy for his country from the Spanish colonial regime . At first , he unsuccessfully promoted the aspirations of Carlota Joaquina to become a regent ruler for the Viceroyalty during the period the Spanish King Ferdinand VII was imprisoned during the Peninsular War ( 1807 – 1814 ) . He favoured the May Revolution , which removed the viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros from power on 25 May 1810 . He was elected as a voting member of the Primera Junta that took power after the ouster .
As a delegate for the Junta , he led the ill @-@ fated Paraguay campaign . His troops were defeated by Bernardo de Velasco at the battles of Campichuelo and Paraguarí . Though he was defeated , the campaign initiated the chain of events that led to the Independence of Paraguay in May 1811 . He retreated to the vicinity of Rosario , to fortify it against a possible royalist attack from the Eastern Band of the Uruguay River . While there , he created the flag of Argentina . The First Triumvirate did not approve the flag , but because of slow communications , Belgrano would only learn of that many weeks later , while reinforcing the Army of the North at Jujuy . There , knowing he was at a strategic disadvantage against the royalist armies coming from Upper Peru , Belgrano ordered the Jujuy Exodus , which evacuated the entire population of Jujuy Province to San Miguel de Tucumán . His counter @-@ offensive at the Battle of Tucumán resulted in a key strategic victory , and it was soon followed by a complete victory over the royalist army of Pío Tristán at the Battle of Salta . However , his deeper incursions into Upper Perú led to defeats at Vilcapugio and Ayohuma , leading the Second Triumvirate to order his replacement as Commander of the Army of the North by the newly arrived José de San Martín . By then , the Asamblea del Año XIII had approved the use of Belgrano 's flag as the national war flag .
Belgrano then went on a diplomatic mission to Europe along with Bernardino Rivadavia to seek support for the revolutionary government . He returned in time to take part in the Congress of Tucumán , which declared Argentine Independence ( 1816 ) . He promoted the Inca plan to create a constitutional monarchy with an Inca descendant as Head of State . This proposal had the support of San Martín , Martín Miguel de Güemes , and many provincial delegates , but was strongly rejected by the delegates from Buenos Aires . The Congress of Tucumán approved the use of his flag as the national flag . After this , Belgrano again took command of the Army of the North , but his mission was limited to protecting San Miguel de Tucumán from royalist advances while San Martín prepared the Army of the Andes for an alternate offensive across the Andes . When Buenos Aires was about to be invaded by José Gervasio Artigas and Estanislao López , he moved the Army southwards , but his troops mutinied in January 1820 . Belgrano died of dropsy on 20 June 1820 . His last words reportedly were : " ¡ Ay , Patria mía ! " ( Oh , my country ! ) .
= = Biography = =
= = = Ancestry = = =
Manuel José Joaquín del Corazón de Jesús Belgrano was born in Buenos Aires on 3 June 1770 , at his father 's house . It was located near the Santo Domingo convent , at Santo Domingo street , between the streets Martín de Tours and Santísima Trinidad ( the modern names of those streets are " Belgrano " , " Defensa " , and " Bolívar " respectively ) . Though the city was still rather small , the Belgranos lived at one of the wealthiest neighbourhoods . Manuel Belgrano was baptised at the Buenos Aires Metropolitan Cathedral the following day . As he was born in America he was considered a criollo , a social class below the Peninsulars .
His father Domenico was Ligurian , from the town of Imperia , Italy . His last name was Peri , which he translated to the Spanish form Pérez , but later changed it to Belgrano – literally " Fairwheat " , a name that denoted good cereal production . He changed his name " Domenico " to the Spanish " Domingo " as well . He was a European merchant authorised by the King of Spain to move to America , and had contacts in Spain , Rio de Janeiro , and Britain . He promoted the establishment of the Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires , which his son Manuel would lead years later . Belgrano 's mother was María Josefa González Islas y Casero , born in the city of Santiago del Estero , Argentina . The family was the second richest in Buenos Aires , after the Escaladas . They had 16 sons , four of whom died . Domingo Belgrano Pérez managed a family business , and arranged his four daughters to be married to merchants who would become his trusted agents in the Banda Oriental , Misiones Province , and Spain . The eight living male sons followed different paths : Domingo José Estanislao became canon at the local cathedral , while Carlos José and José Gregorio joined the military . Manuel Belgrano was meant to follow his father 's work , but when he developed other interests , it was his brother Francisco José María de Indias who continued the family business .
= = = European studies = = =
Belgrano completed his first studies at the San Carlos school , where he learned Latin , philosophy , logic , physics , metaphysics , and literature ; he graduated in 1786 . Domingo had sufficient success as merchant to send his two sons Francisco and Manuel to study in Europe . He expected them to study commerce , but Manuel decided to study law . Belgrano was so successful and attained such prestige that Pope Pius VI allowed him to study forbidden literature , even books deemed as heretical , excepting only the astrological and obscene books . In this way he came into contact with authors like Montesquieu , Rousseau , and Filangieri , who were forbidden in Spain .
Belgrano studied near the intellectual elite of Spain , and by that time there were heated discussions about the ongoing French Revolution . The principles of equality and freedom , the universal scope of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen , and criticism of the divine right of kings were constant topics of debate . Among the supporters of these ideas it was thought that Spain should be remade under similar principles , and critics of such thought were rejected as tyrants or proponents of outdated ideas . However , the Spanish Enlightenment was slightly different from the French one as it still respected religion and the monarchy . Thus , despite the new influences , Belgrano remained a strong Catholic and monarchist .
Belgrano also studied living languages , political economy , and public rights . The authors that most influenced him were Pedro Rodríguez de Campomanes , Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos , Adam Smith , and François Quesnay . Belgrano translated Quesnay 's book Maximes générales de gouvernement economique d 'un royaume agricole ( General Maxims of the Economical Government in an Agricultural Kingdom ) to Spanish . His main interest in the works of such authors were ideas that referred to the public good and popular prosperity . Like many South American students , he became interested in physiocracy , which stated that new wealth came from nature , that agriculture was an economic activity that generated more income than one needed , and that the state should not interfere at all with it . By that time , South America had plenty of natural resources and a very strict state interventionism in the economy . Belgrano developed the idea that the principles of physiocracy and those stated by Adam Smith could be applied together in the viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata . In the development of this approach he was influenced by Fernando Galliani , who promoted the study of particular cases over theoric generalisations , and Antonio Genovesi , who thought that the absolute freedom promoted by physiocrats should be tempered by a moderate intervention by the state , such as the provision of free education for some . During his time in Europe , Belgrano became president of an Academy within the University of Salamanca devoted to Roman legislation , forensic practice and political economy .
= = = Work in the consulate = = =
A short time before his return to Buenos Aires on 3 June 1794 , Belgrano was elected by Don Diego de Gardoqui as " perpetual secretary " of the Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires , a new local institution which dealt with commercial and industrial issues in the name of the crown . This date would be later known in Argentina as Economist Day . He would remain in this office until 1810 , and would deal with commercial disputes and promote agriculture , industry , and commerce . Not having enough freedom to make big changes in the economic system , he made big efforts to improve education . Influenced by Campomanes , he believed that the true wealth of countries was human ingenuity , and that the best way to promote industrialisation was through education .
Belgrano maintained frequent discussions with the committee members of the Consulate , who were all merchants with strong interests involved in the monopolic commerce with Cadiz . He made many proposals , influenced by free trade ideas . By this time , Belgrano thought that " The merchant must have freedom to buy where he can be best accommodated , and it 's natural that he does where he is supplied with the best price to be able to earn the best profit " . Those proposals were rejected by the committee members ; his only supporters were Juan José Castelli , Juan Larrea , and Domingo Matheu . However , Belgrano had some successes , such as creating the Nautical School , the Commerce School , and the Geometry and Drawing Academy . He created the Commerce School to influence future merchants to work towards the best interests of the nation , and the nautical and drawing ones to provide the youth with prestigious and lucrative careers . The schools were situated next to the Consulate so that Belgrano could easily supervise their development . The schools were in place for three years before they were closed by a ruling of Manuel Godoy , from the Spanish monarchy , who considered them an unnecessary luxury for a colony . It was felt that Buenos Aires might not be able to maintain them .
Belgrano tried to promote the diversification of agriculture via the production of linen and hemp , following experiences with his friend Martín de Altolaguirre . He proposed to keep reserves of wheat to help have control over its price . He also tried to make leather recognised as a product of the country , in order to promote its commercial potential . None of these proposals were accepted . He designed a system to give prizes to achievements that would boost the local economy , diversify the agriculture , or deforest the pampas . The system did not work as expected , and as nobody met the requirements no such prize was ever given .
He helped to create the first newspaper of the city , the Telégrafo Mercantil , directed by Francisco Cabello y Mesa . He worked with Manuel José de Lavardén , and edited nearly two hundred issues . The newspaper was closed in 1802 because of conflicts with the authorities of the viceroyalty , who did not like the criticisms made in it or the jokes and parodies . He also worked at the Semanario de Agricultura , Comercio e Industria , directed by Hipólito Vieytes . He used this newspaper to explain his economic ideas : manufacturing and exporting finished goods , importing raw materials to manufacture , avoiding importing luxury goods or raw materials that could be produced or extracted locally , importing only vital products , and owning a merchant navy . The newspaper specialised in the " Philosophy of History , Geography and Statistics " . Many revolutionary principles were presented as essays .
Belgrano had symptoms of syphilis , which he had caught during his time in Europe . This sickness forced him to take long leaves from his work in the Consulate , and to suggest his cousin Juan José Castelli , who had similar ideas , as a possible replacement during his leaves . Rejection by the committee members delayed the approval of Castelli until 1796 .
= = = British invasions = = =
Belgrano was appointed as captain of the urban militias in 1797 by viceroy Pedro de Melo , who was instructed by Spain to prepare defences against a possible British or Portuguese attack . Belgrano by then worked in the Consulate , and was no longer interested in pursuing a military career . Viceroy Rafael de Sobremonte requested that he create a militia to counter a possible British attack , but he did not take interest in it . His first intervention in a military conflict took place when the British , under William Carr Beresford , arrived with 1 @,@ 600 men and took Buenos Aires , starting the British invasions of the Río de la Plata . Belgrano moved to the fortress as soon as he heard the warning , and gathered many men to launch resistance . But without the required knowledge , his men marched in disorder and Belgrano was ordered to disband after a single British cannon shot . Belgrano would write later in his autobiography that he regretted not having by then even the most basic knowledge of militia work .
After the taking of the city , all Spanish authorities were requested to pledge allegiance to the British crown . Belgrano thought that the members of the Consulate should leave the city and join the viceroy , but the others did not agree . They obeyed the British request ; Belgrano refused to do so . He said that he wanted " either our old master , or no master at all " . To avoid being forced to pledge allegiance , he escaped from Buenos Aires and sought asylum at the chapel of Mercedes , in the Banda Oriental .
The British army was defeated by an army under the direction of Santiago de Liniers , and Spanish authority was restored . It was expected that the British would return , and the whole city started to prepare for that possibility . Belgrano returned to Buenos Aires after the reconquest , and put himself under the command of Liniers . He was appointed sergeant of the Patricians Regiment , under the command of Cornelio Saavedra , and started to study military strategy . After some conflicts with other officials , he resigned as sergeant and served again under the command of Liniers . A new British attack took place in July 1807 . During the battle he served as field assistant to a division commanded by Balbiani . After a successful resistance against the British , Belgrano resumed his work in the Consulate and discontinued his military studies . Because of his knowledge of French he had a brief interview with the defeated Robert Craufurd , who proposed British support for an independentist movement . Belgrano rejected the offer , considering that Britain would readily remove their support if they had a more lucrative option in Europe , and in such case the revolutionaries would be helpless against a Spanish counterattack .
= = = Carlotism = = =
Manuel Belgrano was the main proponent of the Carlotist political movement in the Rio de la Plata , a response to recent developments in Europe , where Spain was at war with France . Through the abdications of Bayonne , the Spanish king Ferdinand VII was deposed and imprisoned and the Frenchman Joseph Bonaparte was appointed King of Spain by the French victors . This led to a partial power vacuum in the viceroyalty , as the legitimacy of the new king was rejected by all parties . The purpose of the Carlotist movement was to replace the authority of the deposed king with that of Carlota Joaquina , sister of Ferdinand , who was then living in Rio de Janeiro . The project was supported as a means to achieve more autonomy , and perhaps independence , for Spanish colonies in the New World . Belgrano kept a fluent mail communication with Carlota , and convinced many independentists to join him in the project , such as Castelli , Vieytes , Nicolás Rodríguez Peña , and Juan José Paso .
The project , however , found strong resistance . As Carlota was married to John VI , a prince of Portugal , many people though that Carlotism was a trick to conceal Portuguese expansionism . Carlota herself had different political ideas than those of her supporters : Belgrano and the others shared the ideas of enlightenment , but Carlota aspired to keep the full power of an absolutist monarchy . By 1810 the project was forgotten .
A new viceroy , Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros , arrived from Europe to replace Liniers . Belgrano had failed to convince Liniers of the benefits of the Carlotist plan , so he aimed instead to convince him of refusing to give up the viceroyalty , as Liniers had been confirmed as viceroy by a Spanish king . Cisneros , appointed by the Junta of Seville , lacked such legitimacy . Liniers refused this proposal as well , and handed command to Cisneros without resistance . Belgrano later convinced the new viceroy to allow him to edit a new newspaper , the " Correo de Comercio " . This allowed him to gather with other revolutionary leaders with the excuse of discussing the development of the newspaper . He also supported Cisneros when he allowed foreign trade at the port ( previously only Spanish ships were allowed ) , but this ruling was strongly rejected by Spanish merchants . The lawyer Mariano Moreno wrote The Representation of the Hacendados , an economic essay that convinced Cisneros to maintain the free foreign trade . Some historians , such as Miguel Ángel Scenna , suggest that the essay was actually Belgrano 's work , or a work by Moreno from a draft written by Belgrano . Belgrano may not have been able to present such a work himself , because he held a political office and because his past opposition to Cisneros may have risked its rejection .
Belgrano resigned from his work in the Consulate in April 1810 and moved to the countryside . A short time later he received a letter from his friends requesting him to return to Buenos Aires and join the revolutionary movements .
= = = May Revolution = = =
The Peninsular War was not developing favourably for Spain , and by May 1810 a ship arrived with the news of the defeat of Seville and the disbanding of the Junta of Seville . Without either a recognised Spanish king or the Junta that had appointed Cisneros , many people thought that the viceroy no longer had any authority . Cisneros tried to conceal the news by gathering all the newspapers brought by the ship , but Belgrano and Castelli managed to get one . Cisneros then explained the European developments to the public . Belgrano and the members of the Carlotist party , despite having given up their original idea , plotted to remove the viceroy and replace him with a junta . Under the advice of Cornelio Saavedra , they waited for the news of the defeat in Spain to take action .
Belgrano and Saavedra , representing the military and the intellectuals , got an interview with Cisneros to request an open cabildo , but without getting an answer . Cisneros called the military leaders and requested their support , but they refused , under the grounds that his viceroyalty lacked legitimacy . Castelli and other patriots insisted in their request , and Cisneros finally accepted . A massive demonstration the following day ensured that Cisneros would keep his word . The open cabildo was held on 22 May , with all political leaders present , and armed men filling the Plaza and ready to invade the cabildo in case the peninsulars attempted a disruption , which would be indicated by a signal from Belgrano . He supported the stance of his cousin Castelli , who made a speech explaining the concept of the retroversion of the sovereignty of the people , and that Spanish America was subject to the King of Spain but not to Spain itself . At the time of voting , Castelli 's proposal was coupled with the one of Cornelio Saavedra , with Belgrano among its supporters . This joint proposal for the removal of Cisneros and the creation of a government junta prevailed over the others . However , the cabildo attempted to keep Cisneros in power in spite of this result , by creating a junta with Cisneros as its president . This was rejected by the revolutionary leaders and the population . A great state of turmoil ended when the Junta was disbanded on 25 May and replaced by the Primera Junta . Belgrano was included in this junta , among many other local politicians .
In his autobiography Belgrano declared that he did not have any previous knowledge of being included in the junta , and that his appointment took him by surprise . Nevertheless , he accepted the role . He was part of the political line of Mariano Moreno ; they were expecting to use the government to make big changes in the social order . One of his first rulings was the making of a Maths Academy , located in the building of the Consulate and with the purpose of instructing the military . Belgrano was appointed its protector . He supported the banishment of Cisneros and the members of the Real Audience , and the execution of Liniers and other counter @-@ revolutionaries defeated in Córdoba . Some historians suggest that he would have promoted the creation of the Operations plan , a secret document written by Moreno that set harsh ways for the junta to achieve its goals , while others consider the whole document a literary forgery done by royalists to discredit the junta . A few others suspect that some paragraphs or the whole document may have been the result of collaborative writing between Moreno , Belgrano , and Hipólito Vieytes .
= = = Expedition to Paraguay = = =
Three months after the creation of the Primera Junta , Manuel Belgrano was appointed Chief Commander of an army sent to gather support at Corrientes , Santa Fe , Paraguay , and the Banda Oriental . A few days later his goal was made more specific : he must aim for Paraguay . The Junta had been informed that the patriotic party was strong , and a small army would suffice to take control . Trusting this information , Belgrano went to Paraguay with two possible goals : get acknowledgment for the Junta in Paraguay or promote a new government that would stay on friendly terms with Buenos Aires . Belgrano was unaware that on 24 July a general assembly in Paraguay discussed the Junta of Buenos Aires , and decided to reject it and pledge allegiance to the Regency Council of Spain .
Belgrano headed north with nearly two hundred men , expecting to gather more people by the end of the Paraná River . Soldiers from the Blandengues regiments of San Nicolás and Santa Fe joined them en route , and later the Junta sent reinforcements of another two hundred soldiers . The army was welcomed by most of the population along the way , receiving donations and new recruits . Ultimately the army was composed of nearly 950 men , consisting of infantry and cavalry divided in four divisions with one piece of artillery each .
By the end of October the army stopped at Curuzú Cuatiá , where Belgrano solved an old border conflict between Corrientes and Yapeyu . He set which territories would belong to Curuzu Cuatiá and Mandisoví , and organised their urban layout around the chapel and school . By November the army arrived at the coast of Paraná near Apipé island , and there Belgrano took measures to benefit the natives that were living in missions . With his authority as speaker of the Junta he gave them full civil and political rights , granted lands , authorised commerce with the United Provinces , and lifted their restriction on taking public or religious office . However , the Junta requested later that he should seek authorization for such changes in the future .
From that point the army moved to Candelaria , which was used as a stronghold for the attack into Paraguay . The terrain gave a clear advantage to the Paraguayan governor Velazco against Belgrano : the Paraná River , nearly 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) wide , was an effective natural barrier , and once it was crossed the patriotic army would have to move a long distance across a land without supplies . Swamps , hills , rivers , and lakes would force the army to march slowly , making a possible retreat very difficult . The Parana was crossed with several boats on 19 December , and a task force of 54 Paraguayan soldiers was forced to flee during the Battle of Campichuelo . Belgrano saw Velazco 's army from the Mbaé hill , and despite being greatly outnumbered , he ordered an attack , trusting in the moral strength of his soldiers . When the Battle of Paraguarí started , the patriots briefly held the upper hand , but eventually Velazco , with superior numbers , prevailed . Even with 10 deaths and 120 soldiers taken prisoner , Belgrano wanted to continue the fight , but his officials convinced him to retreat .
The army left for Tacuarí , being closely watched by the combined armies of Yegros and Cabañas . Those two armies had nearly three thousand soldiers , while Belgrano had barely four hundred . They were attacked from many sides during the Battle of Tacuarí , on 9 March . Greatly outnumbered and losing an unequal fight , Belgrano refused to surrender . He reorganised the remaining 235 men and ordered his secretary to burn all his documents and personal papers to prevent them from falling into enemy hands . Belgrano arranged for the troops and artillery to fire for many minutes , which made the Paraguayan soldiers disperse . When the barrage stopped , Belgrano requested an armistice , telling Cabañas that he had arrived to Paraguay to aid and not to conquer ; considering the open hostility with which he was met , he would leave the province . Cabañas accepted , on the grounds that the remaining group must leave the province within a day .
The campaign to Paraguay was a complete military defeat for Belgrano . However , the aftermath of the conflict led the Paraguayans to replace Belazco with a local junta , and declare independence from Spain . Under the rule of José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia , Paraguay broke ties with Buenos Aires as well , and stayed isolated for several years afterwards .
= = = Creation of the flag of Argentina = = =
After the defeat in Tacuarí , the government of Buenos Aires ( which by then was the First Triumvirate ) issued a series of conflicting orders . First they requested he should fight the royalists in the Banda Oriental , then to return to the city and be judged for the defeats . However , no charges were formulated against him . He was appointed as the head of the Regiment of Patricians , replacing the banished Cornelio Saavedra , but the troops did not accept him and started the Braids Mutiny . After that , the Triumvirate requested that he fortify Rosario against possible royalist attacks from the Banda Oriental . Belgrano created two batteries , " Independencia " ( " Independence " ) and " Libertad " ( " Freedom " ) . After realising that both patriots and royalists were fighting under the same colours , he created the cockade of Argentina , of light blue and white , the use of which was approved by the Triumvirate . The reasons for the colours are usually considered to be either loyalty to the House of Bourbon or his esteem of the Virgin Mary . Belgrano created a flag with the same colours , which was hoisted at Rosario near the Paraná River on 27 February 1812 . On that same day he was appointed to replace Pueyrredon in the Army of the North , so he travelled to Yatasto . He found demoralised officials , nearly 1 @,@ 500 soldiers ( a quarter of them hospitalised ) , minimal artillery , and no money . Some of the officials were Manuel Dorrego , Gregorio Aráoz de Lamadrid , Cornelio Zelaya , José María Paz , Diego Balcarce , and Eustaquio Díaz Vélez . The cities were much more hostile to the Army than those that Belgrano encountered on his way into Paraguay . Salta was menaced by the royalist general José Manuel de Goyeneche ; Belgrano had orders to take command and retreat without fighting , but he disobeyed . He prepared a base at Campo Santo , in Salta , where he improved the hospital and created a military tribunal . He later moved to Jujuy , knowing that he did not have the resources to launch an attack on Upper Perú .
The First Triumvirate did not approve the use of the flag created in Rosario , but Belgrano was initially unaware of that . He had the flag blessed by the priest Juan Ignacio de Gorriti at Salta , on the second anniversary of the May Revolution . When he found out the flag was not approved , he put it away . When asked , he would say that he was keeping it for a great victory .
Three months later royalist general Pío Tristán advanced in the north with more than three thousand men , prepared to invade the United Provinces . Once again outnumbered by larger armies , Belgrano organised a great exodus of the city of Jujuy : the entire population of the city would have to retreat with the army and not leave behind anything that might be of value to the royalists ( such as animals , crops , or housing ) . By September a proper formation of columns provided them with a victory against a royalist task force of 500 men during the Battle of Las Piedras . The First Triumvirate commanded Belgrano to retreat to Cordoba without fighting , but he thought that doing so would mean the loss of the northern provinces . Thus , instead of continuing to Cordoba , he was convinced by the people of San Miguel de Tucumán to make a stand there . His forces had increased by then to nearly 1 @,@ 800 soldiers , still much less than the 3 @,@ 000 at Tristan 's command . Even so , he obtained a victory in the Battle of Tucumán . By that time , the First Triumvirate was replaced by the Second Triumvirate , which provided greater support for Belgrano . The Second Triumvirate called the Assembly of Year XIII soon after taking power , which was intended to declare independence and enact a national constitution , but failed to do so because of political disputes between the members . It did not take measures regarding the national flag , but allowed Belgrano to use the blue and white flag as the flag of the Army of the North .
After the defeat in Tucumán , Tristán garrisoned at the city of Salta with 2 @,@ 500 men . Belgrano , with reinforcements from the government , intended to gather 4 @,@ 000 men and march to Upper Peru , up to the border of the Viceroyalty of Lima . The Battle of Salta , the first battle with the new approved banner , was a decisive victory , ending with the capitulation of Pío Tristán and all of his army .
These victories ensured Argentine authority in the northwest and stopped the royalist advance into the central territory . Although there were a number of colonialist ' invasions ' from Upper Peru until 1821 , Belgrano 's campaign is widely considered the decisive one .
= = = Campaign to Upper Peru = = =
By June 1813 Belgrano set up a base in Potosí with an army of 2 @,@ 500 men , to prepare an attack on Upper Peru . Goyeneche moved to Oruro and resigned , being replaced by Joaquín de la Pezuela . Belgrano administrated the zone and tried to revert the bad impression left by the previous campaign of Juan José Castelli . Belgrano initiated good relations with the natives as well . Belgrano 's plan was to attack the royalists from the front and the sides , with the aid of the armies of Cárdenas and Zelaya . Both armies were near 3 @,@ 500 men . However , the royalists obtained an important advantage by defeating Cárdenas and getting possession of his papers , which gave them insight into the patriotic plans . Belgrano was taken by surprise at Vilcapugio on 1 October , and initially gained the upper hand against the royalist troops , who started to flee . However , when Pezuela saw that the patriotic armies were not following , he reorganised his forces , returned to the battle , and won . There were barely 400 survivors . Belgrano said : " Soldiers : we have lost the battle after so much fighting . Victory has betrayed us by going to the enemy ranks during our triumph . It does not matter ! The flag of the nation still swings in our hands ! " . After gathering his army at Macha , where he received reinforcements from Cochabamba , Belgrano was ready for another engagement with Pezuela , whose troops were not in a better situation . On 14 November , Belgrano was again vanquished by the royalists at Ayohuma , and was forced to withdraw the remains of his army towards Potosí and from there to Jujuy .
The Second Triumvirate reacted by sending José de San Martín to take the command of the Army of the North , with Belgrano as his second in command . San Martín would reinforce the battle @-@ weary Army of the North with his own soldiers . Hastened by Belgrano 's illness , San Martín travelled to the rendezvous as quickly as possible ; they met at the Yatasto relay , in Salta . Belgrano gave San Martin full freedom to implement changes , and took command of the First Regiment . The Second Triumvirate , and later the Supreme Director Gervasio Posadas , requested Belgrano to return to Buenos Aires and be judged for the defeats at Vilcapugio and Ayohuma , but San Martín refused to send him because of his poor health . San Martín finally agreed to send Belgrano to Córdoba by March 1814 . He temporarily settled in Luján to await outcome of the trial , and during this time he wrote his autobiography . Soon afterwards , all charges against Belgrano were dismissed , as no definite accusation was formulated against him . The new government , trusting in Belgrano 's diplomatic abilities , sent him on a mission to Europe to negotiate support for the independence of the United Provinces .
= = = Declaration of Independence = = =
By 1814 the Spanish King Ferdinand VII had returned to the throne and started the Absolutist Restauration , which had grave consequences for the governments in the Americas . Belgrano and Bernardino Rivadavia were sent to Europe to seek support for the United Provinces from both Spain and Britain . They sought to promote the crowning of Francisco de Paula , son of Charles IV of Spain , as regent of the United Provinces , but in the end he refused to act against the interests of the King of Spain . The diplomatic mission failed , but Belgrano learned of changes in ideology that had taken place in Europe since his previous visit . With the influence of the French Revolution , there had been a great consensus for making republican governments . After the government of Napoleon I , monarchies were preferred again , but in the form of constitutional monarchies , such as in Britain . He also noticed that the European powers approved of the South American revolutions , but the approval was compromised when the countries started to fall into anarchy .
When the emissaries returned to Buenos Aires , the government was worried by the defeats of Rondeau at Sipe Sipe and the political stir generated by José Gervasio Artigas and Estanislao López . Alvarez Thomas appointed Belgrano to head the army at Rosario , but shortly afterwards Thomas resigned . Pueyrredón became the new Supreme Director . With the signing of the Santo Tomé pact , the aforementioned army was retired from Rosario . Belgrano was then sent back to take command of the Army of the North , with the strong support of San Martín . " In the case of designating who must replace Rondeau , I am decided for Belgrano ; he is the most methodical man of all whom I know in America ; he is full of integrity and natural talent . He may not have the military knowledge of a Moreau or a Bonaparte as far as the army is concerned , but I think he is the best we have in South America " .
Belgrano met with the Congress of Tucuman on 6 July 1816 to explain the results of his diplomatic mission in Europe . He thought that enacting a local monarchy would help to prevent anarchy , which would not end simply with independence from Spain . He felt a declaration of independence would be more easily accepted by the European powers if it created a monarchic system . To this end he formulated the Inca Plan : a monarchy ruled by a noble of the Inca civilisation . He thought that this would generate support from the indigenous populations as well , and repair the actions taken against the Inca by the Spanish colonisation . This proposal was supported by San Martín , Güemes , the deputies from the Upper Peru , and other provinces , but it found a strong rejection from Buenos Aires ; they would not accept Cuzco as the capital city . On 9 July the Congress finally signed the Declaration of Independence from Spain . The flag created by Belgrano , which was being used without a law regulating it , was accepted as the national flag . The Inca Plan was still under discussion , but the Congress delayed it due to several states of emergency in the provinces caused by the war .
In August Belgrano again took command of the Army of the North , but with very limited people and resources . He was ordered to avoid trying to advance against the royalists in the north , and was to stay in a defensive state at Tucumán . With Güemes in Salta , his task was to prevent the Royalists from moving to the south . The Supreme Director Pueyrredón was supporting an alternative plan designed by José de San Martín : create the Army of the Andes at Cuyo and , after making the Crossing of the Andes , defeat the royalists in Chile , get control of the Chilean navy , and attack the royalist stronghold of Lima with it .
= = = Last years = = =
In 1819 Buenos Aires was at war with José Gervasio Artigas and Estanislao López , and requested San Martín and Belgrano to return with their armies to take part in the conflict . San Martín refused to do so , but Belgrano accepted . However , before his arrival the governors Estanislao López and Juan José Viamonte signed an eight @-@ day truce to start peace negotiations . Belgrano 's health was in a very bad state by this point , but he refused to resign , thinking that the morale of the Army would suffer without his presence . He moved to the frontier between Santa Fe and Córdoba , from where he would be able to move to either the litoral or the north if needed . His health continued to worsen , and he was given an unlimited leave from work by the Supreme Director . He handed command to Fernández de la Cruz and moved to Tucumán , where he met his daughter Manuela Mónica , just one year old . The governor of Tucuman , Feliciano de la Motta , was deposed during his stay , and Belgrano was taken prisoner . Abraham González led the uprising and attempted to put Belgrano into a shrew 's fiddle , but Belgrano 's doctor Josef Redhead objected , because of his delicate health , and his sentence was changed to simple imprisonment . When Bernabé Araoz took control of the government of Tucumán , Belgrano was immediately released .
He returned to Buenos Aires , to his parent 's house . By that time the Battle of Cepeda had ended the authority of the Supreme Directors , starting the period known as Anarchy of the year 20 . On 20 June 1820 , at the age of 50 , Belgrano died of dropsy . Due to his poverty , as the war consumed all his old wealth , he paid his doctor with his clock and his carriage , some of the few possessions he still had . As requested , he was shrouded into the robes of the Dominican Order , and buried in the Santo Domingo convent . Before dying , Belgrano said " Ay , Patria mía " ( in Spanish , " Oh , my Fatherland " ) .
Due to the state of anarchy being experienced by the city , Belgrano 's death was largely unnoticed . The only newspaper of the time to note his death was El Despertador Teofilantrópico , written by Francisco de Paula Castañeda , and there was no government representation at his funeral . Former students of his educative institutions would arrive in the following days with obsequies , when the news started to be known . The following year the political context was less chaotic and Bernardino Rivadavia , who was minister by then , organised a massive state funeral .
In 1902 , during the presidency of Julio Argentino Roca , Belgrano 's body was exhumed from the atrium of Santo Domingo , to be moved into a mausoleum . This was done on 4 September , by a government commission which included Dr. Joaquín V. González ( ministry of interior ) , Pablo Riccheri ( ministry of war ) , Gabriel L. Souto ( president of the commission ) , Fray Modesto Becco ( from the convent ) , Carlos Vega Belgrano and coronel Manuel Belgrano ( descendants of Belgrano ) , Dr. Armando Claros ( subsecretary of the Interior ) , Dr. Marcial Quiroga ( Health Inspector of the Army ) , Dr. Carlos Malbrán ( president of the National Department of Health ) , Coronel Justo Domínguez , and doctors Luis Peluffo and C. Massot ( Arsenal of War ) . The exhumation revealed a number of preserved bones , pieces of wood , and nails . The bones were placed on a silver plate , and the following day there was a great controversy in the press : the newspaper La Prensa announced that Joaquín V. González and Riccheri had stolen a pair of teeth . Both were returned the following day . Gonzalez declared that he intended to show the tooth to his friends , and Riccheri that he took one to Belgrano 's biographer , Bartolomé Mitre .
= = Personal life = =
Manuel Belgrano met María Josefa Ezcurra , sister of Encarnación Ezcurra , at the age of 22 . Her father , Juan Ignacio Ezcurra , did not approve of their relationship because of the bankruptcy of Domingo Belgrano , Manuel 's father . Juan Ignacio arranged the wedding of his daughter with Juan Esteban Ezcurra , a distant relative from Pamplona that worked selling clothes . Juan Ignacio opposed the May Revolution and returned to Spain , leaving his wife in Buenos Aires , which allowed her to return to her former relationship with Belgrano .
When Belgrano was dispatched to Upper Peru , María Josefa followed him to Jujuy . She took part in the Jujuy Exodus and saw the battle of Tucumán . It is thought that she was pregnant by this time . Her son , Pedro Pablo , was born on 30 July 1813 . Pedro Pablo was adopted by Encarnación Ezcurra and her husband , Juan Manuel de Rosas , who she had married shortly before .
Belgrano also met María Dolores Helguero in Tucumán , and briefly considered getting married , but the war forced a postponement . María Dolores married another man ; the relationship ended , but was briefly restarted in 1818 . While he was near the frontiers of Córdoba , Santa Fe , and Buenos Aires , and in a delicate state of health , he learned that María Dolores had given birth to his daughter , Manuela Mónica del Sagrado Corazón , who was born on 4 May 1819 .
Neither of these children were recognised by Belgrano in his will , where he said he had no children . However , it is thought that he did not mention them in order to protect their mothers , as both children were the result of relations that the moral standards of the society of the day would not have accepted . Nevertheless , he requested that his brother , Joaquín Eulogio Estanislao Belgrano , who was appointed as his heir , should look after his newborn daughter .
= = = Diseases = = =
There are no records of diseases experienced by Belgrano during his youth or adolescence . His first illness dates from the time of his return to Buenos Aires , when he worked in the Consulate ; he experienced symptoms of syphilis caught during his stay in Spain . He was treated by the most prestigious physicians of the city : Miguel Gorman from the Protomedicato of Buenos Aires , Miguel García de Rojas , and José Ignacio de Arocha . This disease forced him to take long leaves from his work at the Consulate and take repose stays at Maldonado and San Isidro . He was treated with salts and iodines , and his condition eventually improved . It is also suspected that he may have had rheumatism . By the year 1800 he had a growing lacrimal fistula in one of his eyes and was invited by the King to move to Spain for a cure . He was offered a one @-@ year leave with paid wages , but he rejected it , giving priority to his work for the nation over his own personal health . The fistula would later stabilise at a safe and unnoticeable size .
During his military career he had blood vomits , such as before the Battle of Salta ; he was almost too ill to participate in the battle . It is thought that those vomits originated in the digestive system and were caused by stress , and not in the respiratory system , because the vomits were sporadic , the condition did not become chronic , and it eventually cured itself . Nothing was revealed in the autopsy .
Belgrano also experienced paludism ( malaria ) during the second campaign to Upper Peru . On 3 May 1815 he informed the government of his disease , which made it difficult for him to work or even talk . He was treated by doctor Joseph Readhead , who employed a local species of the Cinchona medicinal plant . The disease lasted up to his stay in Britain , when his health improved because of the treatment and by having left the endemic zone .
He also experienced stomach disease , having a low production of gastric acids . This was worsened by harsh military conditions , including long periods with little food . The first references to the disease that would lead to his death , a case of edema , are from a year before , in a letter directed to Álvarez Thomas . He declared having problems in the chest , a lung , and his right leg . A later letter to Sarratea confirmed his situation , and specified that it started on 23 April 1819 . The gravity of his condition led the doctor Francisco de Paula Rivero to diagnose an advanced dropsy . Belgrano returned to Buenos Aires , where he died . He was embalmed by Joseph Redhead and Juan Sullivan . Sullivan performed the autopsy ; it revealed high levels of fluid in multiple edemas and a tumor in the right epigastrium . The liver and spleen had grown beyond normal levels , there were hamartomas in the kidneys , and problems with the lungs and heart .
= = = Family tree = = =
= = = = Father 's side = = = =
= = = = Mother 's side = = = =
= = Works = =
= = = Political thought = = =
Manuel Belgrano had a vast intellectual awareness of most important topics of his age . He studied in Europe during the Atlantic Revolutions , and was a versatile polyglot , capable of understanding Spanish , English , French , Italian , and some indigenous languages . This allowed him to read many influential books of the Age of Enlightenment , and understand the social , economic , technical , educative , political , cultural , and religious changes that were being prompted by the new ideas . He helped to promote those ideas using the press and with his work in the Consulate . He rejected localist perspectives , favouring a Latin Americanist one . He was driven by the concept of the common good , which he regarded as an ethical value . He considered public health , education , and work as part of the common good , as well as religion . He did not share completely the ideas of the French Revolution , but instead the tempered ones of the Spanish Enlightenment : most notably , he remained a monarchist and held strong religious beliefs , being Roman Catholic and a devotee of Marian theology . His monarchism was not a conservative one , as he agreed that the existing state of things should be modified , but not towards a republic as in France or the United States , but towards a constitutional monarchy , like in Britain .
In the economic fields , he was influenced by the principles of physiocracy , an economic doctrine that considered that nature was the source of wealth . As a result , much of his works and reform proposals at the Consulate were oriented towards improving agriculture , livestock , manufacturing , and free trade . He maintained a fluent contact with the consulates of other cities , developing a view of the viceroyalty as a whole . This led to an increased work in cartography of the largely unpopulated areas of the territory ; the maps designed during this period would later prove a great help for José de San Martín during the Crossing of the Andes . He introduced new crops , and promoted the use of local fauna for livestock production . He protected the weaving industry by increasing the production of cotton in Cochabamba , as he considered the local crop to be of similar quality to the cotton from Europe .
= = = Promotion of education = = =
Manuel Belgrano was one of the first politicians to advocate the development of an important educative system . He did so at the first report he made as head of the Consulate of Commerce , suggesting the creating of schools of agriculture and commerce . A school of agriculture would teach about important topics such as crop rotation , the specific ways to work with each crop , methods of seeding and harvesting , preservation of seeds , and identification of pests . Until that time , the only previous attempts to teach agriculture was done by the Jesuits , who were banished in 1767 .
He was not only concerned with higher education , but also with primary education , and promoted the creation of free schools for poor children . In those schools , students would learn to read and learn basic maths and the catechism . He thought that this would help to raise people willing to work , and reduce laziness .
He also promoted the creation of schools for women , where they would learn about weaving , as well as reading . However , he did not aim to generate intellectual women , but just to prevent ignorance and laziness , and have them learn things valuable for daily living . Being a strong Catholic himself , he was aligned with the Catholic perspective that rejected mixed @-@ sex education , in contrast with Protestantism .
His concern with public education was not interrupted by his military campaigns . In 1813 he was rewarded with 40 @,@ 000 pesos for his victories at Salta and Tucumán , an amount that would equal almost 80 gold kilograms . Belgrano rejected taking the prize money for himself , considering that a patriot should not seek money or wealth . He gave it back to the XIII year Assembly , with instructions to build primary schools at Tarija , Jujuy , San Miguel de Tucumán , and Santiago del Estero . He laid out a series of instructions about the methods and requirements for the selection of the teachers . However , the schools were not built , and by 1823 Bernardino Rivadavia declared that the money was lost ; Juan Ramón Balcarce included it in the debt of the Buenos Aires province a decade later .
= = = Translations = = =
The historian Bartolomé Mitre stated that Manuel Belgrano held a deep admiration for George Washington , leader of the American Revolution and first President of the United States . Because of this , he worked on a translation of George Washington 's Farewell Address into the Spanish language . He started working on it during the Paraguay Campaign , but before the battle of Tacuarí he destroyed all his papers , including the unfinished translation , to prevent them from falling into enemy hands . Belgrano resumed work on it afterwards and finished it before the Battle of Salta . He sent it to Buenos Aires for publication . George Washington 's Farewell Address is considered , along with Gettysburg Address , one of the most important texts in the history of the United States . It talks about the importance of keeping national unity as the key to maintain independence , prosperity , and freedom — ideas that were shared by Belgrano regarding the population of Hispanic America .
= = Legacy = =
Belgrano is considered one of the greatest heroes in Argentina 's history . A monument complex ( Monumento Nacional a la Bandera , National Flag Memorial ) was built in 1957 in honour of the flag , in Rosario . The Flag Memorial and the park that surround it are the seat of national celebrations every Flag Day , on 20 June , the anniversary of Belgrano 's death . Jujuy Province is declared the honorary capital of Argentina each 23 August since 2002 , in reference to the Jujuy Exodus .
The cruiser ARA General Belgrano , which was sunk during the Falklands War , was named after him , as was Puerto Belgrano , which is the largest base of the Argentinian navy . A small town in the province of Córdoba , Argentina , Villa General Belgrano , also bears his name , as well as many other small towns and departments . Avenida Belgrano in the City of Buenos Aires and part of the avenue that leads to the Flag Memorial in Rosario ( also Avenida Belgrano ) bear his name . Additionally , there is a northern neighbourhood within Buenos Aires city that carries the name Belgrano .
In the museum Casa de la Libertad at Sucre , Bolivia , there is an Argentine flag , protected by a glass case and in a deteriorated condition , which they claim to be the original one raised by Belgrano for first time in 1812 . The ensign was one of two abandoned and hidden inside a small church near Macha after the battle of Ayohuma , during the retreat from Upper Peru in 1813 . The other flag was given back to Argentina by the Bolivian authorities in 1896 .
In Genoa , Italy , there is a commemorative statue of Belgrano , at the end of the Corso Buenos Aires .
= = = Historiography = = =
The first biography of Manuel Belgrano was his autobiography , which he wrote by the time he was stationed in Lujan . It long remained unpublished . His first biography written by someone else was " Bosquejo histórico del General Don Manuel Belgrano " ( Historical stub on General Don Manuel Belgrano ) , authored by José Ignacio Álvarez Thomas . Álvarez Thomas wrote it during his exile at Colonia del Sacramento , and his work had a high political bias .
The historian Bartolomé Mitre wrote Historia de Belgrano y de la Independencia Argentina ( Spanish : History of Belgrano and of the Independence of Argentina ) , whose scope expanded on the simple biography of Belgrano himself , and detailed instead the Argentine War of Independence as a whole . The work followed the Great Man theory , linking the success in the war of independence to the figure of Belgrano and his natal Buenos Aires . This book included as well the autobiography of Belgrano , which was discovered by Mitre . The book was criticised by contemporary Argentine authors , such as Dalmacio Vélez Sarsfield and Juan Bautista Alberdi , born in other provinces , and Vicente Fidel López . Vélez Sarsfield dismissed the Great Man theory and maintained that the work of the other provinces for the Argentine independence was as important as that of Buenos Aires . He criticised the work of Mitre at " Rectificaciones históricas : General Belgrano , General Güemes " ( Historical rectifications : General Belgrano , General Güemes ) which dealt with Martín Miguel de Güemes as well , and Mitre would answer at " Estudios históricos sobre la Revolución de Mayo : Belgrano y Güemes " ( Historical studies about the May Revolution : Belgrano and Güemes ) . Both books were written in 1864 . Vicente López provided a biography of Belgrano from a different angle , his book was " Debate histórico , refutaciones a las comprobaciones históricas sobre la Historia de Belgrano " ( Historical debate , rebuttals to the historical checkings about the history of Belgrano ) , and Mitre replied with " Nuevas comprobaciones sobre historia argentina " ( New checkings about the history of Argentina ) . López considered history as an art form , and Mitre considered it a science , rejecting historical narrations that could not be backed by primary sources . These disputes about Belgrano are considered the starting point of the Historiography of Argentina . Historiographical studies of Manuel Belgrano are currently held by the Belgranian National Institute .
= = = Numismatics = = =
Belgrano appears on a number of currencies in the numismatic history of Argentina . He appeared for the first time on the banknotes of 1 , 5 , and 10 pesos according to the Peso Ley 18 @.@ 188 , in effect from 1970 to 1983 . He was later included on the 10 @,@ 000 pesos banknotes of the pesos argentinos , the highest banknote value in circulation . The Argentine austral had a number of political and military figures that did not include Belgrano , but later the 10 @,@ 000 pesos argentinos banknotes were allowed to be used as australes . The current Argentine peso displays Belgrano on 10 @-@ peso banknote . The 1997 and 2002 series only modified small details .
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= Kimberley Joseph =
Kimberley Joseph ( born August 30 , 1973 ) is a Canadian Australian actress who is based in the United States . Joseph was born in Canada , raised on the Gold Coast in Australia , and educated in Switzerland . After returning to Australia , she began a degree at Bond University but dropped out at the age of 19 when she was cast in the soap opera Paradise Beach . She had no formal acting training but appeared in the soap for the 18 months it was produced . After Paradise Beach ended , she had casual work on Hey Hey It 's Saturday before co @-@ hosting the popular Seven Network series Gladiators .
After two series of Gladiators , Joseph was eager to return to acting , so took the role of villain Joanne Brennan in Home and Away from 1995 to 1996 . In 1999 , she moved to the United States to study acting at the Atlantic Theater Company in New York City , then spent 18 months unsuccessfully auditioning for roles in Los Angeles . In 2001 , she was cast as Jo Ellison in the British television series Cold Feet . She appeared in the fourth and fifth series and returned to Australia two days after filming the final episode in 2002 . In 2004 , she appeared in a major recurring role as Dr. Grace Connelly in six episodes of the Australian soap opera All Saints . She returned to America after filming All Saints , where she got a small role as flight attendant Cindy Chandler in the pilot episode of Lost . The role was supposed to be a one @-@ off in the pilot but a producer liked Joseph and the character , so brought her back for a recurring role in the second , third and sixth seasons . Away from acting , Joseph has been involved in efforts to highlight the effects of Soviet nuclear testing in Kazakhstan , including directing a short film .
= = Early life = =
Kimberley Joseph was born on August 30 , 1973 in Vancouver , British Columbia , Canada to Joe and Wendy . Joe , a Canadian businessman , met Wendy , an Australian air hostess , while she was in Canada . When Kimberley was three years old , the family moved to Australia 's Gold Coast , where she attended St Hilda 's School for the next nine years . The family travelled extensively in Europe , and Kimberley attended a private school in Montreux , Switzerland for four years . While there , she learned to speak French and Spanish . When she returned to Australia , she started a degree in arts and commerce at Bond University , though did not complete it .
= = Career = =
At the age of 19 , Joseph dropped out of University after getting the part of Cassie Barsby in the soap opera Paradise Beach . Like many of the cast , she had no formal acting training , though she turned this to her advantage with " exuberance and energy " . Joseph gained acting experience and friendships with Raelee Hill , Megan Connolly , and Isla Fisher , though the series was cancelled after only 18 months . After Paradise Beach ended , she began appearing in the Nine Network variety show Hey Hey It 's Saturday . Joseph had no contract with Nine , and was making the appearances as a favor to her friend , host Daryl Somers . Nine Network executives wanted to make her a regular on the show and began using her in publicity material . However , rival network Seven offered her a contract to co @-@ host Gladiators before Nine could make her Hey Hey contract permanent . Her defection to Seven in 1995 caused a small scandal . She described hosting Gladiators as " tough and scary " on account of the live audience . She appeared for three seasons and some international specials before taking the role of Joanne Brennan in Home and Away in an effort to get away from presenting . The character , a secretary who dealt drugs to school children , appeared from 1995 to 1996 . She left the soap with the possibility of returning to the character later . Alongside her role in Home and Away , she appeared in a play with Geoffrey Hughes .
Until 1999 , she continued working as a " jobbing actress " , making appearances in Hercules : the Legendary Journeys and Sale of the Century , and Tales of the South Seas . Eager to move away from soap opera acting , Joseph moved to the United States to study acting with the Atlantic Theater Company in New York City . She then moved to Los Angeles , where she spent 18 months living off her savings trying to get auditions . In those 18 months , her only jobs were a single commercial and a job interviewing LA @-@ based film actors for Australian television . In 2001 , her lawyer informed her that she would have to travel to Sydney , Australia to be interviewed for her green card . On the day she was due to fly back to Australia , her agent informed her of an audition for the British television series Cold Feet , whose producer was looking for an Australian actress to become a new main cast member . Two weeks later she had moved to Manchester , England and was doing script read @-@ throughs with the rest of the cast . Her character , Jo Ellison , appeared in all episodes of the fourth and fifth series . Two days after filming the final episode in 2002 , Joseph left Britain and returned to Australia .
In 2004 , she appeared on Australian television for the first time since 1999 , playing Dr. Grace Connelly in six episodes of All Saints . The day after she completed filming of her scenes , she returned to Los Angeles for the pilot season . She got a small part as a flight attendant in the pilot episode of Lost . Joseph 's scenes , on an airplane set , were filmed over two and a half days in Los Angeles . An early script draft of the pilot called for her character to be seen dead on a beach , though subsequent rewrites removed the scene . A producer liked Joseph and her character , and planned to bring both back to the series at a later date . She returned at the beginning of the second season , when it was revealed that her character , given the name Cindy Chandler , had survived the plane crash in the pilot episode along with other passengers from the tail section of the plane . Despite being asked not to change her appearance too much after the pilot , Joseph had her hair cut , so in her first few episodes of the second season she had to " go through the whole debacle of putting a Rambo scarf around [ her ] head , which just looked ridiculous . " Her episodes for season two were filmed over five weeks and were broadcast in 2005 . Her character was abducted in the middle of an episode and was not seen again until in the third season , when Joseph reprised the role for two episodes and the whereabouts of her character are revealed . Joseph resumed the role for the sixth and final season in 2010 .
Joseph also filmed minor roles in two Ron Howard films ; in Frost / Nixon ( 2008 ) , she portrayed tennis champion Evonne Goolagong , and she had a minor role in Angels & Demons ( 2009 ) . Although of a different ethnicity to Goolagong , she was cast in Frost / Nixon because she had the " right look " . Both of her scenes were cut from the films before release .
Currently ( 2011 ) Joseph appears as the featured actress in television commercials for HughesNet , the satellite @-@ based Internet Service Provider .
In 2013 , Joseph appeared in Linkin Park 's music video for their single Castle of Glass . Joseph played the bereaved wife of a deceased Navy SEAL .
= = Personal life = =
Joseph lives in Los Angeles , where she is based for acting . She has been involved in Aid International projects highlighting the effects of Soviet nuclear testing in Semey , Kazakhstan . In 2003 she visited the area with Scottish MEP Struan Stevenson , where she photographed victims of radiation poisoning . The photographs were displayed in the Scottish Parliament building in 2004 and published in Stevenson 's book Crying Forever in 2006 . She returned to the area with Stevenson in July 2008 and has developing a documentary film to attract international attention to the area . The 13 @-@ minute film , entitled When the Dust Settles , premiered on 12 November 2009 at the Birch Carroll & Coyle cinema in Southport , Queensland .
Joseph and partner Scott Chrisman have a son , Gabriel , born in 2013 .
= = Filmography = =
As host
Gladiators ( 1995 – 1996 )
Gladiators : The Ashes 1 ( 1995 – 1996 )
International Gladiators 2 ( 1996 )
As director
When the Dust Settles ( 2009 ; documentary short )
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= Leona Woods =
Leona Harriet Woods ( August 9 , 1919 – November 10 , 1986 ) , later known as Leona Woods Marshall and Leona Woods Marshall Libby , was an American physicist who helped build the first nuclear reactor and the first atomic bomb .
At age 23 , she was the youngest and only female member of the team which built and experimented with the world 's first nuclear reactor ( then called a pile ) , Chicago Pile @-@ 1 , in a project led by her mentor Enrico Fermi . In particular , Woods was instrumental in the construction and then utilization of geiger counters for analysis during experimentation . She was the only woman present when the reactor went critical . She worked with Fermi on the Manhattan Project , and , together with her first husband John Marshall , she subsequently helped solve the problem of xenon poisoning at the Hanford plutonium production site , and supervised the construction and operation of Hanford 's plutonium production reactors .
After the war , she became a fellow at Fermi 's Institute for Nuclear Studies . She later worked at the Institute for Advanced Studies in Princeton , New Jersey , the Brookhaven National Laboratory , and New York University , where she became a professor in 1962 . Her research involved high @-@ energy physics , astrophysics and cosmology . In 1966 she divorced Marshall and married Nobel laureate Willard Libby . She became a professor at the University of Colorado , and a staff member at RAND Corporation . In later life she became interested in ecological and environmental issues , and she devised a method of using the isotope ratios in tree rings to study climate change . She was a strong advocate of food irradiation as a means of killing harmful bacteria .
= = Early life = =
Leona Harriet Woods was born on a farm in La Grange , Illinois on August 9 , 1919 , the second of five children of Weightstill Arno Woods , a lawyer , and his wife Mary Leona Holderness Woods . She had two sisters and two brothers . She graduated from Lyons Township High School in La Grange at 14 , and received her BS in chemistry from the University of Chicago in 1938 , at the age of 18 .
After passing her qualifying exams in chemistry , she approached the Nobel Prize for Physics laureate James Franck about being his graduate student , having been impressed by a talk he gave in 1939 on Brillouin zones . Franck accepted , but told her that when he was young his professor had warned him that as a Jewish academic , he would starve to death . Franck therefore warned Woods that " You are a woman and you will starve to death . " Despite the fact that Franck did not look malnourished , she took the warning seriously , and decided to instead become a graduate student of Robert Mulliken , who would one day become a Nobel laureate himself .
Mulliken allowed her to choose her own research problem , and edited the final version before it appeared in the Physical Review . Her doctoral thesis , " On the Silicon Oxide Bands " , prepared under the supervision of Mulliken and Polish chemist Stanisław Mrozowski was accepted in 1943 . Mulliken , she later recalled , had twice told her " that perhaps not all he taught me was wasted . " His students , she noted , " agree that this is his highest praise . "
= = Manhattan Project = =
By 1942 , when she was finishing writing up her thesis , she was the youngest and last of Mulliken 's pre @-@ war students , and was working alone because all her fellow students had become involved with war work . She met Herbert Anderson , who was working for Enrico Fermi . The two would go swimming together in Lake Michigan every afternoon at 5 pm . Anderson discovered that Woods was adept with vacuum technology from her research , and as soon as her PhD was finished , he hired her to work with the boron trifluoride detectors used to measure neutron flux .
Fermi 's group constructed a nuclear reactor known as Chicago Pile @-@ 1 under the stands of Stagg Field , the University 's abandoned football stadium , where Woods had once played squash . Walter Zinn did not want a woman involved in the dirty work of placing the graphite blocks , but Woods had plenty of work to do with the detectors and thermocouples , and used a small stack of graphite of her own to measure the effects of a radium @-@ beryllium source on manganese foil to obtain a measure of the neutron cross section in order to calibrate the detectors . Woods was the only woman present when the reactor went critical , asking Fermi " When do we become scared ? "
Laura Fermi remembered Woods as " a tall young girl built like an athlete , who could do a man 's job and do it well . She was the only woman physicist in Enrico 's group . At that time , her mother , who was also endowed with inexhaustible energy , was running a small farm near Chicago almost by herself . To relieve Mrs. Woods of some work , Leona divided her time between atoms and potatoes . "
Like many scientists working on the project , Woods affected a casual attitude towards the danger posed by radiation . After a morning with Willard Libby soldering a canister containing a mixture of radium salt and beryllium metal , Woods absorbed about 200 roentgens , and her white blood cell count halved . The doctors gave her a lecture on how a woman has only a fixed number of egg cells , a proposition that Woods was skeptical of . She considered that the important thing was that the solder was done correctly . When the team moved to their new home at Argonne , Woods had a dormitory all to herself .
Woods married John Marshall in July 1943 . Soon after , she fell pregnant . While she told Enrico Fermi , they agreed not to let Walter Zinn know , for fear that he would insist that she leave the reactor building . She covered up her pregnant belly with her baggy denim work clothes . She rode to work each day on an unheated Army bus , " arriving each morning barely in time to vomit before starting the day 's work . " The child , a boy called Peter , was born in 1944 . She returned to work a few days later .
A team from Argonne was on hand for powering up the first reactor at the Hanford Site , where large reactors would produce plutonium for bombs . They watched the reactor in shifts , with John Marshall and others on the day shift , Enrico Fermi and Leona Marshall on the night shift , ending at midnight , and Don Hughes and John Wheeler on the swing shift . While the Marshalls were babysitting the reactor in Hanford , they left Peter with Leona 's mother .
The reactor was powered up successfully , but after a few hours the power level dropped and the reactor shut down . Leona speculated that a water leak was the problem , rather than a radioactive poison . However , during the night the operators were able to power the reactor up again only to have it once more die away . The timings now pointed to a radioactive poison . After working through the numbers with slide rules and hand calculators , they determined the Neutron cross section of the poison , which turned out to be xenon @-@ 135 . Fortunately , the DuPont engineers had equipped the reactor with 50 per cent more fuel tubes that the physicists had called for , and by loading them up , they managed to get the reactor started .
Asked many years later about how she felt about her involvement in the Manhattan Project , she said :
I think everyone was terrified that we were wrong ( in our way of developing the bomb ) and the Germans were ahead of us . That was a persistent and ever @-@ present fear , fed , of course , by the fact that our leaders knew those people in Germany . They went to school with them . Our leaders were terrified , and that terror fed to us . If the Germans had got it before we did , I don 't know what would have happened to the world . Something different . Germany led in the field of physics . In every respect , at the time war set in , when Hitler lowered the boom . It was a very frightening time .
I certainly do recall how I felt when the atomic bombs were used . My brother @-@ in @-@ law was captain of the first minesweeper scheduled into Sasebo Harbor . My brother was a Marine , with a flame thrower on Okinawa . I 'm sure these people would not have lasted in an invasion . It was pretty clear the war would continue , with half a million of our fighting men dead not to say how many Japanese . You know and I know that General ( Curtis ) LeMay firebombed Tokyo and nobody even mentions the slaughter that happened then . They think Nagasaki and Hiroshima were something compared to the firebombing .
THEY 'RE WRONG !
I have no regrets . I think we did right , and we couldn 't have done it differently . Yeah . I know it has been suggested the second bomb , Nagasaki , was not necessary . The guys who cry on shoulders , when you are in a war , to the death , I don 't think you stand around and ask , " Is it right ? "
= = Post @-@ war career = =
After the war , Leona Marshall returned to the University of Chicago , where she became a fellow at Fermi 's Institute for Nuclear Studies . Working with the Chicago Pile 3 heavy water reactor , she found a way to 100 percent spin polarize neutron beams , and determined the refractive index of neutrons for various materials . Her second child , John Marshall III , was born in 1949 . She became an assistant professor in 1953 .
After Fermi died in 1954 , the Marshalls separated . John Marshall returned to the Los Alamos Laboratory , while Leona , now effectively a single mother , became a fellow at the Institute for Advanced Studies in Princeton , New Jersey in 1957 . The following year she became a fellow at the Brookhaven National Laboratory , at a time when the focus of research in physics was shifting away from the nucleus and towards elementary particles . In 1960 , she joined New York University as an associate professor of physics . She became a professor in 1962 .
Three years later , she became a professor at the University of Colorado , researching high @-@ energy physics , astrophysics and cosmology . She then became a staff member at RAND Corporation , where she worked until 1976 . In 1966 , she divorced John Marshall , and married Willard Libby , who had won the Nobel prize in 1960 . She later joined him at UCLA , where she became a visiting professor of environmental studies , engineering , engineering archaeology , mechanical aerospace and nuclear engineering in 1973 .
Now known as Leona Marshall Libby , she became interested in ecological and environmental issues , and she devised a method of using the isotope ratios of Oxygen @-@ 18 to Oxygen @-@ 16 , Carbon @-@ 13 to Carbon @-@ 12 , and Deuterium to Hydrogen in tree rings to study changes in temperature and rainfall patterns hundreds of years before records were kept , opening the door to the study of climate change .
Like Willard Libby , she was a strong advocate of food irradiation as a means of killing off harmful bacteria , and advocated that legal and regulatory restrictions on its use be relaxed . She proposed that , instead of it being sprayed with malathion , fruit affected by the Mediterranean fruit fly could be treated with gamma rays .
She was a prolific author , publishing over 200 scientific papers . While at RAND she wrote a paper on Creation of an Atmosphere for the Moon ( 1969 ) . Her works include the autobiographical The Uranium People ( 1979 ) , a history of early atomic research . After Libby died in 1980 , she edited his papers with Rainer Berger , and published The Life Work of Nobel Laureate Willard Libby ( 1982 ) . Her last paper , on quasi @-@ stellar objects , appeared in 1984 .
She died at St. John 's Medical Center in Santa Monica , California , on November 10 , 1986 , from an anesthesia @-@ induced stroke . She was survived by her sons Peter and John , and four grandchildren . She also had two stepdaughters , Janet Eva Libby and Susan Charlotte Libby from her second marriage .
= = Selected bibliography = =
Libby , L. , M. ( 1969 ) Creation of an atmosphere for the moon . Rand Corporation .
Libby , L. , M. ( 1970 ) Fifty environmental problems of timely importance . Rand Corporation .
Libby , L. , M. ( 1979 ) The Uranium People . Crane , Russak .
Libby , L. , M. ( 1980 ) The upside down cosmology and the lack of solar neutrinos .
Libby , L. , M. ( 1982 ) Life Work of Nobel Laureate Willard Frank Libby .
Libby , L. , M. ( 1982 ) Carbon Dioxide and Climate . Pergamon .
Libby , L. , M. ( 1983 ) Past Climates : Tree Thermometers , Commodities , and People . Texas : University of Texas .
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= Jehovah 's Witnesses =
Jehovah 's Witnesses is a millenarian restorationist Christian denomination with nontrinitarian beliefs distinct from mainstream Christianity . The group claims a worldwide membership of more than 8 @.@ 2 million adherents involved in evangelism , convention attendance figures of more than 15 million , and an annual Memorial attendance of more than 19 @.@ 9 million . Jehovah 's Witnesses are directed by the Governing Body of Jehovah 's Witnesses , a group of elders in Brooklyn , New York , which establishes all doctrines based on its interpretations of the Bible . They prefer to use their own translation , the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures , although their literature occasionally quotes and cites other translations . They believe that the destruction of the present world system at Armageddon is imminent , and that the establishment of God 's kingdom over the earth is the only solution for all problems faced by humanity .
The group emerged from the Bible Student movement , founded in the late 1870s by Charles Taze Russell with the formation of Zion 's Watch Tower Tract Society , with significant organizational and doctrinal changes under the leadership of Joseph Franklin Rutherford . The name Jehovah 's witnesses was adopted in 1931 to distinguish themselves from other Bible Student groups and symbolize a break with the legacy of Russell 's traditions .
Jehovah 's Witnesses are best known for their door @-@ to @-@ door preaching , distributing literature such as The Watchtower and Awake ! , and refusing military service and blood transfusions . They consider use of the name Jehovah vital for proper worship . They reject Trinitarianism , inherent immortality of the soul , and hellfire , which they consider to be unscriptural doctrines . They do not observe Christmas , Easter , birthdays or other holidays and customs they consider to have pagan origins incompatible with Christianity . Adherents commonly refer to their body of beliefs as " the truth " and consider themselves to be " in the truth " . They consider secular society to be morally corrupt and under the influence of Satan , and most limit their social interaction with non @-@ Witnesses . Congregational disciplinary actions include disfellowshipping , their term for formal expulsion and shunning . Baptized individuals who formally leave are considered disassociated and are also shunned . Disfellowshipped and disassociated individuals may eventually be reinstated if deemed repentant .
The religion 's position regarding conscientious objection to military service and refusal to salute national flags has brought it into conflict with some governments . Consequently , some Jehovah 's Witnesses have been persecuted and their activities are banned or restricted in some countries . Persistent legal challenges by Jehovah 's Witnesses have influenced legislation related to civil rights in several countries .
The organization has attracted criticism over issues surrounding biblical translation , doctrines , handling of sexual abuse cases , and alleged coercion of its members . The claims are rejected by the religion 's leaders , and some have been disputed by courts and religious scholars .
= = History = =
= = = Background ( 1870 – 1916 ) = = =
In 1870 , Charles Taze Russell and others formed a group in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , to study the Bible . During the course of his ministry , Russell disputed many beliefs of mainstream Christianity including immortality of the soul , hellfire , predestination , the fleshly return of Jesus Christ , the Trinity , and the burning up of the world . In 1876 , Russell met Nelson H. Barbour ; later that year they jointly produced the book Three Worlds , which combined restitutionist views with end time prophecy . The book taught that God 's dealings with humanity were divided dispensationally , each ending with a " harvest , " that Christ had returned as an invisible spirit being in 1874 inaugurating the " harvest of the Gospel age , " and that 1914 would mark the end of a 2520 @-@ year period called " the Gentile Times , " at which time world society would be replaced by the full establishment of God 's kingdom on earth . Beginning in 1878 Russell and Barbour jointly edited a religious journal , Herald of the Morning . In June 1879 the two split over doctrinal differences , and in July , Russell began publishing the magazine Zion 's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ 's Presence , stating that its purpose was to demonstrate that the world was in " the last days , " and that a new age of earthly and human restitution under the reign of Christ was imminent .
From 1879 , Watch Tower supporters gathered as autonomous congregations to study the Bible topically . Thirty congregations were founded , and during 1879 and 1880 , Russell visited each to provide the format he recommended for conducting meetings . As congregations continued to form during Russell 's ministry , they each remained self @-@ administrative , functioning under the congregationalist style of church governance . In 1881 , Zion 's Watch Tower Tract Society was presided over by William Henry Conley , and in 1884 , Charles Taze Russell incorporated the society as a non @-@ profit business to distribute tracts and Bibles . By about 1900 , Russell had organized thousands of part- and full @-@ time colporteurs , and was appointing foreign missionaries and establishing branch offices . By the 1910s , Russell 's organization maintained nearly a hundred " pilgrims , " or traveling preachers . Russell engaged in significant global publishing efforts during his ministry , and by 1912 , he was the most distributed Christian author in the United States .
Russell moved the Watch Tower Society 's headquarters to Brooklyn , New York , in 1909 , combining printing and corporate offices with a house of worship ; volunteers were housed in a nearby residence he named Bethel . He identified the religious movement as " Bible Students , " and more formally as the International Bible Students Association . By 1910 , about 50 @,@ 000 people worldwide were associated with the movement and congregations re @-@ elected him annually as their " pastor . " Russell died October 31 , 1916 , at the age of 64 while returning from a ministerial speaking tour .
= = = Reorganization ( 1917 – 1942 ) = = =
In January 1917 , the Watch Tower Society 's legal representative , Joseph Franklin Rutherford , was elected as its next president . His election was disputed , and members of the Board of Directors accused him of acting in an autocratic and secretive manner . The divisions between his supporters and opponents triggered a major turnover of members over the next decade . In June 1917 , he released The Finished Mystery as a seventh volume of Russell 's Studies in the Scriptures series . The book , published as the posthumous work of Russell , was a compilation of his commentaries on the Bible books of Ezekiel and Revelation , plus numerous additions by Bible Students Clayton Woodworth and George Fisher . It strongly criticized Catholic and Protestant clergy and Christian involvement in the Great War . As a result , Watch Tower Society directors were jailed for sedition under the Espionage Act in 1918 and members were subjected to mob violence ; the directors were released in March 1919 and charges against them were dropped in 1920 .
Rutherford centralized organizational control of the Watch Tower Society . In 1919 , he instituted the appointment of a director in each congregation , and a year later all members were instructed to report their weekly preaching activity to the Brooklyn headquarters . At an international convention held at Cedar Point , Ohio , in September 1922 , a new emphasis was made on house @-@ to @-@ house preaching . Significant changes in doctrine and administration were regularly introduced during Rutherford 's twenty @-@ five years as president , including the 1920 announcement that the Jewish patriarchs ( such as Abraham and Isaac ) would be resurrected in 1925 , marking the beginning of Christ 's thousand @-@ year Kingdom . Disappointed by the changes , tens of thousands of defections occurred during the first half of Rutherford 's tenure , leading to the formation of several Bible Student organizations independent of the Watch Tower Society , most of which still exist . By mid @-@ 1919 , as many as one in seven of Russell @-@ era Bible Students had ceased their association with the Society , and as many as two @-@ thirds by the end of the 1920s .
On July 26 , 1931 , at a convention in Columbus , Ohio , Rutherford introduced the new name — Jehovah 's witnesses — based on Isaiah 43 : 10 : " Ye are my witnesses , saith Jehovah , and my servant whom I have chosen " — which was adopted by resolution . The name was chosen to distinguish his group of Bible Students from other independent groups that had severed ties with the Society , as well as symbolize the instigation of new outlooks and the promotion of fresh evangelizing methods . In 1932 , Rutherford eliminated the system of locally elected elders and in 1938 , introduced what he called a " theocratic " ( literally , God @-@ ruled ) organizational system , under which appointments in congregations worldwide were made from the Brooklyn headquarters .
From 1932 , it was taught that the " little flock " of 144 @,@ 000 would not be the only people to survive Armageddon . Rutherford explained that in addition to the 144 @,@ 000 " anointed " who would be resurrected — or transferred at death — to live in heaven to rule over earth with Christ , a separate class of members , the " great multitude , " would live in a paradise restored on earth ; from 1935 , new converts to the movement were considered part of that class . By the mid @-@ 1930s , the timing of the beginning of Christ 's presence ( Greek : parousía ) , his enthronement as king , and the start of the " last days " were each moved to 1914 .
As their interpretations of the Bible developed , Witness publications decreed that saluting national flags is a form of idolatry , which led to a new outbreak of mob violence and government opposition in the United States , Canada , Germany , and other countries .
Worldwide membership of Jehovah 's Witnesses reached 113 @,@ 624 in 5 @,@ 323 congregations by the time of Rutherford 's death in January 1942 .
= = = Continued development ( 1942 – present ) = = =
Nathan Knorr was appointed as third president of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society in 1942 . Knorr commissioned a new translation of the Bible , the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures , the full version of which was released in 1961 . He organized large international assemblies , instituted new training programs for members , and expanded missionary activity and branch offices throughout the world . Knorr 's presidency was also marked by an increasing use of explicit instructions guiding Witnesses in their lifestyle and conduct , and a greater use of congregational judicial procedures to enforce a strict moral code .
From 1966 , Witness publications and convention talks built anticipation of the possibility that Christ 's thousand @-@ year reign might begin in late 1975 or shortly thereafter . The number of baptisms increased significantly , from about 59 @,@ 000 in 1966 to more than 297 @,@ 000 in 1974 . By 1975 , the number of active members exceeded two million . Membership declined during the late 1970s after expectations for 1975 were proved wrong . Watch Tower Society literature did not state dogmatically that 1975 would definitely mark the end , but in 1980 the Watch Tower Society admitted its responsibility in building up hope regarding that year .
The offices of elder and ministerial servant were restored to Witness congregations in 1972 , with appointments made from headquarters ( and later , also by branch committees ) . It was announced that , starting in September 2014 , appointments would be made by traveling overseers . In a major organizational overhaul in 1976 , the power of the Watch Tower Society president was diminished , with authority for doctrinal and organizational decisions passed to the Governing Body . Since Knorr 's death in 1977 , the position of president has been occupied by Frederick Franz ( 1977 – 1992 ) and Milton Henschel ( 1992 – 2000 ) , both members of the Governing Body , and since 2000 by Don A. Adams , not a member of the Governing Body . In 1995 , Jehovah 's Witnesses abandoned the idea that Armageddon must occur during the lives of the generation that was alive in 1914 and in 2013 changed their teaching on the " generation " .
= = Organization = =
Jehovah 's Witnesses are organized hierarchically , in what the leadership calls a " theocratic organization " , reflecting their belief that it is God 's " visible organization " on earth . The organization is led by the Governing Body — an all @-@ male group that varies in size , but since early 2014 has comprised seven members , all of whom profess to be of the " anointed " class with a hope of heavenly life — based in the Watch Tower Society 's Brooklyn headquarters . There is no election for membership ; new members are selected by the existing body . Until late 2012 , the Governing Body described itself as the representative and " spokesman " for God 's " faithful and discreet slave class " ( approximately 10 @,@ 000 self @-@ professed " anointed " Jehovah 's Witnesses ) . At the 2012 Annual Meeting of the Watch Tower Society , the " faithful and discreet slave " was defined as referring to the Governing Body only . The Governing Body directs several committees that are responsible for administrative functions , including publishing , assembly programs and evangelizing activities . It appoints all branch committee members and traveling overseers , after they have been recommended by local branches , with traveling overseers supervising circuits of congregations within their jurisdictions . Traveling overseers appoint local elders and ministerial servants , and while branch offices may appoint regional committees for matters such as Kingdom Hall construction or disaster relief .
Each congregation has a body of appointed unpaid male elders and ministerial servants . Elders maintain general responsibility for congregational governance , setting meeting times , selecting speakers and conducting meetings , directing the public preaching work , and creating " judicial committees " to investigate and decide disciplinary action for cases involving sexual misconduct or doctrinal breaches . New elders are appointed by a traveling overseer after recommendation by the existing body of elders . Ministerial servants — appointed in a similar manner to elders — fulfill clerical and attendant duties , but may also teach and conduct meetings . Witnesses do not use elder as a title to signify a formal clergy @-@ laity division , though elders may employ ecclesiastical privilege such as confession of sins .
Baptism is a requirement for being considered a member of Jehovah 's Witnesses . Jehovah 's Witnesses do not practice infant baptism , and previous baptisms performed by other denominations are not considered valid . Individuals undergoing baptism must affirm publicly that dedication and baptism identify them " as one of Jehovah 's Witnesses in association with God 's spirit @-@ directed organization , " though Witness publications say baptism symbolizes personal dedication to God and not " to a man , work or organization . " Their literature emphasizes the need for members to be obedient and loyal to Jehovah and to " his organization , " stating that individuals must remain part of it to receive God 's favor and to survive Armageddon .
= = = Publishing = = =
The organization publishes a significant amount of literature as part of its evangelism activities . The Watch Tower Society has produced over 200 million copies of the Bible in whole or part in over 120 languages . The Watchtower and Awake ! are the most widely distributed magazines in the world . Translation of Witness publications is done by over 2000 volunteers worldwide , producing literature in over 760 languages .
= = = Funding = = =
Much of their funding is provided by donations , primarily from members . There is no tithing or collection . In 2001 Newsday listed the Watch Tower Society as one of New York 's forty richest corporations , with revenues exceeding $ 950 million . The organization reported for the same year that it " spent over 70 @.@ 9 million dollars in caring for special pioneers , missionaries , and traveling overseers in their field service assignments . "
= = Beliefs = =
= = = Jehovah and Jesus Christ = = =
Jehovah 's Witnesses emphasize use of the name Jehovah — a representation of God 's name based on the Tetragrammaton . They believe that Jehovah is the only true God , the creator of all things , and the " Universal Sovereign " . They believe that all worship should be directed toward him , and that he is not part of a Trinity ; consequently , the religion places more emphasis on God than on Christ . They believe that the holy spirit is God 's applied power or " active force " , rather than a person .
Jehovah 's Witnesses believe that Jesus is God 's only direct creation , that everything else was created by means of Christ , and that the initial unassisted act of creation uniquely identifies Jesus as God 's " only @-@ begotten Son " . Jesus served as a redeemer and a ransom sacrifice to pay for the sins of humanity . They believe Jesus died on a single upright post rather than the traditional cross . They believe that references in the Bible to the Archangel Michael , Abaddon ( Apollyon ) , and the Word all refer to Jesus . Jesus is considered to be the only intercessor and high priest between God and humanity , and appointed by God as the king and judge of his kingdom . His role as a mediator ( referred to in 1 Timothy 2 : 5 ) is applied to the ' anointed ' class , though the ' other sheep ' are said to also benefit from the arrangement .
= = = Satan = = =
Jehovah 's Witnesses believe that Satan was originally a perfect angel who developed feelings of self @-@ importance and craved worship . Satan influenced Adam and Eve to disobey God , and humanity subsequently became participants in a challenge involving the competing claims of Jehovah and Satan to universal sovereignty . Other angels who sided with Satan became demons .
Jehovah 's Witnesses teach that Satan and his demons were cast down to earth from heaven after October 1 , 1914 , at which point the end times began . Witnesses believe that Satan is the ruler of the current world order , that human society is influenced and misled by Satan and his demons , and that they are a cause of human suffering . They also believe that human governments are controlled by Satan , but that he does not directly control each human ruler .
= = = Life after death = = =
Jehovah 's Witnesses believe death is a state of non @-@ existence with no consciousness . There is no Hell of fiery torment ; Hades and Sheol are understood to refer to the condition of death , termed the common grave . Jehovah 's Witnesses consider the soul to be a life or a living body that can die . Jehovah 's Witnesses believe that humanity is in a sinful state , from which release is only possible by means of Jesus ' shed blood as a ransom , or atonement , for the sins of humankind .
Witnesses believe that a " little flock " go to heaven , but that the hope for life after death for the majority of " other sheep " involves being resurrected by God to a cleansed earth after Armageddon . They interpret Revelation 14 : 1 – 5 to mean that the number of Christians going to heaven is limited to exactly 144 @,@ 000 , who will rule with Jesus as kings and priests over earth . They believe that baptism as one of Jehovah 's Witnesses is vital for salvation and that only they meet scriptural requirements for surviving Armageddon , but that God is the final judge . During Christ 's millennial reign , most people who died prior to Armageddon will be resurrected with the prospect of living forever ; they will be taught the proper way to worship God to prepare them for their final test at the end of the millennium .
= = = God 's kingdom = = =
Jehovah 's Witnesses believe that God 's kingdom is a literal government in heaven , ruled by Jesus Christ and 144 @,@ 000 " spirit @-@ anointed " Christians drawn from the earth , which they associate with Jesus ' reference to a " new covenant " . The kingdom is viewed as the means by which God will accomplish his original purpose for the earth , transforming it into a paradise without sickness or death . It is said to have been the focal point of Jesus ' ministry on earth . They believe the kingdom was established in heaven in 1914 , and that Jehovah 's Witnesses serve as representatives of the kingdom on earth .
= = = Eschatology = = =
A central teaching of Jehovah 's Witnesses is that the current world era , or " system of things " , entered the " last days " in 1914 and faces imminent destruction through intervention by God and Jesus Christ , leading to deliverance for those who worship God acceptably . They consider all other present @-@ day religions to be false , identifying them with " Babylon the Great " , or the " harlot " , of Revelation 17 , and believe that they will soon be destroyed by the United Nations , which they believe is represented in scripture by the scarlet @-@ colored wild beast of Revelation chapter 17 . This development will mark the beginning of the " great tribulation " . Satan will subsequently attack Jehovah 's Witnesses , an action that will prompt God to begin the war of Armageddon , during which all forms of government and all people not counted as Christ 's " sheep " , or true followers , will be destroyed . After Armageddon , God will extend his heavenly kingdom to include earth , which will be transformed into a paradise similar to the Garden of Eden . Most of those who had died before God 's intervention will gradually be resurrected during " judgment day " lasting for one thousand years . This judgment will be based on their actions after resurrection rather than past deeds . At the end of the thousand years , Christ will hand all authority back to God . Then a final test will take place when Satan is released to mislead perfect mankind . Those who fail will be destroyed , along with Satan and his demons . The end result will be a fully tested , glorified human race .
Jehovah 's Witnesses believe that Jesus Christ began to rule in heaven as king of God 's kingdom in October 1914 , and that Satan was subsequently ousted from heaven to the earth , resulting in " woe " to humanity . They believe that Jesus rules invisibly , from heaven , perceived only as a series of " signs " . They base this belief on a rendering of the Greek word parousia — usually translated as " coming " when referring to Christ — as " presence " . They believe Jesus ' presence includes an unknown period beginning with his inauguration as king in heaven in 1914 , and ending when he comes to bring a final judgment against humans on earth . They thus depart from the mainstream Christian belief that the " second coming " of Matthew 24 refers to a single moment of arrival on earth to judge humans .
= = Practices = =
= = = Worship = = =
Meetings for worship and study are held at Kingdom Halls , which are typically functional in character , and do not contain religious symbols . Witnesses are assigned to a congregation in whose " territory " they usually reside and attend weekly services they refer to as " meetings " as scheduled by congregation elders . The meetings are largely devoted to study of Watch Tower Society literature and the Bible . The format of the meetings is established by the religion 's headquarters , and the subject matter for most meetings is the same worldwide . Congregations meet for two sessions each week comprising five distinct meetings that total about three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours , typically gathering mid @-@ week ( three meetings ) and on the weekend ( two meetings ) . Prior to 2009 , congregations met three times each week ; these meetings were condensed , with the intention that members dedicate an evening for " family worship " . Gatherings are opened and closed with kingdom songs ( hymns ) and brief prayers . Twice each year , Witnesses from a number of congregations that form a " circuit " gather for a one @-@ day assembly . Larger groups of congregations meet once a year for a three @-@ day " regional convention " , usually at rented stadiums or auditoriums . Their most important and solemn event is the commemoration of the " Lord 's Evening Meal " , or " Memorial of Christ 's Death " on the date of the Jewish Passover .
= = = Evangelism = = =
Jehovah 's Witnesses are perhaps best known for their efforts to spread their beliefs , most notably by visiting people from house to house , distributing literature published by the Watch Tower Society in 700 languages . The objective is to start a regular " Bible study " with any person who is not already a member , with the intention that the student be baptized as a member of the group ; Witnesses are advised to consider discontinuing Bible studies with students who show no interest in becoming members . Witnesses are taught they are under a biblical command to engage in public preaching . They are instructed to devote as much time as possible to their ministry and are required to submit an individual monthly " Field Service Report " . Baptized members who fail to report a month of preaching are termed " irregular " and may be counseled by elders ; those who do not submit reports for six consecutive months are termed " inactive " .
= = = Ethics and morality = = =
All sexual relations outside of marriage are grounds for expulsion if the individual is not deemed repentant ; homosexual activity is considered a serious sin , and same @-@ sex marriages are forbidden . Abortion is considered murder . Suicide is considered to be " self @-@ murder " and a sin against God . Modesty in dress and grooming is frequently emphasized . Gambling , drunkenness , illegal drugs , and tobacco use are forbidden . Drinking of alcoholic beverages is permitted in moderation .
The family structure is patriarchal . The husband is considered to have authority on family decisions , but is encouraged to solicit his wife 's thoughts and feelings , as well as those of his children . Marriages are required to be monogamous and legally registered . Marrying a non @-@ believer , or endorsing such a union , is strongly discouraged and carries religious sanctions .
Divorce is discouraged , and remarriage is forbidden unless a divorce is obtained on the grounds of adultery , which they refer to as " a scriptural divorce " . If a divorce is obtained for any other reason , remarriage is considered adulterous unless the prior spouse has died or is since considered to have committed sexual immorality . Extreme physical abuse , willful non @-@ support of one 's family , and what the religion terms " absolute endangerment of spirituality " are considered grounds for legal separation .
= = = Disciplinary action = = =
Formal discipline is administered by congregation elders . When a baptized member is accused of committing a serious sin — usually cases of sexual misconduct or charges of apostasy for disputing Jehovah 's Witness doctrines — a judicial committee is formed to determine guilt , provide help and possibly administer discipline . Disfellowshipping , a form of shunning , is the strongest form of discipline , administered to an offender deemed unrepentant . Contact with disfellowshipped individuals is limited to direct family members living in the same home , and with congregation elders who may invite disfellowshipped persons to apply for reinstatement ; formal business dealings may continue if contractually or financially obliged . Witnesses are taught that avoiding social and spiritual interaction with disfellowshipped individuals keeps the congregation free from immoral influence and that " losing precious fellowship with loved ones may help [ the shunned individual ] to come ' to his senses , ' see the seriousness of his wrong , and take steps to return to Jehovah . " The practice of shunning may also serve to deter other members from dissident behavior . Members who disassociate ( formally resign ) are described in Watch Tower Society literature as wicked and are also shunned . Expelled individuals may eventually be reinstated to the congregation if deemed repentant by elders in the congregation in which the disfellowshipping was enforced . Reproof is a lesser form of discipline given formally by a judicial committee to a baptized Witness who is considered repentant of serious sin ; the reproved person temporarily loses conspicuous privileges of service , but suffers no restriction of social or spiritual fellowship . Marking , a curtailing of social but not spiritual fellowship , is practiced if a baptized member persists in a course of action regarded as a violation of Bible principles but not a serious sin .
= = = Separateness = = =
Jehovah 's Witnesses believe that the Bible condemns the mixing of religions , on the basis that there can only be one truth from God , and therefore reject interfaith and ecumenical movements . They believe that only their religion represents true Christianity , and that other religions fail to meet all the requirements set by God and will soon be destroyed . Jehovah 's Witnesses are taught that it is vital to remain " separate from the world . " The Witnesses ' literature defines the " world " as " the mass of mankind apart from Jehovah 's approved servants " and teach that it is morally contaminated and ruled by Satan . Witnesses are taught that association with " worldly " people presents a " danger " to their faith , and are instructed to minimize social contact with non @-@ members to better maintain their own standards of morality .
Jehovah 's Witnesses believe their highest allegiance belongs to God 's kingdom , which is viewed as an actual government in heaven , with Christ as king . They remain politically neutral , do not seek public office , and are discouraged from voting , though individual members may participate in uncontroversial community improvement issues . Although they do not take part in politics , they respect the authority of the governments under which they live . They do not celebrate religious holidays such as Christmas and Easter , nor do they observe birthdays , nationalistic holidays , or other celebrations they consider to honor people other than Jesus . They feel that these and many other customs have pagan origins or reflect a nationalistic or political spirit . Their position is that these traditional holidays reflect Satan 's control over the world . Witnesses are told that spontaneous giving at other times can help their children to not feel deprived of birthdays or other celebrations .
They do not work in industries associated with the military , do not serve in the armed services , and refuse national military service , which in some countries may result in their arrest and imprisonment . They do not salute or pledge allegiance to flags or sing national anthems or patriotic songs . Jehovah 's Witnesses see themselves as a worldwide brotherhood that transcends national boundaries and ethnic loyalties . Sociologist Ronald Lawson has suggested the religion 's intellectual and organizational isolation , coupled with the intense indoctrination of adherents , rigid internal discipline and considerable persecution , has contributed to the consistency of its sense of urgency in its apocalyptic message .
= = = Rejection of blood transfusions = = =
Jehovah 's Witnesses refuse blood transfusions , which they consider a violation of God 's law based on their interpretation of Acts 15 : 28 , 29 and other scriptures . Since 1961 the willing acceptance of a blood transfusion by an unrepentant member has been grounds for expulsion from the religion . Members are directed to refuse blood transfusions , even in " a life @-@ or @-@ death situation " . Jehovah 's Witnesses accept non @-@ blood alternatives and other medical procedures in lieu of blood transfusions , and their literature provides information about non @-@ blood medical procedures .
Though Jehovah 's Witnesses do not accept blood transfusions of whole blood , they may accept some blood plasma fractions at their own discretion . The Watch Tower Society provides pre @-@ formatted durable power of attorney documents prohibiting major blood components , in which members can specify which allowable fractions and treatments they will personally accept . Jehovah 's Witnesses have established Hospital Liaison Committees as a cooperative arrangement between individual Jehovah 's Witnesses and medical professionals and hospitals .
= = Demographics = =
Jehovah 's Witnesses have an active presence in most countries , but do not form a large part of the population of any country .
As of August 2015 , Jehovah 's Witnesses report an average of 8 @.@ 2 million publishers — the term they use for members actively involved in preaching — in 118 @,@ 016 congregations . In 2015 , these reports indicated over 1 @.@ 93 billion hours spent in preaching and " Bible study " activity . Since the mid @-@ 1990s , the number of peak publishers has increased from 4 @.@ 5 million to 8 @.@ 2 million . In the same year , they conducted " Bible studies " with over 9 @.@ 7 million individuals , including those conducted by Witness parents with their children . Jehovah 's Witnesses estimate their current worldwide growth rate to be 1 @.@ 5 % per year .
The official published membership statistics , such as those mentioned above , include only those who submit reports for their personal ministry ; official statistics do not include inactive and disfellowshipped individuals or others who might attend their meetings . As a result , only about half of those who self @-@ identified as Jehovah 's Witnesses in independent demographic studies are considered active by the faith itself . The 2008 US Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life survey found a low retention rate among members of the religion : about 37 % of people raised in the religion continued to identify themselves as Jehovah 's Witnesses .
= = Sociological analysis = =
Sociologist James A. Beckford , in his 1975 study of Jehovah 's Witnesses , classified the religion 's organizational structure as Totalizing , characterized by an assertive leadership , specific and narrow objectives , control over competing demands on members ' time and energy , and control over the quality of new members . Other characteristics of the classification include likelihood of friction with secular authorities , reluctance to co @-@ operate with other religious organizations , a high rate of membership turnover , a low rate of doctrinal change , and strict uniformity of beliefs among members . Beckford identified the religion 's chief characteristics as historicism ( identifying historical events as relating to the outworking of God 's purpose ) , absolutism ( conviction that Jehovah 's Witness leaders dispense absolute truth ) , activism ( capacity to motivate members to perform missionary tasks ) , rationalism ( conviction that Witness doctrines have a rational basis devoid of mystery ) , authoritarianism ( rigid presentation of regulations without the opportunity for criticism ) and world indifference ( rejection of certain secular requirements and medical treatments ) .
Sociologist Bryan R. Wilson , in his consideration of five religions including Jehovah 's Witnesses , noted that each of the religions :
" exists in a state of tension with the wider society ; "
" imposes tests of merit on would @-@ be members ; "
" exercises stern discipline , regulating the declared beliefs and the life habits of members and prescribing and operating sanctions for those who deviate , including the possibility of expulsion ; "
" demands sustained and total commitment from its members , and the subordination , and perhaps even the exclusion of all other interests . "
A sociological comparative study by the Pew Research Center found that Jehovah 's Witnesses in the United States ranked highest in statistics for getting no further than high school graduation , belief in God , importance of religion in one 's life , frequency of religious attendance , frequency of prayers , frequency of Bible reading outside of religious services , belief their prayers are answered , belief that their religion can only be interpreted one way , belief that theirs is the only one true faith leading to eternal life , opposition to abortion , and opposition to homosexuality . In the study , Jehovah 's Witnesses ranked lowest in statistics for having earned a graduate degree and interest in politics .
= = Opposition = =
Controversy surrounding various beliefs , doctrines and practices of Jehovah 's Witnesses has led to opposition from local governments , communities , and religious groups . Religious commentator Ken Jubber wrote that " Viewed globally , this persecution has been so persistent and of such intensity that it would not be inaccurate to regard Jehovah 's Witnesses as the most persecuted group of Christians of the twentieth century . "
= = = Persecution = = =
Political and religious animosity against Jehovah 's Witnesses has at times led to mob action and government oppression in various countries . Their doctrine of political neutrality and their refusal to serve in the military has led to imprisonment of members who refused conscription during World War II and at other times where national service has been compulsory . In 1933 , there were approximately 20 @,@ 000 Jehovah 's Witnesses in Germany , of whom about 10 @,@ 000 were later imprisoned . Of those , 2000 were sent to Nazi concentration camps , where they were identified by purple triangles ; as many as 1200 died , including 250 who were executed . In Canada , Jehovah 's Witnesses were interned in camps along with political dissidents and people of Chinese and Japanese descent . In the former Soviet Union , about 9 @,@ 300 Jehovah 's Witnesses were deported to Siberia as part of Operation North in April 1951 . Their religious activities are currently banned or restricted in some countries , including China , Vietnam and some Islamic states .
Authors including William Whalen , Shawn Francis Peters and former Witnesses Barbara Grizzuti Harrison , Alan Rogerson and William Schnell have claimed the arrests and mob violence in the United States in the 1930s and 1940s were the consequence of what appeared to be a deliberate course of provocation of authorities and other religions by Jehovah ’ s Witnesses . Whalen , Harrison and Schnell have suggested Rutherford invited and cultivated opposition for publicity purposes in a bid to attract dispossessed members of society , and to convince members that persecution from the outside world was evidence of the truth of their struggle to serve God . Watch Tower Society literature of the period directed that Witnesses should " never seek a controversy " nor resist arrest , but also advised members not to co @-@ operate with police officers or courts that ordered them to stop preaching , and to prefer jail rather than pay fines .
= = = Legal challenges = = =
Several cases involving Jehovah 's Witnesses have been heard by Supreme Courts throughout the world . The cases generally relate to their right to practice their religion , displays of patriotism and military service , and blood transfusions .
In the United States , their persistent legal challenges prompted a series of state and federal court rulings that reinforced judicial protections for civil liberties . Among the rights strengthened by Witness court victories in the United States are the protection of religious conduct from federal and state interference , the right to abstain from patriotic rituals and military service , the right of patients to refuse medical treatment , and the right to engage in public discourse . Similar cases in their favor have been heard in Canada .
= = Criticism and controversy = =
Jehovah 's Witnesses have attracted criticism over issues surrounding their Bible translation , doctrines , their handling of sexual abuse cases , and alleged coercion of members . Many of the claims are denied by Jehovah 's Witnesses and some have also been disputed by religious scholars .
= = = Free speech and thought = = =
Doctrines of Jehovah 's Witnesses are established by the Governing Body . The religion does not tolerate dissent over doctrines and practices ; members who openly disagree with the religion 's teachings are expelled and shunned . Witness publications strongly discourage followers from questioning doctrine and counsel received from the Governing Body , reasoning that it is to be trusted as part of " God 's organization " . It also warns members to " avoid independent thinking " , claiming such thinking " was introduced by Satan the Devil " and would " cause division " . Those who openly disagree with official teachings are condemned as " apostates " who are " mentally diseased " .
Former members Heather and Gary Botting compare the cultural paradigms of the religion to George Orwell 's Nineteen Eighty @-@ four , and Alan Rogerson describes the religion 's leadership as totalitarian . Other critics charge that by disparaging individual decision @-@ making , the religion 's leaders cultivate a system of unquestioning obedience in which Witnesses abrogate all responsibility and rights over their personal lives . Critics also accuse the religion 's leaders of exercising " intellectual dominance " over Witnesses , controlling information and creating " mental isolation " , which former Governing Body member Raymond Franz argued were all elements of mind control .
Jehovah 's Witness publications state that consensus of faith aids unity , and deny that unity restricts individuality or imagination . Historian James Irvin Lichti has rejected the description of the religion as " totalitarian " .
Sociologist Rodney Stark states that Jehovah 's Witness leaders are " not always very democratic " and that members " are expected to conform to rather strict standards , " but adds that " enforcement tends to be very informal , sustained by the close bonds of friendship within the group " , and that Jehovah 's Witnesses see themselves as " part of the power structure rather than subject to it . " Sociologist Andrew Holden states that most members who join millenarian movements such as Jehovah 's Witnesses have made an informed choice . However , he also states that defectors " are seldom allowed a dignified exit " , and describes the administration as autocratic .
= = = New World Translation = = =
Some Bible scholars including Bruce M. Metzger , former Professor and Bible editor at Princeton Theological Seminary , have said that the translation of certain texts in its New World Translation of the Bible is biased in favor of Witness practices and doctrines . The Bible editor Harold H. Rowley criticized the pre @-@ release edition of the first volume ( Genesis to Ruth ) published in 1953 as " a shining example of how the Bible should not be translated . "
On the other hand , in his study on nine of " the Bibles most widely in use in the English @-@ speaking world " , Bible scholar Jason BeDuhn , Professor of Religious Studies at the Northern Arizona University , wrote : “ The NW [ New World Translation ] emerges as the most accurate of the translations compared . ” Although the general public and many Bible scholars assume that the differences in the New World Translation are the result of religious bias on the part of its translators , BeDuhn stated : “ Most of the differences are due to the greater accuracy of the NW as a literal , conservative translation of the original expressions of the New Testament writers . ” He added however that the insertion of the name Jehovah in the New Testament " violate [ s ] accuracy in favor of denominationally preferred expressions for God " .
= = = Failed predictions = = =
Watch Tower Society publications have claimed that God has used Jehovah 's Witnesses ( and formerly , the International Bible Students ) to declare his will and has provided advance knowledge about Armageddon and the establishment of God 's kingdom . Some publications also claimed that God has used Jehovah 's Witnesses and the International Bible Students as a modern @-@ day prophet . Jehovah 's Witnesses ' publications have made various predictions about world events they believe were prophesied in the Bible . Failed predictions have led to the alteration or abandonment of some doctrines . Some failed predictions had been presented as " beyond doubt " or " approved by God " .
The Watch Tower Society rejects accusations that it is a false prophet , stating that its teachings are not inspired or infallible , and that it has not claimed its predictions were " the words of Jehovah . " George D. Chryssides has suggested that with the exception of statements about 1914 , 1925 and 1975 , the changing views and dates of the Jehovah 's Witnesses are largely attributable to changed understandings of biblical chronology than to failed predictions . Chryssides further states , " it is therefore simplistic and naïve to view the Witnesses as a group that continues to set a single end @-@ date that fails and then devise a new one , as many counter @-@ cultists do . " However , sociologist Andrew Holden states that since the foundation of the movement around 140 years ago , " Witnesses have maintained that we are living on the precipice of the end of time . "
= = = Handling of sexual abuse cases = = =
Jehovah 's Witnesses have been accused of having policies and culture that help to conceal cases of sexual abuse within the organization . The religion has been criticized for its " two witness rule " for church discipline , based on its application of scriptures at Deuteronomy 19 : 15 and Matthew 18 : 15 @-@ 17 , which requires sexual abuse to be substantiated by secondary evidence if the accused person denies any wrongdoing . In cases where corroboration is lacking , the Watch Tower Society 's instruction is that " the elders will leave the matter in Jehovah 's hands " . A former member of the church ’ s headquarters staff , Barbara Anderson , says the policy effectively requires that there be another witness to an act of molestation , " which is an impossibility " . Anderson says the policies " protect pedophiles rather than protect the children . " Jehovah 's Witnesses maintain that they have a strong policy to protect children , adding that the best way to protect children is by educating parents ; they also state that they do not sponsor activities that separate children from parents .
The religion 's failure to report abuse allegations to authorities has also been criticized . The Watch Tower Society 's policy is that elders inform authorities when required by law to do so , but otherwise leave that action up to the victim and his or her family . The Australian Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse found that of 1006 alleged perpetrators of child sexual abuse identified by the Jehovah 's Witnesses within their organization since 1950 , " not one was reported by the church to secular authorities . " William Bowen , a former Jehovah 's Witness elder who established the Silentlambs organization to assist sex abuse victims within the religion , has claimed Witness leaders discourage followers from reporting incidents of sexual misconduct to authorities , and other critics claim the organization is reluctant to alert authorities in order to protect its " crime @-@ free " reputation . In court cases in the United Kingdom and the United States the Watch Tower Society has been found to have been negligent in its failure to protect children from known sex offenders within the congregation and the Society has settled other child abuse lawsuits out of court , reportedly paying as much as $ 780 @,@ 000 to one plaintiff without admitting wrongdoing .
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= M @-@ 203 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 203 is a north – south state trunkline highway in the Upper Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . It connects McLain State Park with US 41 on each end in Hancock and Calumet . The trunkline has existed since commissioning in 1933 except a period of time when it was temporarily decommissioned .
= = Route description = =
The M @-@ 203 designation is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) to provide access to McLain State Park . The trunkline is not listed on the National Highway System , a system of strategically important highways . No section of it is located on the Lake Superior Circle Tour , although it is the closest state trunkline to Lake Superior in the area . The highway runs through forest lands and city streets most of the way , with the section along the Portage Lake Canal being residential most of the way .
= = = Southern section = = =
The southern terminus of M @-@ 203 is at the west end of a pair of one @-@ way streets carrying US 41 through the City of Hancock at the bottom of Quincy Hill . Northbound US 41 follows Quincy Street while southbound traffic is directed along Hancock Street . The two directions merge along Lincoln Drive , and M @-@ 203 is the two @-@ way , western continuation of Quncy Street west of Lincoln Drive , passing north of the St. Joseph Cemetery . M @-@ 203 then runs along the north shore of the Portage Lake Canal turning northward and northwesterly along the canal . South of the canal 's northern entry to Lake Superior , MDOT measured the annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) at 820 vehicles in 2007 . By Bear Lake Road , M @-@ 203 turns east to the front gate of the state park running parallel to Lake Superior .
= = = McLain State Park = = =
McLain State Park is a Michigan state park on the Keweenaw Peninsula , in the Copper Country . It is located on M @-@ 203 halfway between Hancock and Calumet . The park is on the shore of Lake Superior , and most of the beach areas are rocky . However , a stretch of land on the edge of the park near the Keweenaw Waterway is sandy and good for swimming . This area is known as the Breakwaters , known to some locals as just the " Breakers " .
= = = Northern section = = =
Passing the park gate , M @-@ 203 continues northeasterly . The roadway skirts the northern shore of Bear Lake on the eastern end of the state park . At Lakeshore Drive , M @-@ 203 turns inland running due east to Cloverland Road then turning north and east along Veterans Memorial Highway . Along this section of roadway , the AADT was measured at 440 vehicles in 2007 . The highway follows Veterans Memorial Highway through the neighborhood of Tamarack west of Calumet . From there it continues eastward , following Pine Street north of downtown Calumet , looping back to US 41 / M @-@ 26 . The northern terminus of M @-@ 203 is at the intersection of Pine Street and Calumet Avenue , 17 @.@ 944 miles ( 28 @.@ 878 km ) away from the southern terminus in Hancock .
= = History = =
M @-@ 203 was first designated as a spur route from Hancock north to the state park in 1933 . It was later cancelled as a state highway in 1939 . This cancellation was reversed in late 1940 . At this time , the M @-@ 203 designation was extended from McLain State Park north ( on what was Houghton Co . Rd . 566 ) to Calumet . A construction project rerouted the roadway near the state park in 1963 . The highway 's routing was moved out of the park proper , bypassing it to the east . The road surface inside the park was partially obliterated in the process . No further changes to M @-@ 203 's routing have been made since .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Houghton County .
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= German submarine U @-@ 37 ( 1938 ) =
German submarine U @-@ 37 was a Type IXA U @-@ boat of Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine during World War II . The submarine was laid down on 15 March 1937 at the DeSchiMAG AG Weser yard in Bremen , launched on 14 May 1938 , and commissioned on 4 August 1938 under the command of Kapitänleutnant Heinrich Schuch as part of the 6th U @-@ boat Flotilla .
Between August 1939 and March 1941 , U @-@ 37 conducted eleven combat patrols , sinking 53 merchant ships , for a total of 200 @,@ 124 gross register tons ( GRT ) ; and two warships , the British Hastings @-@ class sloop HMS Penzance , and the French submarine Sfax ( Q182 ) . U @-@ 37 was then withdrawn from front @-@ line service and assigned to training units until the end of the war . On 8 May 1945 the U @-@ boat was scuttled in Sonderburg Bay , off Flensburg . U @-@ 37 was the sixth most successful U @-@ boat in World War II .
= = Design = =
As one of the eight original German Type IX submarines , later designated IXA , U @-@ 37 had a displacement of 1 @,@ 032 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 016 long tons ) when at the surface and 1 @,@ 153 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 135 long tons ) while submerged . The U @-@ boat had a total length of 76 @.@ 50 m ( 251 ft ) , a pressure hull length of 58 @.@ 75 m ( 192 ft 9 in ) , a beam of 6 @.@ 51 m ( 21 ft 4 in ) , a height of 9 @.@ 40 m ( 30 ft 10 in ) , and a draught of 4 @.@ 70 m ( 15 ft 5 in ) . The submarine was powered by two MAN M 9 V 40 / 46 supercharged four @-@ stroke , nine @-@ cylinder diesel engines producing a total of 4 @,@ 400 metric horsepower ( 3 @,@ 240 kW ; 4 @,@ 340 shp ) for use while surfaced , two Siemens @-@ Schuckert 2 GU 345 / 34 double @-@ acting electric motors producing a total of 1 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 740 kW ; 990 shp ) for use while submerged . She had two shafts and two 1 @.@ 92 m ( 6 ft ) propellers . The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to 230 metres ( 750 ft ) .
The submarine had a maximum surface speed of 18 @.@ 2 knots ( 33 @.@ 7 km / h ; 20 @.@ 9 mph ) and a maximum submerged speed of 7 @.@ 7 knots ( 14 @.@ 3 km / h ; 8 @.@ 9 mph ) . When submerged , the boat could operate for 65 – 78 nautical miles ( 120 – 144 km ; 75 – 90 mi ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ; 4 @.@ 6 mph ) ; when surfaced , she could travel 10 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 400 km ; 12 @,@ 100 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . U @-@ 37 was fitted with six 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 in ) torpedo tubes ( four fitted at the bow and two at the stern ) , 22 torpedoes , one 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 13 in ) SK C / 32 naval gun , 180 rounds , and a 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) as well as a 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun . The boat had a complement of forty @-@ eight .
= = Service history = =
= = = First patrol = = =
U @-@ 37 left Wilhelmshaven , with Kapitänleutnant Heinrich Schuch in command , on 19 August 1939 . The boat operated for nearly four weeks in the North Atlantic , returning to port on 15 September 1939 .
= = = Second patrol = = =
U @-@ 37 left Wilhelmshaven on 5 October 1939 to conduct operations in the North Atlantic now under the command of Korvettenkapitän Werner Hartmann . During this patrol she sank eight ships : four British , two Greek , one French and one Swedish , including the British steam freighter Yorkshire which was traveling with the Allied convoy HG @-@ 3 , sailing from Gibraltar to Liverpool , England . Hartmann returned his boat to port on 8 November after nearly five weeks at sea .
= = = Third patrol = = =
On 1 January 1940 U @-@ 37 was reassigned to the 2nd U @-@ boat Flotilla based at Wilhelmshaven . On 28 January 1940 the U @-@ boat departed for the North Atlantic , with Werner Hartmann in command . As on his previous patrol , Hartmann sank eight ships , this time three British , two Norwegian , one Danish , one French and one Greek . Of these ships , two were in convoy at the time . U @-@ 37 returned to Wilhelmshaven on 27 February .
= = = Fourth patrol = = =
U @-@ 37 departed Wilhelmshaven on 30 March for Werner Hartmann 's third consecutive patrol , this time around Norway . Again , Hartmann proved successful , sinking three ships ; the Norwegian Tosca , the Swedish Sveaborg and the British Stancliffe . After patrolling for over two weeks , the U @-@ boat returned to Wilhelmshaven on 18 April .
= = = Fifth patrol = = =
Under a new captain , Kapitänleutnant Victor Oehrn , U @-@ 37 departed from Wilhelmshaven on 15 May for a patrol around Portugal and Spain . U @-@ 37 had her most successful mission , hitting eleven ships , sinking ten of them . Three French ships were sunk , two Greek , two British , one Swedish , one Argentinian , one Finnish ; one British ship was damaged . After three and a half weeks at sea , U @-@ 37 returned to Wilhelmshaven on 9 June .
The neutral Argentinian ship was Uruguay , sailing from Rosario to Limerick with a cargo of maize . U @-@ 37 surfaced and stopped Uruguay and examined her papers , then sank her with scuttling charges . Her crew of 28 were left in their lifeboats . Fifteen died , 13 survived .
= = = Sixth patrol = = =
U @-@ 37 sailed from Wilhelmshaven on 1 August , again with Victor Oehrn in command . This week and a half long patrol in the Atlantic off the west coast of Ireland resulted in the sinking of a single British ship , Upwey Grange . U @-@ 37 returned to port on 12 August , but rather than head back to Wilhelmshaven , she made for Lorient in France , where the 2nd U @-@ boat Flotilla was now based .
= = = Seventh patrol = = =
For the first time , U @-@ 37 began a patrol from a location other than Germany , in Lorient on 17 August , with Victor Oehrn in command once more . It was to focus on operations off the south @-@ west coast of Ireland . Seven ships were sunk during this voyage ; five of which were British , one Norwegian , and one Greek . Of these ships , one was from convoy OA 220 , the British Brookwood , traveling from Britain to the United States , two were from convoy SC 1 , the British sloop HMS Penzance ( L28 ) and Blarimore , sailing from Sydney , Nova Scotia , Canada , to the United Kingdom . After two weeks at sea , U @-@ 37 returned to Lorient on 30 August .
= = = Eighth patrol = = =
On 24 September , U @-@ 37 departed Lorient on Victor Oehrn 's fourth patrol , in which he would sail to the North Atlantic . During this month @-@ long operation U @-@ 37 sank six ships , four of which were in convoy at the time of attack , all of which were British . Five of these six ships were sailing under the British flag , while the sixth was from Egypt . The British ship Corrientes was sunk as part of OB @-@ 217 , sailing from Liverpool to North America . Heminge was sailing as part of OB @-@ 220 , also sailing from Liverpool to North America . British General was sunk while sailing as part of convoy OA 222 , sailing from Britain to North America . The fourth ship sunk was the British Stangrant , sailing as part of convoy HX 77 from Halifax to the United Kingdom . The U @-@ boat returned to Lorient on 22 October .
= = = Ninth patrol = = =
After over a month in port , U @-@ 37 departed with a new captain , Oberleutnant zur See Asmus Nicolai Clausen on 28 November for operations around north @-@ west Africa and Spain . Seven ships were sunk during this patrol ; two French , two Swedish , two British and one Spanish . Of these seven ships , three were in convoy at the time of their sinking . The Swedish Gwalia and Daphne and the British Jeanne M were sailing as part of convoy OG 46 from Britain to Gibraltar . The French vessels , the oiler Rhône and the submarine Sfax belonged to Vichy France and were sunk in error . After five weeks on the high seas , U @-@ 37 returned to Lorient on 14 January 1941 .
= = = Tenth and eleventh patrols = = =
U @-@ 37 left Lorient on 30 January 1941 to patrol off the coast of Portugal . On 8 February she spotted Convoy HG @-@ 53 . The next day , U @-@ 37 sank two British ships , Courland and Estrellano . The third merchant vessel that U @-@ 37 sank on her tenth patrol was the British ship Brandenburg , on 10 February . The U @-@ boat then returned to Lorient on 18 February after spending 20 days at sea and sinking 4 @,@ 781 tons of shipping .
Leaving Lorient for the final time on 27 February 1941 , U @-@ 37 's last patrol took her to the waters south of Iceland . There she sank two vessels , the Greek cargo ship Mentor on 7 March , and the Icelandic trawler Pétursey on the 12th . After spending 24 days at sea , U @-@ 37 entered the port of Kiel on 22 March .
= = = Training boat = = =
On 1 May 1941 U @-@ 37 was reassigned to the 26th U @-@ boat Flotilla , based at Pillau ( now Baltiysk , Russia ) as a training U @-@ boat . She was transferred to the 22nd U @-@ boat Flotilla , based at Gotenhafen ( now Gdynia , Poland ) on 1 April 1942 , and finally to the 4th U @-@ boat Flotilla on 1 July 1944 , where she remained until the end of the war .
She was scuttled by her crew in May 1945 .
The British war propaganda film 49th Parallel ( 1941 ) uses the name U @-@ 37 for the German submarine whose crew comes ashore in Canada during WW2 . The craft is shown being blown up in Hudson Bay . The film was released shortly after the real U @-@ 37 went off active service .
= = Summary of raiding history = =
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= First Amendment to the United States Constitution =
The First Amendment ( Amendment I ) to the United States Constitution prohibits the making of any law respecting an establishment of religion , impeding the free exercise of religion , abridging the freedom of speech , infringing on the freedom of the press , interfering with the right to peaceably assemble , or prohibiting the petitioning for a governmental redress of grievances . It was adopted on December 15 , 1791 , as one of the ten amendments that constitute the Bill of Rights .
The Bill of Rights was originally proposed as a measure to assuage Anti @-@ Federalist opposition to Constitutional ratification . Initially , the First Amendment applied only to laws enacted by the Congress , and many of its provisions were interpreted more narrowly than they are today . Beginning with Gitlow v. New York ( 1925 ) , the Supreme Court applied the First Amendment to states — a process known as incorporation — through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment .
In Everson v. Board of Education ( 1947 ) , the Court drew on Thomas Jefferson 's correspondence to call for " a wall of separation between church and State " , though the precise boundary of this separation remains in dispute . Speech rights were expanded significantly in a series of 20th and 21st @-@ century court decisions which protected various forms of political speech , anonymous speech , campaign financing , pornography , and school speech ; these rulings also defined a series of exceptions to First Amendment protections . The Supreme Court overturned English common law precedent to increase the burden of proof for defamation and libel suits , most notably in New York Times Co. v. Sullivan ( 1964 ) . Commercial speech , however , is less protected by the First Amendment than political speech , and is therefore subject to greater regulation .
The Free Press Clause protects publication of information and opinions , and applies to a wide variety of media . In Near v. Minnesota ( 1931 ) and New York Times v. United States ( 1971 ) , the Supreme Court ruled that the First Amendment protected against prior restraint — pre @-@ publication censorship — in almost all cases . The Petition Clause protects the right to petition all branches and agencies of government for action . In addition to the right of assembly guaranteed by this clause , the Court has also ruled that the amendment implicitly protects freedom of association .
= = Text = =
The amendment as adopted in 1791 reads as follows :
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion , or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the freedom of speech , or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble , and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances .
= = Background = =
In 1776 , the second year of the American Revolutionary War , the Virginia colonial legislature passed a Declaration of Rights that included the sentence " The freedom of the press is one of the greatest bulwarks of liberty , and can never be restrained but by despotic Governments . " Eight of the other thirteen states made similar pledges . However , these declarations were generally considered " mere admonitions to state legislatures " , rather than enforceable provisions .
After several years of comparatively weak government under the Articles of Confederation , a Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia proposed a new constitution on September 17 , 1787 , featuring among other changes a stronger chief executive . George Mason , a Constitutional Convention delegate and the drafter of Virginia 's Declaration of Rights , proposed that the Constitution include a bill of rights listing and guaranteeing civil liberties . Other delegates — including future Bill of Rights drafter James Madison — disagreed , arguing that existing state guarantees of civil liberties were sufficient and that any attempt to enumerate individual rights risked the implication that other , unnamed rights were unprotected . After a brief debate , Mason 's proposal was defeated by a unanimous vote of the state delegations .
For the constitution to be ratified , however , nine of the thirteen states were required to approve it in state conventions . Opposition to ratification ( " Anti @-@ Federalism " ) was partly based on the Constitution 's lack of adequate guarantees for civil liberties . Supporters of the Constitution in states where popular sentiment was against ratification ( including Virginia , Massachusetts , and New York ) successfully proposed that their state conventions both ratify the Constitution and call for the addition of a bill of rights . The U.S. Constitution was eventually ratified by all thirteen states . In the 1st United States Congress , following the state legislatures ' request , James Madison proposed twenty constitutional amendments , and his proposed draft of the First Amendment read as follows :
The civil rights of none shall be abridged on account of religious belief or worship , nor shall any national religion be established , nor shall the full and equal rights of conscience be in any manner , or on any pretext , infringed . The people shall not be deprived or abridged of their right to speak , to write , or to publish their sentiments ; and the freedom of the press , as one of the great bulwarks of liberty , shall be inviolable . The people shall not be restrained from peaceably assembling and consulting for their common good ; nor from applying to the Legislature by petitions , or remonstrances , for redress of their grievances .
This language was greatly condensed by Congress , and passed the House and Senate with almost no recorded debate , complicating future discussion of the Amendment 's intent . The First Amendment , along with the rest of the Bill of Rights , was submitted to the states for ratification on September 25 , 1789 , and adopted on December 15 , 1791 .
= = Establishment of religion = =
Thomas Jefferson wrote with respect to the First Amendment and its restriction on the legislative branch of the federal government in an 1802 letter to the Danbury Baptists ( a religious minority concerned about the dominant position of the Congregationalist church in Connecticut ) :
Believing with you that religion is a matter which lies solely between Man & his God , that he owes account to none other for his faith or his worship , that the legitimate powers of government reach actions only , & not opinions , I contemplate with sovereign reverence that act of the whole American people which declared that their legislature should " make no law respecting an establishment of religion , or prohibiting the free exercise thereof " , thus building a wall of separation between Church & State . Adhering to this expression of the supreme will of the nation in behalf of the rights of conscience , I shall see with sincere satisfaction the progress of those sentiments which tend to restore to man all his natural rights , convinced he has no natural right in opposition to his social duties .
In Reynolds v. United States ( 1878 ) the Supreme Court used these words to declare that " it may be accepted almost as an authoritative declaration of the scope and effect of the amendment thus secured . Congress was deprived of all legislative power over mere [ religious ] opinion , but was left free to reach [ only those religious ] actions which were in violation of social duties or subversive of good order . " Quoting from Jefferson 's Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom the court stated further in Reynolds :
In the preamble of this act [ . . . ] religious freedom is defined ; and after a recital ' that to suffer the civil magistrate to intrude his powers into the field of opinion , and to restrain the profession or propagation of principles on supposition of their ill tendency , is a dangerous fallacy which at once destroys all religious liberty ' , it is declared ' that it is time enough for the rightful purposes of civil government for its officers to interfere [ only ] when [ religious ] principles break out into overt acts against peace and good order . ' In these two sentences is found the true distinction between what properly belongs to the church and what to the State .
Originally , the First Amendment applied only to the federal government , and some states continued official state religions after ratification . Massachusetts , for example , was officially Congregationalist until the 1830s . In Everson v. Board of Education ( 1947 ) , the U.S. Supreme Court incorporated the Establishment Clause ( i.e. , made it apply against the states ) :
The " establishment of religion " clause of the First Amendment means at least this : Neither a state nor the Federal Government can set up a church . Neither can pass laws which aid one religion , aid all religions , or prefer one religion to another . . . in the words of Jefferson , the [ First Amendment ] clause against establishment of religion by law was intended to erect ' a wall of separation between church and State ' . . . That wall must be kept high and impregnable . We could not approve the slightest breach .
In Torcaso v. Watkins ( 1961 ) , the Supreme Court ruled that the Constitution prohibits states and the federal government from requiring any kind of religious test for public office . In the Board of Education of Kiryas Joel Village School District v. Grumet ( 1994 ) , The Court concluded that " government should not prefer one religion to another , or religion to irreligion . " In a series of cases in the first decade of the 2000s — Van Orden v. Perry ( 2005 ) , McCreary County v. ACLU ( 2005 ) , and Salazar v. Buono ( 2010 ) — the Court considered the issue of religious monuments on federal lands without reaching a majority reasoning on the subject .
= = = Separationists = = =
Everson used the metaphor of a wall of separation between church and state , derived from the correspondence of President Thomas Jefferson . It had been long established in the decisions of the Supreme Court , beginning with Reynolds v. United States in 1879 , when the Court reviewed the history of the early Republic in deciding the extent of the liberties of Mormons . Chief Justice Morrison Waite , who consulted the historian George Bancroft , also discussed at some length the Memorial and Remonstrance against Religious Assessments by James Madison , who drafted the First Amendment ; Madison used the metaphor of a " great barrier " .
In Everson , the Court adopted Jefferson 's words . The Court has affirmed it often , with majority , but not unanimous , support . Warren Nord , in Does God Make a Difference ? , characterized the general tendency of the dissents as a weaker reading of the First Amendment ; the dissents tend to be " less concerned about the dangers of establishment and less concerned to protect free exercise rights , particularly of religious minorities . "
Beginning with Everson , which permitted New Jersey school boards to pay for transportation to parochial schools , the Court has used various tests to determine when the wall of separation has been breached . Everson laid down the test that establishment existed when aid was given to religion , but that the transportation was justifiable because the benefit to the children was more important . In the school prayer cases of the early 1960s , ( Engel v. Vitale and Abington School District v. Schempp ) , aid seemed irrelevant ; the Court ruled on the basis that a legitimate action both served a secular purpose and did not primarily assist religion . In Walz v. Tax Commission ( 1970 ) , the Court ruled that a legitimate action could not entangle government with religion ; in Lemon v. Kurtzman ( 1971 ) , these points were combined into the Lemon test , declaring that an action was an establishment if :
the statute ( or practice ) lacked a secular purpose ;
its principal or primary effect advanced or inhibited religion ; or
it fostered an excessive government entanglement with religion .
The Lemon test has been criticized by justices and legal scholars , but it remains the predominant means by which the Court enforces the Establishment Clause . In Agostini v. Felton ( 1997 ) , the entanglement prong of the Lemon test was demoted to simply being a factor in determining the effect of the challenged statute or practice . In Zelman v. Simmons @-@ Harris ( 2002 ) , the opinion of the Court considered secular purpose and the absence of primary effect ; a concurring opinion saw both cases as having treated entanglement as part of the primary purpose test . Further tests , such as the endorsement test and coercion test , have been developed to determine whether a government action violated the Establishment Clause .
In Lemon the Court stated that that the separation of church and state could never be absolute : " Our prior holdings do not call for total separation between church and state ; total separation is not possible in an absolute sense . Some relationship between government and religious organizations is inevitable " , the court wrote . " Judicial caveats against entanglement must recognize that the line of separation , far from being a ' wall ' , is a blurred , indistinct , and variable barrier depending on all the circumstances of a particular relationship . "
= = = Accommodationists = = =
Accommodationists , in contrast , argue along with Justice William O. Douglas that " [ w ] e are a religious people whose institutions presuppose a Supreme Being " . This group holds that the Lemon test should be applied selectively . As such , for many conservatives , the Establishment Clause solely prevents the establishment of a state church , not public acknowledgements of God nor " developing policies that encourage general religious beliefs that do not favor a particular sect and are consistent with the secular government 's goals . "
= = Free exercise of religion = =
" Freedom of religion means freedom to hold an opinion or belief , but not to take action in violation of social duties or subversive to good order . " In Reynolds v. United States ( 1878 ) , the Supreme Court found that while laws cannot interfere with religious belief and opinions , laws can be made to regulate some religious practices ( e.g. , human sacrifices , and the Hindu practice of suttee ) . The Court stated that to rule otherwise , " would be to make the professed doctrines of religious belief superior to the law of the land , and in effect permit every citizen to become a law unto himself . Government would exist only in name under such circumstances . " In Cantwell v. Connecticut ( 1940 ) , the Court held that the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment applied the Free Exercise Clause to the states . While the right to have religious beliefs is absolute , the freedom to act on such beliefs is not absolute .
In Sherbert v. Verner ( 1963 ) , the Supreme Court required states to meet the " strict scrutiny " standard when refusing to accommodate religiously motivated conduct . This meant that a government needed to have a " compelling interest " regarding such a refusal . The case involved Adele Sherbert , who was denied unemployment benefits by South Carolina because she refused to work on Saturdays , something forbidden by her Seventh @-@ day Adventist faith . In Wisconsin v. Yoder ( 1972 ) , the Court ruled that a law that " unduly burdens the practice of religion " without a compelling interest , even though it might be " neutral on its face " , would be unconstitutional .
The need for a compelling governmental interest was narrowed in Employment Division v. Smith ( 1990 ) , which held no such interest was required under the Free Exercise Clause regarding a neutral law of general applicability that happens to affect a religious practice , as opposed to a law that targets a particular religious practice ( which does require a compelling governmental interest ) . In Church of Lukumi Babalu Aye v. City of Hialeah ( 1993 ) , the Supreme Court ruled Hialeah had passed an ordinance banning ritual slaughter , a practice central to the Santería religion , while providing exceptions for some practices such as the kosher slaughter . Since the ordinance was not " generally applicable " , the Court ruled that it needed to have a compelling interest , which it failed to have , and so was declared unconstitutional .
In 1993 , the Congress passed the Religious Freedom Restoration Act ( RFRA ) , seeking to restore the compelling interest requirement applied in Sherbert and Yoder . In City of Boerne v. Flores ( 1997 ) , the Court struck down the provisions of RFRA that forced state and local governments to provide protections exceeding those required by the First Amendment , on the grounds that while the Congress could enforce the Supreme Court 's interpretation of a constitutional right , the Congress could not impose its own interpretation on states and localities . According to the court 's ruling in Gonzales v. UDV ( 2006 ) , RFRA remains applicable to federal laws and so those laws must still have a " compelling interest " .
= = Freedom of speech and of the press = =
= = = The wording of the clause = = =
The First Amendment bars Congress from " abridging the freedom of speech , or of the press … . " U.S. Supreme Court Justice John Paul Stevens commented about this phraseology in a 1993 journal article : " I emphasize the word ' the ' in the term ' the freedom of speech ' because the definite article suggests that the draftsmen intended to immunize a previously identified category or subset of speech . " Stevens explained that , otherwise , the clause might absurdly immunize things like false testimony under oath . Like Stevens , the journalist Anthony Lewis wrote : " The word ' the ' can be read to mean what was understood at the time to be included in the concept of free speech . " But what was understood at the time is not 100 % clear . In the late 1790s , the lead author of the speech and press clauses , James Madison , argued against narrowing this freedom to what had existed under English common law :
The practice in America must be entitled to much more respect . In every state , probably , in the Union , the press has exerted a freedom in canvassing the merits and measures of public men , of every description , which has not been confined to the strict limits of the common law .
Madison wrote this in 1799 , when he was in a dispute about the constitutionality of the Alien and Sedition Laws , which was legislation enacted in 1798 by President John Adams ' Federalist Party to ban seditious libel . Madison believed that legislation to be unconstitutional , and his adversaries in that dispute , such as John Marshall , advocated the narrow freedom of speech that had existed in the English common law .
= = = Speech critical of the government = = =
The Supreme Court declined to rule on the constitutionality of any federal law regarding the Free Speech Clause until the 20th century . For example , the Supreme Court never ruled on the Alien and Sedition Acts ; three of the Supreme Court 's justices ( riding circuit ) presided over resulting sedition trials without indicating any reservations . The leading critics of the law , Vice President Thomas Jefferson and James Madison , argued for the Acts ' unconstitutionality based on the First Amendment and other Constitutional provisions . Jefferson succeeded Adams as president , in part due to the unpopularity of the latter 's sedition prosecutions ; he and his party quickly overturned the Acts and pardoned those imprisoned by them . In the majority opinion in New York Times Co. v. Sullivan ( 1964 ) , the Court noted the importance of this public debate as a precedent in First Amendment law and ruled that the Acts had been unconstitutional : " Although the Sedition Act was never tested in this Court , the attack upon its validity has carried the day in the court of history . "
= = = = World War I = = = =
During the patriotic fervor of World War I and the First Red Scare , the Espionage Act of 1917 imposed a maximum sentence of twenty years for anyone who caused or attempted to cause " insubordination , disloyalty , mutiny , or refusal of duty in the military or naval forces of the United States " . Specifically , the Espionage Act of 1917 states that if anyone allows any enemies to enter or fly over the United States and obtain information from a place connected with the national defense , they will be punished . Hundreds of prosecutions followed . In 1919 , the Supreme Court heard four appeals resulting from these cases : Schenck v. United States , Debs v. United States , Frohwerk v. United States , and Abrams v. United States .
In the first of these cases , Socialist Party of America official Charles Schenck had been convicted under the Espionage Act for publishing leaflets urging resistance to the draft . Schenck appealed , arguing that the Espionage Act violated the Free Speech Clause of the First Amendment . In Schenck v. United States , the Supreme Court unanimously rejected Schenck 's appeal and affirmed his conviction . This conviction continued to be debated over whether Schenck went against the right to freedom of speech protected by the First Amendment . Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes , Jr . , writing for the Court , explained that " the question in every case is whether the words used are used in such circumstances and are of such a nature as to create a clear and present danger that they will bring about the substantive evils that Congress has a right to prevent . " One week later , in Frohwerk v. United States , the court again upheld an Espionage Act conviction , this time that of a journalist who had criticized U.S. involvement in foreign wars . Both of these cases show that the government can overrule The Bill of Rights with certain acts like The Espionage Act of 1917 . It all depends on what was done to put the United States in danger .
In Debs v. United States , the Court elaborated on the " clear and present danger " test established in Schenck . On June 16 , 1918 , Eugene V. Debs , a political activist , delivered a speech in Canton , Ohio , in which he spoke of " most loyal comrades were paying the penalty to the working class – these being Wagenknecht , Baker and Ruthenberg , who had been convicted of aiding and abetting another in failing to register for the draft . " Following his speech , Debs was charged and convicted under the Espionage Act . In upholding his conviction , the Court reasoned that although he had not spoken any words that posed a " clear and present danger " , taken in context , the speech had a " natural tendency and a probable effect to obstruct the recruiting services " . In Abrams v. United States , four Russian refugees appealed their conviction for throwing leaflets from a building in New York ; the leaflets argued against President Woodrow Wilson 's intervention in Russia against the October Revolution . The majority upheld their conviction , but Holmes and Justice Louis Brandeis dissented , holding that the government had demonstrated no " clear and present danger " in the four 's political advocacy .
= = = = Extending protections = = = =
The Supreme Court denied a number of Free Speech Clause claims throughout the 1920s , including the appeal of a labor organizer , Benjamin Gitlow , who had been convicted after distributing a manifesto calling for a " revolutionary dictatorship of the proletariat " . In Gitlow v. New York ( 1925 ) , the Court upheld the conviction , but a majority also found that the First Amendment applied to state laws as well as federal laws , via the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment . Holmes and Brandeis dissented in several more cases in this decade , however , advancing the argument that the Free Speech Clause protected a far greater range of political speech than the Court had previously acknowledged . In Whitney v. California ( 1927 ) , in which Communist Party USA organizer Charlotte Anita Whitney had been arrested for " criminal syndicalism " , Brandeis wrote a dissent in which he argued for broader protections for political speech :
Those who won our independence . . . believed that freedom to think as you will and to speak as you think are means indispensable to the discovery and spread of political truth ; that without free speech and assembly discussion would be futile ; that with them , discussion affords ordinarily adequate protection against the dissemination of noxious doctrine ; that the greatest menace to freedom is an inert people ; that public discussion is a political duty ; and that this should be a fundamental principle of the American government .
In Herndon v. Lowry ( 1937 ) , the Court heard the case of African American Communist Party organizer Angelo Herndon , who had been convicted under the Slave Insurrection Statute for advocating black rule in the southern United States . In a 5 – 4 decision , the Court reversed Herndon 's conviction , upholding Holmes ' " clear and present danger " test for the first time and arguing that the state of Georgia had not demonstrated that Herndon 's actions met this standard .
In 1940 , Congress enacted the Smith Act , making it illegal to advocate " the propriety of overthrowing or destroying any government in the United States by force and violence " . The statute provided law enforcement a tool to combat Communist leaders . After Eugene Dennis was convicted in the Foley Square trial for attempting to organize a Communist Party , he petitioned for certiorari , which the Supreme Court granted . In Dennis v. United States ( 1951 ) , the Court upheld the law , 6 – 2 . Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson relied on Holmes ' " clear and present danger " test as adapted by Learned Hand : " In each case [ courts ] must ask whether the gravity of the ' evil ' , discounted by its improbability , justifies such invasion of free speech as necessary to avoid the danger . " Clearly , Vinson suggested , clear and present danger did not intimate " that before the Government may act , it must wait until the putsch is about to be executed , the plans have been laid and the signal is awaited . " In a concurring opinion , Justice Felix Frankfurter proposed a " balancing test " , which soon supplanted the " clear and present danger " test :
The demands of free speech in a democratic society as well as the interest in national security are better served by candid and informed weighing of the competing interests , within the confines of the judicial process .
In Yates v. United States ( 1957 ) , the Supreme Court limited the Smith Act prosecutions to " advocacy of action " rather than " advocacy in the realm of ideas " . Advocacy of abstract doctrine remained protected while speech explicitly inciting the forcible overthrow of the government was punishable under the Smith Act .
During the Vietnam War , the Court 's position on public criticism of the government changed drastically . Though the Court upheld a law prohibiting the forgery , mutilation , or destruction of draft cards in United States v. O 'Brien ( 1968 ) , fearing that burning draft cards would interfere with the " smooth and efficient functioning " of the draft system , the next year , the court handed down its decision in Brandenburg v. Ohio ( 1969 ) , expressly overruling Whitney v. California . Now the Supreme Court referred to the right to speak openly of violent action and revolution in broad terms :
[ Our ] decisions have fashioned the principle that the constitutional guarantees of free speech and free press do not allow a State to forbid or proscribe advocacy of the use of force or law violation except where such advocacy is directed to inciting or producing imminent lawless action and is likely to incite or cause such action .
Brandenburg discarded the " clear and present danger " test introduced in Schenck and further eroded Dennis . In Cohen v. California ( 1971 ) , the Court voted 5 – 4 to reverse the conviction of a man wearing a jacket reading " Fuck the Draft " in the corridors of a Los Angeles County courthouse . Justice John Marshall Harlan wrote in the majority opinion that Cohen 's jacket fell in the category of protected political speech despite the use of an expletive : " one man 's vulgarity is another man 's lyric . "
= = = Political speech = = =
= = = = Anonymous speech = = = =
In Talley v. California ( 1960 ) , the Court struck down a Los Angeles city ordinance that made it a crime to distribute anonymous pamphlets . Justice Hugo Black wrote in the majority opinion : " There can be no doubt that such an identification requirement would tend to restrict freedom to distribute information and thereby freedom of expression . . . . Anonymous pamphlets , leaflets , brochures and even books have played an important role in the progress of mankind . " In McIntyre v. Ohio Elections Commission ( 1995 ) , the Court struck down an Ohio statute that made it a crime to distribute anonymous campaign literature . However , in Meese v. Keene ( 1987 ) , the Court upheld the Foreign Agents Registration Act of 1938 , under which several Canadian films were defined as " political propaganda " , requiring their sponsors to be identified .
= = = = Campaign finance = = = =
In Buckley v. Valeo ( 1976 ) , the Supreme Court reviewed the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971 and related laws , which restricted the monetary contributions that may be made to political campaigns and expenditure by candidates . The Court affirmed the constitutionality of limits on campaign contributions , stating that they " serve [ d ] the basic governmental interest in safeguarding the integrity of the electoral process without directly impinging upon the rights of individual citizens and candidates to engage in political debate and discussion . " However , the Court overturned the spending limits , which it found imposed " substantial restraints on the quantity of political speech . "
The court again scrutinized campaign finance regulation in McConnell v. Federal Election Commission ( 2003 ) . The case centered on the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 ( BCRA ) , a federal law that imposed new restrictions on campaign financing . The Supreme Court upheld provisions which barred the raising of soft money by national parties and the use of soft money by private organizations to fund certain advertisements related to elections . However , the Court struck down the " choice of expenditure " rule , which required that parties could either make coordinated expenditures for all its candidates , or permit candidates to spend independently , but not both , which the Court agreed " placed an unconstitutional burden on the parties ' right to make unlimited independent expenditures . " The Court also ruled that the provision preventing minors from making political contributions was unconstitutional , relying on Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District .
In Federal Election Commission v. Wisconsin Right to Life , Inc . ( 2007 ) , the Court sustained an " as applied " challenge to BCRA , holding that issue ads may not be banned from the months preceding a primary or general election . In Davis v. Federal Election Commission ( 2008 ) , the Supreme Court declared the " Millionaire 's Amendment " provisions of the BCRA to be unconstitutional . The Court held that easing BCRA restrictions for an opponent of a self @-@ financing candidate spending at least $ 350 @,@ 000 of his or her own money violated the freedom of speech of the self @-@ financing candidate .
In Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission ( 2010 ) , the Court ruled that the BCRA 's federal restrictions on electoral advocacy by corporations or unions were unconstitutional for violating the Free Speech Clause of the First Amendment . The Court overruled Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce ( 1990 ) , which had upheld a state law that prohibited corporations from using treasury funds to support or oppose candidates in elections did not violate the First or Fourteenth Amendments . The Court also overruled the portion of McConnell that upheld such restrictions under the BCRA . In other words , the ruling was considered to hold that " political spending is a form of protected speech under the First Amendment " .
In McCutcheon v. Federal Election Commission ( 2014 ) , the Court ruled that federal aggregate limits on how much a person can donate to candidates , political parties , and political action committees , combined respectively in a two @-@ year period known as an “ election cycle , ” violated the Free Speech Clause of the First Amendment .
= = = = Flag desecration = = = =
The divisive issue of flag desecration as a form of protest first came before the Supreme Court in Street v. New York ( 1969 ) . In response to hearing an erroneous report of the murder of civil rights activist James Meredith , Sidney Street burned a 48 @-@ star U.S. flag . Street was arrested and charged with a New York state law making it a crime " publicly [ to ] mutilate , deface , defile , or defy , trample upon , or cast contempt upon either by words or act [ any flag of the United States ] . " In a 5 – 4 decision , the Court , relying on Stromberg v. California ( 1931 ) , found that because the provision of the New York law criminalizing " words " against the flag was unconstitutional , and the trial did not sufficiently demonstrate that he was convicted solely under the provisions not yet deemed unconstitutional , the conviction was unconstitutional . The Court , however , " resist [ ed ] the pulls to decide the constitutional issues involved in this case on a broader basis " and left the constitutionality of flag @-@ burning unaddressed .
The ambiguity with regard to flag @-@ burning statutes was eliminated in Texas v. Johnson ( 1989 ) . In that case , Gregory Lee Johnson burned an American flag at a demonstration during the 1984 Republican National Convention in Dallas , Texas . Charged with violating a Texas law prohibiting the vandalizing of venerated objects , Johnson was convicted , sentenced to one year in prison , and fined $ 2 @,@ 000 . The Supreme Court reversed his conviction in a 5 – 4 vote . Justice William J. Brennan , Jr. wrote in the decision that " if there is a bedrock principle underlying the First Amendment , it is that government may not prohibit the expression of an idea simply because society finds the idea offensive or disagreeable . " Congress then passed a federal law barring flag burning , but the Supreme Court struck it down as well in United States v. Eichman ( 1990 ) . A Flag Desecration Amendment to the U.S. Constitution has been proposed repeatedly in Congress since 1989 , and in 2006 failed to pass the Senate by a single vote .
= = = = Falsifying military awards = = = =
While the unauthorized wear or sale of the Medal of Honor has been a punishable offense under federal law since the early 20th century , the Stolen Valor Act made criminal the act of not only wearing , but also verbally claiming entitlement to military awards that a person did not in fact earn . In United States v. Alvarez ( 2012 ) , the Supreme Court struck down the Stolen Valor Act , ruling that the law violated the right to free speech for the government to punish people for making false claims regarding military service or honors . The decision was a 6 – 3 ruling , but the six justices in the majority could not agree on a single rationale for it .
= = = Commercial speech = = =
Commercial speech is speech done on behalf of a company or individual for the purpose of making a profit . Unlike political speech , the Supreme Court does not afford commercial speech full protection under the First Amendment . To effectively distinguish commercial speech from other types of speech for purposes of litigation , the Court uses a list of four indicia :
The contents do " no more than propose a commercial transaction " .
The contents may be characterized as advertisements .
The contents reference a specific product .
The disseminator is economically motivated to distribute the speech .
Alone , each indicium does not compel the conclusion that an instance of speech is commercial ; however , " [ t ] he combination of all these characteristics . . . provides strong support for . . . the conclusion that the [ speech is ] properly characterized as commercial speech . "
In Valentine v. Chrestensen ( 1942 ) , the Court upheld a New York City ordinance forbidding the " distribution in the streets of commercial and business advertising matter . " Writing for a unanimous court , Justice Owen Roberts explained :
This court has unequivocally held that streets are proper places for the exercise of the freedom of communicating information and disseminating opinion and that , though the states and municipalities may appropriately regulate the privilege in the public interest , they may not unduly burden or proscribe its employment in their public thoroughfares . We are equally clear that the Constitution imposes no such restraint on government as respects purely commercial advertising .
In Virginia State Pharmacy Board v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council ( 1976 ) , the Court overruled Valentine and ruled that commercial speech was entitled to First Amendment protection :
What is at issue is whether a State may completely suppress the dissemination of concededly truthful information about entirely lawful activity , fearful of that information 's effect upon its disseminators and its recipients . . . . [ W ] e conclude that the answer to this one is in the negative .
In Ohralik v. Ohio State Bar Association ( 1978 ) , the Court ruled that commercial speech was not protected by the First Amendment as much as other types of speech :
We have not discarded the " common @-@ sense " distinction between speech proposing a commercial transaction , which occurs in an area traditionally subject to government regulation , and other varieties of speech . To require a parity of constitutional protection for commercial and noncommercial speech alike could invite a dilution , simply by a leveling process , of the force of the [ First ] Amendment 's guarantee with respect to the latter kind of speech .
In Central Hudson Gas & Electric Corp. v. Public Service Commission ( 1980 ) , the Court clarified what analysis was required before the government could justify regulating commercial speech :
Is the expression protected by the First Amendment ? Lawful ? Misleading ? Fraud ?
Is the asserted government interest substantial ?
Does the regulation directly advance the governmental interest asserted ?
Is the regulation more extensive than is necessary to serve that interest ?
Six years later , the U.S. Supreme Court , applying the Central Hudson standards in Posadas de Puerto Rico Associates v. Tourism Company of Puerto Rico ( 1986 ) , affirmed the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico 's conclusion that Puerto Rico 's Games of Chance Act of 1948 , including the regulations thereunder , was not facially unconstitutional . The lax interpretation of Central Hudson adopted by Posadas was soon restricted under 44 Liquormart , Inc. v. Rhode Island ( 1996 ) , when the Court invalidated a Rhode Island law prohibiting the publication of liquor prices .
= = = School speech = = =
In Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District ( 1969 ) , the Supreme Court extended free speech rights to students in school . The case involved several students who were punished for wearing black armbands to protest the Vietnam War . The Court ruled that the school could not restrict symbolic speech that did not " materially and substantially " interrupt school activities . Justice Abe Fortas wrote :
First Amendment rights , applied in light of the special characteristics of the school environment , are available to teachers and students . It can hardly be argued that either students or teachers shed their constitutional rights to freedom of speech or expression at the schoolhouse gate . . . . [ S ] chools may not be enclaves of totalitarianism . School officials do not possess absolute authority over their students . Students . . . are possessed of fundamental rights which the State must respect , just as they themselves must respect their obligations to the State .
In Healy v. James ( 1972 ) , the Court ruled that Central Connecticut State College 's refusal to recognize a campus chapter of Students for a Democratic Society was unconstitutional , reaffirming Tinker .
However , since 1969 the Court has also placed several limitations on Tinker interpretations . In Bethel School District v. Fraser ( 1986 ) , the Court ruled that a student could be punished for his sexual @-@ innuendo @-@ laced speech before a school assembly and , in Hazelwood v. Kuhlmeier ( 1988 ) , the Court found that school newspapers enjoyed fewer First Amendment protections and are subject to school censorship . In Morse v. Frederick ( 2007 ) , the Court ruled that schools could , consistent with the First Amendment , restrict student speech at school @-@ sponsored events , even events away from school grounds , if students promote " illegal drug use " .
= = = Obscenity = = =
The federal government and the states have long been permitted to limit obscenity or pornography . While the Supreme Court has generally refused to give obscenity any protection under the First Amendment , pornography is subject to little regulation . However , the definitions of obscenity and pornography have changed over time .
In Rosen v. United States ( 1896 ) , the Supreme Court adopted the same obscenity standard as had been articulated in a famous British case , Regina v. Hicklin ( 1868 ) . The Hicklin test defined material as obscene if it tended " to deprave or corrupt those whose minds are open to such immoral influences , and into whose hands a publication of this sort may fall " . In the early twentieth century , literary works including An American Tragedy ( Theodore Dreiser , 1925 ) and Lady Chatterley 's Lover ( D.H. Lawrence , 1928 ) were banned for obscenity . In the federal district court case United States v. One Book Called Ulysses ( 1933 ) , Judge John M. Woolsey established a new standard to evaluate James Joyce 's novel Ulysses ( 1922 ) , stating that works must be considered in their entirety , rather than declared obscene on the basis of an individual part of the work .
The Supreme Court ruled in Roth v. United States ( 1957 ) that the First Amendment did not protect obscenity . It also ruled that the Hicklin test was inappropriate ; instead , the Roth test for obscenity was " whether to the average person , applying contemporary community standards , the dominant theme of the material , taken as a whole , appeals to the prurient interest " . This definition proved hard to apply , however , and in the following decade , members of the Court often reviewed films individually in a court building screening room to determine if they should be considered obscene . Justice Potter Stewart , in Jacobellis v. Ohio ( 1964 ) , famously stated that , although he could not precisely define pornography , " I know it when I see it " .
The Roth test was expanded when the Court decided Miller v. California ( 1973 ) . Under the Miller test , a work is obscene if :
( a ) . . . ‘ the average person , applying contemporary community standards ’ would find the work , as a whole , appeals to the prurient interest . . . ( b ) . . . the work depicts or describes , in a patently offensive way , sexual conduct specifically defined by the applicable state law , and ( c ) . . . the work , taken as a whole , lacks serious literary , artistic , political , or scientific value .
Note that " community " standards — not national standards — are applied whether the material appeals to the prurient interest , leaving the question of obscenity to local authorities . Child pornography is not subject to the Miller test , as the Supreme Court decided in New York v. Ferber ( 1982 ) and Osborne v. Ohio ( 1990 ) , ruling that the government 's interest in protecting children from abuse was paramount .
Personal possession of obscene material in the home may not be prohibited by law . In Stanley v. Georgia ( 1969 ) , the Court ruled that " [ i ] f the First Amendment means anything , it means that a State has no business telling a man , sitting in his own house , what books he may read or what films he may watch . " However , it is constitutionally permissible for the government to prevent the mailing or sale of obscene items , though they may be viewed only in private . Ashcroft v. Free Speech Coalition ( 2002 ) further upheld these rights by invalidating the Child Pornography Prevention Act of 1996 , holding that , because the act " [ p ] rohibit [ ed ] child pornography that does not depict an actual child " it was overly broad and unconstitutional under the First Amendment and that :
First Amendment freedoms are most in danger when the government seeks to control thought or to justify its laws for that impermissible end . The right to think is the beginning of freedom , and speech must be protected from the government because speech is the beginning of thought .
In United States v. Williams ( 2008 ) , the Court upheld the PROTECT Act of 2003 , ruling that prohibiting offers to provide and requests to obtain child pornography did not violate the First Amendment , even if a person charged under the Act did not possess child pornography .
= = = Memoirs of convicted criminals = = =
In some states , there are Son of Sam laws prohibiting convicted criminals from publishing memoirs for profit . These laws were a response to offers to David Berkowitz to write memoirs about the murders he committed . The Supreme Court struck down a law of this type in New York as a violation of the First Amendment in the case Simon & Schuster v. Crime Victims Board ( 1991 ) . That statute did not prohibit publication of a memoir by a convicted criminal . Instead , it provided that all profits from the book were to be put in escrow for a time . The interest from the escrow account was used to fund the New York State Crime Victims Board – an organization that pays the medical and related bills of victims of crime . Similar laws in other states remain unchallenged .
= = = Defamation = = =
American tort liability for defamatory speech or publications traces its origins to English common law . For the first two hundred years of American jurisprudence , the basic substance of defamation law continued to resemble that existing in England at the time of the Revolution . An 1898 American legal textbook on defamation provides definitions of libel and slander nearly identical to those given by William Blackstone and Edward Coke . An action of slander required the following :
Actionable words , such as those imputing the injured party : is guilty of some offense , suffers from a contagious disease or psychological disorder , is unfit for public office because of moral failings or an inability to discharge his or her duties , or lacks integrity in profession , trade or business ;
That the charge must be false ;
That the charge must be articulated to a third person , verbally or in writing ;
That the words are not subject to legal protection , such as those uttered in Congress ; and
That the charge must be motivated by malice .
An action of libel required the same five general points as slander , except that it specifically involved the publication of defamatory statements . For certain criminal charges of libel , such as seditious libel , the truth or falsity of the statements was immaterial , as such laws were intended to maintain public support of the government and true statements could damage this support even more than false ones . Instead , libel placed specific emphasis on the result of the publication . Libelous publications tended to " degrade and injure another person " or " bring him into contempt , hatred or ridicule " .
Concerns that defamation under common law might be incompatible with the new republican form of government caused early American courts to struggle between William Blackstone 's argument that the punishment of " dangerous or offensive writings . . . [ was ] necessary for the preservation of peace and good order , of government and religion , the only solid foundations of civil liberty " and the argument that the need for a free press guaranteed by the Constitution outweighed the fear of what might be written . Consequently , very few changes were made in the first two centuries after the ratification of the First Amendment .
The Supreme Court 's ruling in New York Times Co. v. Sullivan ( 1964 ) fundamentally changed American defamation law . The case redefined the type of " malice " needed to sustain a libel case . Common law malice consisted of " ill @-@ will " or " wickedness " . Now , a public officials seeking to sustain a civil action against a tortfeasor needed to prove by " clear and convincing evidence " that there was actual malice . The case involved an advertisement published in The New York Times indicating that officials in Montgomery , Alabama had acted violently in suppressing the protests of African @-@ Americans during the civil rights movement . The Montgomery Police Commissioner , L. B. Sullivan , sued the Times for libel , stating that the advertisement damaged his reputation . The Supreme Court unanimously reversed the $ 500 @,@ 000 judgment against the Times . Justice Brennan suggested that public officials may sue for libel only if the publisher published the statements in question with " actual malice " — " knowledge that it was false or with reckless disregard of whether it was false or not . " In sum , the court held that " the First Amendment protects the publication of all statements , even false ones , about the conduct of public officials except when statements are made with actual malice ( with knowledge that they are false or in reckless disregard of their truth or falsity ) . "
While actual malice standard applies to public officials and public figures , in Philadelphia Newspapers v. Hepps ( 1988 ) , the Court found that , with regard to private individuals , the First Amendment does " not necessarily force any change in at least some features of the common @-@ law landscape . " In Dun & Bradstreet , Inc. v. Greenmoss Builders , Inc . ( 1985 ) the Court ruled that " actual malice " need not be shown in cases involving private individuals , holding that " [ i ] n light of the reduced constitutional value of speech involving no matters of public concern . . . the state interest adequately supports awards of presumed and punitive damages — even absent a showing of ' actual malice . ' " In Gertz v. Robert Welch , Inc . ( 1974 ) , the Court ruled that a private individual had to prove actual malice only to be awarded punitive damages , but not to seek actual damages . In Hustler Magazine v. Falwell ( 1988 ) , the Court extended the " actual malice " standard to intentional infliction of emotional distress in a ruling which protected parody , in this case a fake advertisement in Hustler suggesting that evangelist Jerry Falwell 's first sexual experience had been with his mother in an outhouse . Since Falwell was a public figure , the Court ruled that " importance of the free flow of ideas and opinions on matters of public interest and concern " was the paramount concern , and reversed the judgement Falwell had won against Hustler for emotional distress .
In Milkovich v. Lorain Journal Co . ( 1990 ) , the Court ruled that the First Amendment offers no wholesale exception to defamation law for statements labeled " opinion " , but instead that a statement must be provably false ( falsifiable ) before it can be the subject of a libel suit . Nonetheless , it has been argued that Milkovich and other cases effectively provide for an opinion privilege . In consequence a significant number of states have enacted state opinion privilege laws .
= = = Private action = = =
State constitutions provide free speech protections similar to those of the U.S. Constitution . In a few states , such as California , a state constitution has been interpreted as providing more comprehensive protections than the First Amendment . The Supreme Court has permitted states to extend such enhanced protections , most notably in Pruneyard Shopping Center v. Robins . In that case , the Court unanimously ruled that while the First Amendment may allow private property owners to prohibit trespass by political speakers and petition @-@ gatherers , California was permitted to restrict property owners whose property is equivalent to a traditional public forum ( often shopping malls and grocery stores ) from enforcing their private property rights to exclude such individuals . However , the Court did maintain that shopping centers could impose " reasonable restrictions on expressive activity " . Subsequently , New Jersey , Colorado , Massachusetts and Puerto Rico courts have adopted the doctrine ; California 's courts have repeatedly reaffirmed it .
= = = Freedom of the press = = =
The free speech and free press clauses have been interpreted as providing the same protection to speakers as to writers , except for wireless broadcasting which has been given less constitutional protection . The Free Press Clause protects the right of individuals to express themselves through publication and dissemination of information , ideas and opinions without interference , constraint or prosecution by the government . This right was described in Branzburg v. Hayes as " a fundamental personal right " that is not confined to newspapers and periodicals . In Lovell v. City of Griffin ( 1938 ) , Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes defined " press " as " every sort of publication which affords a vehicle of information and opinion " . This right has been extended to media including newspapers , books , plays , movies , and video games . While it is an open question whether people who blog or use social media are journalists entitled to protection by media shield laws , they are protected equally by the Free Speech Clause and the Free Press Clause , because both clauses do not distinguish between media businesses and nonprofessional speakers . This is further shown by the Supreme Court consistently refusing to recognize the First Amendment as providing greater protection to the institutional media than to other speakers . For example , in a case involving campaign finance laws the Court rejected the " suggestion that communication by corporate members of the institutional press is entitled to greater constitutional protection than the same communication by " non @-@ institutional @-@ press businesses .
A landmark decision for press freedom came in Near v. Minnesota ( 1931 ) , in which the Supreme Court rejected prior restraint ( pre @-@ publication censorship ) . In this case , the Minnesota legislature passed a statute allowing courts to shut down " malicious , scandalous and defamatory newspapers " , allowing a defense of truth only in cases where the truth had been told " with good motives and for justifiable ends " . In a 5 – 4 decision , the Court applied the Free Press Clause to the states , rejecting the statute as unconstitutional . Hughes quoted Madison in the majority decision , writing , " The impairment of the fundamental security of life and property by criminal alliances and official neglect emphasizes the primary need of a vigilant and courageous press " .
However , Near also noted an exception , allowing prior restraint in cases such as " publication of sailing dates of transports or the number or location of troops " . This exception was a key point in another landmark case four decades later : New York Times Co. v. United States ( 1971 ) , in which the administration of President Richard Nixon sought to ban the publication of the Pentagon Papers , classified government documents about the Vietnam War secretly copied by analyst Daniel Ellsberg . The Court found , 6 – 3 , that the Nixon administration had not met the heavy burden of proof required for prior restraint . Justice Brennan , drawing on Near in a concurrent opinion , wrote that " only governmental allegation and proof that publication must inevitably , directly , and immediately cause the occurrence of an evil kindred to imperiling the safety of a transport already at sea can support even the issuance of an interim restraining order . " Justices Black and Douglas went still further , writing that prior restraints were never justified .
The courts have rarely treated content @-@ based regulation of journalism with any sympathy . In Miami Herald Publishing Co. v. Tornillo ( 1974 ) , the Court unanimously struck down a state law requiring newspapers criticizing political candidates to publish their responses . The state claimed that the law had been passed to ensure journalistic responsibility . The Supreme Court found that freedom , but not responsibility , is mandated by the First Amendment and so it ruled that the government may not force newspapers to publish that which they do not desire to publish .
Content @-@ based regulation of television and radio , however , have been sustained by the Supreme Court in various cases . Since there is a limited number of frequencies for non @-@ cable television and radio stations , the government licenses them to various companies . However , the Supreme Court has ruled that the problem of scarcity does not allow the raising of a First Amendment issue . The government may restrain broadcasters , but only on a content @-@ neutral basis . In Federal Communications Commission v. Pacifica Foundation , the Supreme Court upheld the Federal Communications Commission 's authority to restrict the use of " indecent " material in broadcasting .
State governments retain the right to tax newspapers , just as they may tax other commercial products . Generally , however , taxes that focus exclusively on newspapers have been found unconstitutional . In Grosjean v. American Press Co . ( 1936 ) , the Court invalidated a state tax on newspaper advertising revenues , holding that the role of the press in creating " informed public opinion " was vital . Similarly , some taxes that give preferential treatment to the press have been struck down . In Arkansas Writers ' Project v. Ragland ( 1987 ) , for instance , the Court invalidated an Arkansas law exempting " religious , professional , trade and sports journals " from taxation since the law amounted to the regulation of newspaper content . In Leathers v. Medlock ( 1991 ) , the Supreme Court found that states may treat different types of the media differently , such as by taxing cable television , but not newspapers . The Court found that " differential taxation of speakers , even members of the press , does not implicate the First Amendment unless the tax is directed at , or presents the danger of suppressing , particular ideas . "
In Branzburg v. Hayes ( 1972 ) , the Court ruled that the First Amendment did not give a journalist the right to refuse a subpoena from a grand jury . The issue decided in the case was whether a journalist could refuse to " appear and testify before state and Federal grand juries " basing the refusal on the belief that such appearance and testimony " abridges the freedom of speech and press guaranteed by the First Amendment " . The 5 – 4 decision was that such a protection was not provided by the First Amendment . However , a concurring opinion by Justice Lewis F. Powell , in which he stated that a claim for press privilege " should be judged on its facts by the striking of a proper balance between freedom of the press and the obligation of all citizens to give relevant testimony with respect to criminal conduct . The balance of these vital constitutional and societal interests on a case @-@ by @-@ case basis accords with the tried and traditional way of adjudicating such questions . " , has been frequently cited by lower courts since the decision .
= = Petition and assembly = =
The Petition Clause protects the right " to petition the government for a redress of grievances " . This includes the right to communicate with government officials , lobbying government officials and petitioning the courts by filing lawsuits with a legal basis . The Petition Clause first came to prominence in the 1830s , when Congress established the gag rule barring anti @-@ slavery petitions from being heard ; the rule was overturned by Congress several years later . Petitions against the Espionage Act of 1917 resulted in imprisonments . The Supreme Court did not rule on either issue .
In California Motor Transport Co. v. Trucking Unlimited , 404 U.S. 508 ( 1972 ) , the Supreme Court stated that the right to petition encompass " the approach of citizens or groups of them to administrative agencies ( which are both creatures of the legislature , and arms of the executive ) and to courts , the third branch of Government . Certainly the right to petition extends to all departments of the Government . The right of access to the courts is indeed but one aspect of the right of petition . " Today thus this right encompasses petitions to all three branches of the federal government — the Congress , the executive and the judiciary — and has been extended to the states through incorporation . According to the Supreme Court , " redress of grievances " is to be construed broadly : it includes not solely appeals by the public to the government for the redressing of a grievance in the traditional sense , but also , petitions on behalf of private interests seeking personal gain . The right not only protects demands for " a redress of grievances " but also demands for government action . The petition clause includes according to the Supreme Court the opportunity to institute non @-@ frivolous lawsuits and mobilize popular support to change existing laws in a peaceful manner .
In Borough of Duryea v. Guarnieri ( 2011 ) , the Supreme Court stated regarding the Free Speech Clause and the Petition Clause :
It is not necessary to say that the two Clauses are identical in their mandate or their purpose and effect to acknowledge that the rights of speech and petition share substantial common ground . . . . Both speech and petition are integral to the democratic process , although not necessarily in the same way . The right to petition allows citizens to express their ideas , hopes , and concerns to their government and their elected representatives , whereas the right to speak fosters the public exchange of ideas that is integral to deliberative democracy as well as to the whole realm of ideas and human affairs . Beyond the political sphere , both speech and petition advance personal expression , although the right to petition is generally concerned with expression directed to the government seeking redress of a grievance .
The right of assembly was originally distinguished from the right to petition . In United States v. Cruikshank ( 1875 ) , the Supreme Court held that " the right of the people peaceably to assemble for the purpose of petitioning Congress for a redress of grievances , or for anything else connected with the powers or duties of the National Government , is an attribute of national citizenship , and , as such , under protection of , and guaranteed by , the United States . The very idea of a government , republican in form , implies a right on the part of its citizens to meet peaceably for consultation in respect to public affairs and to petition for a redress of grievances . " Justice Morrison Waite 's opinion for the Court carefully distinguished the right to peaceably assemble as a secondary right , while the right to petition was labeled to be a primary right . Later cases , however , paid less attention to these distinctions .
In two 1960s decisions collectively known as forming the Noerr @-@ Pennington doctrine , the Court established that the right to petition prohibited the application of antitrust law to statements made by private entities before public bodies : a monopolist may freely go before the city council and encourage the denial of its competitor 's building permit without being subject to Sherman Act liability .
= = Freedom of association = =
Although the First Amendment does not explicitly mention freedom of association , the Supreme Court ruled , in National Association for the Advancement of Colored People v. Alabama ( 1958 ) , that this freedom was protected by the Amendment and that privacy of membership was an essential part of this freedom . The U.S. Supreme Court decided in Roberts v. United States Jaycees ( 1984 ) that " implicit in the right to engage in activities protected by the First Amendment " is " a corresponding right to associate with others in pursuit of a wide variety of political , social , economic , educational , religious , and cultural ends " . In Roberts the Court held that associations may not exclude people for reasons unrelated to the group 's expression , such as gender .
However , in Hurley v. Irish @-@ American Gay , Lesbian , and Bisexual Group of Boston ( 1995 ) , the Court ruled that a group may exclude people from membership if their presence would affect the group 's ability to advocate a particular point of view . Likewise , in Boy Scouts of America v. Dale ( 2000 ) , the Court ruled that a New Jersey law , which forced the Boy Scouts of America to admit an openly gay member , to be an unconstitutional abridgment of the Boy Scouts ' right to free association .
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= Idlewild and Soak Zone =
Idlewild and Soak Zone , commonly known as Idlewild Park or simply Idlewild , is a children 's amusement park situated in the Laurel Highlands near Ligonier , Pennsylvania , United States , about 50 miles ( 80 km ) east of Pittsburgh , along US Route 30 . Founded in 1878 as a campground along the Ligonier Valley Railroad by Thomas Mellon , Idlewild is the oldest amusement park in Pennsylvania and the third oldest operating amusement park in the United States behind Lake Compounce and Cedar Point . The park has won several awards , including from industry publication Amusement Today as the best children 's park in the world .
The park was established by the prominent Mellon family in 1878 , and remained family @-@ owned for over 100 years . It expanded greatly throughout the first half of the 20th century , adding rides including a Philadelphia Toboggan Company Rollo Coaster in 1938 , one of the company 's earliest . The park is home to the Ligonier Highland Games , a Scottish athletic and cultural festival that has annually drawn over 10 @,@ 000 spectators . In 1983 , the park was purchased by Kennywood Entertainment Company , which oversaw additional expansion , including an attraction designed and voiced by Fred Rogers based on his television show Mister Rogers ' Neighborhood . Since 2008 , the park , as well as others formerly under Kennywood Entertainment , have been owned by Spanish company Parques Reunidos and operated by their American subsidiary Palace Entertainment .
= = History = =
= = = Ligonier Valley Railroad : 1878 – 1952 = = =
On April 15 , 1853 , the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania granted a charter for a railroad to haul coal and timber between the towns of Ligonier and Latrobe . For nearly twenty years , Latrobe and Ligonier Rail Road Company performed no work on the railroad , and renewed their charter in 1866 and 1869 . Following an additional renewal in 1871 , the company changed its name to the Ligonier Valley Railroad and acquired a 10 @.@ 3 miles ( 16 @.@ 6 km ) stretch of land . Land grading and bridge construction for the narrow gauge line was mostly completed by 1873 .
In 1875 , the partially constructed railway was sold at a sheriff 's sale after the Pennsylvania Railroad , the Latrobe terminus of the line , declined to assume financial responsibility . Thomas Mellon , a retired Court of Common Pleas judge from Allegheny County , purchased the Ligonier Valley Railroad at auction . Mellon had founded the T. Mellon and Sons Bank , and was invested in coal , steel , oil , glassmaking , and other railroad ventures . In an effort to attract passengers , Mellon decided to offer recreational grounds along the route .
On May 1 , 1878 , William Darlington , landowner and namesake of the nearby village of Darlington , responded to Mellon 's request to use his land :
Dear Sir :
In compliance with your request , I will and do hereby agree to grant to the Ligonier Valley Rail Road Company the right and privilege to occupy for picnic purposes or pleasure grounds that portion of land in Ligonier Township , Westmoreland County as follows – the strip or piece of ground lying between the railway and the creek and extending from the old cornfield to Byards run – also two or three acres on the opposite side of the creek adjoining near the same . Without compensation in the shape of rent for three years from the first of April 1878 provided no timber or other trees are to be cut or injured – the underbrush you may clear out if you wish to do so .
Yours respectfully ,
Wm . M. Darlington
The first structure , built that year , was a train depot measuring 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) by 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) . The depot was described as the smallest full @-@ service station in the United States . Initial development of the land included camp sites , an artificial lake for fishing and boating , picnic tables , and a large hall . The railroad provided easy access to the site , attracting visitors from 50 miles ( 80 km ) away in Pittsburgh and the surrounding areas for a getaway in the country . The Ligonier Echo noted that on July 4 , 1890 , the trains to the park were so crowded that the " tops of the coaches were covered with boys . "
While the initial lease with Darlington confined the park to between the railroad and the north bank of the Loyalhanna Creek , permission was later granted for construction of a bridge across the river , allowing expansion to the south in the mid @-@ 1880s . Three lakes , Woodland , St. Clair , and Bouquet , were dug between 1880 and 1896 . In 1896 , the park added a T.M. Harton Company steam carousel in the center of the park . The Pittsburgh @-@ based company was a major manufacturer of carousels and roller coasters . By the end of the 19th century , attractions at the park included a bicycle track around Lake Bouquet , a hiking trail on the lake 's island , fishing in the Loyalhanna Creek , rowboating , and many walks and gardens . The park had dining halls , auditoriums , pavilions , a boathouse , an amphitheater , a bandstand , and athletic facilities .
In 1931 , Judge Mellon 's son Richard B. Mellon , brother of Andrew Mellon , and C. C. Macdonald acquired the park under a partnership known as the Idlewild Management Company . The first season under the financial support of Mellon and the management of Macdonald and his family brought electricity to the park , allowing for later operating hours and electric @-@ powered rides , including a three @-@ row Philadelphia Toboggan Company carousel . The park also debuted a den of black bears that year . The bears were across the path from a cage of monkeys , who escaped in 1932 . Park management offered a reward of $ 3 each ( $ 52 each in 2016 ) for the return of the seven monkeys , believing that they had been set loose . R. Z. Macdonald later said that his father , C. C. , was always amused and pleased with the publicity that the escape created , though he never formally accused his father .
The Macdonalds sought to maintain the park 's natural beauty , planting 10 @,@ 000 shrubs in the first year , and thousands of trees during the 1930s . In the first few years , the park added a circle swing , a Whip , a miniature railroad , and in 1938 , the Philadelphia Toboggan Company Rollo Coaster . World War II and the resulting rationing forced the park to close in 1943 . Upon reopening in 1946 , the park added the Caterpillar and a small showboat that sailed in Lake Bouquet .
= = = Macdonald family : 1952 – 1983 = = =
The Macdonald family obtained complete ownership of the park in 1951 . After leaving Idlewild , the Mellon family also abandoned the Ligonier Valley Railroad , in decline after the closing of area coal mines and decreased passenger traffic . The railroad ceased operations in 1952 . Although the park originally depended on the railroad , its closing had no effect . In 1913 , the Lincoln Highway had been established as the first cross @-@ country auto route , stretching from Times Square , New York City , to Lincoln Park , San Francisco . It passed directly by Idlewild on what is now U.S. Route 30 . As automobile traffic to the park increased , several parking lots and a Gulf Oil gas station , a Mellon company , were added in the 1930s .
Under the Macdonalds , the park continued to expand . Kiddieland was constructed between 1954 and 1956 , and featured many smaller version of rides meant for children . Some of the rides included miniature boats , a Ferris wheel , doodlebug , and pony rides .
Clinton " Jack " Macdonald became president of the park in 1957 . In 1959 , Macdonald and Lewis Davidson , a bagpipe director at the Carnegie Institute of Technology , started the Ligonier Highland Games , a Scottish highland games event held at the park . During the same year that he assumed control of the park , Macdonald was appointed as the first commissioner of the Scottish Clan Donald for Pennsylvania . The games , held annually in early September after the park had closed for the summer , became one of the largest and most highly regarded Scottish athletic and cultural competitions in the country . Jack Macdonald said of the Games : " We 're not interested in becoming one of the biggest Games . We just want to be one of the nicest . "
The park sustained heavy damage when the remnants of Hurricane Agnes dropped 14 inches ( 360 mm ) of rain on the area in 24 hours in June 1972 . Lake St. Clair and Lake Bouquet , merging in the resulting flood , caused significant damage to the boathouse . The flood lifted and twisted the park 's Loyalhanna Limited Railroad , which required extensive repairs .
= = = Kennywood era : 1983 – 2007 = = =
On January 27 , 1983 , Kennywood Park Corporation of West Mifflin , Pennsylvania , near Pittsburgh , bought the park from the Macdonald family for a reported price of $ 1 @.@ 8 million . [ 1 ] Ironically both Kennywood and Idlewild were founded as amusement parks by the Mellon family . During the first winter , several changes occurred . Jumpin ' Jungle , a children 's play area , was added . Story Book Forest was no longer run as a separate operation and was merged with the rest of the park . What had been Historic Village was relocated and renamed .
As the popularity of waterparks increased , the H20hhh Zone was added in 1985 . In 1989 , the park expanded across the Loyalhanna Creek by adding a trolley ride based on Mister Rogers ' Neighborhood , a popular children 's television show . The ride was designed and voiced by children 's entertainer Fred Rogers , a native of Latrobe . The area was expanded the following year to include Raccoon Lagoon , an area for children . A Ferris wheel , Tilt @-@ A @-@ Whirl and a water raft ride were added by the end of the 1980s , along with games , new food stands and restaurants .
The 1990s brought the addition of the Wild Mouse , the only Wild Mouse roller coaster designed by Dutch company Vekoma . The roller coaster was built in 1985 and had previously operated at Wiener Prater in Austria and Alton Towers in England , before opening at Idlewild in 1993 . Kennywood continued the Macdonald tradition of offering large @-@ scale entertainment , presenting circuses , lumberjack and acrobatics shows , and stage performances at the new Hillside Theater . A large picnic area with several log pavilions and game fields was added in 1999 . In the early years of the 21st century , additions to the waterpark doubled its size and led to a new name , Idlewild and Soak Zone .
= = = Palace Entertainment , since 2008 = = =
Kennywood Entertainment , itself an operator of a family @-@ owned park , had acquired other family @-@ owned and operated parks after its purchase of Idlewild in 1983 . Kennywood 's owners rejected offers by larger companies to purchase the group , such as one in 1997 by Premier Parks , the company that acquired the Six Flags franchise a year later . Kennywood refused the Premier offer and others on grounds that the new owners would make too many changes to the existing parks . However , on December 11 , 2007 , Kennywood Entertainment announced that it would sell its parks to the Madrid @-@ based amusement company , Parques Reunidos . The fourth- and fifth @-@ generation family ownership of Kennywood ensured that with the transaction all of the company 's parks would experience few changes and that day @-@ to @-@ day park operations would remain local .
In December 2009 , Idlewild announced that the Royal Hanneford Circus would perform at the park during the 2010 season , for the first time since 1997 .
For the 2011 season , the park announced that they would replace their swimming pool — built in 1931 — with a $ 2 million wave pool . The project will be the largest capital improvement undertaken by the park . The pool will be zero @-@ entry to a maximum 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) deep and hold 280 @,@ 600 galloons .
During interim time between the 2013 and 2014 seasons , it was announced that the park had permanently closed their popular attraction , Mr. Rogers ' Neighborhood of Make @-@ Believe . The attraction will be re @-@ themed , in coordination with The Fred Rogers Company to the much more relevant and popular spin @-@ off of the classic children 's program Mr. Rogers ' Neighborhood , Daniel Tiger 's Neighborhood . The re @-@ themed attraction opened for 2015 season .
= = = Location = = =
The park is situated alongside U.S. Route 30 , also historically known in Pennsylvania as the Lincoln Highway , the first US transcontinental highway . The region surrounding the park is the Laurel Highlands , and the park sits in the foothills of the Laurel Ridge .
The region was prominent in the French and Indian War with Fort Ligonier located just 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) away . On November 12 , 1758 , volunteers led by George Washington marched from Ligonier to aid George Mercer and his troops . At night in heavy fog , the two units mistook one another for the enemy and exchanged fire . Thirteen soldiers and one lieutenant were killed . Realizing the mistake , Washington ran amongst both groups , shouting and raising the men 's rifles into the air . Washington later wrote of the incident that he never felt in more danger in his life . Though the location had never been entirely verified , in Images of America : Idlewild , author Jeffrey S. Croushore acknowledges the opinion that the event took place in a section of Idlewild that was previously a wooded area known as the Woodlands .
= = Attractions = =
= = = Olde Idlewild = = =
Olde Idlewild is centered on the park 's Philadelphia Toboggan Company Carousel built in the 1920s and brought to Idlewild in 1931 . The Carousel 's music is provided by two band organs : an Artizan Style D ( fitted with a Wurlitzer roll frame as Wurlitzer rolls are more common than Artizan rolls ) and a Wurlitzer Caliola . The music of these two organs , which are played on a regularly alternating basis , can be heard throughout Olde Idlewild and the lower parking areas . Olde Idlewild contains many of the park 's traditional amusement rides . On the parking lot side of the Merry @-@ Go @-@ Round is the wooden Rollo Coaster , built by Philadelphia Toboggan in 1938 with lumber from the park , using a sawmill built nearby specifically for the project . The American Coaster Enthusiasts named the Rollo Coaster a " Classic Coaster " . Sitting in the trees adjacent to the Loyalhanna Creek is the Wild Mouse , added in 1993 . The Wild Mouse was built by Vekoma and operated at Alton Towers in Staffordshire , England , before being moved to Idlewild in 1993 . The Scrambler , along with the Flying Aces added in 2007 , also surround the Merry @-@ Go @-@ Round .
Another group of rides in Olde Idlewild is located around the park 's Skooters , added in 1931 . Surrounding the Skooters is the Balloon Race , Paratrooper , Ferris wheel , and Spider . Below the Paratrooper on the north bank of the Loyalhanna are the Whip , built in 1938 , the Super Round Up , and the Tilt @-@ A @-@ Whirl .
Olde Idlewild contained a Caterpillar ride until 2013 . Built in 1947 , Idlewild 's model was one of three similar rides still in operation in North America , one of two featuring a working canopy that covers the riders , and the only one that still utilized an undercarriage fan . The ride was removed to be refurbished and returned in the future .
= = = Hootin ' Holler = = =
In 1976 , the Historic Village was built to commemorate the United States Bicentennial . Modeled after a typical 19th century Western town , the area included a general store , blacksmith and wood shops , sheriff 's office and jail , newspaper office , saloon and restaurant .
In 1984 , Historic Village was relocated from near the gates to the center of the park , and renamed Hootin ' Holler . The area contains Confusion Hill , a themed walkthrough tour with optical illusions . The park 's 2 ft ( 610 mm ) narrow gauge Loyalhanna Limited Railroad train ride crosses the Loyalhanna Creek to Raccoon Lagoon and back . The area 's newest rides are the Howler , a spinning ride modeled like a tornado , and Paul Bunyan 's Loggin ' Toboggan , a log flume ride .
= = = Soak Zone = = =
The location of the Soak Zone was originally an island known as Flower Island , until part of the surrounding lake was filled in . Under previous names it was called the H20hhh Zone and later Dr. Hydro 's Soak Zone . The area originally consisted of just the pool and bathhouse , until slides were first added in 1985 . A raft ride , Rafter 's Run , was added the next year . The water park has since been expanded to include body slides , inner @-@ tube slides , a slide with foam mats , and many features for children , including a miniature pool and Captain Kidd 's Adventure Galley , a play area added in 2006 . The swimming pool was replaced by a wave pool in 2011 . The addition was the park 's single @-@ largest capital improvement . For the 2013 season the park added a lazy river and an expanded beach area .
= = = Jumpin ' Jungle = = =
Added in 1983 , Jumpin ' Jungle is an interactive play area for both children and adults . The area includes many attractions such as a ball pit , slides , climbing nets , and a suspension bridge . Added in 2008 , Bigfoot 's Mudslide gets its name from Westmoreland County 's reputation for the most sightings in Pennsylvania of Bigfoot , an alleged ape @-@ like creature said to inhabit remote forests .
= = = Raccoon Lagoon = = =
The park 's kiddieland area , Raccoon Lagoon , was added in 1989 , after originally opening in a different location in 1954 . The 9 @-@ acre ( 3 @.@ 6 ha ) area devoted to children @-@ oriented rides is one of the largest in the United States . Also in Raccoon Lagoon was Mister Rogers ' Neighborhood of Make @-@ Believe . Built in 1989 , the 3 ft ( 914 mm ) narrow gauge trolley ride was designed specifically for Idlewild by local native Fred Rogers and is based on his popular children 's television show . Prior to the 2014 season , it was announced that the ride would be re @-@ themed in coordination with the Fred Rogers Company to their modern children 's show , Daniel Tiger 's Neighborhood , based on the original series . The newly enhanced attraction , now named the Daniel Tiger 's Neighborhood Trolley Ride , re @-@ opened in 2015 .
= = = Story Book Forest = = =
Arthur Jennings , who portrayed the clown " Happy Dayze " in the park during the 1950s , was an accomplished engineer who approached park management about creating Story Book Forest , a theme park based on " emotion rather than motion " . Jennings did much of the work himself , including life @-@ sized models of fairy tales . The park , originally separate from Idlewild , opened in 1956 . Story Book Forest featured many attractions such as a pirate ship , a castle , and many live storybook characters . The entrance to the Forest is a giant storybook which reads " Here is the Land of Once Upon a Time ... Step through the pages of this big Story Book ... and visit the people and places every child knows ... and Loves . Here dreams are real ... and so are your Story Book friends . " Now incorporated with the rest of the park , Story Book Forest celebrated its 50th anniversary in 2006 .
= = = Ligonier Highland Games = = =
The Ligonier Highland Games is a highland games event that takes place in early September . The events primarily take place at Idlewild , while some events also take place in nearby Greensburg . Competitions include heavy athletics such as the caber toss , stone put , and weight and hammer throw . Other competitions in music include highland dancing , solo and band piping , drumming , Scottish fiddling , and Scottish harp . Vendors sell related items such as authentic tartans , bagpipes , and jewellery . While initially attracting crowds of 1 @,@ 200 , the festival now records average attendances near 10 @,@ 000 .
= = Recognition = =
Idlewild and Soak Zone is the oldest operating amusement park in Pennsylvania , third oldest in the United States , and twelfth oldest in the world . In 2010 , the park earned the " Golden Ticket " award from trade magazine Amusement Today as the best children 's park in the world . It was recognized again as the best in the category in 2011 , 2012 , and 2013 . The park previously received Golden Tickets for the fifth @-@ best children 's area in 2006 and 2007 and second @-@ best children 's park for the sixth consecutive year in 2009 . The National Amusement Park Historical Association recognized Idlewild as the best park for families in 2010 , 2011 , and 2012 , having previously named it the fourth @-@ best park in 2005 , second in 2006 , fourth again in 2007 and 2008 , and third in 2009 . The park was once named " America 's Most Beautiful Theme Park " .
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= September 1964 South Vietnamese coup attempt =
Before dawn on September 13 , 1964 , the ruling military junta of South Vietnam , led by General Nguyễn Khánh , was threatened by a coup attempt headed by Generals Lâm Văn Phát and Dương Văn Đức , who sent dissident units into the capital Saigon . They captured various key points and announced over national radio the overthrow of the incumbent regime . With the help of the Americans , Khánh was able to rally support and the coup collapsed the next morning without any casualties .
In the immediate month leading up the coup , Khánh 's leadership had become increasingly troubled . He had tried to augment his powers by declaring a state of emergency , but this only provoked large @-@ scale protests and riots calling for an end to military rule , with Buddhist activists at the forefront . Fearful of losing power , Khánh began making concessions to the protesters and promised democracy in the near future . He also removed several military officials closely linked to the discriminatory Catholic rule of the slain former President Ngô Đình Diệm ; this response to Buddhist pressure dismayed several Catholic officers , who made a few abortive moves to remove him from power .
In part because of pressure from Buddhist protests , Khánh removed the Catholics Phát and Đức from the posts of Interior Minister and IV Corps commander , respectively . They responded with a coup supported by the Catholic @-@ aligned Đại Việt Quốc dân đảng , as well as General Trần Thiện Khiêm , a Catholic who had helped Khánh to power . Having captured the radio station , Phát then made a broadcast promising to revive Diệm 's policies . Khánh managed to evade capture and , during the first stage of the coup , there was little activity as most senior officers failed to support either side . Throughout the day , Khánh gradually rallied more allies and the U.S. remained supportive of his rule and pressured the rebels to give up . With the backing of Air Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ , commander of the Vietnam Air Force , and General Nguyễn Chánh Thi , Khánh was able to force Phát and Đức to capitulate the next morning , September 14 . Đức , Kỳ and Thi then appeared at a media conference where they denied that any coup had taken place and put on a choreographed display of unity , claiming that nobody would be prosecuted over the events .
Convinced that Khiêm was involved in the plot , Khánh had him exiled to Washington as ambassador , and eased General Dương Văn Minh out of the political scene , thereby removing the other two nominal members of the ruling triumvirate . However , concerned that Kỳ and Thi had become too powerful , Khánh had Phát and Đức acquitted at their military trial in an attempt to use them as political counterweights . Despite his survival , the coup was seen by the historian George McTurnan Kahin as the start of Khánh 's ultimate political decline . Due to the intervention of Kỳ and Thi , Khánh was now indebted to them , and in an attempt to maintain his power in the face of increasing military opposition , he tried to court support from Buddhist civilian activists , who supported negotiations with the communists to end the Vietnam War . As the Americans were strongly opposed to such policies , relations with Khánh became increasingly strained and he was deposed in February 1965 with US connivance .
= = Background = =
General Nguyễn Khánh had come to power in January 1964 after surprising the ruling junta of General Dương Văn Minh in a pre @-@ dawn operation , taking control without firing a shot . Because of American pressure , he retained the popular Minh as a token head of state , while holding the real power by controlling the Military Revolutionary Council ( MRC ) . In August , the Vietnam War expanded with the Tonkin Gulf incident , a disputed encounter between North Vietnamese and American naval vessels ; Washington accused the communists of launching an attack in international waters .
Khánh saw the tense situation as an opportunity to increase his power . On August 7 , he declared a state of emergency , giving the police the ability to search properties under any circumstances , ban protests and arbitrarily jail " elements considered as dangerous to national security " . He further enacted censorship to stop " the circulation of all publications , documents , and leaflets considered as harmful to public order " . Khánh produced a new constitution , known as the Vũng Tàu Charter , which would have augmented his personal power at the expense of the already @-@ limited Minh . However , this only served to weaken Khánh as large demonstrations and riots in the cities broke out — with the majority Buddhists prominent — calling for an end to the state of emergency and the new constitution , as well as a progression back to civilian rule .
Fearing he could be toppled by the intensifying protests , Khánh met with Buddhist leaders . They asked him to repeal the new constitution , reinstate civilian rule , and remove Cần Lao Party — a secret Catholic body used by former President Ngô Đình Diệm to infiltrate and control all aspects of society — members from power , and Khánh agreed . General Trần Thiện Khiêm claimed " Khánh felt there was no choice but to accept since the influence of Trí Quang was so great that he could not only turn the majority of the people against the government but could influence the effectiveness of the armed forces . " Khánh publicly promised to reformulate the Vũng Tàu Charter , allow protests and liberalize the press . This encouraged more demonstrations by activists , and Khánh responded with wider concessions . Under the new arrangements , the new constitution would be repealed , and the MRC would disband . Khánh also promised to create an elected legislature within a year .
Many senior officers , particularly the Catholic Generals Khiêm and Nguyễn Văn Thiệu , decried what they viewed as a handing of power to the Buddhist leaders . They tried to remove Khánh in favor of Minh , and recruited many officers to their plot . Khiêm and Thieu sought out US Ambassador Maxwell Taylor for a private endorsement of their plan , but Taylor did not want any more changes in leadership , fearing a corrosive effect on the already @-@ unstable government . This deterred Khiêm 's group from acting on their plans .
The division among the generals came to a head at a meeting of the MRC on August 26 – 27 . Khánh said the instability was due to troublemaking by members and supporters of the Catholic @-@ aligned Đại Việt Quốc dân đảng ( Nationalist Party of Greater Vietnam ) , whom he accused of putting partisan plotting ahead of the national interest . Prominent officers associated with the Đại Việt included Thieu and Khiêm . Khiêm blamed Khánh 's weakness in dealing with Buddhist activists for the demonstrations in the cities and the rural losses to the communists . Thieu and another Catholic General Nguyễn Hữu Có called for the replacement of Khánh with Minh , but the latter refused . Minh claimed that Khánh was the only one who would get funding from Washington , so they should support him , prompting Khiêm to angrily say " Obviously , Khánh is a puppet of the US government , and we are tired of being told by the Americans how we should run our internal affairs . " Feeling pressured by the strong condemnations of his colleagues , Khánh promised to resign , but no replacement was agreed upon and another meeting was convened .
After more arguing between the senior officers , they agreed that Khánh , Minh , and Khiêm would rule as a triumvirate for two months , until a new civilian government could be formed . However , because of their disunity , the trio did little . Khánh dominated the decision @-@ making and sidelined Khiêm and Minh . The US military commander in Vietnam William Westmoreland deplored the concessions Khánh made to political opponents and lobbied Washington for permission to attack North Vietnam , saying that Khánh could not survive without it .
= = Coup = =
At the start of September 1964 , General Lâm Văn Phát was dismissed as Interior Minister , while General Dương Văn Đức was about to be removed as IV Corps commander . Both were removed partly due to pressure from Buddhist activists , who accused Khánh of accommodating too many Catholic Diệm supporters in leadership positions . Diệm had tried to use the loyalist Phát to help thwart the November 1963 coup , but the rebels managed to sideline Diệm 's general and execute the president . Disgruntled by their demotions , Phát and Đức launched a coup attempt before dawn on September 13 , having recruited ten army battalions . They gained the support of Colonel Lý Tòng Bá , the head of the 7th Division 's armored section , and Colonel Dương Hiếu Nghĩa , a tank commander who had been one of Diệm 's assassins . It appeared at this stage that the coup was supported by Catholic and Đại Việt elements . Another member of the conspiracy was Colonel Phạm Ngọc Thảo , who while a Catholic , was a communist spy trying to maximize infighting at every possible opportunity .
Đức and Phát 's plot was supported during the planning phase by Defense Minister and triumvirate member Khiêm . General Huỳnh Văn Cao , a Catholic and Diệm loyalist while the former president was alive , claimed in a 1972 newspaper interview that Khiêm — by then prime minister — had asked him to join the coup . Cao said he had declined Khiêm 's invitation , mildly mocking him by asking " You 're part of the ' Troika ' now ... won 't you be overthrowing yourself ? " Cao said he had pointed out that political upheaval in Saigon would be a bad idea because Vietnam was prominent during the ongoing US presidential election campaign and negative publicity could lead to a decrease in American public and political support for South Vietnam .
Four battalions of rebel troops moved before dawn from the Mekong Delta towards Saigon , using armored personnel carriers and jeeps carrying machine guns . After cowing several police checkpoints on the edge of the capital with threats of machine @-@ gun and artillery fire , the plotters put rebel sentries in their place to seal off Saigon from incoming or outgoing traffic . They then captured communication facilities in the capital , including the post office , to prevent messages from being sent in or out . As his troops took over the city , Phát sat in a civilian vehicle and placidly said " We 'll be holding a press conference in town this afternoon at 4 p.m. " He said " This is nothing to worry about . Just a little operation against some politicians . " The rebels set up their command post in the Saigon home of General Duong Ngoc Lam , who had been removed from his post as Mayor of Saigon by Khánh . Lam had commanded the Civil Guard during Diệm 's presidency and was one of his trusted supporters .
The rebels took over the city without any gunfire , and used the national radio station to make a broadcast . Claiming to represent " The Council for the Liberation of the Nation " , Phát proclaimed a regime change , and accused Khánh of promoting conflict within the nation 's military and political leadership . He promised to capture Khánh and pursue a policy of increased anti @-@ communism , with a stronger government and military . Phát said he would use the ideology and legacy of Diệm to lay the foundation for his new junta . Đức claimed the coup attempt was prompted by " the transfer to the capital of some neutralist elements , and by some pro @-@ communists in the government " . According to the historian George McTurnan Kahin , Phát 's broadcast was " triumphant " and may have prompted senior officers who were neither part of the original conspiracy nor fully loyal to Khánh to conclude that Phát and Đức would not embrace them if they abandoned Khánh .
In contrast to Phát 's serene demeanor , his incoming troops prompted devotees at the Catholic cathedral — who were attending mass — to run away in fear . The Buddhists however , made no overt reaction to the pro @-@ Diệm coup , even though the former president had pursued policies that discriminated against them . There was little reaction from most of the military commanders . The Vietnam Air Force commander Air Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ had promised a fortnight earlier to use his aircraft against any coup attempt , but he took no action early in the morning . At the same time , Khiêm and Thieu 's lack of public action was seen as implicit support for the coup , as their criticism of Khánh 's leadership in junta meetings and private attempts to remove him were well @-@ known . A US Embassy report to the State Department during the coup described Thieu and Khiêm as being " so passive that they appear to have been either tacitly supporting or associated with this move by Đức and Phát " .
Some time later , Kỳ called in troops serving on Saigon 's outskirts to come to Tan Son Nhut Air Base , the largest in the country and the headquarters of the military . He barricaded the soldiers into defensive positions and vowed a " massacre " if rebels attacked the base . A stand @-@ off ensued between rebel tanks and loyalist troops around the perimeter of the base , but it petered out without any violence after the rebels stepped back . Kỳ had apparently been angered by comments made by a rebel source who claimed that he was part of the coup attempt . Kỳ was also well known for his hawkish attitude and close relations with the American military presence in Vietnam , and US opposition to the putsch was thought to have been quickly conveyed to him .
Phát and Đức could not apprehend Khánh , who had escaped the capital and flown to the Central Highlands resort town of Da Lat . Their forces stormed Khánh 's office and captured his duty officers but could not find the junta leader . There was then a lull in the movement of troops and units . One Vietnamese public servant said that " All these preparations are the result of a big misunderstanding on both sides . I don 't think either group will start anything , but both think the other will . " Taylor was on an emergency flight from Honolulu — where he had been in meetings with senior American military figures — back to Saigon and he said the coup " certainly was unannounced and unheralded . " In the mid @-@ afternoon Khánh made a radio broadcast on a loyalist system , condemning the coup and calling on the military to remain loyal , claiming that support for the " rebellious leaders " would play into the hands of the Viet Cong .
= = = U.S. intervention = = =
Some U.S. advisers serving with units involved in the coup were driven off by rebel officers who did not want interference . The plotters thought the Americans would disapprove of their actions , as Taylor had recently talked of an " upward trend " in the war against the communists , while President Lyndon Johnson praised the " continued progress " against the Viet Cong . During the early hours of the coup , officials in Washington remained guarded in public , saying they were monitoring the situation and calling for calm , without explicitly supporting either side . Despite this , they did hint at a preference for the status quo : " hope that consultations among the leadership will shortly permit the Government to restore the situation in the city to normal " . Behind the scenes , they used the respective American military advisers to lobby unit leaders against participating in the coup .
U.S. officials flew after Khánh to encourage him to return to Saigon and reassert his control . The general refused to do so unless the Americans publicly announced their support for him . The Americans then asked Khánh about his plans for the future , but felt that his answers betrayed a lack of direction . After talking to Phát and Đức , they concluded the same , so they decided to back the incumbent and made a press release through the embassy endorsing Khánh . Their decision was augmented by the rebels ' inability to land a decisive blow , making the Americans more favorable to a continuation of Khánh 's rule . The Voice of America broadcast a message emphasizing ongoing U.S. support for Khánh and opposition to the coup . It said the Americans had been monitoring the situation closely and that the incumbent regime was functioning ; it further said :
The United States Government fully supports this duly constituted Government . The United States Government deplores any effort to interfere with this Government 's program of convening a supreme national council to reorganize the structure of the Government on lines commanding broad participation by all important elements of the population .
At the same time , anonymous U.S. sources told journalists that the coup was concerning even if it failed , due to its destabilizing effects . Khánh also requested to General William Westmoreland , the commander of American forces in Vietnam , that U.S. Marines come to his aid , and called for the Americans to formulate a " counter @-@ plan " for him . Although no U.S. forces made landfall , marines were placed just offshore near Saigon and Da Nang in readiness .
= = = Coup collapse = = =
The U.S. announcement of support for Khánh helped to deter ARVN officers from joining Phát and Đức , who decided to give up . Westmoreland had spoken to Đức and reported to Washington that he " in no uncertain terms ... informed him [ Đức ] that MACV , the U.S. Mission , and the U.S. Government did not support in any way his move , [ and ] advised that he get his troops moved out of town [ Saigon ] immediately . He said that he understood and thanked me . He seemed to be a shaky and insecure young man . " Đức mistakenly thought that Kỳ and his subordinates would be joining the coup , but he later realized his misjudgement . When he found out he had been tricked into thinking the plotters had great strength , he gave up . According to an anonymous source , Đức was alarmed by Phát 's strong statements during his radio broadcast , which made him reconsider his participation in the coup .
Brigadier General Nguyễn Chánh Thi of the 1st Division also supported Khánh . A CIA log of the coup proceedings said Thieu and Khiêm " issued expressions of firm support for Khánh somewhat belatedly " . Kỳ then decided to make a show of force as Phát and Đức began to wilt , and he sent jets to fly low over Saigon and finish off the rebel stand . They circled continuously but never actually fired . He also sent two C @-@ 47s to Vũng Tàu to pick up two companies of South Vietnamese marines who had remained loyal to Khánh . Several more battalions of loyal infantry were transported into Saigon . Phát then withdrew with his forces to Mỹ Tho , the base of the 7th Division . In the early hours of September 14 , before dawn , Kỳ met senior coup leaders after inviting them to Tan Son Nhut and told them to back down , which they did .
Loyalist forces regained control of the radio station and broadcast an announcement claiming control and ordering students and public servants to go about their normal lives . In the meantime , air force planes continued to set off flares to show their alertness , and rocket launchers and more weapons were deployed around Tan Son Nhut . Three battalions of paratroopers were brought in to patrol the airfield 's perimeter .
= = Media conference = =
As the coup collapsed , Kỳ and Đức appeared with other senior officers at a news conference where they proclaimed that the South Vietnamese military was united . They announced a resolution by the armed forces , signed by them and seven others , claiming a united front against corruption . Apart from Kỳ and Đức , the other seven signatories were Thi , General Cao Văn Viên , an airborne brigade commander , the commander of I Corps General Tôn Thất Xứng , the commander of the Marine Brigade General Lê Nguyên Khang , General Nguyen Đức Thang of the General Staff , the commander of the Republic of Vietnam Navy Admiral Chung Tấn Cang , and the commander of the Rangers Colonel Pham Xuan Nhuan .
The officers claimed the events in the capital were misinterpreted by observers , as " there was no coup " . Kỳ said Khánh was in complete control and that the senior officers involved in the stand @-@ off " have agreed to rejoin their units to fight the Communists " , naming Đức , Phát , Lam and commander of the 7th Division Huynh Van Ton . Đức claimed that the leading officers had agreed :
To put an end to attempts of the Viet Cong to seize power in South Vietnam
To purge all Viet Cong elements and their " puppets " out of Government agencies and the ranks of the administration
To build a unified nation without distinction based on religion
To have the Government treat its citizens impartially
Đức further commented that fair treatment of citizens was the only way to defeat the communists . When asked if he now supported Khánh , Đức , " looking ill with weariness , if nothing else " , simply nodded in agreement . Kỳ also claimed that no further action would be taken against those who were involved with Đức and Phát 's activities .
After Khánh was again secure in Saigon , he said " I am very moved by the spirit of unity shown by the armed forces and population when faced with the threat of internal strife . I commend the patriotism of all the soldiers who knew how to put the higher interests of the nation above all else . " Khánh said he would relinquish power and return to a purely military rule in two months time , but reneged on an earlier explicit promise to guarantee a purely civilian government , simply stating that the new regime would be one " that has the confidence of the entire people " . The Soviet Union said the coup " demonstrated once again on what a rotten foundation Washington 's policy in South Vietnam is based " .
= = Arrests = =
Despite Kỳ and Đức 's media event , it appeared that Phát and Ton were remaining defiant after returning to the latter 's 7th Division 's headquarters in Mỹ Tho . Ton was apparently still maintaining a hostile political stance , and threatening to break away from the Saigon regime by overseeing the area around Mỹ Tho as a virtual independent state . Ton was reported to have threatened to cut the main highway from Saigon into Mỹ Tho and further south into the rest of the Mekong Delta , although it was thought he had no intention or means of assaulting Saigon militarily . Kỳ said a helicopter had been sent to arrest Ton but that a stand @-@ off had developed . However , on September 16 Khánh had the plotters taken into custody . Đức , the rebel tank commander Nghia , Ton , and Lam were all arrested , followed by Phát , who returned to Saigon to turn himself in . A trial was then scheduled . Khánh removed three of the four corps commanders and six of the nine division commanders for failing to move against Phát and Đức .
= = Power shift = =
Kỳ and Thi 's role in putting down the coup attempt gave them more leverage in Saigon 's military politics . Indebted to Kỳ , Thi , and the youthful clique of officers dubbed the Young Turks for helping him stay in power , Khánh was now in a weaker position . Kỳ 's group called on Khánh to remove " corrupt , dishonest and counterrevolutionary " officers , civil servants and " exploitationists " , and threatened to remove him if he did not enact their proposed reforms , as " the people and the armed forces will be compelled to make a second revolution " . This was interpreted as a thinly veiled warning to Khánh that the younger officers were intent on holding significant power through the military apparatus , contrary to any plans for civilian rule .
Kỳ specifically said nine or ten other officers should be dismissed for involvement in the coup , but refused to identify who he had in mind . Some observers accused Kỳ and Thi of deliberately orchestrating or allowing the plot to develop before putting it down in order to embarrass Khánh and allow themselves to gain prominence and prestige on the political stage . In later years , Cao Huy Thuan , a professor and Buddhist activist based in the northern town of Da Nang , claimed that during a meeting with Kỳ and Thi a few days before the coup , the officers had discussed their plans for overthrowing Khánh . Another conspiracy claim was propagated by General Trần Văn Đôn , who conjectured that Khánh had tried to provoke or bait rival generals , such as Khiêm , into revolting against him so he could defeat and remove them from the scene , thereby strengthening himself and boosting his political image .
The communists were pleased by the coup , as the South Vietnamese military was wasting its resources and energy on infighting . They did not make any attacks in the days immediately after the coup as they were worried their doing so might galvanize the divided society into action against a common cause .
= = Retribution and trial = =
Following the coup , Khánh concluded that his triumvirate partner Khiêm had played a major role in fomenting the coup and insisted he be sent out of Saigon . The Americans agreed and Ambassador Taylor organized for Khiêm to be made Saigon 's representative in Washington . Soon after , Thao was dispatched to join Khiêm as his press attaché . During the coup , Minh had remained aloof from the proceedings , angering Khánh and keeping their long @-@ running rivalry going . By the end of October , the Johnson administration had become more supportive of Taylor 's negative opinion of Minh and concluded that US interests would be optimized if Khánh prevailed in the power struggle . As a result , the Americans eventually paid for Minh to go on a " good will tour " so he could be pushed off the political scene without embarrassment .
In the middle of October , Phát and 19 others were put on trial in a military court ; observers predicted Phát would be the only one to face the death penalty , and that this would be reduced to a custodial term . Of the accused , 7 were civilians and 13 were military officers . They tried to appear confident and waved to family and friends . Đức told the assembled media the trial was unfair , stating " I believe in the supreme court of conscience " . He then pointed to his subordinate officers and called them " national heroes " . He denied media speculation he had backed down during the coup to avoid being bombed by Kỳ , claiming " I wanted to avoid bloodshed ... I am very proud of my decision " .
Phát 's lawyers started by asking for the charges against the conspirators to be dismissed , claiming the rebels had not been captured " red @-@ handed " , but this request was denied . They were more successful in another demand , managing to persuade the five military judges to allow witnesses to be called . The court agreed to their request to compel Khánh , Kỳ and the civilian Deputy Prime Minister Nguyễn Xuân Oánh to appear before the hearing . The accused officers claimed to have only intended to make a show of force , rather than overthrow Khánh . Đức claimed that the objective of his actions was to " emphasize my ideas " and said his actions did not constitute a coup attempt . Đức said that if he was intending to overthrow the government , he would have arrested public servants or military officials and denied having done so . On the other hand , he also admitted to being concerned by Khánh 's policies . Đức said he had decided to end what he regarded as a military protest demonstration when Khánh promised to consider his concerns , and then returned to the IV Corps headquarters in the Mekong Delta . He claimed responsibility for the actions of his subordinate and co @-@ accused , Colonel Ton , who led the 7th Division of IV Corps into Saigon . Ton agreed that Đức had ordered him to move his troops into the capital . During questioning , Đức did not refer to his coup partner Phát .
Asked why he had denounced Khánh as a " traitor " in a radio broadcast during the coup attempt , Phát said he had merely " gotten excited " . Phát was asked about the collapse of his coup attempt and he discussed his visit to the American Embassy along with labor union leader Tran Quoc Buu on the evening of September 13 . He said his discussion with Deputy Ambassador U. Alexis Johnson was " not too important " and played down its impact , claiming that Johnson 's perfunctory use of French had limited any talks he would have wanted to have . This was contradicted by Buu , who told journalists that the discussion with Johnson had lasted for around 90 minutes . Of the civilians arrested , Buu was the most prominent . He was accused of involvement in trying to overthrow the regime because he had been involved in the meeting between Phát and Johnson . Buu acknowledged that he organized the meeting but said he was not involved in any plans for a leadership change . He claimed that US Embassy officials had phoned him during the coup to ask him to order his union members to refrain from agitating on industrial relations matters during the physically dangerous period . He said he then offered to arrange a meeting for the Americans with the coup leaders to see if a non @-@ violent solution to the stand @-@ off could be found . Buu said he was not acting in a partial manner and did not listen to Johnson 's discussion with Phát . The Americans agreed with Buu 's claims and privately thought he had been arrested for staging labor union activities and demonstrations unrelated to the military power struggle .
One week later , on October 24 , the charges were dropped . Khánh then gave Đức and Phát two months of detention for indiscipline ; their subordinates were incarcerated for shorter periods . According to Kahin , Khánh rigged the military trial so that Đức and Phát were acquitted so they could be used as a Catholic counterweight to the Young Turks faction of Kỳ and Thi , who in Khánh 's eyes had become increasingly strong and ominous . Khánh also tried to build an alliance with the " Da Lat Generals " — so @-@ called as he had put them under house arrest there after toppling them in the January 1964 coup — by recalling them to active roles .
On November 14 , Khánh brought back Don as the deputy chief of staff , and installed fellow Da Lat General Tôn Thất Đính as his assistant . However , the Young Turks were cognizant of Khánh 's motives , and continued to pressure him to sideline Don and Dinh in an attempt to gain more power for themselves . For his part , realizing his political base within the junta was precarious , Khánh had to seek more popular support . According to Kahin , " in what was strictly a marriage of convenience " , Khánh had to try to ameliorate the only large civilian political force in South Vietnam , the Buddhist activists , who publicly called for a negotiated end to the war . This was regarded by Kahin as the start of Khánh 's ultimate political downfall , as the Americans were resolutely opposed to any coexistence with the communists and their relations with Khánh declined steadily from then onwards . In December , Khánh and Taylor had an angry exchange after the junta dissolved the consultative High National Council , leading both men to call for the other to leave the country and prompting Khánh to repeatedly denounce the ambassador in the media . Khánh was eventually deposed in February 1965 by Kỳ and Thi with the backing , encouragement and some organizational help from the Americans .
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= The Boat Race 1974 =
The 120th Boat Race took place on 6 April 1974 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . It was won by Oxford who passed the finishing post five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths ahead of Cambridge , in a winning time of 17 minutes 35 seconds , the fastest in the history of the race , beating the existing record set in the 1948 race . It was umpired by Ran Laurie .
In the reserve race , Goldie beat Isis , and in the Women 's Boat Race , Cambridge were victorious .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having beaten Oxford by a thirteen lengths in the previous year 's race . Cambridge held the overall lead , with 67 victories to Oxford 's 51 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
During preparation for the race , both crews were defeated on the Thames by the Lubrication Laboratory boat from Imperial College London . Jim Railton , writing in The Times was not impressed : " It has already been well established that there are no top class crews in this ... Boat Race . Each day on the Tideway in the final days of training have simply produced more negatives " . Cambridge also lost twice in short races against their reserve crew Goldie , whom Oxford had defeated at the Reading University Head of the River Race by eight seconds . In appalling conditions , Cambridge won an interrupted race against a Barclays Bank crew . Meanwhile , Oxford defeated a " motley eight " from Tideway Scullers School by four lengths along the full course . Oxford 's finishing coach was Daniel Topolski while Cambridge were guided by British Olympic rower David Jennens , and the race was umpired by Ran Laurie , who had rowed for Cambridge in the 1934 , 1935 and 1936 races .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew was marginally heavier than their opponents , weighing an average of 13 st 5 @.@ 25 lb ( 84 @.@ 7 kg ) , 0 @.@ 25 pounds ( 0 @.@ 1 kg ) per rower more than Oxford . Oxford saw four Blues return to their crew , Nick Tee , Sam Nevin , Dennis Payne and American Olympian David Sawyier , while Cambridge welcomed back two – Ben Duncan and Howard Jacobs .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station . Oxford took an early lead with their stroke Sawyier making a good start . Despite this , by the Mile Post , Oxford were just one @-@ third of a length clear , and while Cambridge 's stroke rate was lower than their Dark Blue opposition , they remained in contention . By Hammersmith Bridge , Oxford held a two @-@ length lead , and despite favourable wind and ride , Cambridge failed to respond . At Chiswick Steps , the lead had extended to four lengths and by Barnes Bridge it was five . Oxford passed the finishing post in a record @-@ breaking time of 17 minutes 35 seconds , breaking the existing record from the 1948 race , five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths clear of the Light Blues . Railton commented : " Tideway records reflect conditions more than comparisons with previous Boat Race crews " but noted " considering the slow conditions ... Oxford 's performance must have been particularly inspired . " The winning time was two seconds faster than the best time over the course , set by Oxford in practice in 1965 , and 15 seconds quicker than the race record , set in the 1948 race by Cambridge .
In the reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie beat Oxford 's Isis by five lengths , their seventh consecutive victory . In the 28th running of the Women 's Boat Race , Cambridge triumphed , their eleventh consecutive victory .
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= Salvatore A. Cotillo =
Salvatore Albert Cotillo ( November 19 , 1886 – July 27 , 1939 ) was an Italian @-@ born New York lawyer , Democratic Party politician and judge . Elected in 1912 , he was the first Italian @-@ American to serve in both houses of the New York State Legislature and the first who served as Justice of the New York State Supreme Court . Nominated to the court in the First District , he sat on the bench from 1924 until his death in 1939 .
Cotillo was a strong proponent of social and pro @-@ labor legislation . He defended ethnic Italians against the stereotyping by Americans not of Italian descent , but also urged the need for Americanization of the Italian community . As such , he stood between the mores of the Italian ethnic ghetto in East Harlem where he grew up , and the judgment and norms of American society where he made his career .
= = From Naples to New York = =
Born in Naples , Italy , he came to the United States in 1895 with his parents at the age of nine . His father Francesco Cotillo , had been a caterer in Naples . The family originally came from Avellino ( Montella ) , in the hinterland of Naples . The family settled in East Harlem in East 113th Street among the increasing numbers of Italian immigrants . His father took up catering again and opened a popular pastry and confectionery shop . He has been credited with introducing the Italian ice cream spumoni into the United States .
The oldest of four children , the young Salvatore did not speak English and went to Public School 83 and later to DeWitt Clinton High School and Manhattan College . During those formative years he worked in the family 's pastry shop , where intellectuals of the neighborhood gathered in the evening to discuss social and political issues with his father . Those debates gave birth to Cotillo 's early social consciousness that formed the basis of his adult devotion to social reform legislation . The young Cotillo was passionate about baseball and became a New York Giants fan . In return for free tickets he used to clean the stadium seats .
In 1911 he completed a law degree from Fordham University and was admitted to the New York State bar in 1912 . As a young attorney Cotillo had to distance himself from the local underworld that incorporated many members of the Camorra from Naples who tried to impose their " services " . When the so @-@ called King of Little Italy , the Camorra boss Giosue Gallucci , was arrested for carrying concealed weapons , Cotillo was asked to testify as a character witness on his behalf , but refused . Cotillo felt that Gallucci looked at others as if they " were either hirelings or payers of tribute . " According to Cotillo " it was a matter of concern in the neighborhood if you were looked down upon by Gallucci . " Despite the temptation of attractive fees , he refused to help men of Gallucci 's disposition to secure gun permits .
= = Early political career = =
Cotillo 's early law practice included a lot of uncompensated charity for the neighborhood . Apart from a genuine social compassion , Cotillo was also building political alliances that would make it possible for him to use the Italian @-@ American voter power as his Irish @-@ American forerunners in New York were using the power of other immigrant groups .
With his father , Cotillo was among the co @-@ founders of a political club called the Tomahawk Democratic Club that took on the Tammany Hall political machine supporting Nicholas J. Hayes , putting forward Henry H. Lazarus as his opponent . The fight was ruthless , with both sides harassing the other 's speakers . Lazarus got beaten in the electoral contest , but Cotillo , supported by the Italian @-@ American vote , made a deal with Hayes that gave Little Italy a political foothold in the city . " I want to help my people , " he said explaining his switch , " and can do so only with the backing of those in power . "
In 1913 , at the age of 27 , he became the first Italian @-@ born assemblyman . When Cotillo arrived in the New York State Assembly in Albany that year , the powerful ethnic Irish State Senator " Big Tim " Sullivan observed : " Mark my words , it is the beginning of the Italian era in politics . Watch them . "
Cottilo would be elected to office from Italian East Harlem between 1912 and 1922 . Raised in the ghetto , he was chosen by the largely Italian neighborhood and continued to depend upon their political support throughout his political career . He was a member of the New York State Assembly ( New York Co . , 28th District ) in 1913 , 1915 and 1916 . He drew support from the Citizens Union and was identified for two notable pieces of legislation ; pensions for widows and the Workmen 's Compensations Law . He advocated for women 's suffrage , gun control , the end of the death penalty and school lunch programs .
= = New York senator = =
He was a member of the New York State Senate from 1917 to 1923 . He served the 20th District in the 140th and 141st New York State Legislature and represented the 18th District in the 142nd , 143rd , 144th , 145th and 146th New York State Legislatures . In March 1918 , Cotillo opposed the proposed prohibition of alcohol in the state . Although he believed in temperance , he doubted if that would be achieved by prohibition ; he advocated education and not infringing on civil liberties .
In May 1918 , he was sent to Italy by President Woodrow Wilson to make a study of the economic conditions of that country during World War I in order to provide information for economic relief programs and encourage the Italians to continue the war effort after the disastrous defeat at Caporetto . As a representative of the Committee on Public Information , he spent most of the year in Italy and won the praise of President Wilson . He also received the decoration of Grand Officer of the Italian Crown from King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy .
From mid @-@ June to the end of September of 1918 Cotillo traveled around Italy , meeting officials and politicians , giving interviews to the press and addressing large crowds . His efforts in Italy were reported by the press and Italian language newspapers at home in the U.S .. When he returned to New York , Cotillo had risen from a largely unknown local politician to achieve public stature and become a leader of the Italian community . Based on this experience he wrote the book “ Italy During the World War ” , published in 1922 .
= = Social reforms = =
Back from Italy and in the New York State Senate , he fought hard for the regulation of informal immigrant banks and banking agents that handled money transfers abroad , an issue of significant importance to his Italian constituency who were often swindled from their remittances to their families in Italy . Cotillo ’ s 1921 banking reform bill , which placed express companies and steamship agencies that transferred money abroad under the supervision of the New York State Banking Department , annoyed powerful interests of such companies as Wells Fargo and the Cunard Lines . He received death threats and offers of bribes to drop the legislation he had introduced in the Senate . During the hearings on Cotillo ’ s bill in March 1921 , a devastating crash of the Tisbo Brothers immigrant bank in lower Manhattan left 2 @,@ 000 angry depositors with losses of more than three million dollars . As a result , four bills that regulated the sector were signed into law on May 1 , 1921 .
Cotillo was member of the Joint Legislative Committee on Housing , also known as the Lockwood Committee because it was headed by Charles C. Lockwood . The committee investigated renting and building conditions in the City of New York and ended a spate of rent @-@ raising as a result of the housing shortage after World War I. The group found that the housing conditions at the time constituted a serious menace to public health in New York since some 400 @,@ 000 persons were directly affected by the scarcity of affordable dwellings and the poor quality of the existing ones . Later he was the chairman of New York state commission to investigate child welfare , and a member of the Joint Legislative Committee to Investigate Exploitation of Immigrants ( 1923 – 24 ) .
As the foremost force on the Child Welfare Commission , concerned with issues of custody , orphanage , child support , and state wardship and institutions , Cotillo pushed a comprehensive reform through the legislature with the support of the social @-@ welfare advocate Sophie Irene Loeb and the Hearst newspapers . His biographer , Nat Ferber , a former Hearst reporter , considered the reform to be " the outstanding achievement of Cotillo 's career " .
= = Troublesome relationship with Italian Fascism = =
Cotillo was a Grand Master of the Order Sons of Italy in America ( OSIA ) and after World War I actively propagated the nationalist cause of Italian control over Fiume , despite President Wilson 's denial of the Italian claims to the Adriatic port . In the 1920s Cotillo tried to ease the rising tension between Italian @-@ American Fascists and anti @-@ Fascists by taking a stance between the two . In 1923 , he went to Rome to meet Benito Mussolini . He was impressed and described Mussolini as a " commanding element of the highest order " . He vowed to correct the image of Mussolini and Fascism , but also cautioned his Italian @-@ American countrymen saying that the American way was to be preferred above Fascism .
Pro @-@ Fascists opposed the assimilation policies of Cotillo , who had become Grand Venerable of the New York State branch of OSIA in 1921 and had started an ambitious English language program as a means for upward mobility of the Italian @-@ American community . According to Cotillo , Fascism as a movement was " out of place in the United States " although it could serve its purpose in Italy . He said that American citizens of Italian origin that were truly engaged in Americanization should reject Fascism as incompatible and un @-@ American . Eventually , he joined Fiorello La Guardia and Luigi Antonini , of the International Ladies Garment Workers Union , in founding an anti @-@ Fascist New York State chapter of OSIA , the Sons of Italy Grand Lodge . Nevertheless , Cotillo was a staunch supporter of the Italian invasion of Ethiopia in 1935 .
In October 1938 , Cotillo lobbied Mussolini " for more lenient consideration of the Jewish problem in Italy . " In a letter to Il Duce he tried persuade the Italian dictator that Fascist Italy 's recent anti @-@ Semitic legislation was unwise , and asked to " postpone execution of such drastic action for a reasonable time until an opportunity has been afforded me to appear before you and present the worthy cause because your edict may result in serious consequences in America . " He asked for the repeal of the anti @-@ Jewish laws and warned for a boycott of Italian goods in New York , where , as he wrote , " we live in close interdependent relationship " with Jewish people .
= = New York Supreme Court justice = =
After the 1922 elections , Cotillo became the chairman of the influential State Senate Judiciary Committee , a sign of his rising authority . The post helped him to get ready for a next step . In 1924 , he was the first Italian @-@ born to become Justice of the New York Supreme Court , First District , where he would he remain until his death . He was elected with the endorsement of the Tammany Hall political machine , many social welfare organizations and organized labor , the Citizen 's Union and several bar organizations .
While an immigrant himself and although he had been an ardent defender of the liberal interpretation of the naturalization law for a long time , in 1939 and in the wake of World War II , Cotillo advocated more stringent naturalization methods . Immigrants would be forced to pay the costs of an exhaustive investigation of their qualifications . He argued that there was a " need for more hesitation in the granting of this charter of liberty to each and every applicant without a more thorough search of each and every applicant ’ s capacity to benefit from such a gift . " He also recommended revocation of citizenship when found guilty of fraud or other wrongdoing .
Earlier , Cotillo had opposed the anti @-@ immigration restrictions of the Immigration Act of 1924 that significantly limited immigration from Italy . In 1931 , Cotillo protested against unnecessary stringent requirements of a proposed registration law , particularly the requirement of the equivalent of a public school education and the fingerprinting of applicants . A naturalized citizen had the same rights as native @-@ born and fingerprinting would make the foreign applicant feel like a criminal , Cotillo pointed out . He referred to the findings of the Wickersham Commission that the foreign @-@ born committed considerably less crime than native citizens . He also attacked the revocation of citizenship because of evil doing , while a native born was not affected . At the time , Cotillo claimed to have naturalized some 25 @,@ 000 immigrants in the eight years he had been on the bench .
= = Death and legacy = =
On July 27 , 1939 , he died following an operation for a chest tumor at Columbia @-@ Presbyterian Medical Center , Manhattan , New York , at the age of 52 . He was survived by his widow , Ida Berthold , and two daughters , Helen Paterno – who had married the son of prominent real estate developer Charles V. Paterno – and Sally Cotillo . More than 3 @,@ 000 people attended his funeral in Saint Patrick 's Cathedral , including New York mayor Fiorello La Guardia , Lieutenant Governor Charles Poletti , District Attorney Thomas E. Dewey and former New York Governor Alfred E. Smith . He was the subject of a biography by Nat Ferber , A New American , published in 1938 .
Throughout his life , both as a legislator and judge , he earned a reputation for compassion with the underprivileged and social activism which put that compassion to work . According to New York Governor Alfred E. Smith in his introduction in Cotillo 's biography , Cotillo " introduced a new era in social relations between the immigrant and native or older Americans " .
In the obituary of The New York Times , Cotillo was described as " a leader of the Italian Americans in New York " . He defended ethnic Italians against the stereotyping by Americans not of Italian descent , but also urged the need for " Americanization " of the Italian community . As such , he stood between the mores of the Italian ethnic ghetto and the judgment and norms of American society .
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= Pirates of the Caribbean : Dead Man 's Chest =
Pirates of the Caribbean : Dead Man 's Chest is a 2006 American fantasy swashbuckler film and the second installment of the Pirates of the Caribbean film series , following The Curse of the Black Pearl ( 2003 ) . It was directed by Gore Verbinski , written by Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio , and produced by Jerry Bruckheimer . In the film , the wedding of Will Turner ( Orlando Bloom ) and Elizabeth Swann ( Keira Knightley ) is interrupted by Lord Cutler Beckett ( Tom Hollander ) , who wants Turner to acquire the compass of Captain Jack Sparrow ( Johnny Depp ) in a bid to find the Dead Man 's Chest . Sparrow discovers his debt to Davy Jones ( Bill Nighy ) is due .
Two sequels to Pirates of the Caribbean : The Curse of the Black Pearl were conceived in 2004 , with Elliott and Rossio developing a story arc that would span both films . Filming took place from February to September 2005 in Palos Verdes , Saint Vincent and the Grenadines , Dominica , and The Bahamas , as well as on sets constructed at Walt Disney Studios . It was shot back @-@ to @-@ back with the third film of the series , Pirates of the Caribbean : At World 's End .
Dead Man 's Chest was released in the United States on July 7 , 2006 , and received mixed reviews . The film set several records in its first three days , with an opening weekend of $ 136 million in the United States , and it was , at the time , the fastest film ever to gross over $ 1 billion in the worldwide box office . It currently ranks as the eighteenth highest @-@ grossing film of all time worldwide and held the record as the highest @-@ grossing film released by the Walt Disney Studios for nearly six years until it was surpassed by The Avengers ( 2012 ) , although it remains the highest @-@ grossing live @-@ action Walt Disney Pictures release . The film received Academy Award nominations for Best Art Direction , Sound Editing , Sound Mixing , and won the Academy Award for Visual Effects .
= = Plot = =
The wedding of Will Turner and Elizabeth Swann is interrupted by Lord Cutler Beckett of the East India Trading Company , who has arrest warrants for the couple as well as for Commodore James Norrington , for allowing Captain Jack Sparrow to escape execution . Norrington 's whereabouts are uncertain , as he resigned after his obsessive pursuit of Sparrow resulted in the Navy 's flagship , HMS Dauntless , being destroyed in a typhoon . Elizabeth is imprisoned , but Beckett promises to free her if Will tracks down Jack and brings Beckett Jack 's magic compass which points to whatever the holder wants most . Shortly after , Governor Swann tries to escape Port Royal with Elizabeth but is captured . Elizabeth negotiates with Beckett to let her escape to find the compass herself , and she hides aboard a Scottish merchant vessel , the Edinburgh Trader .
On the Black Pearl , Jack reunites with Will ’ s father Bootstrap Bill , who reveals he is a crewman on the Flying Dutchman , captained by Davy Jones , whom Jack previously made a deal with to raise the Pearl from the depths . Jack must join Jones ' crew or be dragged to Davy Jones ' Locker by the monstrous Kraken . Will eventually finds Jack 's crew on an island ruled by cannibals , from which they escape . The crew meet voodoo priestess Tia Dalma ( Naomie Harris ) , who tells them Jones ’ weakness is his heart , locked within the Dead Man ’ s Chest . Locating the Dutchman , Will is shanghaied into service while Jones sends Jack to bring him one @-@ hundred souls so his blood debt can be paid . On the Dutchman , Will meets his father , and learns that the chest 's key is in Jones ' possession . After playing a game of liar 's dice against Davy Jones , Bootstrap helps Will escape with the key , but Jones sends the Kraken after him , sinking the Edinburgh Trader .
In Tortuga , Jack hires a new crew , including Elizabeth , and Norrington , now a drunk . All parties arrive on Isla Cruces where the chest is buried but a three @-@ way sword fight breaks out between Jack , Will , and Norrington who all want the heart for their respective goals : Jack wants to call off the Kraken , Will wants to rescue his father , and Norrington wants to regain his life . In the chaos , Jack obtains Jones ' heart and hides it in a jar of dirt , but Norrington secretly steals the heart and runs off pretending to lure away the Dutchman ’ s crew . Jones attacks the Pearl with the Kraken , which devours most of the crew and destroys all but one of the Pearl 's lifeboats , but Jack , who briefly fled , returns and wounds it with a net full of explosives .
Jack orders the survivors to abandon ship , but Elizabeth manacles him to the mast so that the crew can escape the Kraken . Jack manages to break free , but is dragged down to the bottom of the sea by the Kraken . Jones discovers his heart is missing and rages . In Port Royal , Norrington approaches Beckett and gives him the heart and Letters of Marque meant for Jack , allowing him back into the navy as well as allowing Beckett to gain control of Davy Jones and the seas . The Pearl ’ s crew take shelter with Tia Dalma , where they all agree to rescue Jack . Tia Dalma introduces the captain that will guide them : the resurrected Captain Barbossa .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Following the success of Pirates of the Caribbean : The Curse of the Black Pearl ( 2003 ) , the cast and crew signed on for two more sequels to be shot back @-@ to @-@ back , a practical decision on Disney 's part to allow more time with the same cast and crew . Writer Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio decided not to make the sequels new adventures featuring the same characters , as with the Indiana Jones and James Bond series , but to retroactively turn The Curse of the Black Pearl into the first of a trilogy . They wanted to explore the reality of what would happen after Will Turner and Elizabeth Swann 's embrace at the end of the first film , and initially considered the Fountain of Youth as the plot device . They settled on introducing Davy Jones , the Flying Dutchman and the Kraken . They also introduced the historical East India Trading Company , who for them represented a counterpoint to the themes of personal freedom represented by pirates .
Planning began in June 2004 , and production was much larger than The Curse of the Black Pearl , which was only shot on location in St. Vincent . This time , the sequels would require fully working ships , with a working Black Pearl built over the body of an oil tanker in Bayou La Batre , Alabama . By November , the script was still unfinished as the writers did not want director Gore Verbinski and producer Jerry Bruckheimer to compromise what they had written , so Verbinski worked with James Byrkit to storyboard major sequences without need of a script , while Elliott and Rossio wrote a " preparatory " script for the crew to use before they finished the script they were happy with . By January 2005 , with rising costs and no script , Disney threatened to cancel the film , but changed their minds . The writers would accompany the crew on location , feeling that the lateness of their rewrites would improve the spontaneity of the cast 's performances .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began on February 28 , 2005 , in Palos Verdes , beginning with Elizabeth 's ruined wedding day . The crew spent the first shooting days at Walt Disney Studios in Los Angeles , including the interiors of the Black Pearl and the Edinburgh Trader which Elizabeth stows away on , before moving to St. Vincent to shoot the scenes in Port Royal and Tortuga . Sets from the previous film were reused , having survived three hurricanes , although the main pier had to be rebuilt as it had collapsed in November . The crew had four tall ships at their disposal to populate the backgrounds , which were painted differently on each side for economy . One of the ships used was the replica of the HMS Bounty used in the 1962 film adaptation of Mutiny on the Bounty .
On April 18 , 2005 , the crew began shooting at Dominica , a location Verbinski had selected as he felt it fitted the sense of remoteness he was looking for . However , this was also a problem ; the Dominican government were completely unprepared for the scale of a Hollywood production , as while the 500 @-@ strong crew occupying around 90 % of the roads on the island they had trouble moving around on the underdeveloped surfaces . The weather also alternated between torrential rainstorms and hot temperatures , the latter of which was made worse for the cast who had to wear period clothing . At Dominica , the sequences involving the Pelegosto and the forest segment of the battle on Isla Cruces were shot . Verbinski preferred to use practical props for the giant wheel and bone cage sequences , feeling long close @-@ up shots would help further suspend the audience 's disbelief . Dominica was also used for Tia Dalma 's shack . Filming on the island concluded on May 26 , 2005 .
The crew moved to a small island called White Cay in the Bahamas for the beginning and end of the Isla Cruces battle , before production took a break until August , where in Los Angeles the interiors of the Flying Dutchman were shot . On September 18 , 2005 , the crew moved to Grand Bahama Island to shoot ship exteriors , including the working Black Pearl and Flying Dutchman . Filming there was a tumultuous period , starting with the fact that the tank had not actually been finished . The hurricane season caused many pauses in shooting , and Hurricane Wilma damaged many of the accessways and pumps , though no one was hurt nor were any of the ships destroyed . Filming completed on September 10 , 2005 .
= = = Special effects = = =
The Flying Dutchman 's crew members were originally conceived by writers Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio as ghosts , but Gore Verbinski disliked this and designed them as physical creatures . Their hierarchy is reflected by how mutated they were : newcomers had low level infections which resemble rosacea , while veterans had full @-@ blown undersea creature attributes . Verbinski wanted to keep them realistic , rejecting a character with a turtle shell , and the animators watched various David Attenborough documentaries to study the movement of sea anemones and mussels . All of the crew are computer @-@ generated , with the exception of Stellan Skarsgård , who played " Bootstrap " Bill Turner . Initially his prosthetics would be augmented with CGI but that was abandoned . Skarsgård spent four hours in the make @-@ up chair and was dubbed " Bouillabaisse " on set .
Captain Davy Jones had originally been designed with chin growths , before the designers made the move to full @-@ blown tentacles ; the skin of the character incorporates the texture of a coffee @-@ stained Styrofoam cup among other elements . To portray Jones on set , Bill Nighy wore a motion capture tracksuit that meant the animators at Industrial Light & Magic did not have to reshoot the scene in the studio without him or on the motion capture stage . Nighy wore make @-@ up around his eyes and mouth to splice into the computer @-@ generated shots , but the images of his eyes and mouth were not used . Nighy only wore a prosthetic once , with blue @-@ colored tentacles for when Will Turner ( Orlando Bloom ) steals the key to the Dead Man 's Chest from under his " beard " as he sleeps . To create the CG version of the character , the model was closely based on a full @-@ body scan of Nighy , with Jones reflecting his high cheekbones . Animators studied every frame of Nighy 's performance : the actor himself had blessed them by making his performance more quirky than expected , providing endless fun for them . His performance also meant new controls had to be stored . Finally , Jones ' tentacles are mostly a simulation , though at times they were hand @-@ animated when they act as limbs for the character .
The Kraken was difficult to animate as it had no real @-@ life reference , until animation director Hal Hickel instructed the crew to watch King Kong vs. Godzilla which had a real octopus crawling over miniatures . On the set , two pipes filled with 30 @,@ 000 pounds of cement were used to crash and split the Edinburgh Trader : Completing the illusion are miniature masts and falling stuntmen shot on a bluescreen stage . The scene where the Kraken spits at Jack Sparrow does not use computer @-@ generated spit : it was real gunge thrown at Johnny Depp .
= = Release = =
Pirates of the Caribbean : Dead Man 's Chest premiered at Disneyland in California on June 24 , 2006 . It was the first Disney film to use the new computer @-@ generated Walt Disney Pictures production logo , which took a year for the studio to design . Weta Digital was responsible for the logo 's final animated rendering and Mark Mancina was hired to score a new composition of " When You Wish Upon A Star " . The main people responsible for the logo 's rendering are Cyrese Parrish and Cameron Smith .
= = = Home media = = =
The film became available on DVD on December 5 , 2006 , for Region 1 and sold 9 @,@ 498 @,@ 304 units in its first week of sales ( equivalent to $ 174 @,@ 039 @,@ 324 ) . In total it sold 16 @,@ 694 @,@ 937 units , earning $ 320 @,@ 871 @,@ 909 . It was the best @-@ selling DVD of 2006 in terms of units sold and second in terms of sales revenue behind The Chronicles of Narnia : The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe .
The versions for Regions 2 and 4 had already been released on November 15 , 2006 , and November 20 , 2006 , respectively . The DVD , incompatible with some Region 1 hardware DVD Players due to the use of ARccOS Protection , came in single and two @-@ disc versions . Both contained a commentary track with the screenwriters and a gag reel , with the double @-@ disc featuring a video of the film premiere and a number of documentaries , including a full @-@ length documentary entitled " According to the Plan " and eight featurettes . The film was released on Blu @-@ ray Disc on May 22 , 2007 . The film had its UK Television premiere on Boxing Day 2008 on BBC One at 20 : 30 . It was seen by 6 @.@ 8 million viewers according to overnight figures .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Critical Reception was mixed . The film scored a 54 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes with an average rating of 6 / 10 . The site 's consensus says " Gone is Depp 's unpredictability and much of the humor and originality of the first movie . " Michael Booth of the Denver Post gave the film three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four , calling it " two hours and 20 minutes of escapism that once again makes the movies safe for guilt @-@ free fun . " Drew McWeeny compared the film to The Empire Strikes Back , and also acclaimed its darkness in its depiction of the crew of the Flying Dutchman and its cliffhanger . The completely computer @-@ generated Davy Jones turned out to be so realistic that some reviewers mistakenly identified Nighy as wearing prosthetic makeup .
The New York Times said , " You put down your money – still less than $ 10 in most cities – and in return you get two and a half hours of spirited swashbuckling , and Gore Verbinski has an appropriate sense of mischief , as a well as a gift , nearly equaling those of Peter Jackson and Steven Spielberg , for integrating CGI seamlessly into his cinematic compositions . " Empire magazine gave the film 3 stars saying " Depp is once again an unmitigated joy as Captain Sparrow , delivering another eye @-@ darting , word @-@ slurring turn with some wonderful slapstick flourishes . Indeed , Rossio and Elliot smartly exploit these in some wonderful action set @-@ pieces . " " We don ’ t get the predictable ‘ all friends together on the same quest ’ structure , and there ’ s a surfeit of surprises , crosses and double @-@ crosses and cheeky character beats which stay true to the original ’ s anti @-@ heroic sense of fun . After all , Jack Sparrow is a pirate , a bad guy in a hero ’ s hat , a man driven by self @-@ gain over concern for the greater good , who will run away from a fight and cheat his ‘ friends ’ without a second ’ s thought . " Lord McLovin of MovieWeb said " The second tale of Captain Jack Sparrow is another epic adventure ! "
Paul Arendt of the BBC compared it to The Matrix Reloaded , as a complex film that merely led onto the next film . Richard George felt a " better construct of Dead Man 's Chest and At World 's End would have been to take 90 minutes of Chest , mix it with all of End and then cut that film in two . " Alex Billington felt the third film " almost makes the second film in the series obsolete or dulls it down enough that we can accept it in our trilogy DVD collections without ever watching it . "
= = = Box office = = =
Dead Man 's Chest earned $ 423 @,@ 315 @,@ 812 in the North America and $ 642 @,@ 863 @,@ 913 in other territories , for a worldwide total of $ 1 @,@ 066 @,@ 179 @,@ 725 . Worldwide , it ranks as the eighteenth highest @-@ grossing film , the seventh highest @-@ grossing film distributed by Disney , the highest @-@ grossing 2006 film , the highest @-@ grossing film in the Pirates of the Caribbean series , the highest @-@ grossing film to star Johnny Depp and the highest @-@ grossing second installment in a franchise . It is the third film in history to reach the $ 1 @-@ billion @-@ mark worldwide , and it reached the mark in record time ( 63 days ) , a record that has since been surpassed by many films , of which the first was Avatar ( in January 2010 ) .
In North America , the film broke many records including the largest opening- and single @-@ day gross ( $ 55 @.@ 8 million ) , the biggest opening weekend gross ( $ 135 @.@ 6 million ) , the least time to reach $ 100 , $ 200 and $ 300 million and the highest ten @-@ day gross . However , most of them were broken by Spider @-@ Man 3 in May 2007 and The Dark Knight in July 2008 . The film was in first place at the box office for three consecutive weekends . It closed in theaters on December 7 , 2006 , with a $ 423 @.@ 3 million haul . Thus , in North America , it is the fifteenth highest @-@ grossing film , although , adjusted for inflation , the film ranks forty @-@ eight . It is also the highest @-@ grossing 2006 film , the highest @-@ grossing Pirates of the Caribbean film , and the fifth highest @-@ grossing Disney film . The film sold an estimated 64 @,@ 628 @,@ 400 tickets in the US .
Outside North America , it is the twenty @-@ first highest @-@ grossing film , the third highest @-@ grossing Pirates film , the eighth highest @-@ grossing Disney film and the highest @-@ grossing film of 2006 . It set opening @-@ weekend records in Russia and the CIS , Ukraine , Finland , Malaysia , Singapore , Greece and Italy . It was on top of the box office outside North America for 9 consecutive weekends and 10 in total . It was the highest @-@ grossing film of 2006 in Australia , Bulgaria , Germany , Japan , the Netherlands , New Zealand , Spain , Sweden and Thailand .
= = = Accolades = = =
At the 79th Academy Awards , visual effects supervisors John Knoll , Hal Hickel , Charles Gibson , and Allen Hall won an Oscar for Best Visual Effects , which was also the first time since 1994 's Forrest Gump that Industrial Light & Magic had received that particular Academy Award . The film was also nominated for Best Art Direction , Sound Editing , and Sound Mixing .
The film also won a BAFTA and Satellite award for Best Visual Effects , and six awards from the Visual Effects Society .
Other awards won by the film include Choice Movie : Action Adventure , Choice Drama / Action Adventure Movie , Actor for Johnny Depp at the 2006 Teen Choice Awards ; Favorite Movie , Movie Drama , Male Actor for Depp and On @-@ Screen Couple for Depp and Keira Knightley at the 33rd People 's Choice Awards ; Best Movie and Performance for Depp at the 2007 MTV Movie Awards and Best Special Effects at the Saturn Awards , and Favorite Movie at the 2007 Kids ' Choice Awards .
It was ranked # 475 on Empire 's 500 Greatest Films .
= = Video game = =
A video game adaptation of the film was developed by Griptonite Games and Amaze Entertainment and released by Buena Vista Games in June – August 2006 for the PlayStation Portable , Nintendo DS and Game Boy Advance .
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= Maryland Route 12 =
Maryland Route 12 ( MD 12 ) is a state highway on the Eastern Shore in the U.S. state of Maryland . The route runs 30 @.@ 57 mi ( 49 @.@ 20 km ) from the Virginia border south of Stockton , Worcester County , where it continues into Virginia as State Route 679 ( SR 679 ) , north to Main Street in the city of Salisbury in Wicomico County . The route is known as Snow Hill Road for most of its length and passes mostly through areas of woods and farms as well as the communities of Stockton , Girdletree , and Snow Hill . MD 12 intersects several roads including MD 366 in Stockton , U.S. Route 113 ( US 113 ) and US 113 Business ( US 113 Bus . ) in Snow Hill , MD 354 in Indiantown , and US 13 near Salisbury . Portions of MD 12 near Snow Hill and Stockton existed as unnumbered state roads by 1910 . When the first state highways in Maryland were designated by 1927 , MD 12 was assigned to run from Stockton north to Salisbury . By 1940 , the route was extended south to the Virginia border and a small incomplete portion between Snow Hill and Salisbury was finished . A dumbbell interchange is planned at the US 113 intersection ; however , this project is currently on hold .
= = Route description = =
= = = Worcester County = = =
MD 12 heads north from the Virginia border on Snow Hill Road , which is a two @-@ lane undivided road . The road continues south into Virginia as SR 679 ( Fleming Road ) . From the border , the route passes through a mix of woodland and farmland with a few residences in southern Worcester County before reaching Stockton . Here , MD 12 passes by homes and crosses MD 366 ( George Island Landing Road ) . Upon leaving Stockton , the roads heads back into rural areas and passes near the E.A. Vaughn Wildlife Management Area before reaching the residential community of Girdletree . Past Girdletree , the road continues to the east of a tract of the Pocomoke State Forest as it approaches Snow Hill , the county seat of Worcester County . Just south of Snow Hill , the route intersects US 113 ( Worcester Highway ) .
Past this intersection , the road enters Snow Hill , where it becomes Church Street , and heads into inhabited areas with some businesses . In the center of town , MD 12 intersects US 113 Bus . ( Market Street ) and turns east to form a concurrency with that route , passing through the downtown area . Within the downtown , the road passes by the Julia A. Purnell Museum and the Worcester County Courthouse . Here , MD 12 turns north to follow Washington Street , crossing the Pocomoke River out of downtown Snow Hill on a drawbridge . From here , the route becomes Snow Hill Road again and turns northwest . The road heads into agricultural areas with some residences before Indiantown , where MD 12 intersects the southern terminus of MD 354 ( Whiton Road ) , which runs north to Willards . Past this intersection , the route turns more to the west and heads through a mix of farmland and woodland with occasional homes . The road turns to the northwest again and runs to the northeast of more tracts of the Pocomoke State Forest . The Pocomoke State Forest is known for its loblolly trees and cypress swamps and is popular with fishing and hunting .
= = = Wicomico County = = =
MD 12 crosses into Wicomico County , where it continues north through woods and farms with some residences . The route turns northwest again before heading into a mix of residential areas and farm fields on the outskirts of Salisbury . The road comes to a partial cloverleaf interchange with US 13 ( Salisbury Bypass ) , where the route briefly becomes a four @-@ lane divided highway . Past US 13 , MD 12 crosses into Salisbury at the Johnson Road intersection . Here , the route heads north through commercial areas , becoming a six @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane , two southbound travel lanes and one northbound travel lane . In addition , there is one lane in each direction devoted to right turns . At the intersection with College Avenue / Beaglin Park Drive , the road narrows to four @-@ lane with each direction consisting of one travel lane and a right @-@ turn lane . This configuration eventually ends and MD 12 becomes a two @-@ lane road again , leaving the corporate limits of Salisbury . Upon entering Salisbury again , the route becomes municipally maintained and continues past a mix of residences and businesses with some industrial establishments . MD 12 crosses over a branch of the Wicomico River near the Salisbury city park , which contains the Salisbury Zoo , before ending at Main Street a short distance to the east of US 13 Bus . ( Salisbury Boulevard ) near downtown Salisbury .
MD 12 is a part of the National Highway System as a principal arterial from Nutters Cross Road south of US 13 near Salisbury north to Main Street in Salisbury .
= = History = =
The portion of MD 12 south of Snow Hill was part of an old post road from the 18th century that ran the length of the Delmarva Peninsula . The section of the state highway north of Snow Hill is the descendant of the Old Snow Hill Road from Salisbury whose original bridge across the Pocomoke River dates to 1878 . The Maryland State Roads Commission designated the highway from Stockton to Snow Hill as one of the original state roads in 1909 . By 1910 , the highway was paved within Stockton , between Snow Hill and Indiantown , and for about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) south from the city limit of Salisbury . The highway was paved from Snow Hill to a point north of Girdletree by 1917 . The all @-@ weather road between Snow Hill and Stockton was completed by 1921 . The Snow Hill – Salisbury road was under construction by 1923 . By 1927 , MD 12 had been assigned to the highway despite a 4 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) gap remaining from just north of the Wicomico – Worcester county line south toward Snow Hill . That gap was filled by 1930 . In addition , MD 12 's present northern terminus at Main Street , including the bridge across the South Prong of the Wicomico River , was constructed in 1928 and 1929 . The highway had previously entered Salisbury along Lincoln Avenue and Division Street . The final portion of MD 12 was completed between Stockton and the Virginia state line by 1933 . In addition , the present bridge across the Pocomoke River was completed in 1932 . MD 12 was widened and straightened from Stockton to Salisbury between 1951 and 1954 .
= = Future = =
An interchange is planned between MD 12 and US 113 south of Snow Hill in order to improve safety and traffic flow as a follow up to widening US 113 ; however , the project is currently on hold . This proposed interchange is to be a dumbbell interchange , a variation of the diamond interchange with two roundabouts on MD 12 where it intersects the ramps to US 113 . The proposed cost needed to build this interchange is $ 24 @.@ 2 million , which includes engineering , acquisition of land , and the actual construction .
= = Junction list = =
= = Auxiliary route = =
MD 12A runs along an unnamed road from MD 12 east to a dead end in Girdletree , Worcester County . The route is 0 @.@ 02 mi ( 0 @.@ 032 km ) long .
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= Speech @-@ generating device =
Speech @-@ generating devices ( SGDs ) , also known as voice output communication aids , are electronic augmentative and alternative communication ( AAC ) systems used to supplement or replace speech or writing for individuals with severe speech impairments , enabling them to verbally communicate their needs . SGDs are important for people who have limited means of interacting verbally , as they allow individuals to become active participants in communication interactions . They are particularly helpful for patients suffering from Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis ( ALS ) but recently have been used for children with predicted speech deficiencies .
There are several input and display methods for users of varying abilities to make use of SGDs . Some SGDs have multiple pages of symbols to accommodate a large number of utterances , and thus only a portion of the symbols available are visible at any one time , with the communicator navigating the various pages . Speech @-@ generating devices can produce electronic voice output by using digitized recordings of natural speech or through speech synthesis — which may carry less emotional information but can permit the user to speak novel messages .
The content , organization , and updating of the vocabulary on an SGD is influenced by a number of factors , such at the user 's needs and the contexts that the device will be used in . The development of techniques to improve the available vocabulary and rate of speech production is an active research area . Vocabulary items should be of high interest to the user , be frequently applicable , have a range of meanings , and be pragmatic in functionality .
There are multiple methods of accessing messages on devices : directly or indirectly , or using specialized access devices — although the specific access method will depend on the skills and abilities of the user . SGD output is typically much slower than speech , although rate enhancement strategies can increase the user 's rate of output , resulting in enhanced efficiency of communication .
The first known SGD was prototyped in the mid @-@ 1970s , and rapid progress in hardware and software development has meant that SGD capabilities can now be integrated into devices like smartphones . Notable users of SGDs include Stephen Hawking , Roger Ebert , Tony Proudfoot , and Pete Frates ( founder of the ALS ice bucket challenge ) .
Speech @-@ generating systems may be dedicated devices developed solely for AAC , or non @-@ dedicated devices such as computers running additional software to allow them to function as AAC devices .
= = Speech @-@ generating device history = =
SGDs have their roots in early electronic communication aids . The first such aid was a sip @-@ and @-@ puff typewriter controller named the patient @-@ operated selector mechanism ( POSSUM ) prototyped by Reg Maling in the United Kingdom in 1960 . POSSUM scanned through a set of symbols on an illuminated display . Researchers at Delft University in the Netherlands created the lightspot operated typewriter ( LOT ) in 1970 , which made use of small movements of the head to point a small spot of light at a matrix of characters , each equipped with a photoelectric cell . Although it was commercially unsuccessful , the LOT was well received by its users .
During the 1970s and early 1980s , several companies began to emerge that have since become prominent manufacturers of SGDs . Toby Churchill founded Toby Churchill Ltd in 1973 , after losing his speech following encephalitis . In the US , Dynavox ( then known as Sentient Systems Technology ) grew out of a student project at Carnegie @-@ Mellon University , created in 1982 to help a young woman with cerebral palsy to communicate . Beginning in the 1980s , improvements in technology led to a greatly increased number , variety , and performance of commercially available communication devices , and a reduction in their size and price . Alternative methods of access such as Target Scanning ( also known as eye pointing ) calibrate the movement of a user 's eyes to direct an SGD to produce the desired speech phase . Scanning , in which alternatives are presented to the user sequentially , became available on communication devices . Speech output possibilities included both digitized and synthesized speech .
Rapid progress in hardware and software development continued , including projects funded by the European Community . The first commercially available dynamic screen speech generating devices were developed in the 1990s . Software programs were developed that allowed the computer @-@ based production of communication boards . High @-@ tech devices have continued to become smaller and lighter , while increasing accessibility and capability ; communication devices can be accessed using eye @-@ tracking systems , perform as a computer for word @-@ processing and Internet use , and as an environmental control device for independent access to other equipment such as TV , radio and telephones .
Notable individuals who have used AAC devices include Stephen Hawking , Roger Ebert Tony Proudfoot , and Pete Frates . Hawking is unable to speak due to a combination of severe disabilities caused by ALS , and an emergency tracheotomy . He has come to be associated with the unique voice of his particular synthesis equipment . In the past 20 or so years SGD have gained popularity amongst young children with speech deficiencies , such as autism , Down syndrome , and predicted brain damage due to surgery .
Starting in the early 2000s , specialist saw the benefit of using SGDs not only for adults but for children , as well . Neuro @-@ linguists found that SGDs were just as effective in helping children who were at risk for temporary language deficits after undergoing brain surgery as it is for patients with ALS . In particular , digitized SGDs have been used as communication aids for pediatric patients during the recovery process .
= = Access methods = =
There are many methods of accessing messages on devices : directly , indirectly , and with specialized access devices . Direct access methods involve physical contact with the system , by using a keyboard or a touch screen . Users accessing SGDs indirectly and through specialized devices must manipulate an object in order to access the system , such as maneuvering a joystick , head mouse , optical head pointer , light pointer , infrared pointer , or switch access scanner .
The specific access method will depend on the skills and abilities of the user . With direct selection a body part , pointer , adapted mouse , joystick , or eye tracking could be used , whereas switch access scanning is often used for indirect selection . Unlike direct selection ( e.g. , typing on a keyboard , touching a screen ) , users of Target Scanning can only make selections when the scanning indicator ( or cursor ) of the electronic device is on the desired choice . Those who are unable to point typically calibrate their eyes to use eye gaze as a way to point and blocking as a way to select desired words and phrases . The speed and pattern of scanning , as well as the way items are selected , are individualized to the physical , visual and cognitive capabilities of the user .
= = Message construction = =
Augmentative and alternative communication is typically much slower than speech , with users generally producing 8 – 10 words per minute . Rate enhancement strategies can increase the user 's rate of output to around 12 – 15 words per minute , and as a result enhance the efficiency of communication .
In any given SGD there may be a large number of vocal expressions that facilitate efficient and effective communication , including greetings , expressing desires , and asking questions . Some SGDs have multiple pages of symbols to accommodate a large number of vocal expressions , and thus only a portion of the symbols available are visible at any one time , with the communicator navigating the various pages . Speech @-@ generating devices generally display a set of selections either using a dynamically changing screen , or a fixed display .
There are two main options for increasing the rate of communication for an SGD : encoding and prediction .
Encoding permits a user to produce a word , sentence or phrase using only one or two activations of their SGD . Iconic encoding strategies such as Semantic compaction combine sequences of icons ( picture symbols ) to produce words or phrases . In numeric , alpha @-@ numeric , and letter encoding ( also known as Abbreviation @-@ Expansion ) , words and sentences are coded as sequences of letters and numbers . For example , typing " HH " or " G1 " ( for Greeting 1 ) may retrieve " Hello , how are you ? " .
Prediction is a rate enhancement strategy in which the SGD attempts to reduce the number of keystrokes used by predicting the word or phrase being written by the user . The user can then select the correct prediction without needing to write the entire word . Word prediction software may determine the choices to be offered based on their frequency in language , association with other words , past choices of the user , or grammatical suitability . However , users have been shown to produce more words per minute ( using a scanning interface ) with a static keyboard layout than with a predictive grid layout , suggesting that the cognitive overhead of reviewing a new arrangement cancels out the benefits of the predictive layout when using a scanning interface .
Some systems , such as Auditory Sciences ' Interact @-@ Voice device , combine Encoding and Prediction into the same system . For example , typing " HMF " can be an encoded shortcut for " Can you help me find _ _ _ _ " and then the prediction capabilities help the user complete the sentence , such as " Can you help me find my glasses ? " or " Can you help me find my car keys ? " .
Another approach to rate @-@ enhancement is Dasher , which uses language models and arithmetic coding to present alternative letter targets on the screen with size relative to their likelihood given the history .
The rate of words produced can depend greatly on the conceptual level of the system : the TALK system , which allows users to choose between large numbers of sentence @-@ level utterances , demonstrated output rates in excess of 60 wpm .
= = Fixed and dynamic display devices = =
= = = Fixed display devices = = =
Fixed display devices refer to those in which the symbols and items are " fixed " in a particular format ; some sources refer to these as " static " displays . Such display devices have a simpler learning curve than some other devices .
Fixed display devices replicate the typical arrangement of low @-@ tech AAC devices ( low @-@ tech is defined as those devices that do not need batteries , electricity or electronics ) , like communication boards . They share some of disadvantages ; for example they are typically restricted to a limited number of symbols and hence messages . It is important to note that with technological advances made in the twenty @-@ first century , fixed @-@ display SGDs are not commonly used anymore .
= = = Dynamic display devices = = =
Dynamic displays devices are usually also touchscreen devices. iPads , TextSpeak Design , Tobii Technology and Words + . devices are the most commonly used Dynamic Display Devices . They typically generate electronically produced visual symbols that , when pressed , change the set of selections that is displayed . The user can change the symbols available using page links to navigate to appropriate pages of vocabulary and messages . The " home " page of a dynamic display device may show symbols related to many different contexts or conversational topics . Pressing any one of these symbols may open a different screen with messages related to that topic . For example , when watching a volleyball game , a user may press the " sport " symbol to open a page with messages relating to sport , then press the symbol showing a scoreboard to utter the phrase " What 's the score ? " .
Advantages of dynamic display devices include the availability of a much larger vocabulary , and the ability to see the sentence under construction A further advantage of dynamic display devices is that the underlying operating system is capable of providing options for multiple communication channels , including cell phone , text messaging and e @-@ mail . Work by Linköping University has shown that such email writing practices allowed children who were SGD users to develop new social skills and increase their social participation .
= = Output = =
The output of a SGD may be digitized and / or synthesized : digitized systems play directly recorded words or phrases while synthesized speech uses text @-@ to @-@ speech software that can carry less emotional information but permits the user to speak novel messages by typing new words . Today , individuals use a combination of recorded messages and text @-@ to @-@ speech techniques on their SGDs . However , some devices are limited to only one type of output .
= = = Digitized speech = = =
Words , phrases or entire messages can be digitised and stored onto the device for playback to be activated by the user . This process is formally known as Voice Banking . Advantages of recorded speech include that it ( a ) provides natural prosody and speech naturalness for the listener ( e.g. , person of the same age and gender as the AAC user can be selected to record the messages ) , and ( b ) it provides for additional sounds that may be important for the user such as laughing or whistling . Moreover , Digitized SGDs is that they provide a degree of normalcy both for the patient and for their families when they lose their ability to speak on their own .
A major disadvantage of using only recorded speech is that users are unable to produce novel messages ; they are limited to the messages pre @-@ recorded into the device . Depending on the device , there may be a limit to the length of the recordings .
= = = Synthesized speech = = =
SGDs that use synthesized speech apply the phonetic rules of the language to translate the user ’ s message into voice output ( speech synthesis ) . Users have the freedom to create novel words and messages and are not limited to those that have been pre @-@ recorded on their device by others .
Smartphones and computers have increased the use of synthesized speech devices through the creation of apps that allow the user to select a from a list of phrases or messages to be spoken in the voice and language that the user has chosen . Apps such as SpeakIt ! or Assistive Express for iPhone provide a cheap way to use a speech @-@ generating device without having to visit a doctor 's office or learn to use specialized machinery .
Synthesized SGDs may allow multiple methods of message creation that can be used individually or in combination : messages can be created from letters , words , phrases , sentences , pictures , or symbols . With synthesized speech there is virtually unlimited storage capacity for messages with few demands on memory space .
Synthesized speech engines are available in many languages , and the engine 's parameters , such as speech rate , pitch range , gender , stress patterns , pauses , and pronunciation exceptions can be manipulated by the user .
= = Programing = =
= = Selection set and vocabulary = =
The selection set of a SGD is the set of all messages , symbols and codes that are available to a person using that device . The content , organisation , and updating of this selection set are areas of active research and are influenced by a number of factors , including the user 's ability , interests and age . The selection set for an AAC system may include words that the user does not know yet – they are included for the user to " grow into " . The content installed on any given SGD may include a large number of preset pages provided by the manufacturer , with a number of additional pages produced by the user or the user 's care team depending on the user 's needs and the contexts that the device will be used in .
= = = Initial content selection = = =
Researchers Beukelman and Mirenda list a number of possible sources ( such as family members , friends , teachers , and care staff ) for the selection of initial content for a SGD . A range of sources is required because , in general , one individual would not have the knowledge and experience to generate all the vocal expressions needed in any given environment . For example , parents and therapists might not think to add slang terms , such as " innit " .
Previous work has analyzed both vocabulary use of typically developing speakers and word use of AAC users to generate content for new AAC devices . Such processes work well for generating a core set of utterances or vocal expressions but are less effective in situations where a particular vocabulary is needed ( for example , terms related directly to a user 's interest in horse riding ) . The term " fringe vocabulary " refers to vocabulary that is specific or unique to the individual 's personal interests or needs . A typical technique to develop fringe vocabulary for a device is to conduct interviews with multiple " informants " : siblings , parents , teachers , co @-@ workers and other involved persons .
Other researchers , such as Musselwhite and St. Louis suggest that initial vocabulary items should be of high interest to the user , be frequently applicable , have a range of meanings and be pragmatic in functionality . These criteria have been widely used in the AAC field as an ecological check of SGD content .
= = = Automatic content maintenance = = =
Beukelman and Mirenda emphasize that vocabulary selection also involves ongoing vocabulary maintenance ; however , a difficulty in AAC is that users or their carers must program in any new utterances manually ( e.g. names of new friends or personal stories ) and there are no existing commercial solutions for automatically adding content . A number of research approaches have attempted to overcome this difficulty , these range from " inferred input " , such as generating content based on a log of conversation with a user 's friends and family , to data mined from the Internet to find language materials , such as the Webcrawler Project . Moreover , by making use of Lifelogging based approaches , a device 's content can be changed based on events that occur to a user during their day . By accessing more of a user 's data , more high @-@ quality messages can be generated at a risk of exposing sensitive user data . For example , by making use of global positioning systems , a device 's content can be changed based on geographical location .
= = = Ethical concerns = = =
Many recently developed SGDs include performance measurement and analysis tools to help monitor the content used by an individual . This raises concerns about privacy , and some argue that the device user should be involved in the decision to monitor use in this way . Similar concerns have been raised regarding the proposals for devices with automatic content generation , and privacy is increasingly a factor in design of SGDs . As AAC devices are designed to be used in all areas of a user ’ s life , there are sensitive legal , social , and technical issues centred on a wide family of personal data management problems that can be found in contexts of AAC use . For example , SGDs may have to be designed so that they support the user 's right to delete logs of conversations or content that has been added automatically .
= = Challenges = =
Programming of Dynamic Speech Generating devices is usually done by augmentative communication specialists . Specialists are required to cater to the needs of the patients because the patients usually choose what kinds of words / phrases they want . For example , patients use different phrases based on their age , disability , interests , etc . Therefore , content organization is extremely time consuming . Additionally , SGDs are rarely covered by health insurance companies . As a result , resources are very limited with regards to both funding and staffing . Dr. John Costello of Boston Children ’ s Hospital has been the driving force soliciting donations to keep these program running and well @-@ staffed both within his hospital and in hospitals across the country .
= = Producers = =
There are relatively few producers of SGDs , although several more companies produce software to give existing devices SGD functionality , and there are some home @-@ built systems . Producers of dedicated devices include Auditory Sciences , Dynavox Mayer @-@ Johnson , LC Technologies , Lingraphica , Prentke Romich Company , Saltillo Corporation , Talk To Me Technologies , TextSpeak Design . , Tobii Technology and Words + . Other companies produce software that allow devices like the iPhone , iPad , and Nintendo DS to function as SGDs .
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= Favorite Girl =
" Favorite Girl " is a song by Canadian recording artist , Justin Bieber . The song was written and produced by D 'Mile , and Antea Birchett , Anesha Birchett , and Delisha Thomas also receive writing credits . Bieber debuted the acoustic version of his song in his official YouTube account after American country pop singer Taylor Swift used Bieber 's single " One Time " as background music in one of her video tour diaries . The song was later released exclusively to iTunes as the second promotional single from his debut studio release , My World on November 4 , 2009 .
The song is mid @-@ tempo , and merges teen pop and R & B elements . The song debuted at number twelve and twenty @-@ six , in Canada and the United States , respectively . It also charted at number ninety @-@ two Australia , and at numbers seventy @-@ six and twenty @-@ seven in the United Kingdom , and the UK R & B chart , respectively Bieber performed the song on several occasions , most of them being the acoustic version of the song , including as a supporting act on Swift 's Fearless Tour .
= = Background = =
In August 2009 , country pop singer Taylor Swift used Bieber 's " One Time " as background music and music that she and her friends were dancing to in a tour video diary that she posted on her official YouTube account . In response to Swift using his song , Bieber posted an acoustic rendition of the then never @-@ before heard " Favorite Girl " on his YouTube . When asked about his learning of Swift using his song , Bieber stated , " It was really funny because I heard about it from a fan . I watched it and it was hilarious ! " Bieber and Swift then met in person at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards , and she later invited him to be a special guest on her Fearless Tour when she returned to the United Kingdom .
The song was written by Dernst " D 'Mile " Emile II , Antea Birchett , Anesha Birchet , and Delisha Thomas . Emile also has production credits . The song was recorded by Blake Eisemen at Icon Studios in Atlanta , Georgia , where Bieber 's career is based . Mixing was done by Dave Pensado and Jaycen @-@ Joshua Fowler , at Larrabee Studios in North Hollywood , California . The song became a popular trending topic on Twitter on the day of its release . " Favorite Girl " be is a teen @-@ pop song , which integrates characteristics of R & B music . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Universal Music Publishing , Ltd . , " Favorite Girl " is set in common time , and has a moderate tempo of 88 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of E minor with Bieber 's vocals spanning from the low @-@ note of G3 to the high @-@ note of B4 . The song follows in the chord progression of C – Em – G
= = Chart performance = =
The song had hot shot debuts and limited stays on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 and Canadian Hot 100 due to the single being released via iTunes only . It debuted in the U.S. at number twenty @-@ six on the week ending November 21 , 2009 , and remained on the chart for two weeks . The same week it debuted at number fifteen in Canada , remaining on the chart for two weeks . The song returned to the Canadian Hot 100 at number ninety @-@ nine on the week ending January 9 , 2009 . In 2010 , the chart also appeared on the UK Singles Chart at seventy @-@ six , and on the UK R & B Chart .
= = Performances = =
Most Bieber performances of the song are of the acoustic rendition . Bieber originally performed the song for the first time , acoustically , when he appeared for a second time on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on November 3 , 2009 , the same day the song was released to iTunes . Regarding the performance , MTV News praised the song as a " funky , groovy , swaggerific jam " . Bieber performed the song on the Fearless Tour , during Winter 2009 while performing at radio station @-@ hosted Jingle Ball concerts , and during a live session with MTV , in which he was named MTV 's Artist of the Week . During the live session with MTV , he performed the song while playing the keyboard . In a review of his acoustic performance of the song at Z100 's 2009 Jingle Ball , Jon Caramanica of The New York Times called it his best performance of the night .
= = Charts = =
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= Mars =
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second @-@ smallest planet in the Solar System , after Mercury . Named after the Roman god of war , it is often referred to as the " Red Planet " because the iron oxide prevalent on its surface gives it a reddish appearance . Mars is a terrestrial planet with a thin atmosphere , having surface features reminiscent both of the impact craters of the Moon and the valleys , deserts , and polar ice caps of Earth .
The rotational period and seasonal cycles of Mars are likewise similar to those of Earth , as is the tilt that produces the seasons . Mars is the site of Olympus Mons , the largest volcano and second @-@ highest known mountain in the Solar System , and of Valles Marineris , one of the largest canyons in the Solar System . The smooth Borealis basin in the northern hemisphere covers 40 % of the planet and may be a giant impact feature . Mars has two moons , Phobos and Deimos , which are small and irregularly shaped . These may be captured asteroids , similar to 5261 Eureka , a Mars trojan .
Until the first successful Mars flyby in 1965 by Mariner 4 , many speculated about the presence of liquid water on the planet 's surface . This was based on observed periodic variations in light and dark patches , particularly in the polar latitudes , which appeared to be seas and continents ; long , dark striations were interpreted by some as irrigation channels for liquid water . These straight line features were later explained as optical illusions , though geological evidence gathered by uncrewed missions suggests that Mars once had large @-@ scale water coverage on its surface at an earlier stage of its existence . In 2005 , radar data revealed the presence of large quantities of water ice at the poles and at mid @-@ latitudes . The Mars rover Spirit sampled chemical compounds containing water molecules in March 2007 . The Phoenix lander directly sampled water ice in shallow Martian soil on July 31 , 2008 . On September 28 , 2015 , NASA announced the presence of briny flowing salt water on the Martian surface .
Mars is host to seven functioning spacecraft : five in orbit — 2001 Mars Odyssey , Mars Express , Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter , MAVEN and Mars Orbiter Mission — and two on the surface — Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity and the Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity . Observations by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter have revealed possible flowing water during the warmest months on Mars . In 2013 , NASA 's Curiosity rover discovered that Mars 's soil contains between 1 @.@ 5 % and 3 % water by mass ( albeit attached to other compounds and thus not freely accessible ) .
There are ongoing investigations assessing the past habitability potential of Mars , as well as the possibility of extant life . In situ investigations have been performed by the Viking landers , Spirit and Opportunity rovers , Phoenix lander , and Curiosity rover . Future astrobiology missions are planned , including the Mars 2020 and ExoMars rovers .
Mars can easily be seen from Earth with the naked eye , as can its reddish coloring . Its apparent magnitude reaches − 2 @.@ 91 , which is surpassed only by Jupiter , Venus , the Moon , and the Sun . Optical ground @-@ based telescopes are typically limited to resolving features about 300 kilometers ( 190 mi ) across when Earth and Mars are closest because of Earth 's atmosphere .
= = Physical characteristics = =
Mars is approximately half the diameter of Earth , and its surface area is only slightly less than the total area of Earth 's dry land . Mars is less dense than Earth , having about 15 % of Earth 's volume and 11 % of Earth 's mass , resulting in about 38 % of Earth 's surface gravity . The red @-@ orange appearance of the Martian surface is caused by iron ( III ) oxide , or rust . It can look like butterscotch , and other common surface colors include golden , brown , tan , and greenish , depending on the minerals present .
= = = Internal structure = = =
Like Earth , Mars has differentiated into a dense metallic core overlaid by less dense materials . Current models of its interior imply a core region about 1 @,@ 794 ± 65 kilometers ( 1 @,@ 115 ± 40 mi ) in radius , consisting primarily of iron and nickel with about 16 – 17 % sulfur . This iron ( II ) sulfide core is thought to be twice as rich in lighter elements than Earth 's core . The core is surrounded by a silicate mantle that formed many of the tectonic and volcanic features on the planet , but it appears to be dormant . Besides silicon and oxygen , the most abundant elements in the Martian crust are iron , magnesium , aluminum , calcium , and potassium . The average thickness of the planet 's crust is about 50 km ( 31 mi ) , with a maximum thickness of 125 km ( 78 mi ) . Earth 's crust , averaging 40 km ( 25 mi ) , is only one third as thick as Mars ' , in ratio to the sizes of the two planets .
= = = Surface geology = = =
Mars is a terrestrial planet that consists of minerals containing silicon and oxygen , metals , and other elements that typically make up rock . The surface of Mars is primarily composed of tholeiitic basalt , although parts are more silica @-@ rich than typical basalt and may be similar to andesitic rocks on Earth or silica glass . Regions of low albedo show concentrations of plagioclase feldspar , with northern low albedo regions displaying higher than normal concentrations of sheet silicates and high @-@ silicon glass . Parts of the southern highlands include detectable amounts of high @-@ calcium pyroxenes . Localized concentrations of hematite and olivine have been found . Much of the surface is deeply covered by finely grained iron ( III ) oxide dust .
Although Mars has no evidence of a structured global magnetic field , observations show that parts of the planet 's crust have been magnetized , and that alternating polarity reversals of its dipole field have occurred in the past . This paleomagnetism of magnetically susceptible minerals has properties that are similar to the alternating bands found on the ocean floors of Earth . One theory , published in 1999 and re @-@ examined in October 2005 ( with the help of the Mars Global Surveyor ) , is that these bands demonstrate plate tectonics on Mars four billion years ago , before the planetary dynamo ceased to function and the planet 's magnetic field faded away .
During the Solar System 's formation , Mars was created as the result of a stochastic process of run @-@ away accretion out of the protoplanetary disk that orbited the Sun . Mars has many distinctive chemical features caused by its position in the Solar System . Elements with comparatively low boiling points , such as chlorine , phosphorus , and sulphur , are much more common on Mars than Earth ; these elements were probably removed from areas closer to the Sun by the young star 's energetic solar wind .
After the formation of the planets , all were subjected to the so @-@ called " Late Heavy Bombardment " . About 60 % of the surface of Mars shows a record of impacts from that era , whereas much of the remaining surface is probably underlain by immense impact basins caused by those events . There is evidence of an enormous impact basin in the northern hemisphere of Mars , spanning 10 @,@ 600 by 8 @,@ 500 km ( 6 @,@ 600 by 5 @,@ 300 mi ) , or roughly four times larger than the Moon 's South Pole – Aitken basin , the largest impact basin yet discovered . This theory suggests that Mars was struck by a Pluto @-@ sized body about four billion years ago . The event , thought to be the cause of the Martian hemispheric dichotomy , created the smooth Borealis basin that covers 40 % of the planet .
The geological history of Mars can be split into many periods , but the following are the three primary periods :
Noachian period ( named after Noachis Terra ) : Formation of the oldest extant surfaces of Mars , 4 @.@ 5 billion years ago to 3 @.@ 5 billion years ago . Noachian age surfaces are scarred by many large impact craters . The Tharsis bulge , a volcanic upland , is thought to have formed during this period , with extensive flooding by liquid water late in the period .
Hesperian period ( named after Hesperia Planum ) : 3 @.@ 5 billion years ago to 2 @.@ 9 – 3 @.@ 3 billion years ago . The Hesperian period is marked by the formation of extensive lava plains .
Amazonian period ( named after Amazonis Planitia ) : 2 @.@ 9 – 3 @.@ 3 billion years ago to present . Amazonian regions have few meteorite impact craters , but are otherwise quite varied . Olympus Mons formed during this period , along with lava flows elsewhere on Mars .
Geological activity is still taking place on Mars . The Athabasca Valles is home to sheet @-@ like lava flows up to about 200 Mya . Water flows in the grabens called the Cerberus Fossae occurred less than 20 Mya , indicating equally recent volcanic intrusions . On February 19 , 2008 , images from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter showed evidence of an avalanche from a 700 m high cliff .
= = = Soil = = =
The Phoenix lander returned data showing Martian soil to be slightly alkaline and containing elements such as magnesium , sodium , potassium and chlorine . These nutrients are found in gardens on Earth , and they are necessary for growth of plants . Experiments performed by the lander showed that the Martian soil has a basic pH of 7 @.@ 7 , and contains 0 @.@ 6 % of the salt perchlorate .
Streaks are common across Mars and new ones appear frequently on steep slopes of craters , troughs , and valleys . The streaks are dark at first and get lighter with age . The streaks can start in a tiny area which then spread out for hundreds of metres . They have been seen to follow the edges of boulders and other obstacles in their path . The commonly accepted theories include that they are dark underlying layers of soil revealed after avalanches of bright dust or dust devils . Several explanations have been put forward , including those that involve water or even the growth of organisms .
= = = Hydrology = = =
Liquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars due to low atmospheric pressure , which is about 100 times thinner than Earth 's , except at the lowest elevations for short periods . The two polar ice caps appear to be made largely of water . The volume of water ice in the south polar ice cap , if melted , would be sufficient to cover the entire planetary surface to a depth of 11 meters ( 36 ft ) . A permafrost mantle stretches from the pole to latitudes of about 60 ° . Large quantities of water ice are thought to be trapped within the thick cryosphere of Mars . Radar data from Mars Express and the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter show large quantities of water ice both at the poles ( July 2005 ) and at middle latitudes ( November 2008 ) . The Phoenix lander directly sampled water ice in shallow Martian soil on July 31 , 2008 .
Landforms visible on Mars strongly suggest that liquid water has existed on the planet 's surface . Huge linear swathes of scoured ground , known as outflow channels , cut across the surface in around 25 places . These are thought to record erosion which occurred during the catastrophic release of water from subsurface aquifers , though some of these structures have been hypothesized to result from the action of glaciers or lava . One of the larger examples , Ma 'adim Vallis is 700 km ( 430 mi ) long and much bigger than the Grand Canyon with a width of 20 km ( 12 mi ) and a depth of 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) in places . It is thought to have been carved by flowing water early in Mars 's history . The youngest of these channels are thought to have formed as recently as only a few million years ago . Elsewhere , particularly on the oldest areas of the Martian surface , finer @-@ scale , dendritic networks of valleys are spread across significant proportions of the landscape . Features of these valleys and their distribution strongly imply that they were carved by runoff resulting from rain or snow fall in early Mars history . Subsurface water flow and groundwater sapping may play important subsidiary roles in some networks , but precipitation was probably the root cause of the incision in almost all cases .
Along crater and canyon walls , there are thousands of features that appear similar to terrestrial gullies . The gullies tend to be in the highlands of the southern hemisphere and to face the Equator ; all are poleward of 30 ° latitude . A number of authors have suggested that their formation process involves liquid water , probably from melting ice , although others have argued for formation mechanisms involving carbon dioxide frost or the movement of dry dust . No partially degraded gullies have formed by weathering and no superimposed impact craters have been observed , indicating that these are young features , possibly still active . Other geological features , such as deltas and alluvial fans preserved in craters , are further evidence for warmer , wetter conditions at an interval or intervals in earlier Mars history . Such conditions necessarily require the widespread presence of crater lakes across a large proportion of the surface , for which there is independent mineralogical , sedimentological and geomorphological evidence .
Further evidence that liquid water once existed on the surface of Mars comes from the detection of specific minerals such as hematite and goethite , both of which sometimes form in the presence of water . In 2004 , Opportunity detected the mineral jarosite . This forms only in the presence of acidic water , which demonstrates that water once existed on Mars . More recent evidence for liquid water comes from the finding of the mineral gypsum on the surface by NASA 's Mars rover Opportunity in December 2011 . The study leader Francis McCubbin , a planetary scientist at the University of New Mexico in Albuquerque looking at hydroxals in crystalline minerals from Mars , states that the amount of water in the upper mantle of Mars is equal to or greater than that of Earth at 50 – 300 parts per million of water , which is enough to cover the entire planet to a depth of 200 – 1 @,@ 000 m ( 660 – 3 @,@ 280 ft ) .
On March 18 , 2013 , NASA reported evidence from instruments on the Curiosity rover of mineral hydration , likely hydrated calcium sulfate , in several rock samples including the broken fragments of " Tintina " rock and " Sutton Inlier " rock as well as in veins and nodules in other rocks like " Knorr " rock and " Wernicke " rock . Analysis using the rover 's DAN instrument provided evidence of subsurface water , amounting to as much as 4 % water content , down to a depth of 60 cm ( 24 in ) , in the rover 's traverse from the Bradbury Landing site to the Yellowknife Bay area in the Glenelg terrain . On September 28 , 2015 , NASA announced that they had found conclusive evidence of hydrated brine flows on recurring slope lineae , based on spectrometer readings of the darkened areas of slopes . These observations provided confirmation of earlier hypotheses based on timing of formation and rate of growth that these dark streaks resulted from water flowing in the very shallow subsurface . The streaks contain hydrated salts , perchlorates , which have water molecules in their crystal structure . The streaks flow downhill in Martian summer , when the temperature is above – 23 degrees Celsius , and freeze at lower temperatures .
Researchers think that much of the low northern plains of the planet were covered with an ocean hundreds of meters deep , though this remains controversial . In March 2015 , scientists stated that such an ocean might have been the size of Earth 's Arctic Ocean . This finding was derived from the ratio of water and deuterium in the modern Martian atmosphere compared to the ratio found on Earth . Eight times as much deuterium was found at Mars than exists on Earth , suggesting that ancient Mars had significantly higher levels of water . Results from the Curiosity rover had previously found a high ratio of deuterium in Gale Crater , though not significantly high enough to suggest the presence of an ocean . Other scientists caution that this new study has not been confirmed , and point out that Martian climate models have not yet shown that the planet was warm enough in the past to support bodies of liquid water .
= = = = Polar caps = = = =
Mars has two permanent polar ice caps . During a pole 's winter , it lies in continuous darkness , chilling the surface and causing the deposition of 25 – 30 % of the atmosphere into slabs of CO2 ice ( dry ice ) . When the poles are again exposed to sunlight , the frozen CO2 sublimes , creating enormous winds that sweep off the poles as fast as 400 km / h ( 250 mph ) . These seasonal actions transport large amounts of dust and water vapor , giving rise to Earth @-@ like frost and large cirrus clouds . Clouds of water @-@ ice were photographed by the Opportunity rover in 2004 .
The polar caps at both poles consist primarily ( 70 % ) of water ice . Frozen carbon dioxide accumulates as a comparatively thin layer about one metre thick on the north cap in the northern winter only , whereas the south cap has a permanent dry ice cover about eight metres thick . This permanent dry ice cover at the south pole is peppered by flat floored , shallow , roughly circular pits , which repeat imaging shows are expanding by meters per year ; this suggests that the permanent CO2 cover over the south pole water ice is degrading over time . The northern polar cap has a diameter of about 1 @,@ 000 km ( 620 mi ) during the northern Mars summer , and contains about 1 @.@ 6 million cubic kilometres ( 380 @,@ 000 cu mi ) of ice , which , if spread evenly on the cap , would be 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) thick . ( This compares to a volume of 2 @.@ 85 million cubic kilometres ( 680 @,@ 000 cu mi ) for the Greenland ice sheet . ) The southern polar cap has a diameter of 350 km ( 220 mi ) and a thickness of 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) . The total volume of ice in the south polar cap plus the adjacent layered deposits has been estimated at 1 @.@ 6 million cubic km . Both polar caps show spiral troughs , which recent analysis of SHARAD ice penetrating radar has shown are a result of katabatic winds that spiral due to the Coriolis Effect .
The seasonal frosting of areas near the southern ice cap results in the formation of transparent 1 @-@ metre @-@ thick slabs of dry ice above the ground . With the arrival of spring , sunlight warms the subsurface and pressure from subliming CO2 builds up under a slab , elevating and ultimately rupturing it . This leads to geyser @-@ like eruptions of CO2 gas mixed with dark basaltic sand or dust . This process is rapid , observed happening in the space of a few days , weeks or months , a rate of change rather unusual in geology – especially for Mars . The gas rushing underneath a slab to the site of a geyser carves a spiderweb @-@ like pattern of radial channels under the ice , the process being the inverted equivalent of an erosion network formed by water draining through a single plughole .
= = = Geography and naming of surface features = = =
Although better remembered for mapping the Moon , Johann Heinrich Mädler and Wilhelm Beer were the first " areographers " . They began by establishing that most of Mars 's surface features were permanent and by more precisely determining the planet 's rotation period . In 1840 , Mädler combined ten years of observations and drew the first map of Mars . Rather than giving names to the various markings , Beer and Mädler simply designated them with letters ; Meridian Bay ( Sinus Meridiani ) was thus feature " a " .
Today , features on Mars are named from a variety of sources . Albedo features are named for classical mythology . Craters larger than 60 km are named for deceased scientists and writers and others who have contributed to the study of Mars . Craters smaller than 60 km are named for towns and villages of the world with populations of less than 100 @,@ 000 . Large valleys are named for the word " Mars " or " star " in various languages ; small valleys are named for rivers .
Large albedo features retain many of the older names , but are often updated to reflect new knowledge of the nature of the features . For example , Nix Olympica ( the snows of Olympus ) has become Olympus Mons ( Mount Olympus ) . The surface of Mars as seen from Earth is divided into two kinds of areas , with differing albedo . The paler plains covered with dust and sand rich in reddish iron oxides were once thought of as Martian " continents " and given names like Arabia Terra ( land of Arabia ) or Amazonis Planitia ( Amazonian plain ) . The dark features were thought to be seas , hence their names Mare Erythraeum , Mare Sirenum and Aurorae Sinus . The largest dark feature seen from Earth is Syrtis Major Planum . The permanent northern polar ice cap is named Planum Boreum , whereas the southern cap is called Planum Australe .
Mars 's equator is defined by its rotation , but the location of its Prime Meridian was specified , as was Earth 's ( at Greenwich ) , by choice of an arbitrary point ; Mädler and Beer selected a line in 1830 for their first maps of Mars . After the spacecraft Mariner 9 provided extensive imagery of Mars in 1972 , a small crater ( later called Airy @-@ 0 ) , located in the Sinus Meridiani ( " Middle Bay " or " Meridian Bay " ) , was chosen for the definition of 0 @.@ 0 ° longitude to coincide with the original selection .
Because Mars has no oceans and hence no " sea level " , a zero @-@ elevation surface had to be selected as a reference level ; this is called the areoid of Mars , analogous to the terrestrial geoid . Zero altitude was defined by the height at which there is 610 @.@ 5 Pa ( 6 @.@ 105 mbar ) of atmospheric pressure . This pressure corresponds to the triple point of water , and it is about 0 @.@ 6 % of the sea level surface pressure on Earth ( 0 @.@ 006 atm ) . In practice , today this surface is defined directly from satellite gravity measurements .
= = = = Map of quadrangles = = = =
For mapping purposes , the United States Geological Survey divides the surface of Mars into thirty " quadrangles " , each named for a prominent physiographic feature within that quadrangle . The quadrangles can be seen and explored via the interactive image map below .
= = = = Impact topography = = = =
The dichotomy of Martian topography is striking : northern plains flattened by lava flows contrast with the southern highlands , pitted and cratered by ancient impacts . Research in 2008 has presented evidence regarding a theory proposed in 1980 postulating that , four billion years ago , the northern hemisphere of Mars was struck by an object one @-@ tenth to two @-@ thirds the size of Earth 's Moon . If validated , this would make the northern hemisphere of Mars the site of an impact crater 10 @,@ 600 by 8 @,@ 500 km ( 6 @,@ 600 by 5 @,@ 300 mi ) in size , or roughly the area of Europe , Asia , and Australia combined , surpassing the South Pole – Aitken basin as the largest impact crater in the Solar System .
Mars is scarred by a number of impact craters : a total of 43 @,@ 000 craters with a diameter of 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) or greater have been found . The largest confirmed of these is the Hellas impact basin , a light albedo feature clearly visible from Earth . Due to the smaller mass of Mars , the probability of an object colliding with the planet is about half that of Earth . Mars is located closer to the asteroid belt , so it has an increased chance of being struck by materials from that source . Mars is more likely to be struck by short @-@ period comets , i.e. , those that lie within the orbit of Jupiter . In spite of this , there are far fewer craters on Mars compared with the Moon , because the atmosphere of Mars provides protection against small meteors . Craters can have a morphology that suggests the ground became wet after the meteor impacted .
= = = = Volcanoes = = = =
The shield volcano Olympus Mons ( Mount Olympus ) is an extinct volcano in the vast upland region Tharsis , which contains several other large volcanoes . Olympus Mons is roughly three times the height of Mount Everest , which in comparison stands at just over 8 @.@ 8 km ( 5 @.@ 5 mi ) . It is either the tallest or second @-@ tallest mountain in the Solar System , depending on how it is measured , with various sources giving figures ranging from about 21 to 27 km ( 13 to 17 mi ) high .
= = = = Tectonic sites = = = =
The large canyon , Valles Marineris ( Latin for " Mariner Valleys " , also known as Agathadaemon in the old canal maps ) , has a length of 4 @,@ 000 km ( 2 @,@ 500 mi ) and a depth of up to 7 km ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) . The length of Valles Marineris is equivalent to the length of Europe and extends across one @-@ fifth the circumference of Mars . By comparison , the Grand Canyon on Earth is only 446 km ( 277 mi ) long and nearly 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) deep . Valles Marineris was formed due to the swelling of the Tharsis area , which caused the crust in the area of Valles Marineris to collapse . In 2012 , it was proposed that Valles Marineris is not just a graben , but a plate boundary where 150 km ( 93 mi ) of transverse motion has occurred , making Mars a planet with possibly a two @-@ tectonic plate arrangement .
= = = = Holes = = = =
Images from the Thermal Emission Imaging System ( THEMIS ) aboard NASA 's Mars Odyssey orbiter have revealed seven possible cave entrances on the flanks of the volcano Arsia Mons . The caves , named after loved ones of their discoverers , are collectively known as the " seven sisters " . Cave entrances measure from 100 to 252 m ( 328 to 827 ft ) wide and they are estimated to be at least 73 to 96 m ( 240 to 315 ft ) deep . Because light does not reach the floor of most of the caves , it is possible that they extend much deeper than these lower estimates and widen below the surface . " Dena " is the only exception ; its floor is visible and was measured to be 130 m ( 430 ft ) deep . The interiors of these caverns may be protected from micrometeoroids , UV radiation , solar flares and high energy particles that bombard the planet 's surface .
= = = Atmosphere = = =
Mars lost its magnetosphere 4 billion years ago , possibly because of numerous asteroid strikes , so the solar wind interacts directly with the Martian ionosphere , lowering the atmospheric density by stripping away atoms from the outer layer . Both Mars Global Surveyor and Mars Express have detected ionised atmospheric particles trailing off into space behind Mars , and this atmospheric loss is being studied by the MAVEN orbiter . Compared to Earth , the atmosphere of Mars is quite rarefied . Atmospheric pressure on the surface today ranges from a low of 30 Pa ( 0 @.@ 030 kPa ) on Olympus Mons to over 1 @,@ 155 Pa ( 1 @.@ 155 kPa ) in Hellas Planitia , with a mean pressure at the surface level of 600 Pa ( 0 @.@ 60 kPa ) . The highest atmospheric density on Mars is equal to that found 35 km ( 22 mi ) above Earth 's surface . The resulting mean surface pressure is only 0 @.@ 6 % of that of Earth ( 101 @.@ 3 kPa ) . The scale height of the atmosphere is about 10 @.@ 8 km ( 6 @.@ 7 mi ) , which is higher than Earth 's ( 6 km ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) ) because the surface gravity of Mars is only about 38 % of Earth 's , an effect offset by both the lower temperature and 50 % higher average molecular weight of the atmosphere of Mars .
The atmosphere of Mars consists of about 96 % carbon dioxide , 1 @.@ 93 % argon and 1 @.@ 89 % nitrogen along with traces of oxygen and water . The atmosphere is quite dusty , containing particulates about 1 @.@ 5 µm in diameter which give the Martian sky a tawny color when seen from the surface . It may take on a pink hue due to iron oxide particles suspended in it .
Methane has been detected in the Martian atmosphere with a mole fraction of about 30 ppb ; it occurs in extended plumes , and the profiles imply that the methane was released from discrete regions . In northern midsummer , the principal plume contained 19 @,@ 000 metric tons of methane , with an estimated source strength of 0 @.@ 6 kilograms per second . The profiles suggest that there may be two local source regions , the first centered near 30 ° N 260 ° W and the second near 0 ° N 310 ° W. It is estimated that Mars must produce 270 tonnes per year of methane .
Methane can exist in the Martian atmosphere for only a limited period before it is destroyed — estimates of its lifetime range from 0 @.@ 6 – 4 years . Its presence despite this short lifetime indicates that an active source of the gas must be present . Volcanic activity , cometary impacts , and the presence of methanogenic microbial life forms are among possible sources . Methane could be produced by a non @-@ biological process called serpentinization involving water , carbon dioxide , and the mineral olivine , which is known to be common on Mars .
The Curiosity rover , which landed on Mars in August 2012 , is able to make measurements that distinguish between different isotopologues of methane , but even if the mission is to determine that microscopic Martian life is the source of the methane , the life forms likely reside far below the surface , outside of the rover 's reach . The first measurements with the Tunable Laser Spectrometer ( TLS ) indicated that there is less than 5 ppb of methane at the landing site at the point of the measurement . On September 19 , 2013 , NASA scientists , from further measurements by Curiosity , reported no detection of atmospheric methane with a measured value of 0 @.@ 18 ± 0 @.@ 67 ppbv corresponding to an upper limit of only 1 @.@ 3 ppbv ( 95 % confidence limit ) and , as a result , conclude that the probability of current methanogenic microbial activity on Mars is reduced .
The Mars Orbiter Mission by India is searching for methane in the atmosphere , while the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter , planned to launch in 2016 , would further study the methane as well as its decomposition products , such as formaldehyde and methanol .
On December 16 , 2014 , NASA reported the Curiosity rover detected a " tenfold spike " , likely localized , in the amount of methane in the Martian atmosphere . Sample measurements taken " a dozen times over 20 months " showed increases in late 2013 and early 2014 , averaging " 7 parts of methane per billion in the atmosphere . " Before and after that , readings averaged around one @-@ tenth that level .
Ammonia was tentatively detected on Mars by the Mars Express satellite , but with its relatively short lifetime , it is not clear what produced it . Ammonia is not stable in the Martian atmosphere and breaks down after a few hours . One possible source is volcanic activity .
= = = = Aurora = = = =
In 1994 the European Space Agency 's Mars Express found an ultraviolet glow coming from " magnetic umbrellas " in the southern hemisphere . Mars does not have a global magnetic field which guides charged particles entering the atmosphere . Mars has multiple umbrella @-@ shaped magnetic fields mainly in the southern hemisphere , which are remnants of a global field that decayed billions of years ago .
In late December 2014 , NASA 's MAVEN spacecraft detected evidence of widespread auroras in Mars 's northern hemisphere and descended to approximately 20 – 30 degrees North latitude of Mars 's equator . The particles causing the aurora penetrated into the Martian atmosphere , creating auroras below 100 km above the surface , Earth 's auroras range from 100 km to 500 km above the surface . Magnetic fields in the solar wind drape over Mars , into the atmosphere , and the charged particles follow the solar wind magnetic field lines into the atmosphere , causing auroras to occur outside the magnetic umbrellas .
On March 18 , 2015 , NASA reported the detection of an aurora that is not fully understood and an unexplained dust cloud in the atmosphere of Mars .
= = = Climate = = =
Of all the planets in the Solar System , the seasons of Mars are the most Earth @-@ like , due to the similar tilts of the two planets ' rotational axes . The lengths of the Martian seasons are about twice those of Earth 's because Mars 's greater distance from the Sun leads to the Martian year being about two Earth years long . Martian surface temperatures vary from lows of about − 143 ° C ( − 225 ° F ) at the winter polar caps to highs of up to 35 ° C ( 95 ° F ) in equatorial summer . The wide range in temperatures is due to the thin atmosphere which cannot store much solar heat , the low atmospheric pressure , and the low thermal inertia of Martian soil . The planet is 1 @.@ 52 times as far from the Sun as Earth , resulting in just 43 % of the amount of sunlight .
If Mars had an Earth @-@ like orbit , its seasons would be similar to Earth 's because its axial tilt is similar to Earth 's . The comparatively large eccentricity of the Martian orbit has a significant effect . Mars is near perihelion when it is summer in the southern hemisphere and winter in the north , and near aphelion when it is winter in the southern hemisphere and summer in the north . As a result , the seasons in the southern hemisphere are more extreme and the seasons in the northern are milder than would otherwise be the case . The summer temperatures in the south can be up to 30 K ( 30 ° C ; 54 ° F ) warmer than the equivalent summer temperatures in the north .
Mars has the largest dust storms in the Solar System . These can vary from a storm over a small area , to gigantic storms that cover the entire planet . They tend to occur when Mars is closest to the Sun , and have been shown to increase the global temperature .
= = Orbit and rotation = =
Mars 's average distance from the Sun is roughly 230 million kilometres ( 143 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 mi ) , and its orbital period is 687 ( Earth ) days . The solar day ( or sol ) on Mars is only slightly longer than an Earth day : 24 hours , 39 minutes , and 35 @.@ 244 seconds . A Martian year is equal to 1 @.@ 8809 Earth years , or 1 year , 320 days , and 18 @.@ 2 hours .
The axial tilt of Mars is 25 @.@ 19 degrees relative to its orbital plane , which is similar to the axial tilt of Earth . As a result , Mars has seasons like Earth , though on Mars , they are nearly twice as long because its orbital period is that much longer . In the present day epoch , the orientation of the north pole of Mars is close to the star Deneb . Mars passed an aphelion in March 2010 and its perihelion in March 2011 . The next aphelion came in February 2012 and the next perihelion came in January 2013 .
Mars has a relatively pronounced orbital eccentricity of about 0 @.@ 09 ; of the seven other planets in the Solar System , only Mercury has a larger orbital eccentricity . It is known that in the past , Mars has had a much more circular orbit . At one point , 1 @.@ 35 million Earth years ago , Mars had an eccentricity of roughly 0 @.@ 002 , much less than that of Earth today . Mars 's cycle of eccentricity is 96 @,@ 000 Earth years compared to Earth 's cycle of 100 @,@ 000 years . Mars has a much longer cycle of eccentricity with a period of 2 @.@ 2 million Earth years , and this overshadows the 96 @,@ 000 @-@ year cycle in the eccentricity graphs . For the last 35 @,@ 000 years , the orbit of Mars has been getting slightly more eccentric because of the gravitational effects of the other planets . The closest distance between Earth and Mars will continue to mildly decrease for the next 25 @,@ 000 years .
= = Habitability and search for life = =
= = = Search for life = = =
The current understanding of planetary habitability — the ability of a world to develop environmental conditions favorable to the emergence of life — favors planets that have liquid water on their surface . Most often this requires the orbit of a planet to lie within the habitable zone , which for the Sun extends from just beyond Venus to about the semi @-@ major axis of Mars . During perihelion , Mars dips inside this region , but Mars 's thin ( low @-@ pressure ) atmosphere prevents liquid water from existing over large regions for extended periods . The past flow of liquid water demonstrates the planet 's potential for habitability . Recent evidence has suggested that any water on the Martian surface may have been too salty and acidic to support regular terrestrial life .
The lack of a magnetosphere and the extremely thin atmosphere of Mars are a challenge : the planet has little heat transfer across its surface , poor insulation against bombardment of the solar wind and insufficient atmospheric pressure to retain water in a liquid form ( water instead sublimes to a gaseous state ) . Mars is nearly , or perhaps totally , geologically dead ; the end of volcanic activity has apparently stopped the recycling of chemicals and minerals between the surface and interior of the planet .
Evidence suggests that the planet was once significantly more habitable than it is today , but whether living organisms ever existed there remains unknown . The Viking probes of the mid @-@ 1970s carried experiments designed to detect microorganisms in Martian soil at their respective landing sites and had positive results , including a temporary increase of CO2 production on exposure to water and nutrients . This sign of life was later disputed by scientists , resulting in a continuing debate , with NASA scientist Gilbert Levin asserting that Viking may have found life . A re @-@ analysis of the Viking data , in light of modern knowledge of extremophile forms of life , has suggested that the Viking tests were not sophisticated enough to detect these forms of life . The tests could even have killed a ( hypothetical ) life form . Tests conducted by the Phoenix Mars lander have shown that the soil has a alkaline pH and it contains magnesium , sodium , potassium and chloride . The soil nutrients may be able to support life , but life would still have to be shielded from the intense ultraviolet light . A recent analysis of martian meteorite EETA79001 found 0 @.@ 6 ppm ClO4 − , 1 @.@ 4 ppm ClO3 − , and 16 ppm NO3 − , most likely of martian origin . The ClO3 − suggests presence of other highly oxidizing oxychlorines such as ClO2 − or ClO , produced both by UV oxidation of Cl and X @-@ ray radiolysis of ClO4 − . Thus only highly refractory and / or well @-@ protected ( sub @-@ surface ) organics or life forms are likely to survive . A 2014 analysis of the Phoenix WCL showed that the Ca ( ClO4 ) 2 in the Phoenix soil has not interacted with liquid water of any form , perhaps for as long as 600 Myr . If it had , the highly soluble Ca ( ClO4 ) 2 in contact with liquid water would have formed only CaSO4 . This suggests a severely arid environment , with minimal or no liquid water interaction .
Scientists have proposed that carbonate globules found in meteorite ALH84001 , which is thought to have originated from Mars , could be fossilized microbes extant on Mars when the meteorite was blasted from the Martian surface by a meteor strike some 15 million years ago . This proposal has been met with skepticism , and an exclusively inorganic origin for the shapes has been proposed .
Small quantities of methane and formaldehyde detected by Mars orbiters are both claimed to be possible evidence for life , as these chemical compounds would quickly break down in the Martian atmosphere . Alternatively , these compounds may instead be replenished by volcanic or other geological means , such as serpentinization .
Impact glass , formed by the impact of meteors , which on Earth can preserve signs of life , has been found on the surface of the impact craters on Mars . Likewise , the glass in impact craters on Mars could have preserved signs of life if life existed at the site .
= = Moons = =
Mars has two relatively small natural moons , Phobos ( about 22 km ( 14 mi ) in diameter ) and Deimos ( about 12 km ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) in diameter ) , which orbit close to the planet . Asteroid capture is a long @-@ favored theory , but their origin remains uncertain . Both satellites were discovered in 1877 by Asaph Hall ; they are named after the characters Phobos ( panic / fear ) and Deimos ( terror / dread ) , who , in Greek mythology , accompanied their father Ares , god of war , into battle . Mars was the Roman counterpart of Ares . In modern Greek , though , the planet retains its ancient name Ares ( Aris : Άρης ) .
From the surface of Mars , the motions of Phobos and Deimos appear different from that of the Moon . Phobos rises in the west , sets in the east , and rises again in just 11 hours . Deimos , being only just outside synchronous orbit – where the orbital period would match the planet 's period of rotation – rises as expected in the east but slowly . Despite the 30 @-@ hour orbit of Deimos , 2 @.@ 7 days elapse between its rise and set for an equatorial observer , as it slowly falls behind the rotation of Mars .
Because the orbit of Phobos is below synchronous altitude , the tidal forces from the planet Mars are gradually lowering its orbit . In about 50 million years , it could either crash into Mars 's surface or break up into a ring structure around the planet .
The origin of the two moons is not well understood . Their low albedo and carbonaceous chondrite composition have been regarded as similar to asteroids , supporting the capture theory . The unstable orbit of Phobos would seem to point towards a relatively recent capture . But both have circular orbits , near the equator , which is unusual for captured objects and the required capture dynamics are complex . Accretion early in the history of Mars is plausible , but would not account for a composition resembling asteroids rather than Mars itself , if that is confirmed .
A third possibility is the involvement of a third body or a type of impact disruption . More @-@ recent lines of evidence for Phobos having a highly porous interior , and suggesting a composition containing mainly phyllosilicates and other minerals known from Mars , point toward an origin of Phobos from material ejected by an impact on Mars that reaccreted in Martian orbit , similar to the prevailing theory for the origin of Earth 's moon . Although the VNIR spectra of the moons of Mars resemble those of outer @-@ belt asteroids , the thermal infrared spectra of Phobos are reported to be inconsistent with chondrites of any class .
Mars may have moons smaller than 50 to 100 metres ( 160 to 330 ft ) in diameter , and a dust ring is predicted to exist between Phobos and Deimos .
= = Exploration = =
Dozens of crewless spacecraft , including orbiters , landers , and rovers , have been sent to Mars by the Soviet Union , the United States , Europe , and India to study the planet 's surface , climate , and geology . Presently , information is being relayed from seven active probes on or in @-@ orbit around Mars , including five orbiters and two rovers . This includes 2001 Mars Odyssey , Mars Express , Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter ( MRO ) , MAVEN , Mars Orbiter Mission , Opportunity , and Curiosity . The public can request MRO images of Mars via the HiWish program .
The Mars Science Laboratory , named Curiosity , launched on November 26 , 2011 , and reached Mars on August 6 , 2012 UTC . It is larger and more advanced than the Mars Exploration Rovers , with a movement rate up to 90 m ( 300 ft ) per hour . Experiments include a laser chemical sampler that can deduce the make @-@ up of rocks at a distance of 7 m ( 23 ft ) . On February 10 , 2013 , the Curiosity rover obtained the first deep rock samples ever taken from another planetary body , using its on @-@ board drill .
On September 24 , 2014 , Mars Orbiter Mission ( MOM ) , launched by the Indian Space Research Organisation , reached Mars orbit . ISRO launched MOM on November 5 , 2013 , with the aim of analyzing the Martian atmosphere and topography . The Mars Orbiter Mission used a Hohmann transfer orbit to escape Earth 's gravitational influence and catapult into a nine @-@ month @-@ long voyage to Mars . The mission is the first successful Asian interplanetary mission .
= = = Future = = =
Planned for March 2016 is the launch of the InSight lander , together with two identical CubeSats that will fly by Mars and provide landing telemetry . The lander and CubeSats are planned to arrive at Mars in September 2016 .
The European Space Agency , in collaboration with Roscosmos , will deploy the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter and Schiaparelli lander in 2016 , and the ExoMars rover in 2018 . NASA plans to launch its Mars 2020 astrobiology rover in 2020 .
The United Arab Emirates ' Mars Hope orbiter is planned for launch in 2020 , reaching Mars orbit in 2021 . The probe will make a global study of the Martian atmosphere .
Several plans for a human mission to Mars have been proposed throughout the 20th century and into the 21st century , but no active plan has an arrival date sooner than 2025 .
= = Astronomy on Mars = =
With the existence of various orbiters , landers , and rovers , it is possible to do astronomy from Mars . Although Mars 's moon Phobos appears about one third the angular diameter of the full moon on Earth , Deimos appears more or less star @-@ like and appears only slightly brighter than Venus does from Earth .
There are various phenomena , well @-@ known on Earth , that have been observed on Mars , such as meteors and auroras . A transit of Earth as seen from Mars will occur on November 10 , 2084 . There are transits of Mercury and transits of Venus , and the moons Phobos and Deimos are of sufficiently small angular diameter that their partial " eclipses " of the Sun are best considered transits ( see Transit of Deimos from Mars ) .
On October 19 , 2014 , Comet Siding Spring passed extremely close to Mars , so close that the coma may have enveloped Mars .
= = Viewing = =
Because the orbit of Mars is eccentric , its apparent magnitude at opposition from the Sun can range from − 3 @.@ 0 to − 1 @.@ 4 . The minimum brightness is magnitude + 1 @.@ 6 when the planet is in conjunction with the Sun . Mars usually appears distinctly yellow , orange , or red ; the actual color of Mars is closer to butterscotch , and the redness seen is just dust in the planet 's atmosphere . NASA 's Spirit rover has taken pictures of a greenish @-@ brown , mud @-@ colored landscape with blue @-@ grey rocks and patches of light red sand . When farthest away from Earth , it is more than seven times farther away than when it is closest . When least favorably positioned , it can be lost in the Sun 's glare for months at a time . At its most favorable times — at 15- or 17 @-@ year intervals , and always between late July and late September — a lot of surface detail can be seen with a telescope . Especially noticeable , even at low magnification , are the polar ice caps .
As Mars approaches opposition , it begins a period of retrograde motion , which means it will appear to move backwards in a looping motion with respect to the background stars . The duration of this retrograde motion lasts for about 72 days , and Mars reaches its peak luminosity in the middle of this motion .
= = = Closest approaches = = =
= = = = Relative = = = =
The point at which Mars 's geocentric longitude is 180 ° different from the Sun 's is known as opposition , which is near the time of closest approach to Earth . The time of opposition can occur as much as 8 @.@ 5 days away from the closest approach . The distance at close approach varies between about 54 and about 103 million km due to the planets ' elliptical orbits , which causes comparable variation in angular size . The last Mars opposition occurred on April 8 , 2014 at a distance of about 93 million km . The next Mars opposition occurs on May 22 , 2016 at a distance of 76 million km . The average time between the successive oppositions of Mars , its synodic period , is 780 days but the number of days between the dates of successive oppositions can range from 764 to 812 .
As Mars approaches opposition it begins a period of retrograde motion , which makes it appear to move backwards in a looping motion relative to the background stars . The duration of this retrograde motion is about 72 days .
= = = = Absolute , around the present time = = = =
Mars made its closest approach to Earth and maximum apparent brightness in nearly 60 @,@ 000 years , 55 @,@ 758 @,@ 006 km ( 0 @.@ 37271925 AU ; 34 @,@ 646 @,@ 419 mi ) , magnitude − 2 @.@ 88 , on August 27 , 2003 at 9 : 51 : 13 UT . This occurred when Mars was one day from opposition and about three days from its perihelion , making it particularly easy to see from Earth . The last time it came so close is estimated to have been on September 12 , 57 617 BC , the next time being in 2287 . This record approach was only slightly closer than other recent close approaches . For instance , the minimum distance on August 22 , 1924 was 0 @.@ 37285 AU , and the minimum distance on August 24 , 2208 will be 0 @.@ 37279 AU .
= = Historical observations = =
The history of observations of Mars is marked by the oppositions of Mars , when the planet is closest to Earth and hence is most easily visible , which occur every couple of years . Even more notable are the perihelic oppositions of Mars , which occur every 15 or 17 years and are distinguished because Mars is close to perihelion , making it even closer to Earth .
= = = Ancient and medieval observations = = =
The existence of Mars as a wandering object in the night sky was recorded by the ancient Egyptian astronomers and by 1534 BCE they were familiar with the retrograde motion of the planet . By the period of the Neo @-@ Babylonian Empire , the Babylonian astronomers were making regular records of the positions of the planets and systematic observations of their behavior . For Mars , they knew that the planet made 37 synodic periods , or 42 circuits of the zodiac , every 79 years . They invented arithmetic methods for making minor corrections to the predicted positions of the planets .
In the fourth century BCE , Aristotle noted that Mars disappeared behind the Moon during an occultation , indicating the planet was farther away . Ptolemy , a Greek living in Alexandria , attempted to address the problem of the orbital motion of Mars . Ptolemy 's model and his collective work on astronomy was presented in the multi @-@ volume collection Almagest , which became the authoritative treatise on Western astronomy for the next fourteen centuries . Literature from ancient China confirms that Mars was known by Chinese astronomers by no later than the fourth century BCE . In the fifth century CE , the Indian astronomical text Surya Siddhanta estimated the diameter of Mars . In the East Asian cultures , Mars is traditionally referred to as the " fire star " ( 火星 ) , based on the Five elements .
During the seventeenth century , Tycho Brahe measured the diurnal parallax of Mars that Johannes Kepler used to make a preliminary calculation of the relative distance to the planet . When the telescope became available , the diurnal parallax of Mars was again measured in an effort to determine the Sun @-@ Earth distance . This was first performed by Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1672 . The early parallax measurements were hampered by the quality of the instruments . The only occultation of Mars by Venus observed was that of October 13 , 1590 , seen by Michael Maestlin at Heidelberg . In 1610 , Mars was viewed by Galileo Galilei , who was first to see it via telescope . The first person to draw a map of Mars that displayed any terrain features was the Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens .
= = = Martian " canals " = = =
By the 19th century , the resolution of telescopes reached a level sufficient for surface features to be identified . A perihelic opposition of Mars occurred on September 5 , 1877 . In that year , Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli used a 22 cm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) telescope in Milan to help produce the first detailed map of Mars . These maps notably contained features he called canali , which were later shown to be an optical illusion . These canali were supposedly long , straight lines on the surface of Mars , to which he gave names of famous rivers on Earth . His term , which means " channels " or " grooves " , was popularly mistranslated in English as " canals " .
Influenced by the observations , the orientalist Percival Lowell founded an observatory which had 30 and 45 cm ( 12 and 18 in ) telescopes . The observatory was used for the exploration of Mars during the last good opportunity in 1894 and the following less favorable oppositions . He published several books on Mars and life on the planet , which had a great influence on the public . The canali were independently found by other astronomers , like Henri Joseph Perrotin and Louis Thollon in Nice , using one of the largest telescopes of that time .
The seasonal changes ( consisting of the diminishing of the polar caps and the dark areas formed during Martian summer ) in combination with the canals lead to speculation about life on Mars , and it was a long @-@ held belief that Mars contained vast seas and vegetation . The telescope never reached the resolution required to give proof to any speculations . As bigger telescopes were used , fewer long , straight canali were observed . During an observation in 1909 by Flammarion with an 84 cm ( 33 in ) telescope , irregular patterns were observed , but no canali were seen .
Even in the 1960s articles were published on Martian biology , putting aside explanations other than life for the seasonal changes on Mars . Detailed scenarios for the metabolism and chemical cycles for a functional ecosystem have been published .
= = = Spacecraft visitation = = =
Once spacecraft visited the planet during NASA 's Mariner missions in the 1960s and 70s these concepts were radically broken . The results of the Viking life @-@ detection experiments aided an intermission in which the hypothesis of a hostile , dead planet was generally accepted .
Mariner 9 and Viking allowed better maps of Mars to be made using the data from these missions , and another major leap forward was the Mars Global Surveyor mission , launched in 1996 and operated until late 2006 , that allowed complete , extremely detailed maps of the Martian topography , magnetic field and surface minerals to be obtained . These maps are available online ; for example , at Google Mars . Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and Mars Express continued exploring with new instruments , and supporting lander missions . NASA provides two online tools : Mars Trek , which provides visualizations of the planet using data from 50 years of exploration , and Experience Curiosity , which simulates traveling on Mars in 3 @-@ D with Curiosity .
= = In culture = =
Mars is named after the Roman god of war . In different cultures , Mars represents masculinity and youth . Its symbol , a circle with an arrow pointing out to the upper right , is used as a symbol for the male gender .
The many failures in Mars exploration probes resulted in a satirical counter @-@ culture blaming the failures on an Earth @-@ Mars " Bermuda Triangle " , a " Mars Curse " , or a " Great Galactic Ghoul " that feeds on Martian spacecraft .
= = = Intelligent " Martians " = = =
The fashionable idea that Mars was populated by intelligent Martians exploded in the late 19th century . Schiaparelli 's " canali " observations combined with Percival Lowell 's books on the subject put forward the standard notion of a planet that was a drying , cooling , dying world with ancient civilizations constructing irrigation works .
Many other observations and proclamations by notable personalities added to what has been termed " Mars Fever " . In 1899 while investigating atmospheric radio noise using his receivers in his Colorado Springs lab , inventor Nikola Tesla observed repetitive signals that he later surmised might have been radio communications coming from another planet , possibly Mars . In a 1901 interview Tesla said :
It was some time afterward when the thought flashed upon my mind that the disturbances I had observed might be due to an intelligent control . Although I could not decipher their meaning , it was impossible for me to think of them as having been entirely accidental . The feeling is constantly growing on me that I had been the first to hear the greeting of one planet to another .
Tesla 's theories gained support from Lord Kelvin who , while visiting the United States in 1902 , was reported to have said that he thought Tesla had picked up Martian signals being sent to the United States . Kelvin " emphatically " denied this report shortly before departing America : " What I really said was that the inhabitants of Mars , if there are any , were doubtless able to see New York , particularly the glare of the electricity . "
In a New York Times article in 1901 , Edward Charles Pickering , director of the Harvard College Observatory , said that they had received a telegram from Lowell Observatory in Arizona that seemed to confirm that Mars was trying to communicate with Earth .
Early in December 1900 , we received from Lowell Observatory in Arizona a telegram that a shaft of light had been seen to project from Mars ( the Lowell observatory makes a specialty of Mars ) lasting seventy minutes . I wired these facts to Europe and sent out neostyle copies through this country . The observer there is a careful , reliable man and there is no reason to doubt that the light existed . It was given as from a well @-@ known geographical point on Mars . That was all . Now the story has gone the world over . In Europe it is stated that I have been in communication with Mars , and all sorts of exaggerations have spring up . Whatever the light was , we have no means of knowing . Whether it had intelligence or not , no one can say . It is absolutely inexplicable .
Pickering later proposed creating a set of mirrors in Texas , intended to signal Martians .
In recent decades , the high @-@ resolution mapping of the surface of Mars , culminating in Mars Global Surveyor , revealed no artifacts of habitation by " intelligent " life , but pseudoscientific speculation about intelligent life on Mars continues from commentators such as Richard C. Hoagland . Reminiscent of the canali controversy , these speculations are based on small scale features perceived in the spacecraft images , such as ' pyramids ' and the ' Face on Mars ' . Planetary astronomer Carl Sagan wrote :
Mars has become a kind of mythic arena onto which we have projected our Earthly hopes and fears .
The depiction of Mars in fiction has been stimulated by its dramatic red color and by nineteenth century scientific speculations that its surface conditions might support not just life but intelligent life . Thus originated a large number of science fiction scenarios , among which is H. G. Wells ' The War of the Worlds , published in 1898 , in which Martians seek to escape their dying planet by invading Earth .
Influential works included Ray Bradbury 's The Martian Chronicles , in which human explorers accidentally destroy a Martian civilization , Edgar Rice Burroughs ' Barsoom series , C. S. Lewis ' novel Out of the Silent Planet ( 1938 ) , and a number of Robert A. Heinlein stories before the mid @-@ sixties .
Jonathan Swift made reference to the moons of Mars , about 150 years before their actual discovery by Asaph Hall , detailing reasonably accurate descriptions of their orbits , in the 19th chapter of his novel Gulliver 's Travels .
A comic figure of an intelligent Martian , Marvin the Martian , appeared on television in 1948 as a character in the Looney Tunes animated cartoons of Warner Brothers , and has continued as part of popular culture to the present . In the 1950s , TV shows such as I Love Lucy made light of the popular belief in life on Mars ; for example , when Lucy and Ethel were hired to portray Martians landing on the top of the Empire State Building as a publicity stunt for an upcoming movie .
After the Mariner and Viking spacecraft had returned pictures of Mars as it really is , an apparently lifeless and canal @-@ less world , these ideas about Mars had to be abandoned , and a vogue for accurate , realist depictions of human colonies on Mars developed , the best known of which may be Kim Stanley Robinson 's Mars trilogy . Pseudo @-@ scientific speculations about the Face on Mars and other enigmatic landmarks spotted by space probes have meant that ancient civilizations continue to be a popular theme in science fiction , especially in film .
The theme of a Martian colony that fights for independence from Earth is a major plot element in the novels of Greg Bear as well as the movie Total Recall ( based on a short story by Philip K. Dick ) and the television series Babylon 5 . Video games use this element , including Red Faction and the Zone of the Enders series . Mars ( and its moons ) were the setting for the popular Doom video game franchise and the later Martian Gothic .
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= Britney / Brittany =
" Britney / Brittany " is the second episode of the second season of the American television series Glee , and the twenty @-@ fourth episode overall . Written and directed by series creator Ryan Murphy , it premiered on the Fox network on September 28 , 2010 , and pays tribute to Britney Spears . Glee club member Brittany S. Pierce ( Heather Morris ) experiences an anesthesia @-@ induced hallucination in which she recreates iconic Spears moments , and comes to self @-@ realization , and several club members follow suit . Co @-@ captains Rachel ( Lea Michele ) and Finn ( Cory Monteith ) experience difficulties in their relationship , and club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) becomes jealous of guidance counselor Emma Pillsbury 's ( Jayma Mays ) new boyfriend , Dr. Carl Howell ( John Stamos ) .
Following the first season episode " The Power of Madonna " , which served as an homage to Madonna , Murphy planned two tribute episodes for Glee 's second season , of which " Britney / Brittany " is the first . He was approached by Spears about using her songs , and deemed her one of the most important female musicians of the decade , having inspired many of the show 's young cast to pursue musical careers . Spears makes several cameos in the episode , appearing in the students ' dream sequences . " Britney / Brittany " was also intended as a showcase for Morris , whose character was originally a background character on the show , but was promoted to a series regular after her character proved to be a fan favorite .
The episode features seven musical performances , six of which were released as singles . It was watched by 13 @.@ 51 million American viewers , Glee 's third largest audience ever , and attracted mixed reviews from critics . ToddVanDerWerff of The A.V. Club criticized its slightness of plot and incongruous musical numbers ; however , James Poniewozik of Time praised the episode for embracing its fantasy nature . Entertainment Weekly 's Tim Stack was dismayed by the close recreations of Spears videos , preferring Glee 's more original interpretations of its cover versions , yet MTV 's Aly Semigran felt that the performance of " I 'm a Slave 4 U " was one of the best sequences in the show 's history . Michele 's rendition of " ... Baby One More Time " attracted negative reviews , though her performance of Paramore 's " The Only Exception " was generally well received . Spears ' cameo received mixed reviews , with even those critics who received it favorably expressing relief that she did not appear for longer . Morris ' performance attracted critical praise , particularly for her dancing skills .
= = Plot = =
Glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) attempts to set New Directions an easy listening adult contemporary assignment , but Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) informs them there is a Facebook group petitioning the club to perform a Britney Spears number at the McKinley High homecoming assembly . Will refuses , stating that Spears is a bad role model . He is supported by club member Brittany ( Heather Morris ) , who reveals that her full name is Brittany Susan Pierce and as such she has always been dismayed that she will never be as successful as the similarly named pop star .
Will then discusses Spears with school guidance counselor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) . While in her office , he meets her new boyfriend , dentist Carl Howell ( John Stamos ) , who offers to talk to the glee club about dental hygiene . A plaque test reveals that Brittany , Rachel ( Lea Michele ) and Artie ( Kevin McHale ) all require dental work . When Brittany is put under general anesthesia so Carl can fill her cavities , she experiences a hallucination in which she performs Spears ' " I 'm a Slave 4 U " . She later returns to Carl 's practice with her friend Santana ( Naya Rivera ) and they share a hallucination in which they duet on " Me Against the Music " . Brittany feels empowered by the encounter , and begins to act more assertively in glee club .
Rachel feels threatened by her boyfriend Finn 's ( Cory Monteith ) desire to re @-@ join the school football team , fearing that their relationship will not work if he becomes popular again . After visiting the dentist and experiencing her own hallucination , in which she performs " ... Baby One More Time " , Rachel begins dressing more provocatively . Her new look is received positively and cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) finds school blogger Jacob Ben Israel ( Josh Sussman ) masturbating to a video of Rachel in the library . Rachel relents and encourages Finn to re @-@ join the team . Artie 's dental visit results in a hallucination of " Stronger " in which he is also a member of the football team . Football coach Shannon Beiste ( Dot @-@ Marie Jones ) accepts both Finn and Artie , despite the fact Artie is in a wheelchair . Rachel becomes jealous of the attention Finn is receiving now that he is back on the team and to test Finn 's fidelity , she has his ex @-@ girlfriend Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) attempt to seduce him . She is relieved when Finn turns Quinn down , and sings Paramore 's " The Only Exception " to him in apology .
Advised by Emma to relax , Will learns that Carl recently purchased a new Chevrolet Corvette and buys one for himself . He is confronted by his ex @-@ wife Terri ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) , who insists that he return it and cease wasting their savings . Seeing the positive effect Spears has had on the glee club members , Will relents and allows them to perform a Bob Fosse @-@ inspired rendition of " Toxic " at the homecoming assembly , joining them on stage in an effort to impress Emma . When multiple students , including Jacob and Lauren Zizes ( Ashley Fink ) , become sexually aroused by the performance , Sue sets off the fire alarm and has the student body evacuate the auditorium . She later threatens to sue Will after being injured in the stampede . Emma tells Will to stop trying to be someone he is not , and he returns his new car . He also tells the club they will not be performing any more Spears numbers .
= = Production = =
During the first season of Glee , the show paid tribute to Madonna with the episode " The Power of Madonna " . Murphy planned two tribute episodes for the second season : " Britney / Brittany " , and a second , originally planned to air after Super Bowl XLV in February 2011 . Many of the show 's young cast members were inspired to pursue musical careers by Spears . Murphy stated that it was Spears ' idea for Glee to use her songs , explaining : " I think she loves what the show 's about , paying tribute to pop culture in a very loving , respectful , kind way . She responded to that . " He described Spears as " arguably the most important female [ musician ] other than Lady Gaga in the last 10 years , " commenting that the episode is not only concerned with her music , but also her public image .
In May 2010 , Morrison told US Weekly that he hoped no Spears songs would be performed on Glee . Based on his comments , Murphy had Morrison 's character Will spend the episode resisting his students ' desire to perform her songs . Will 's storyline featuring a Chevrolet Corvette involved product placement for the Chevrolet division of General Motors , who became an advertiser and event sponsor for Glee prior to its 2009 launch .
The cast received their scripts for the episode on July 26 , 2010 , and Murphy began directing it on August 2 , 2010 . Spears filmed her guest starring scenes on August 18 and 19 , 2010 . Murphy commented that : " At the heart of it , it 's a show designed to show off the skills of Heather Morris " . Prior to appearing in Glee , Morris was a back @-@ up dancer for Beyoncé Knowles . She was originally hired as a choreographer to teach cast members Colfer and Jenna Ushkowitz the " Single Ladies " dance . A week later , she was cast as cheerleader Brittany . Morris had a recurring role throughout the first season , and was promoted to a series regular for season two . At the 2010 Television Critics Association Summer Press Tour , Murphy stated that Brittany would have " big storylines " in the new season , as viewers want to know more about her .
Stamos makes his first Glee appearance in " Britney / Brittany " playing Carl Howell , a dentist and Emma 's love @-@ interest . Other recurring characters who appear in the episode are glee club member Mike Chang ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) , Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) , Coach Shannon Beiste ( Jones ) , school reporter Jacob Ben Israel ( Sussman ) , cheerleader Becky Jackson ( Lauren Potter ) , school bullies Dave Karofsky ( Max Adler ) and Azimio ( James Earl ) and student Lauren Zizes ( Fink ) . So You Think You Can Dance contestant Mark Kanemura appears as a backing dancer .
= = Music = =
The episode featured cover versions of five Spears songs , two of which were performed by Morris . " Stronger " , " ... Baby One More Time " , " Toxic " , " I 'm a Slave 4 U " , and " Me Against the Music " ( featuring Madonna ) were covered . " The Only Exception " by Paramore and " Sailing " by Christopher Cross were also performed . All songs except " Sailing " were released as singles , available for download , and all songs except " I 'm a Slave 4 U " , " ... Baby One More Time " , and " Sailing " are included on the album Glee : The Music , Volume 4 . Both Spears and Paramore 's Hayley Williams praised the episode via the social networking website Twitter , approving of the use of their songs . All singles managed to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 , selling 406 @,@ 000 downloads collectively . The cast 's cover of " Toxic " charted as the highest of the six , at number sixteen with 109 @,@ 000 downloads .
Tim Stack of Entertainment Weekly felt that the performances of " I 'm a Slave 4 U " and " Me Against the Music " fell flat , opining that Glee 's best musical numbers are the ones which twist , rather than imitate the original versions . Though he praised Morris ' dancing , he felt the episode revealed her to be " not a standout vocalist . " Conversely , Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone enjoyed the direct recreations of iconic Spears moments in " I 'm a Slave 4 U " , and MTV 's Aly Semigran called it one of the best sequences in the show 's history . Futterman was also impressed by the " Me Against the Music " recreation , highlighting the way it played on the ambiguous Brittany / Santana relationship , complimenting Morris ' dancing and Rivera 's vocals .
Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal criticized Michele 's rendition of " ... Baby One More Time " , writing , " Her earnestness , her adoring look and her intelligent voice bumps up against the breathless sound of breathy pop . It 's like a YouTube spoof , an opera singer trying to make a barmaid 's ditty on Oktoberfest more appealing — by shedding her clothes . " Futterman was left wanting by the number , feeling that " the tune lost all of its scandalous sexuality with Rachel 's octaves @-@ higher singing . "
Stack deemed " Stronger " his favorite performance of the episode , as well as the best incorporation of Spears ' music , as the song served Artie 's storyline . He praised the increased use of McHale as a vocalist in the second season , enjoying his soulful voice . Flandez also enjoyed " Stronger " , appreciating the twist of having males sing a feminist empowerment song . Semigran wrote that it was " Toxic " which provided the best Spears cover of the episode , commenting that it " took on its own fresh sound all while honoring the original " . She disapproved of " The Only Exception " as the closing song , feeling that the use of another Spears song such as " Everytime " would have been more appropriate . However , Flandez called Michele 's Paramore rendition " suitably earnest " , Futterman described it as " gorgeous and tender " , and Stack felt it served as a " nice , emotional capper " to the episode .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
During its original broadcast , " Britney / Brittany " was watched by 13 @.@ 51 million American viewers . It drew Glee 's second largest audience to date behind " Hell @-@ O " , which was watched by 13 @.@ 66 million viewers in April 2010 , following a four @-@ month hiatus . Viewership was up 1 @.@ 06 million over the previous episode , " Audition " , 0 @.@ 5 million over the Madonna tribute episode " The Power of Madonna " , and 2 @.@ 1 million over the Lady Gaga @-@ themed episode " Theatricality " . The episode attained Glee 's series high rating to date in the 18 – 49 demographic , with a 5 @.@ 9 / 17 Nielsen rating / share — it was subsequently beaten by " The Sue Sylvester Shuffle " , which aired on February 6 , 2011 , immediately following the Super Bowl , and was watched by 26 @.@ 8 million viewers and garnered an 11 @.@ 1 / 29 rating / share — also making it the highest @-@ rated show on the night of broadcast . " Britney / Brittany " was Fox 's highest @-@ rated live @-@ action comedy episode of the fall in eight years among adults 18 – 49 , and nine years among total viewers . It was the first time in seventeen years that the highest @-@ rated entertainment show of premiere week grew in its second week among adults 18 – 49 and total viewers . In Canada , the episode was the most @-@ watched show of the night , attaining 2 @.@ 4 million viewers . In the 18 – 49 demographic , it was up 18 % on " Audition " , and outperformed No Ordinary Family , its closest competitor in the 8 : 00 p.m. timeslot , by 73 % . In Australia , the episode was watched by 1 @.@ 171 million viewers , making Glee the seventh most @-@ watched show of the night . In the UK , the episode was watched by 3 @.@ 068 million viewers ( 2 @.@ 634 million on E4 , and 451 @,@ 000 on E4 + 1 ) , becoming the most @-@ watched show on E4 and E4 + 1 for the week , and the most @-@ watched show on cable for the week , as well as the most @-@ watched episode of the series at the time , and the first episode of the entire series to draw over 3 million viewers .
= = = Critical response = = =
" Britney / Brittany " received mixed reviews from critics . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club graded the episode " D + " , commenting that it was " what people who say Glee is awful are talking about when they say Glee is awful . " He criticized the lack of plot and coherence in the musical numbers , feeling that storyline and character arcs were ignored in favor of showcasing Spears covers . Stack described the episode as a " monumental television event , " ; however , he also expressed his lingering sense of " slight disappointment . " While he enjoyed the episode overall , Stack wrote that Spears ' songs felt forced into the storyline , and that the episode was neither as iconic nor as exhilarating as Glee 's Madonna tribute . The Parents Television Council slammed the episode , accusing the presentation of Spears as a " symbol of empowerment and self @-@ esteem " problematic , observing that the young audience " basically witnessed an endorsement of narcotics abuse , public masturbation , and school @-@ sanctioned burlesque . "
James Poniewozik of Time , who disliked the Madonna episode , was " pleasantly surprised " by " Britney / Brittany . " He deemed it one of the funniest and most entertaining episodes of the series , crediting Morris ' performance and the " fortunately limited " Spears cameos . Responding to criticism of the episode , Poniewozik conceded that the storylines were slender and Spears remakes dominated the episode , however felt that unlike " The Power of Madonna , " it worked because " it owned its slightness : it kept the videos ( and Britney 's appearances ) where they belonged as fantasy . " Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle described the episode as brilliant , and felt that presenting the Spears performances as a series of unrelated hallucinations was " an inspired choice . " IGN 's Robert Canning rated " Britney / Brittany " 8 / 10 , signifying an " Impressive " episode . He described it as fun , but close to being " too much of a gimmick , " with incongruous song choices .
VanDerWerff deemed Spears ' cameo " totally useless , " criticizing the singer 's " flat , listless dialogue . " Lisa de Moraes of The Washington Post graded her cameo a " C , " commenting " at least she didn 't have to try to be funny " as in her How I Met Your Mother guest @-@ spot . Flandez was disappointed that Spears did not appear for longer , yet he concluded that given the acting demonstrated in her 2002 film Crossroads , it was better that the pop star did not . Conversely , Jenna Mullins of E ! Online appreciated the fact that Spears did not appear as a background character , writing that she is " best when she is playing herself " , Stack felt her appearances were well @-@ handled , " with a nice level of restraint , " and Canning felt they were kept to a " perfect minimum . "
Morris ' performance attracted critical praise , with de Moraes calling " Britney / Brittany " a " great showcase " for the actress , praising her " spectacular dance moves " and " deadpan flare " . In his otherwise negative review , VanDerWerff deemed Morris " hysterical throughout " and the cast 's best dancer . He stated , " Murphy seems intent on running this character into the ground , but Morris isn 't going to have her stop being funny without a fight . " Mullins observed , " When Ryan Murphy said this episode was a celebration of Heather , he wasn 't kidding " , commending her musical performances . Canning was initially concerned that the episode would diminish Morris ' appeal by elevating her from a background role , but was ultimately pleased that it managed to retain her " fan favorite " secondary character status .
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= Banksia epica =
Banksia epica is a shrub that grows on the south coast of Western Australia . A spreading bush with wedge @-@ shaped serrated leaves and large creamy @-@ yellow flower spikes , it grows up to 3 ½ metres ( 11 ½ ft ) high . It is known only from two isolated populations in the remote south east of the state , near the western edge of the Great Australian Bight . Both populations occur among coastal heath on cliff @-@ top dunes of siliceous sand .
One of the most recently described Banksia species , it was probably seen by Edward John Eyre in 1841 , but was not collected until 1973 , and was only recognised as a distinct species in 1988 . There has been very little research on the species since then , so knowledge of its ecology and cultivation potential is limited . It is placed in Banksia ser . Cyrtostylis , alongside its close relative , the well @-@ known and widely cultivated B. media ( southern plains banksia ) .
= = Description = =
Banksia epica grows as a spreading bushy shrub with many branches , from 30 centimetres to 3 ½ metres ( 1 – 11 ½ ft ) tall . It has grey , fissured bark , and dark green , wedge @-@ shaped leaves , 1 ½ to 5 centimetres ( ½ – 2 in ) long and 6 to 15 millimetres ( 1 ⁄ 8 – 2 ⁄ 3 in ) wide , with serrated margins .
Flowers occur in Banksia 's characteristic " flower spike " , an inflorescence made up of hundreds of pairs of flowers densely packed in a spiral round a woody axis . B. epica 's flower spike is yellow or cream @-@ yellow in colour , cylindrical , 9 to 17 centimetres ( 3 ½ – 6 ½ inches ) tall and around 6 centimetres ( 2 ½ inches ) in diameter . In bud , it may have green @-@ grey or brownish pollen presenters , not unlike B. robur ( swamp banksia ) . Each flower consists of a tubular perianth made up of four fused tepals , and one long wiry style . Characteristic of its taxonomic section , the styles of B. epica are straight rather than hooked . The style ends are initially trapped inside the upper perianth parts , but break free at anthesis . The fruiting structure is a stout woody " cone " embedded with up to 50 follicles ; old withered flower parts persist on the " cones " , giving them a hairy appearance . The follicles have an attractive purple hue .
Banksia epica is similar in appearance to its close relative B. media , from which it differs in having slightly shorter leaves and larger flowers . In addition , the persistent flower parts on B. epica 's fruiting structures are curled and point upwards , whereas they are straight and point downwards on B. media .
= = Taxonomy = =
= = = Discovery and naming = = =
The first European to see B. epica was probably Edward John Eyre , the first explorer of the area , who recorded " stunted specimens " of Banksia as he was nearing the western edge of the Great Australian Bight on 1 May 1841 :
" One circumstance in our route to @-@ day cheered me greatly , and led me shortly to expect some important and decisive change in the character and formation of the country . It was the appearance for the first time of the Banksia , a shrub which I had never before found to the westward of Spencer 's Gulf , but which I knew to abound in the vicinity of King George 's Sound , and that description of country generally . Those only who have looked out with the eagerness and anxiety of a person in my situation , to note any change in the vegetation or physical appearance of a country , can appreciate the degree of satisfaction with which I recognised and welcomed the first appearance of the Banksia . Isolated as it was amidst the scrub , and insignificant as the stunted specimens were that I first met with , they led to an inference that I could not be mistaken in , and added , in a tenfold degree , to the interest and expectation with which every mile of our route had now become invested . "
Eyre is thought to have been passing through the Toolinna Cove sand patch at the time of writing . B. epica and B. media are the only Banksia species that occur at that location , and both have a form and habit that accords with Eyre 's description . As he did not collect specimens , it is impossible to determine what species he saw .
The first herbarium collection of B. epica was not made until October 1973 , when Ernest Charles Nelson visited Toolinna Cove to collect specimens for a taxonomic revision of Adenanthos . Nelson was stimulated to make that revision from an interest in the problem of disjunct plant distributions in southern Australia , and therefore collected specimens of a range of plant species . On 22 October , he collected a specimen of B. epica in old flower , but incorrectly identified it as B. media , and later lodged it in the herbarium at Canberra under that name .
In 1985 , two volunteer field collectors for The Banksia Atlas project , John and Lalage Falconer of Esperance , became convinced that there were three Banksia species rather than two at Point Culver . Returning to the locality on 9 January 1986 , they collected leaves and old flowers of what they thought was an undescribed species . The specimens did indeed suggest that a new species had been discovered , but they were not sufficient for formal publication . Early in May the following year , John Falconer drove over 2000 kilometres on unsealed tracks from Warburton to Point Culver and back again , in order to collect fresh flowers and fruit of the purported new species . Alex George then began preparing a formal description of the species . During his research , he discovered that Nelson 's Toolinna Cove specimen was also referable to the undescribed species . In the absence of any genuine B. media specimens from Toolinna Cova , George inferred that only B. epica occurred there , and that Eyre must have sighted B. epica in 1841 . In 1988 , he published a formal description of the species , naming it Banksia epica in reference to the two " epic " journeys of Eyre and Falconer . Thus the species ' full name is Banksia epica A.S.George. It was later established that both B. epica and B. media occur at Toolinna Cove .
= = = Infrageneric placement = = =
George placed B. epica in B. subg . Banksia , because its inflorescences are typical Banksia flower spikes ; B. sect . Banksia because of its straight styles ; and B. ser . Cyrtostylis because it has slender flowers . He considered its closest relatives to be B. praemorsa ( cut @-@ leaf banksia ) and B. media , both of which have shorter flowers and smaller pollen @-@ presenters than B. epica . In addition , B. praemorsa differs in having a hairless perianth , and B. media has larger , more undulate leaves .
In 1996 , Kevin Thiele and Pauline Ladiges published the results of a cladistic analysis of morphological characters of Banksia . They retained George 's subgenera and many of his series , but discarded his sections . George 's B. ser . Cyrtostylis was found to be " widely polyphyletic " , as six of the fourteen taxa in that series occurred singly in locations throughout Thiele and Ladiges ' cladogram . The remaining eight formed a clade that further resolved into two subclades , with B. epica appeared in one of them :
Thiele and Ladiges preferred to give series rank to the subclades , rather than the entire clade , so they transferred the taxa of the second clade into B. ser . Ochraceae , retaining only the taxa of the first clade in B. ser . Cyrtostylis . B. epica 's placement under Thiele and Ladiges ' arrangement may be summarised as follows :
Banksia
B. subg . Isostylis ( 3 species )
B. elegans ( incertae sedis )
B. subg . Banksia
B. ser . Tetragonae ( 4 species )
B. ser . Lindleyanae ( 1 species )
B. ser . Banksia ( 2 subseries , 12 species )
B. baueri ( incertae sedis )
B. lullfitzii ( incertae sedis )
B. attenuata ( incertae sedis )
B. ashbyi ( incertae sedis )
B. coccinea ( incertae sedis )
B. ser . Prostratae ( 8 species )
B. ser . Cyrtostylis
B. pilostylis
B. media
B. epica
B. praemorsa
B. ser . Ochraceae ( 3 species , 2 subspecies )
B. ser . Grandes ( 2 species )
B. ser . Salicinae ( 2 series , 11 species , 4 subspecies )
B. ser . Spicigerae ( 3 series , 7 species , 6 varieties )
B. ser . Quercinae ( 2 species )
B. ser . Dryandroideae ( 1 species )
B. ser . Abietinae ( 4 subseries , 15 species , 8 varieties )
The arrangement of Thiele and Ladiges was not accepted by George , and was discarded in his 1999 revision . Under George 's 1999 arrangement , B. epica 's placement was as follows :
Banksia
B. subg . Banksia
B. sect . Banksia
B. ser . Salicinae ( 11 species , 7 subspecies )
B. ser . Grandes ( 2 species )
B. ser . Banksia ( 8 species )
B. ser . Crocinae ( 4 species )
B. ser . Prostratae ( 6 species , 3 varieties )
B. ser . Cyrtostylis
B. media
B. praemorsa
B. epica
B. pilostylis
B. attenuata
B. ashbyi
B. benthamiana
B. audax
B. lullfitzii
B. elderiana
B. laevigata ( 2 subspecies )
B. elegans
B. lindleyana
B. ser . Tetragonae ( 3 species )
B. ser . Bauerinae ( 1 species )
B. ser . Quercinae ( 2 species )
B. sect . Coccinea ( 1 species )
B. sect . Oncostylis ( 4 series , 22 species , 4 subspecies , 11 varieties )
B. subg . Isostylis ( 3 species )
Since 1998 , Austin Mast has been publishing results of ongoing cladistic analyses of DNA sequence data for the subtribe Banksiinae . His analyses suggest a phylogeny that is rather different from previous taxonomic arrangements . With respect to B. epica , however , Mast 's results accord closely with the arrangement of Thiele and Ladiges , placing it in a polytomous clade corresponding exactly with Thiele and Ladiges ' B. ser . Cyrtostylis .
Early in 2007 Mast and Thiele initiated a rearrangement by transferring Dryandra to Banksia , and publishing B. subg . Spathulatae for the species having spoon @-@ shaped cotyledons ; in this way they also redefined the autonym B. subg . Banksia . They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of Dryandra was complete ; in the meantime , if Mast and Thiele 's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement , then B. epica is placed in B. subg . Banksia .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Banksia epica is known only from two populations in eastern parts of the Esperance Plains region of the South West Botanical Province , near the western edge of the Great Australian Bight . The main population occurs about 30 kilometres ( 20 mi ) west of Point Culver ; there were over 2000 plants there when surveyed in June 1989 . A smaller population occurs about 70 kilometres ( 45 mi ) further east at Toolinna Cove ; when surveyed in August 1991 , this locality had around 350 plants . This latter population represents the easternmost limit of the western Banksia species ; east of Toolinna Cove no Banksia species occurs for over 900 kilometres ( 550 mi ) .
In both localities , B. epica occurs among heath on cliff @-@ top dunes of deep , white siliceous sand over limestone . It co @-@ occurs with B. media in both localities , and B. praemorsa is also present at Point Culver . Toolinna Cove sand is somewhat alkaline , making B. epica and B. media the only Banksia species that grow in alkaline soil .
These two localities are unusual in having cliff @-@ top dunes of siliceous sand : cliff @-@ top dunes are an unusual topographic formation , and nearly all soil in the area is calcareous . As Banksia species are intolerant of calcareous soils , and are not adapted to long range seed dispersal , the two populations of B. epica appear to be reproductively isolated . Nelson has suggested that there was once a continuous strip of siliceous sand along the coast , providing an extensive and unfragmented habitat for B. epica ; rises in the sea level had submerged this strip , leaving only the cliff @-@ top dunes as suitable habitat . The fact that the resultant isolated populations have not perceptibly speciated since then suggests that the species has been fragmented for only a short time , perhaps only since the Last Glacial Maximum .
= = Ecology = =
Pollinators of B. epica include Phylidonyris novaehollandiae ( New Holland honeyeater ) and Acanthiza chrysorrhoa ( yellow @-@ rumped thornbill ) . No other pollinators have been recorded , but the species is poorly surveyed , and studies of other Banksia species have consistently indicated a wide range of invertebrate and vertebrate pollinators . For example , a survey of the closely related and co @-@ occurring B. media found that " honeyeater birds and marsupial nectarivores were abundant in the study area and most carried the pollen of Banksia media while it flowered . … Self @-@ pollination and pollination by insects clearly also play major roles in seed production . "
Like most other Proteaceae , B. epica has proteoid roots , roots with dense clusters of short lateral rootlets that form a mat in the soil just below the leaf litter . These enhance solubilisation of nutrients , allowing nutrient uptake in low @-@ nutrient soils such as the phosphorus @-@ deficient native soils of Australia . The species lacks a lignotuber , so is thought to be killed by fire . Like most Banksia species , however , it is adapted to release its aerial seed bank following a bushfire , so populations regenerate rapidly . It is highly susceptible to Phytophthora cinnamomi dieback .
Because so few populations are known , B. epica has been listed on the Department of Environment and Conservation 's Declared Rare and Priority Flora List as " Priority Two – Poorly Known Taxa " " ; and as 2RC under the ROTAP system ( rare but not currently endangered or vulnerable , and having a range less than 100 km ) . It is not considered to be under threat , however , because both known populations occur within the Nuytsland Nature Reserve , and are undisturbed and healthy . Furthermore , the area in which it occurs is poorly surveyed , so it is possible that other populations exist .
= = Cultivation = =
B. epica is fairly new to cultivation . Kevin Collins of the Banksia Farm in Albany , Western Australia is said to have pioneered its cultivation , growing it in loamy clay or sandy gravel . It showed good tolerance for alkaline soils in those conditions , and has also succeeded in sandy , alkaline soil near the coast between Mandurah and Kwinana . The Australian National Botanic Gardens in Canberra has also had some success in cultivating the species . Seeds were sown in February 1996 , and planted out in November 1997 ; seedlings planted into sections without good drainage died , but two seedlings that were planted into a section with excellent drainage were about a metre tall by 2002 , and flowering prolifically .
Propagation is by seed or cuttings . Seeds do not require any treatment , and take 14 to 49 days to germinate . In the absence of further information specific to B. epica , George recommends that cultivated plants be treated as for B. media and B. praemorsa , both of which require a sunny position in well drained soil , and tolerate only light pruning not below the green foliage .
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= Agent Carter ( TV series ) =
Marvel 's Agent Carter , or simply Agent Carter , is an American television series created for ABC by Christopher Markus & Stephen McFeely , inspired by the 2011 film Captain America : The First Avenger , and the 2013 Marvel One @-@ Shot short film of the same name . It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe ( MCU ) , sharing continuity with the films and other television series of the franchise . The series was produced by ABC Studios , Marvel Television , and F & B Fazekas & Butters , with Tara Butters , Michele Fazekas , and Chris Dingess serving as showrunners .
The series features the Marvel Comics character Peggy Carter , with Hayley Atwell reprising her role from the film series and One @-@ Shot , as she must balance life as a secret agent with that of a single woman in 1940s America . Development on a series inspired by the Agent Carter short film had begun by September 2013 , with Atwell 's involvement confirmed in January 2014 . That May , ABC bypassed a pilot , ordering the show straight to series , with James D 'Arcy , Chad Michael Murray , and Enver Gjokaj starring alongside Atwell ; they are joined by Shea Whigham for the first season . The series introduces the origins of several characters and storylines from MCU films , while other characters from the films also appear .
The first season , consisting of eight episodes , originally aired from January 6 to February 24 , 2015 , while the second season , consisting of 10 episodes , originally aired from January 19 to March 1 , 2016 . Both seasons aired during mid @-@ season breaks of Marvel 's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. Despite a positive critical response , the series saw steadily decreasing @-@ to @-@ low viewership , and on May 12 , 2016 , ABC canceled Agent Carter .
= = Premise = =
The first season takes place in 1946 , with Peggy Carter having to balance the routine office work she does for the Strategic Scientific Reserve ( SSR ) in New York City with secretly assisting Howard Stark , who finds himself framed for supplying deadly weapons to enemies of the United States . Carter is assisted by Stark 's butler , Edwin Jarvis , to find those responsible and dispose of the weapons . In the second season , Carter moves from New York City to Los Angeles to deal with the threats of the new Atomic Age by the Secret Empire in the aftermath of World War II , gaining new friends , a new home , and a potential new love interest .
= = Cast and characters = =
Hayley Atwell as Peggy Carter :
An SSR agent originally stuck doing administrative work . Atwell said it was " thrilling " to explore " the backdrop of this male @-@ dominated world , where women are still in the workforce , unspoken for and struggling to find a place outside the home " and how it affects Carter . Butters has said that Carter 's " superpower is the fact that other people underestimate her . And she often uses that to her advantage , because she doesn 't have superstrength . " Speaking about the influence that the apparent death of Steve Rogers has on Carter , Atwell explained that " It 's only been a year and she 's grieving him and I think what keeps her going is he was the greatest person she ever knew — even before he took the serum and became Captain America . She knew his character and she saw a kindred spirit in him . So I think she 's grieving the loss of him but she 's also determined to make sure that his work wasn 't in vain . That gives her a tremendous amount of determination to carry on despite the obstacles that she comes across . " Gabriella Graves portrays a young Carter .
James D 'Arcy as Edwin Jarvis :
Howard Stark 's butler and ally to Carter , who will eventually be a tutor to Tony Stark and inspire his J.A.R.V.I.S. artificial intelligence . Atwell referred to Carter 's relationship with Jarvis as the series ' " comic relief " , and said " I think , from her point of view , she doesn 't need any help . But she needs someone who is in contact with Howard to help kind of run this mission . So they have this very witty banter back and forth ... They both have that wit and that satire . Their language is a game of chess " . Fazekas , explaining the introduction and development of Jarvis in the series , stated that " Some of it has come from the comics and some of it we 've developed ourselves . Some of it is influenced by James D 'Arcy himself and his strengths . " D 'Arcy was initially nervous about portraying Jarvis 's comedic side , given his history of " predominantly play [ ing ] psychopaths " . He did not study Paul Bettany 's performance as J.A.R.V.I.S. when approaching the character .
Chad Michael Murray as Jack Thompson :
A war veteran and agent with the SSR , described as chauvinistic and " chest @-@ puffing " . Murray compared the character to Indiana Jones , and stated that " he 's working his way up to become the head of the SSR . His goal in life is to just be great at his job . So he has a large chip on his shoulder , which gives him an attitude . " Murray also noted that , unlike his character on One Tree Hill , Thompson does not serve as the " moral compass " , which meant that he wouldn 't be " confined to a box " and would instead be allowed to " really play things up and do what 's unexpected " . For the second season , Thompson is made chief of the East Coast SSR office .
Enver Gjokaj as Daniel Sousa :
A war veteran who is an agent with the SSR and experiences prejudice due to his crippled leg , allowing him to relate to Carter . " He was a soldier , and he had been very active all his life , and now he has to figure out how to use his brains , how to try to be smart , " Gjokaj explained of the character . " He accepts his injury , he accepts his compromised status in society ... Peggy says , ‘ Forget this . I 'm Peggy Carter . I 'm going to do something else . ’ I think that 's the difference between the two of them . " Considering a potentially romantic relationship between Sousa and Carter , Gjokaj said , " I think there ’ s definitely a situation where ... if she hadn 't dated Captain America , he might ask her out for a drink . It ’ s like if your new girlfriend dated Ryan Gosling . It ’ s going to make you sweat a bit . " For the second season , Sousa is made chief of the West Coast SSR office .
Shea Whigham as Roger Dooley :
The SSR chief who oversees agents Carter , Thompson , and Sousa , until he dies to save his fellow SSR agents at the end of season one . Unlike many of the other agents , Whigham believes that Dooley does respect Carter , saying " I think he likes her . I think he cares deeply . I 'm not sure that he can always show that , but I think you 'll see that he cares deeply about Carter . And these are things that keep him up at night , as well as the other boys , when I send them out on missions . " The character was always intended to die during the first season 's penultimate episode , to help build stakes for the series given that " everyone knows Peggy lives " , so from the beginning Whigham was only hired for the seven required episodes .
= = Episodes = =
= = = Season 1 ( 2015 ) = = =
= = = Season 2 ( 2016 ) = = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
A potential Agent Carter series was initially brought up in July 2013 by Louis D 'Esposito , after a screening of his Agent Carter One @-@ Shot at San Diego Comic @-@ Con. By September , Marvel Television was developing a series inspired by the short film , featuring Peggy Carter , and was in search of a writer for the series . In January 2014 , ABC Entertainment Group president Paul Lee confirmed that the show was in development , and revealed that Tara Butters and Michele Fazekas would act as the series ' showrunners . Chris Dingess also serves as a showrunner . In March 2014 , Christopher Markus & Stephen McFeely , writers of the Captain America films , stated that they envisioned the series , which had not yet been greenlit , as a limited series of approximately 13 episodes . By April 2014 , there were indications that the series would be ordered straight to series , bypassing a pilot order , and would air between the late 2014 and early 2015 portions of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. , if that series got a second season renewal .
On May 8 , 2014 , ABC officially ordered the series for eight episodes , with executive producers Butters , Fazekas , Markus , McFeely , Dingess , Kevin Feige , Louis D 'Esposito , Alan Fine , Joe Quesada , Stan Lee , and Jeph Loeb . The series was renewed for a second season on May 7 , 2015 , of 10 episodes . In March 2016 , Fazekas noted that the producers felt " bad " about the chances for a third season due to the series ' low viewership , adding she " would love to see it live on , even if it ’ s in some other form , digital or whatever . I doubt that there ’ s a Netflix play for it . " She also added that ABC wanted some sort of conclusion to the series , and so the writers and producers would find a way to conclude the lingering plot threads in some form if the series was not renewed . On May 12 , 2016 , ABC canceled the series .
Atwell had stated on potential further seasons , " We think that there could be more to come .... the [ second season ] finale doesn ’ t suggest that that ’ s it and they live happily ever after ; that ’ s the end . We know that ’ s not the case . They ’ ve done it in a very clever way which wraps up and that gives the audience a very satisfying conclusion but they ’ re not quite finishing it and leaving it there . " On the location for a third season , Fazekas stated that moving the series to London had been a possibility , an idea that creators Markus and McFeely had early on . Fazekas added , " you can put the show anywhere , because it ’ s spies . [ The location is ] all going to be determined by what story we want to tell . I loved [ Los Angeles ] . I loved how it looked , I loved how it looked on Peggy . We would be very happy to do another L.A. season , but we ’ re not married to it . " Fazekas also said that seeds for a third season had been planted all throughout the second , and that the end of the second season , with someone shooting Thompson and taking the M. Carter file , was " very much tied to a third season arc " , with the shooter and their reason for taking the file already determined . Atwell added that the third season would have gone " further back into [ Carter 's ] past ” while having " a possible kind of twist ... into something to do with [ her ] family . " She also added that more insight would have been provided on Carter 's brother , Michael .
= = = Writing = = =
Markus and McFeely stated in March 2014 that the series would be set in 1946 initially , occurring in the middle of the timeline established in the One @-@ Shot , and would focus on one case for Carter . Additional seasons would then advance a year and examine a new case . Despite working on Captain America : Civil War at the same time , Markus and McFeely remained involved with the series after writing the first script . The showrunners turned to several different influences outside of Marvel in developing the series , including Raiders of the Lost Ark , L.A. Confidential , and the works of author James Ellroy . Elaborating on deviating from the comics , Fazekas said , for example , " if we 're using a minor character or a bad guy from an old comic book , we don 't have to adhere to what that character was in that comic book from 1945 . Because there are so many different iterations of a specific character , you can 't be true to every single one . "
On the time periods the series could potentially explore following the first season and leading to the character seen in Captain America : The Winter Soldier , Atwell said , " I think the great thing about the fact that I ’ ve already played her at the end of her life means that we know ... That ’ s what ’ s great about the situation we have now , is that we have an opportunity , if the show does go into second and third and fourth and fifth [ seasons ] , we know that we can explore all of these aspects of her character because we know she lives such a long life and she ’ s had a fulfilled life . I think what ’ s going to start happening in Season 1 is seeds are going to be planted as to what happens in her personal life — and yet it ’ s still open to the possibility of new men coming into her life , deepening relationships with the men that we discover in Season 1 . Obviously , the era is 1946 but in the second , third , fourth , fifth season — if it goes onto that — we can explore different time periods . We can explore the late forties , the early fifties , the sixties , the seventies , the eighties , up until present day , so it ’ s very exciting because of that . " However , Butters clarified that future seasons would likely stay in the same time period , possibly changing location to a place like Hollywood or Europe , in order to stick to a pre @-@ S.H.I.E.L.D. setting to avoid competing with Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. This was the case with the second season , which moved the series to 1947 Los Angeles .
= = = Casting = = =
Atwell , who portrayed Carter in Captain America : The First Avenger , Captain America : The Winter Soldier , and the Agent Carter short film , expressed interest in returning as the character in October 2013 , before Lee confirmed her involvement in January 2014 . That August , Chad Michael Murray and Enver Gjokaj were cast as SSR agents Jack Thompson and Daniel Sousa , respectively , while James D 'Arcy was cast the next month as Edwin Jarvis , the character who would eventually inspire the artificial intelligence J.A.R.V.I.S. from the MCU films . Shea Whigham was also cast , as SSR chief Roger Dooley . Atwell , D 'Arcy , Gjokaj , and Murray returned for the second season .
= = = Design = = =
= = = = Costumes = = = =
The costume designer for the series is Giovanna Ottobre @-@ Melton , who felt comfortable with the series ' period setting after spending months researching American styles in the 1940s for the 2013 television series Mob City . She noted that " many comic books were all blended by the color , style , and fabrics " from 1940s New York . Due to the large amount of action in the series , fabrics " with the feel and texture of the 1940s " had to be sourced in large quantities , to allow for the creation of four , five , or more of each costume . Ottobre @-@ Melton 's process " for each episode , [ is to ] read the script first , and then search for historic photos that relate to what the episode is about . Afterwards I chose the fabrics , and then begin to design the outfits . "
= = = = Props = = = =
When creating the gadgets for the series , the writers noted the need to combine the period setting with the influence of Howard Stark , who opens the door to " things that are fantastic for the time period " . They worked closely with the props department to develop technology that appears " both retro and futuristic at the same time " , with Fazekas explaining that the goal was to avoid a science fiction look , so the fantastical aspects were reserved solely for function while the aesthetic was kept within the realms of that time period .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming for the series took place in Los Angeles , with the story 's location shifting from New York City to Los Angeles with the second season to capitalize on this . Gabriel Beristain , cinematographer for the One @-@ Shot and the first season of the series , used a combination of modern digital technology and traditional analog techniques to replicate the feel of classic films that are set in the 1940s , but to also have the convenience and consistency of modern technology , such as using the Arri Alexa digital camera , along with Leica Lenses and silk @-@ stocking diffusion nets . Edward J. Pei took over as cinematographer for the second season . Stunt coordinator Casey O 'Neill , who also worked on the One @-@ Shot and Captain America : The Winter Soldier , incorporated the specific fighting styles of the characters , such as the more " CIA @-@ trained " fighting of Carter or the more acrobatic , " Black Widow " -inspired style of antagonist Dottie Underwood .
= = = Visual effects = = =
Sheena Duggal serves as visual effect supervisor , returning in the same capacity from the Agent Carter One @-@ Shot , with the visual effects for the series created by Industrial Light & Magic ( ILM ) , Base FX , and later DNeg TV . Duggal worked closest with ILM , who coordinated with Base and DNeg to ensure a " seamless workflow " . The majority of the series ' visual effects work focuses on set extensions to depict the period setting , as well as the more fantastical aspects such as Howard Stark 's inventions , or Zero Matter and Jason Wilkes ' intangibility in the second season .
= = = Music = = =
In June 2014 , Christopher Lennertz , who composed the music for the Agent Carter One @-@ Shot , talked about potentially working on the series , saying , D 'Esposito " told me last summer at Comic @-@ Con that there was a possibility this was going to become a series . And he said that if he was going to be involved , he wanted me to be involved , too . " In September 2014 , Lennertz officially signed on to compose for the series . Lennertz combined all the different style elements of the show in the music , such as mixing jazz and period elements , with orchestra and electronic elements . Lennertz said , the music is " always done from a sense of being sort of in control and savvy and clever , rather than just being strong or just having a superpower or sort of being so much further along than anybody else physically . Part of it was just trying to make it that she ’ s just smarter than everybody else . She ’ s got such command over so many of these situations , and that was the most important thing was to give her that personality . " A soundtrack album for the first season was released on iTunes on December 11 , 2015 , and the single " Whatcha Gonna Do ( It 's Up to You ) " from the second season was released on March 18 , 2016 .
= = = Marvel Cinematic Universe tie @-@ ins = = =
Because Carter originates from the films , Marvel Studios co @-@ presidents Feige and D 'Esposito " are very invested in this and they 've been really collaborative and very generous with their world " . Markus , talking about the series ' place in the greater architecture of the MCU , later said " you really only need to drop the tiniest bit of hint and its connected . You don ’ t have to go , " Howard Stark 's wearing the same pants that Tony wears ! " ... Everything is enhanced just by the knowledge that its all connected . " Butters said , " We always want to feel like you see us as a piece of [ the MCU ] . But because of our time period , we kind of are on our own a little bit . "
In July 2014 , Fazekas talked about how the series would relate to the One @-@ Shot , saying , " The short really is the basis for the series . [ Carter ] ' s working at SSR , post @-@ war ... If you think of the short as sort of the end of the series , the series would be leading up to that moment where she gets assigned to S.H.I.E.L.D. " Markus reiterated this in January 2015 , but added that " we all agree and understand that [ keeping continuity with the short is ] going to get tougher if we continue " making the series . The first season introduces the origins of the Black Widow and Winter Soldier programs , which both appear in several MCU films , while the second season shows the discovery of the Darkforce ( known as Zero Matter in the series ) , which previously appeared in Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. and has ties to Doctor Strange .
= = Release = =
= = = Broadcast = = =
Agent Carter airs on ABC in the United States , CTV in Canada , and TV2 in New Zealand . In October 2014 , Channel 4 , the channel that airs Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. in the United Kingdom , stated that they did not " have any current plans [ to air ] Agent Carter " . In June 2015 , FOX UK purchased the broadcast rights for the United Kingdom , with the series premiering on July 12 , 2015 . In February 2016 , the series was announced to air on 7flix in Australia .
= = = Home media = = =
The complete first season became available on Blu @-@ ray and DVD on September 18 , 2015 , as an Amazon.com exclusive .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
Maureen Ryan of Variety blamed both seasons ' low viewership on " the questionable scheduling decisions " made by then ABC president Paul Lee , saying that the series " has received lackluster promotion , especially [ for its second season ] . The botched rollout of season two included a changed premiere date and episodes that were difficult to access in advance on Marvel ’ s dreadful media site . Capping the mishandling is the fact that the full first season was only made available on ABC.com days before season two began , which frustrated viewers who might have wanted to jump on board in advance . "
= = = Critical response = = =
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 97 % approval rating with an average rating of 7 @.@ 9 / 10 based on 34 reviews for the first season . The website 's consensus reads , " Focusing on Peggy Carter as a person first and an action hero second makes Marvel 's Agent Carter a winning , stylish drama with bursts of excitement and an undercurrent of cheeky fun " . Metacritic , which uses a weighted average , assigned a score of 73 out of 100 based on 27 reviews , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . The second season scored an 80 % approval rating with an average score of 7 @.@ 9 / 10 based on 15 reviews . The website 's consensus reads , " A move from New York to Hollywood gives Agent Carter new territory to explore , as the series continues to search for a storyline as dynamic as its heroine " .
= = = Analysis = = =
Arguing for the renewal of the series for a third season following its low viewership , Ryan said that " letting the show die would be a serious mistake , for the network and for the bigger Disney @-@ ABC conglomerate ... These days , entertainment properties have to be viewed not just through the lens of their ratings ( admittedly weak for Agent Carter ) . They have to be evaluated within the context of the overall value they bring to any entertainment colossus , and what Agent Carter adds to Disney @-@ ABC is simply too valuable to give up ... [ bringing ] something different to the company 's superhero portfolio . " She suggested if ABC did not renew the series for broadcast , that it should explore other opportunities , such as debuting on its online Watch ABC app , or being sold to Netflix , where " fans of super @-@ heroic storytelling already flock to " and Agent Carter 's " status as a period piece — which may have harmed it on broadcast — could be a real draw for Netflix viewers " . Ryan also felt Marvel " could copy what CBS is doing with Star Trek " by creating a subscription service for a monthly fee , where consumers could access Marvel 's films and televisions shows " as well as premium exclusives like a third season of Agent Carter " . Ryan concluded , " A third Agent Carter season could help solidify Marvel 's standing not just with female fans , but with everyone who appreciates excellent and adventurous storytelling . "
When the series was canceled shortly after the release of Captain America : Civil War , in which Carter dies , Meagan Damore of Comic Book Resources felt that " for all intents and purposes " Carter had " effectively been phased out of the Marvel Cinematic Universe " , and the universe had subsequently lost " a wonderful role model and ... inspiration " to fans of the character and series . Damore lamented the fact that the second season 's cliffhanger ending had been left unresolved , and that viewers would never get the chance to see Carter 's " happy ending " , despite knowing she gets one , leaving the character 's " fate unfulfilled , languishing in the obscurity of ' what could have beens ' " . She also noted that Marvel had now lost " the opportunity to show several prominent MCU events , not the least of which is the founding of S.H.I.E.L.D. " , and added that despite making " leaps and bounds for women in the MCU , the same [ could not ] be said for people of color , " wishing the series had addressed Asian American women like Hazel Ying Lee , one of 38 Women Airforce Service Pilots who died in the line of duty , or Black women like Harriet Ida Pikens and Frances Wills , the first two Black members of the United States Naval Reserve .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Potential spin @-@ off podcast = =
In March 2015 , Butters stated that there had been discussions about creating a podcast with Thrilling Adventure Hour co @-@ creator and writer Ben Blacker , centered around the fictional Captain America Adventure Program radio show that is depicted during the series ' first season . Butters said that well @-@ received segments had not been part of the original pitch to Marvel , and noted that a second season renewal for the series would help the real world podcast 's chances . She stated that the potential episodes would be " little fifteen @-@ minute storylines " .
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= Deir al @-@ Balah =
Deir al @-@ Balah or Dayr al @-@ Balah ( Arabic : دير البلح translated Monastery of the Date Palm ) is a Palestinian city in the central Gaza Strip and the administrative capital of the Deir el @-@ Balah Governorate . It is located over 14 kilometers ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) south of Gaza City . The city had a population of 54 @,@ 439 in 2007 . The city is known for its date palms , after which it is named .
Deir al @-@ Balah dates back to the Late Bronze Age when it served as a fortified outpost for the New Kingdom of Egypt . A monastery was built there by the Christian monk Hilarion in the mid @-@ 4th @-@ century AD and is currently believed to be the site of a mosque dedicated to Saint George , known locally as al @-@ Khidr . During the Crusader @-@ Ayyubid wars , Deir al @-@ Balah was the site of a strategic coastal fortress known as " Darum " which was continuously contested , dismantled and rebuilt by both sides until its final demolition in 1196 . Afterward , the site grew to become a large village on the postal route of the Mamluk Sultanate ( 13th @-@ 15th centuries ) . It served as an episcopal see of the Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem in Ottoman times until the late 19th @-@ century .
Under Egyptian control Deir al @-@ Balah , whose population tripled through the influx of refugees from the 1948 Arab @-@ Israeli War , was a prosperous agricultural town until its capture by Israel in the Six @-@ Day War . After 27 years of Israeli occupation , Deir al @-@ Balah became the first city to come under Palestinian self @-@ rule in 1994 . Since the outbreak of the Second Intifada in 2000 , it has witnessed frequent incursions by the Israeli Army with the stated aim of stopping Qassam rocket fire into Israel . Ahmad Kurd , a Hamas member , was elected mayor in late January 2005 .
= = Etymology = =
" Deir al @-@ Balah , " which in Arabic translates as the " Monastery of the Date Palm , " was named after the grove of date palms that lied to the west of the city . Its name dates back to the late 19th @-@ century , before which the city was locally known as " Deir Mar Jiryis " or " Deir al @-@ Khidr " and " Deir Darum " in Ottoman records . " Mar Jiryis " translates as " Saint George " while in Islamic tradition al @-@ Khidr could either refer to Saint George or Elijah . The inhabitants of Deir al @-@ Balah associated al @-@ Khidr with Saint George . The town had been named after al @-@ Khidr , the most venerated saintly person throughout Palestine . The mosque in Deir al @-@ Balah which bears his name is traditionally believed by locals to contain his tomb .
Up until the later Ottoman era , Deir al @-@ Balah was referred to in Arabic as " Darum " or " Darun " which derived from the settlement 's Crusader @-@ era Latin name " Darom " or " Doron . " That name was explained by the Crusader chronicler William of Tyre as a corruption of domus Graecorum , " house of the Greeks " ( dar ar @-@ rum ) . More recently , the eighteenth century scholar Albert Schultens supposed its roots are the Ancient Hebrew name " Darom " or " Droma " , from the Hebrew root for " south " , which referred to the area south of Lydda , i.e. the southern parts of the coastal plain and Judean foothills together with the northern Negev Desert . During early Arab rule , " ad @-@ Darum " or " ad @-@ Dairan " was the name of the southern subdistrict of Bayt Jibrin .
= = History = =
= = = Ancient period = = =
Deir al @-@ Balah 's history dates back to the mid @-@ 14th @-@ century BC , during the Late Bronze Age . At that time it served as an outpost in the New Kingdom of Egypt on its frontier with Canaan . During the reign of King Ramesses II ( 1303 – 1213 BC ) , Deir al @-@ Balah became the easternmost of six garrisoned fortresses in the Eastern Mediterranean . The string of fortresses began with the Sinai fort in the west , and continued through the " Way of Horus " military road to Canaan . The square @-@ shaped fortress of Deir al @-@ Balah had four towers at each corner and a reservoir . Archaeological findings in Deir al @-@ Balah revealed a large ancient Egyptian cemetery with graves containing jewelry and other personal belongings . The inhabitants of the fortress employed traditional Egyptian techniques and artistic designs in their architectural works . The cosmopolitan aspect of the frontier site is proven by the rich Cypriot , Mycenaean and Minoan findings .
Deir al @-@ Balah remained in Egyptian hands until around 1150 BC when the Philistines conquered the southern coastal area of Canaan . The Philistine settlement is thought to have been situated southwest of the excavation site ; its remains are hidden under large sand dunes . Five pits dug into the Late Bronze Age layers and containing Philistine pottery are among the few findings from that period .
The archaeological excavations at the Egyptian @-@ period site were executed between 1972 and 1982 , during Israel 's occupation , and headed by Trude Dothan . After the conclusion of the excavations the area was used for farming purposes and is now covered by vegetable gardens and fruit orchards while the main findings can be seen in Israeli museums like the Israel Museum in Jerusalem and the Hecht Museum in Haifa .
= = = Byzantine period = = =
During Byzantine rule , the first hermitage in Palestine was established by the early Christian monk Hilarion at the site of modern @-@ day Deir al @-@ Balah . Hilarion initially built a small hut there , but during the reign of Constantius II ( 337 – 361 ) he set up the hermitage . Towards the end of his life , the monastery grew and began to attract numerous visitors . Hilarion resided at the monastery for a total of 22 years until his departure for Cyprus where he died in 371 AD . The hermitage was divided into several small cells constructed of mud brick and palm tree branches . According to local tradition and observations from Western travelers in the 19th @-@ century , the prayer hall of the Monastery of Hilarion is currently occupied by the Mosque of al @-@ Khidr . French explorer Victor Guérin noted that two marble columns in the mosque were possibly parts of the Byzantine @-@ era monastery .
= = = Early Islamic period = = =
In 632 , during the early period of Islamic rule in Arabia , the Muslim commander Usama ibn Zayd launched a raid against Byzantine @-@ held Darum , which referred not to Deir al @-@ Balah specifically , but to the area south of Lydda which included modern @-@ day Deir al @-@ Balah . The site was one of the first places in Palestine to be annexed by the Rashidun Caliphate following the conquest of Gaza by Amr ibn al- ' As in 634 . Throughout early Muslim Arab rule and until the arrival of the Crusaders in the late 11th @-@ century , " Darum " normally referred to the southern district of Jund Filastin whose capital fluctuated between the towns of Bayt Jibrin or Hebron .
The Fatimid caliph al @-@ Aziz Billah ( r . 975 @-@ 996 ) granted his favored vizier , Yaqub ibn Killis , a fief in modern @-@ day Deir al @-@ Balah , as testified by an inscription dating to the 980s located in the city 's al @-@ Khidr Mosque . The fief included a large estate with date palms .
= = = Crusader and Ayyubid rule = = =
Deir al @-@ Balah was built on the ruins of the Crusader fort of Darom ( also referred to as " Doron " ) which was built by King Amalric I. The exact date of the fort 's construction is unknown , although it was likely erected after 1153 following Amalric 's capture of Ascalon to the north from the Fatimid Caliphate . As described by William of Tyre , the fort was small , tantum spatium intra se continens quantum est jactus lapidis ( containing inside as much space as a stone 's throw ) and square @-@ shaped with four towers , one of which was larger than the others . Amalric used Darom as a launching point for several unsuccessful military campaigns against Fatimid Egypt . In addition to its role as a frontier fort on the border of Egypt , Darom also served as an administrative center charged with collecting taxes from the southern areas of the kingdom and customs from caravans and travelers coming from Egypt . It was deemed a permanent threat by the rulers of Egypt .
Not long after its construction , a small suburb or village with a church was established by local farmers and traders just outside the fort . According to medieval chronicler William of Tyre , " it was a pleasant spot where conditions of life for people of the lower ranks were better than in cities " . The population of the village consisted of indigenous Eastern Orthodox Christians allied to and protected by the Crusader administration and garrison based in the fort . The inhabitants were considered lower @-@ class , but integral members of society by the Crusaders of European or mixed descent . Because Darom was absent of Greek bishops , in 1168 Pope Alexander III gave the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem direct jurisdiction over the dioceses , putting the largely Greek Orthodox inhabitants under the authority of the Catholic Church .
Following Amalric 's withdrawal from his fifth offensive against Egypt in 1170 , Muslim general Saladin , fighting on behalf of the Fatimids , attacked and besieged the fortress as part of his foray into the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem . Despite initial gains , Darom was not captured or destroyed . It later became a stronghold of the Knights Templar and the Knights Hospitaller from Jerusalem , led by King Baldwin III . After the Muslim army defeated the Crusaders in the decisive Battle of Hattin in 1187 , their leader Saladin , by then the independent sultan of the Ayyubid dynasty , advanced south and captured both Ascalon and Darom by 1188 . His first order was the fort 's demolition , but he later decided against destroying it . Instead , the fortress was substantially expanded and strengthened . " Darum " , which is what the Muslims called the fortress village , was encased by a wall with 17 strong towers protected by a deep moat with stone @-@ paved sides . It hosted a garrison commanded by the emir ( commander ) Alam ad @-@ Din Qaysar and served as a store for supplies and ammunition .
The Crusaders recaptured the fortress on 24 May 1191 after a short siege commanded by King Richard the Lionheart . Authority over Darum was assigned to Count Henry I of Champagne , but Richard later had the fortress demolished in July 1193 prior to withdrawing his forces from Ascalon . The Ayyubids rebuilt the fortress soon after in order to use it as a bridgehead to reconquer territories lost in Palestine during the Third Crusade . Nonetheless , in 1196 , Sultan al @-@ Aziz Uthmanbdecided to have it demolished in case of its capture by the Crusaders . According to 15th @-@ century historian al @-@ Maqrizi , this decision resulted in public resentment since travelers and merchants had significantly benefited from the fort 's protection . In 1226 , Syrian geographer Yaqut al @-@ Hamawi visited Darum and noted it was one of the cities of Lot and contained a ruined castle .
= = = Mamluk rule = = =
Following its demolition , it is not known how long Darum remained deserted , but it was eventually resettled during Mamluk rule which began in 1250 . For much of the Mamluk era , the town came under the administration of the politically important Niyabah of Gaza ( Province of Gaza ) , part of the larger Mamlaka of Damascus ( Kingdom of Damascus . ) Along with Karatiyya and Beit Jibrin , Darum was an amal ( district ) of the Province of Gaza with its own wali ( governor ) .
It became a halting post along the newly introduced regular mail routes connecting Damascus and Cairo , which were run by horse @-@ mounted messengers with colored sashes . Syrian historian Ibn Fadlallah al @-@ Umari did not mention Darum in his list of the route 's stopping points in 1349 , instead noting that al @-@ Salqah was the only post between Rafah and Gaza , suggesting that Darum was not a major settlement at the time . However , 14th @-@ century Egyptian historian Ahmad al @-@ Qalqashandi counters al @-@ Umari 's account , writing that Darum was the last halting post before Gaza . Roads , bridges , postal stations and a khan ( caravanserai ) were built in the town to accommodate the messengers . Pigeon mail service was introduced for which towers were built . Produce available in Darum during this time period included barley , wheat , grapes and grape leaves , olives , raspberries , lemons , figs , sweet melons , pomegranates and dates . Surrounding the town were the encampments of the Batn Jarm , an Arab clan that also lived around Gaza .
= = = Ottoman era = = =
Sometime prior to the Ottoman conquest of Palestine in 1516 or in the beginning years of Ottoman rule , Darum gained the additional name of " Deir " as in " Deir Darum " after its Byzantine @-@ era monastery . The village continued to thrive during the early Ottoman era in Palestine which is attributed to the urban infrastructure originally established by the Crusaders . Its continued importance also stemmed from its close proximity to Gaza and its position on the former Via Maris trade route . The first Ottoman tax census in 1525 revealed Deir al @-@ Balah was a relatively large village with a religiously mixed population of 87 Christian families and 56 Muslim families . In 1596 it was part of Gaza Sanjak ( District of Gaza ) and had a Muslim majority with 175 Muslim families and 125 Christian families . With an estimated population of 1 @,@ 500 , it was one of eight villages at the time to have between 1 @,@ 000 and 2 @,@ 000 inhabitants . Annual tax revenue from the town amounted to 17 @,@ 300 akces . Pierre Jacotin named the village Deir K Helleh on his map from 1799 .
A substantial part of Deir al @-@ Balah 's inhabitants died in 1862 because of stagnant drinking water originating from the town 's swamps . The swamps were seasonal , forming each winter as a result of flooding which failed to breach the sandstone ridge . A year later , on 29 May 1863 , French explorer Victor Guérin wrote that Deir al @-@ Balah was a small , partly ruined village with a population of 350 . Date farming was the principal economic activity that the inhabitants engaged in . In 1878 , the Palestine Exploration Fund 's Survey of Western Palestine noted Deir al @-@ Balah had grown to become a large village of mud houses " with wells and a small tower " . At the time , it served as a see of the Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem .
= = = Modern era = = =
Deir al @-@ Balah was captured by the British Army following the surrender of Khan Yunis on 28 February 1917 . By April an aerodrome and an army camp were established there and Deir al @-@ Balah became a launching point for British forces against Ottoman @-@ held Gaza and Beersheba to the north and northeast , respectively . Of the 25 British war cemeteries dating from World War I , one of the six largest was built in Deir al @-@ Balah in March 1917 . It continued to be used until March 1918 and contains a total of 724 graves . Deir al @-@ Balah became a part of the British Mandate of Palestine starting in 1922 . A municipal council to administer the town was established by the British authorities in 1946 , but it had limited jurisdiction over civil affairs and provided a few basic services .
In 1945 Deir al @-@ Balah had a population of 2 @,@ 560 , all Arabs , with 14 @,@ 735 dunams of land , according to an official land and population survey . Of this , 327 dunams were for citrus and bananas , 472 plantations and irrigable land , 14 @,@ 438 used for cereals , while 39 dunams were built @-@ up land . In the lead @-@ up to the 1948 Arab @-@ Israeli War , residents of Deir al @-@ Balah participated in a local attack against the nearby kibbutz of Kfar Darom , despite being discouraged by Egyptian Army officers , but they were repelled and suffered casualties . During the war , Egypt captured the town along with other towns in an area that became known as the Gaza Strip . The Egyptians later established a sharia court system that held jurisdiction over personal affairs . Egyptian rule introduced relative prosperity to Deir al @-@ Balah . The town witnessed a booming citrus industry made possible by the discovery of a substantial reservoir of ground water in the vicinity .
During the Six @-@ Day War in June 1967 , Deir al @-@ Balah 's mayor Sulaiman al @-@ Azayiza briefly led local resistance against the incoming Israeli Army until formally surrendering the city shortly thereafter . The Israeli authorities took control of the springs , an important irrigation source . This move combined with increasing competition from Israeli citrus farmers , damaged the local citrus industry . In 1982 the mayor was dismissed and the municipal council of Deir al @-@ Balah was disbanded and replaced by an Israeli military @-@ appointed administration . During the course of the Israeli occupation , Deir al @-@ Balah 's urban areas extended into lands designated for agriculture , largely as a result of building restrictions which hindered organized expansion .
When the First Intifada broke out in 1987 , Deir al @-@ Balah 's residents participated in the uprising against Israeli rule . Around 30 residents were killed during the uprising , which formally ended in 1993 with the Oslo Accords between the Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO ) and Israel . In 1994 Deir al @-@ Balah was the first city to officially come under the control of the Palestinian National Authority as a result of the Gaza – Jericho Agreement .
The city has been frequently targeted in Israeli military incursions since the Second Intifada in 2000 , in part due to Qassam rocket @-@ strikes by Palestinian militants . The areas surrounding the city have also been frequent targets of razing . On 4 January 2004 , Israeli authorities bulldozed around 50 dunams ( 5 hectares ) of land in the Abu al @-@ Ajen area east of Deir al @-@ Balah 's center . Later on 7 January , the Applied Research Institute @-@ Jerusalem ( ARIJ ) reported that " Israeli bulldozers staged into al @-@ Hikr area south of Deir el @-@ Balah city under heavy barrage of gunfire and razed 70 dunams ( 7 hectares ) of land planted with guava and orange groves owned by the Abu Holy and Abu Reziq families . "
During factional clashes across the Gaza Strip in June 2007 which ended with Hamas gaining control over that territory , at least four paramilitaries from Hamas and Fatah were killed in Deir al @-@ Balah . On 2 January 2009 , Deir al @-@ Balah was shelled by the Israeli Army as part of its month @-@ long offensive Operation Cast Lead .
= = Geography = =
Deir al @-@ Balah is situated in the central Gaza Strip , along the coastline of the eastern Mediterranean Sea . Its city center is about 1 @,@ 700 meters ( 5 @,@ 600 ft ) east of the coast while the ancient site of Darum was uncovered 3 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) to the south of central Deir al @-@ Balah . While the city 's municipal borders stretch eastward toward the border with Israel , its urban area does not extend beyond the main Salah al @-@ Din Highway to the east .
Nearby localities include Nuseirat Camp and Bureij Camp to the north , Maghazi Camp to the northeast and Wadi as @-@ Salqa to the south . Khan Yunis is 9 @.@ 7 kilometers ( 6 @.@ 0 mi ) to Deir al @-@ Balah 's south and Gaza City is located 14 @.@ 6 kilometers ( 9 @.@ 1 mi ) to the north .
The city has absorbed the coastal Deir al @-@ Balah Refugee Camp , although it remains outside of Deir al @-@ Balah 's municipal administration . While the total land area was recorded as 14 @,@ 735 dunams ( 14 @.@ 7 km ² or 1 @,@ 473 @.@ 5 hectares ) in 1997 , the total built @-@ up areas of the city consist of between 7 @,@ 000 and 8 @,@ 000 dunams ( 7 – 8 km ² or 700 @-@ 800 hectares . ) Deir al @-@ Balah is divided into 29 administrative areas .
= = Archaeology = =
White marble pillar shafts were built into the walls of some houses in old Deir al @-@ Balah . They resembled the medieval @-@ era pillars in the Temple Mount ( " Haram ash @-@ Sharif " ) in Jerusalem .
= = = Mosque of al @-@ Khidr = = =
The Mosque of al @-@ Khidr ( also called " Maqam al @-@ Khader " ) is 24 @.@ 3 feet ( 7 @.@ 4 m ) by 53 @.@ 4 feet ( 16 @.@ 3 m ) and was built on the site of a Byzantine monastery . The northern and southern walls were buttressed and the eastern wall has three apses . The Survey of Western Palestine related in 1875 that there were Greek inscriptions on one of the steps leading to the door at the southern wall while on the floor was a broken stone slab marked by two Maltese crosses , apparently resembling a tombstone . Further slabs and Greek inscriptions were found in the eastern part of the mosque and in the courtyard . In the center is a tomb made of modern masonry that tradition claims is the tomb of Saint George ( " Mar Jirjis " ) or al @-@ Khidr , as he is known in Arabic .
Prior to the predominance of orthodox Islam in Palestine , the region contained numerous domed structures dedicated to Muslim patron saints , among which was the Mosque of al @-@ Khidr in Deir al @-@ Balah . In March 2016 , the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities in the Gaza Strip began the restoration of the Mosque of al @-@ Khidr with financial support from UNESCO and the Nawa Foundation . The project aims to convert the mosque @-@ tomb into a children 's cultural library .
= = Demographics = =
With a population of 2 @,@ 560 in 1945 , Deir al @-@ Balah was a relatively large village . The influx of Palestinian refugees from nearby areas captured by Israel during the 1948 War drastically increased the population thereafter . In the 1997 census by the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics ( PCBS ) Deir al @-@ Balah 's population was recorded as 42 @,@ 839 , a figure which included the adjacent Deir al @-@ Balah Camp ( the smallest refugee camp in the Gaza Strip . ) Nearly 75 % of the population were below the age of 30 .
In 2004 the PCBS estimated the population to be 46 @,@ 159 . In the 2007 census by the PCBS , the population of Deir al @-@ Balah city alone was 54 @,@ 439 , making it the largest municipality in the Deir al @-@ Balah Governorate . The camp 's population was 6 @,@ 438 . However , Nuseirat combined with its refugee camp has a larger population than Deir al @-@ Balah combined with its camp . There were a total of 8 @,@ 395 households and the average family size consisted of between six and seven members . The gender distribution in the city was 50 @.@ 3 % male and 49 @.@ 7 % female .
Deir al @-@ Balah 's entire population is Muslim . A sizable Greek Orthodox Christian population existed until the mid @-@ 19th @-@ century . In the 1931 British census of Palestine , there were only 10 Christians in Deir al @-@ Balah out of a population of 1 @,@ 587 . Today , refugees make up the majority of the population , accounting for over 66 % of the city 's inhabitants in 1997 . However , this figure also included the Deir al @-@ Balah Camp .
= = Economy = =
The Deir al @-@ Balah Governorate 's principal economic activity is services , accounting for 67 @.@ 4 % of the labor force . Commerce , hospitality and retail account for 12 @.@ 9 % , agriculture and fishing 10 @.@ 1 % , transportation and communication 5 @.@ 4 % and manufacturing 3 @.@ 4 % . In 2009 the unemployment rate in the governorate was 35 @.@ 2 % while the labor force participation rate was 38 @.@ 7 % . In 2007 there were 1 @,@ 108 business establishments in the city .
= = = Agriculture and fishing = = =
Deir al @-@ Balah is well known for growing date palms , an estimated 20 @,@ 000 of which covered the landscape south and west of the city in the 1990s . However , some 3 @,@ 550 trees were uprooted or bulldozed by the Israeli Army in the early years of the Second Intifada beginning in 2000 . There were an estimated 16 @,@ 500 palms in Deir al @-@ Balah in 2003 . In addition to being a local delicacy , date cultivation constitutes one of the principal sources of income for many of Deir al @-@ Balah 's residents . The particular type of date that is cultivated in the area is known as " Hayani . " It has a distinctly red color . Other leading agricultural products cultivated in Deir al @-@ Balah include citrus , almonds , pomegranates and grapes .
The city has a small fishing industry and is the site of one of four wharfs in the Gaza Strip . In 2007 there were about 76 active fishing vessels employed by 550 fishermen . From 2000 to 2006 , during the Second Intifada , income from fishing was halved . In order to alleviate losses resulting from a 10 kilometers ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) fishing limit off the coast imposed by the Israeli Navy following Hamas 's victory in the 2006 parliamentary elections , the Palestinian Authority Department of Fisheries has sought to construct eight artificial reefs in both Deir al @-@ Balah and Gaza City .
= = Education = =
According to the 1997 PCBS census , 87 @.@ 7 % of residents in Deir al @-@ Balah over the age of 10 were literate . The number of people who finished elementary education was 5 @,@ 740 , while 5 @,@ 964 finished primary education and 5 @,@ 289 completed secondary school . In higher education , 1 @,@ 763 people attained associate degrees , 1 @,@ 336 attained bachelor 's degrees and 97 attained higher degrees .
Educational services in Deir al @-@ Balah are under the jurisdiction of the Khan Yunis Directorate of Higher Education . There were a total of 85 schools in the Deir al @-@ Balah Governorate in 2007 @-@ 08 according to the PNA 's Ministry of Education and Higher Education . The Palestinian government operated 39 school while four were privately owned . The remainder were run by UNRWA and were mostly located in refugee camps in Deir al @-@ Balah 's vicinity . The total number of students in the governorate was 67 @,@ 693 , of which 50 @.@ 3 % were male 49 @.@ 7 % female .
The Palestine Technical College , a vocational and technical college founded in 1992 , is located in Deir al @-@ Balah . A library was added to the campus in 1998 .
= = Government = =
Deir al @-@ Balah 's first village council was established in 1946 and an elected local government continued to administer the city until 1982 when the Israeli military authorities dissolved the council and appointed a mayor . In 1994 Deir al @-@ Balah gained the status of a city by the Palestinian Authority ( PNA ) . The Palestinian president , Yasser Arafat , appointed Samir Mohammed Azayiza as mayor until 2000 when he replaced him with Sami Abu Salim , a wealthy businessman from the city . The services and functions of the municipality include city planning , infrastructure maintenance and repair , providing utilities , school administration and garbage collection .
A 15 @-@ member municipal council currently administers Deir al @-@ Balah . Although thought to be a stronghold of Fatah , Hamas members defeated Fatah 's candidates in the 2005 Palestinian municipal elections by a large margin , taking 13 seats . Despite their political affiliations , all candidates ran as Independents . Two female candidates also gained seats . Local sheikh , school operator and Hamas member Ahmad Harb Kurd garnered the most votes making him the current head of the municipality .
= = = Mayors = = =
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= Field lacrosse =
Field lacrosse is a full contact outdoor men 's sport played with ten players on each team . The sport originated among Native Americans , and the modern rules of field lacrosse were initially codified by Canadian William George Beers in 1867 . Field lacrosse is one of three major versions of lacrosse played internationally . The other versions , women 's lacrosse ( established in the 1890s ) and box lacrosse ( which originated in the 1930s ) , are played under significantly different rules .
The object of the game is to use a long handled racket , known as a lacrosse stick or crosse , to catch , carry , and pass a solid rubber ball in an effort to score by ultimately hurling the ball into an opponent 's goal . The triangular head of the lacrosse stick has a loose net strung into it that allows the player to hold the lacrosse ball . In addition to the lacrosse stick , players are required to wear a certain amount of protective equipment . Defensively the object is to keep the opposing team from scoring and to dispossess them of the ball through the use of stick checking and body contact . The rules limit the number of players in each part of the field and require the ball to be moved continuously towards the opposing goal . It is sometimes referred to as the " fastest sport on two feet " .
Lacrosse is governed internationally by the 52 @-@ member Federation of International Lacrosse , which sponsors the World Lacrosse Championships once every four years . A former Olympic sport , attempts by the international governing body to reinstate it to the Games have been hampered by insufficient international participation and by the existence of separate governing bodies for the men 's and women 's versions of the sport until 2008 . Field lacrosse is played professionally in North America by Major League Lacrosse . It is also played on a high amateur level by the National Collegiate Athletic Association in the United States , the Australian Senior Lacrosse Championship series , and the Canadian University Field Lacrosse Association .
= = History = =
Known as the " fastest sport on two feet " , lacrosse is a traditional Native American game . According to Native American beliefs , playing lacrosse is a spiritual act used for healing and giving thanks to the " Creator " . They would also play the game to resolve minor conflicts between tribes that were not worth going to war for , thus the name " little brother of war " . These games could last several days and as many as 100 to 1 @,@ 000 men from opposing villages or tribes played on open plains , between goals ranging from 500 yards ( 460 m ) to several miles apart .
The first Europeans to observe it were French Jesuit missionaries in the St. Lawrence Valley , in the 1630s . The name " lacrosse " comes from their reports , which described the players ' sticks as like a bishop 's crosier — la crosse in French . The Native American tribes used various names : in the Onondaga language it was called dehuntshigwa 'es ( " they bump hips " or " men hit a rounded object " ) ; da @-@ nah @-@ wah 'uwsdi ( " little war " ) to the Eastern Cherokee ; in Mohawk , tewaarathon ( " little brother of war " ) ; and baggataway in Ojibwe . Variations in the game were not limited to the name . In the Great Lakes region , players used an entirely wooden stick , while the Iroquois stick was longer and was laced with string , and the Southeastern tribes played with two shorter sticks , one in each hand .
In 1867 , Montreal Lacrosse Club member William George Beers codified the modern game . He established the Canadian National Lacrosse Association and created the first written rules for the game , Lacrosse : The National Game of Canada . The book specified field layout , lacrosse ball dimensions , lacrosse stick length , number of players , and number of goals required to determine the match winner .
Women 's lacrosse , a non @-@ contact version of the sport originating in Scotland during the 1890s , is played by twelve players per side , on longer fields and with less protective equipment than the men 's game requires . In the 1930s Canadian businessmen established a version called box lacrosse to create business for ice hockey arenas during the summer months . Box lacrosse is played indoors , with smaller nets , between two teams of six players , and strongly resembles the game its areas were designed for .
= = Rules = =
Field lacrosse involves two teams , each competing to shoot a lacrosse ball into the opposing team 's goal . A lacrosse ball is made out of solid rubber , measuring 7 @.@ 75 to 8 inches ( 19 @.@ 7 – 20 cm ) in circumference and weighing 5 to 5 @.@ 25 ounces ( 140 – 149 g ) . Each team plays with ten players on the field : a goalkeeper ; three defenders in the defensive end ; three midfielders free to roam the whole field ; and three attackers attempting to score goals in the offensive end . Players are required to wear some protective equipment , and must carry a lacrosse stick ( or crosse ) that meets specifications . Rules dictate the length of the game , boundaries , and allowable activity . Penalties are assessed by officials for any transgression of the rules .
The game has undergone significant changes since Beers ' original codification . In the 1930s , the number of players on the field per team was reduced from twelve to ten , rules about protective equipment were established , and the field was shortened .
= = = Playing area = = =
A standard lacrosse field is 110 yards ( 100 m ) in length from each endline , and 60 yards ( 55 m ) in width from the sidelines .
Field lacrosse goals are centered between each sideline , positioned 15 yards ( 14 m ) from each endline and 80 yards ( 73 m ) apart from one another . Positioning the goals well within the endlines allows play to occur behind them . The goal is 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) wide by 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) tall , with nets attached in a pyramid shape . Surrounding each goal is a circular area known as the " crease , " measuring 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) in diameter .
If a player enters the " crease " while shooting toward the goal , the referee will call a foul and the ball gets turned over to the other team .
A pair of lines , 20 yards ( 18 m ) from both the midfield line and each goal line , divides the field into three sections . From each team 's point of view , the one nearest its own goal is its defensive area , then the midfield area , followed by the attack or offensive area . These trisecting lines are called " restraining lines . " A right angle line is marked 10 yards ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) from each sideline connecting each endline to the nearer restraining line , creating the " restraining box . " If an official deems that a team is " stalling , " that is not moving with offensive purpose while controlling the ball , the possessing team must keep the ball within the offensive restraining box to avoid a loss @-@ of @-@ possession penalty .
Field markings dictate player positioning during a face @-@ off . A face @-@ off is how play is started at the beginning of each quarter and after each goal . During a face @-@ off , there are six players ( without considering goalkeepers ) in each of the areas defined by the restraining lines . Three midfielders from each team occupy the midfield area , while three attackmen and three of the opposing team 's defensemen occupy each offensive area . These players must stay in these areas until possession is earned by a midfielder or the ball crosses either restraining line . Wing areas are marked on the field on the midfield line 10 yards ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) from each sideline . This line indicates where the two nonface @-@ off midfielders per team lineup during a face @-@ off situation . These players may position themselves on either side of the midfield line . During a face @-@ off , two players lay their sticks horizontally next to the ball , head of the stick inches from the ball and the butt @-@ end pointing down the midfield line . Once the official blows the whistle to start play , the face @-@ off midfielders scrap for the ball to earn possession and the other midfielders advance to play the ball . If possession is won by the face @-@ off player , he may move the ball himself or pass to a teammate .
The rules also require that substitution areas , a penalty box , coaches area , and team bench areas be designated on the field .
= = = Equipment = = =
A field lacrosse player 's equipment includes a lacrosse stick , and protective equipment , including a lacrosse helmet with face mask , lacrosse gloves , and arm and shoulder pads . Players are also required to wear mouthguards and athletic supporter with cup pocket and protective cup .
Each player carries a lacrosse stick measuring 40 to 42 inches ( 1 @.@ 0 – 1 @.@ 1 m ) long ( a " short crosse " ) , or 52 to 72 inches ( 1 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 8 m ) long ( a " long crosse " ) . In most modern circles the word crosse has been replaced by stick and the terms short stick and long stick or pole are used . The term crosse is still used is in the rulebook and in reference to a " crosse check " ( a check where one 's hands are spread on the crosse and the checker extends his arms into the checkee ) . On each team up to four players at a time may use a long crosse : the three defensemen and one midfielder . The crosse is made up of the head and the shaft ( or handle ) . The head is roughly triangular in shape and is loosely strung with mesh or leathers and nylon strings to form a " pocket " that allows the ball to be caught , carried , and thrown . In field lacrosse , the pocket of the crosse is illegal if the top of the ball , when placed in the head of the stick , is below the bottom of the stick 's sidewall . The head of a crosse may be 10 inches ( 25 cm ) in length . The maximum width of the head across the top is 4 to 10 inches ( 10 – 25 cm ) , for international competition , or 6 @.@ 5 to 10 inches ( 17 – 25 cm ) according to NCAA regulations . The NCAA instituted stricter specifications to ensure the " safety and integrity of the game . " As the shape of the crosse evolved , dislodging the ball from an opponent 's crosse became more difficult , and defenders used an increased amount of force when checking . The rule change was intended to reduce injuries , as defenders would need less forceful checks in order to dispossess opponents . Beginning January 1 , 2010 , measurements for the crosse shall include the following , in addition to current specifications :
From the 1 @.@ 25 @-@ inch measurement to the top of the crosse , the distance between the sidewalls of the crosse must be at least 3 inches .
Most modern sticks have a tubular metal shaft , usually made of aluminum , titanium , or alloys , while the head is made of hard plastic . Metal shafts must have a plastic or rubber cap at the end . The heads are strung with string , leather , and mesh . The strings in the pocket are called shooting , accuracy , or " v " strings .
The sport 's growth has been hindered by the cost of a player 's equipment : a uniform , helmet , shoulder pads , hand protection , and lacrosse sticks . Many players have at least two lacrosse sticks prepared for use in any contest . Traditionally players used sticks made by Native American craftsman . These were expensive and , at times , difficult to find . The introduction of the plastic heads in the 1970s gave players an alternative to the wooden stick , and their mass production has led to greater accessibility and expansion of the sport .
= = = Players = = =
= = = = Goalkeeper = = = =
The goalkeeper 's responsibility is to prevent the opposition from scoring by directly defending the 6 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) by 6 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) goal . A goalkeeper needs to stop shots that are capable of reaching over 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) , and is responsible for directing the team 's defense .
Goalkeepers have special privileges when they are in the crease , a circular area surrounding each goal with a radius of 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) . Offensive players may not play the ball or make contact with the goalkeeper while he is in the crease . Once a goalkeeper leaves the crease , he loses these privileges .
A goalkeeper 's equipment differs from other players ' . Instead of shoulder pads and elbow pads , the goalkeeper wears a chest protector . He also wears special " goalie gloves " that have extra padding on the thumb to protect from shots . The head of a goalkeeper 's crosse may measure up to 15 inches ( 38 cm ) wide , significantly larger than field players ' .
= = = = Defensemen = = = =
A defensemen is a player position whose responsibility is to assist the goalkeeper in preventing the opposing team from scoring . Each team fields three defensemen . These players generally remain on the defensive half of the field . Unless the defensemen gets the ball and chooses to run up the field and try to score or pass , by doing this they will need to cross the midfield line and signal one midfielder to stay back . A defensemen carries a long crosse which provides an advantage in reach for intercepting passes and checking .
Tactics used by a defensemen include body positioning and checking . Checking is attempting to dispossess the opposition of the ball through body or stick contact . A check may include a " poke check " , where a defensemen thrusts his crosse at the top hand or crosse of the opponent in possession of the ball ( similar to a billiards shot ) , or a " slap check " , where a player applies a short , two @-@ handed slap to the hand or crosse of the opponent in possession of the ball . A " body check " is allowed as long as the ball is in possession or a loose ball is within five yards of the opposing player and the contact is made to the front or side of the torso of the opposing player . Defensemen preferably remain in a position relative to their offensive counterpart known as " topside " , which generally means a stick and body position that forces a ball carrier to go another direction , usually away from the goal .
= = = = Midfielders = = = =
Midfielders contribute offensively and defensively and may roam the entire playing area . Each team fields three midfielders at a time . One midfielder per team may use a long crosse , and in this case is referred to as a " long @-@ stick midfielder . " Long @-@ stick midfielders are normally used for defensive possessions and face @-@ offs but can participate in offense as long as he is not subbed off .
Over time , the midfield position has developed into a position of specialties . During play , teams may substitute players in and out freely , a practice known as " on the fly " substitution . The rules state that substitution must occur within the designated exchange area in front of the players ' bench . Teams frequently rotate the midfielder specialists off and on the field depending on the ball possession . Some teams have a designated face @-@ off midfielder , referred to as a " fogo " midfielder ( an acronym for " face @-@ off and get @-@ off " ) , who takes the majority of face @-@ offs and is quickly substituted after the face @-@ off . Some teams also designate midfielders as " offensive midfielders " or " defensive midfielders " depending on their strengths and weaknesses .
= = = = Attackman = = = =
Each team fields three attackmen at a time , and these players generally remain on the offensive half of the field .
= = = Duration and tie @-@ breaking methods = = =
Duration of games depends upon the level of play . In international competition , college lacrosse , and Major League Lacrosse , the total playing time is 60 minutes , composed of four 15 @-@ minute quarters . High school games typically consist of four 12 @-@ minute quarters but can be played in 30 @-@ minute halves , while youth leagues may have shorter games . The clock typically stops during all dead ball situations such as between goals or if the ball goes out of bounds . The method of breaking a tie generally consists of multiple overtime periods of 5 minutes ( 4 in NCAA play ) in which whoever scores a goal is awarded a sudden victory . A quicker variant of the sudden victory is the Braveheart method in which each team sends out one player and one goalie ; it is then sudden victory . International lacrosse plays two straight 5 @-@ minute overtime periods , and then applies the sudden victory rule if the score is still tied .
= = = Ball movement and out of play = = =
Teams must advance the ball or be subjected to loss of possession . Once a team gains possession of the ball in their defensive area , they must move the ball over the midfield line within 20 seconds . If the goalkeeper has possession of the ball in the crease he must pass the ball or vacate the area within four seconds . Failure by the goalkeeper to leave the crease will result in the opposite team being given possession just outside the restraining box . Once the ball crosses the midfield line , a team has 10 seconds to move the ball into the offensive area designated by the restraining box or forfeit possession to their opponents . The term used to define moving the ball from the defensive to offensive area is to " clear " the ball . Offensive players are responsible for " riding " opponents , in other words attempting to deny the opposition a free " clear " of the ball over the midfield line .
If a ball travels outside of the playing area , play is restarted by possession being awarded to the opponents of the team which last touched the ball , unless the ball goes out of bounds due to a shot or a deflected shot . In that case , possession is awarded to the player that is closest to the ball when it leaves the playing area .
= = = Penalties = = =
For most fouls , the offending player is sent to the penalty box and his team has to play without him and with one fewer player for a short amount of time . Penalties are classified as either personal fouls or technical fouls . Personal fouls are of a more serious nature and are generally penalised with a 1 @-@ minute suspension . Technical fouls are violations of the rules that are not as serious as personal fouls , and are penalised for 30 seconds or a loss of possession . Occasionally a longer penalty may be assessed for more severe infractions . Players penalised for 6 personal fouls must leave the game . The penalised team is said to be playing man down defense while the other team is on the man up , or playing " extra man offence . " During a typical game , each team will have three to five extra man offence opportunities .
= = = = Personal fouls = = = =
Personal fouls ( PF ) include slashing , tripping , illegal body checking , cross checking , unsportsmanlike conduct , unnecessary roughness , and equipment violations . While a stick @-@ check ( where a player makes contact with the opposition player 's stick in order to knock the ball loose ) is legal , a slashing violation is called when a player viciously makes contact with an opposing player or his stick . An illegal body check penalty is called for any contact where the ball is further than 5 yards ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) from the contact , the check is from behind , above the shoulders or below the knees , or was avoidable after the player has released the ball . Cross checking , where a player uses the shaft of his stick to push the opposition player off balance , is illegal in field lacrosse . Both unsportsmanlike conduct and unnecessary roughness are subject to the officiating crew 's discretion , while equipment violations are governed strictly by regulations .
= = = = Technical fouls = = = =
Technical fouls include holding , interference , pushing , screening , " warding off " , stalling , and off @-@ sides . A screen , as employed in basketball strategy , is a blocking move by an offensive player , by standing beside or behind a defender , to free a teammate to shoot , or receive a pass . Warding off occurs when an offensive player uses his free hand to control the stick of an opposing player .
Offside has a unique implementation in field lacrosse . Instituted with rule changes in 1921 , it limits the number of players that are allowed on either side of the midfield line . Offside occurs when there are fewer than three players on the offensive side of the midfield line or when there are fewer than four players on the defensive half of the midfield line ( note : if players are exiting through the special @-@ substitution area , it is not to be determined an offside violation ) .
A technical foul requires that the defenceman who fouled a player on the opposing team be placed in the penalty box for 30 seconds . As with a personal foul , until the penalty time expires , no replacement for the player is allowed and the team must play one man short . The player ( or a replacement ) is allowed to reenter the game once the time in the penalty box is over and the team is thus once again at full strength .
= = Domestic competition = =
College lacrosse , a spring sport in the United States , saw its earliest program established by New York University in 1877 . The first intercollegiate tournament was held in 1881 featuring four teams : New York University , Princeton University , Columbia University , and Harvard University . This tournament was won by Harvard . The United States Intercollegiate Lacrosse Association ( USILA ) was created in 1885 , and awarded the inaugural Wingate Memorial Trophy to the University of Maryland as national champions in 1936 . The award was presented to the team ( or teams ) with the best record until the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) instituted a playoff system in 1971 . The NCAA sponsored its premier Men 's Lacrosse Championship with the 1971 tournament where Cornell University defeated University of Maryland in the final . In addition to the three divisions in the NCAA , college lacrosse in the United States is played by non @-@ varsity Men 's Collegiate Lacrosse Association and National College Lacrosse League club teams .
Lacrosse was first witnessed in England , Scotland , Ireland and France in 1867 when a team of Native Americans and Canadians traveled to Europe to showcase the sport . The year after , the English Lacrosse Association was established . In 1876 , Queen Victoria attended an exhibition game and was impressed , saying , " The game is very pretty to watch . " Throughout Europe , lacrosse is played by numerous club teams and is overseen by the European Lacrosse Federation . Lacrosse was brought to Australia in 1876 . The country sponsors various competitions among its states and territories that culminate in the annual Senior Lacrosse Championship tournament .
In 1985 , the Canadian University Field Lacrosse Association ( CUFLA ) was established , with twelve universities in the Ontario and Quebec provinces competing in the intercollegiate league . The league plays its season during the autumn . Unlike the NCAA , the CUFLA allows players that are professional box lacrosse players in the National Lacrosse League to participate , stating that " although stick skills are identical , the game play and rules are different " .
Professional field lacrosse made its first appearance in 1988 with the formation of the American Lacrosse League , which folded after five weeks of play . In 2001 , professional field lacrosse resurfaced with the inception of Major League Lacrosse ( MLL ) , whose teams , based in the United States and Canada , play during the summer . The MLL modified its rules from the established field lacrosse rules of international , college , and high school programs . To increase scoring , the league employed a sixty second shot clock , a two point goal for shots taken outside a designated perimeter , and reduced the number of long sticks to three rather than the traditional four . Prior to the 2009 MLL season , after eight seasons , the league conformed to traditional field lacrosse rules and allowed a fourth long crosse . The MLL has been bolstered by a ten year television contract with ESPN in 2007 .
= = International competition = =
The Federation of International Lacrosse ( FIL ) is the international governing body of lacrosse and it oversees field , women 's and box lacrosse competitions . In 2008 , the International Lacrosse Federation and the International Federation of Women 's Lacrosse Associations merged to form the FIL . The former International Lacrosse Federation was founded in 1974 to promote and develop the game of men 's lacrosse throughout the world . The FIL now sponsors the World Lacrosse Championship and Under @-@ 19 World Lacrosse Championships which are played under field lacrosse rules . It also oversees the World Indoor Lacrosse Championship played under box lacrosse rules , and the Women 's Lacrosse World Cup and an under @-@ 19 championship under women 's lacrosse rules .
= = = Olympic Games = = =
Lacrosse at the Olympics was a medal earning sport in the 1904 Summer Olympics and the 1908 Summer Olympics . In 1904 , three teams competed in the games held in Saint Louis , Missouri . Two Canadian teams , the Winnipeg Shamrocks and a team of Mohawk people from the Iroquois Confederacy , and an American team represented by the local St. Louis A.A.A. lacrosse club participated , and the Winnipeg Shamrocks captured the gold medal . The 1908 games held in London , England , featured only two teams , representing Canada and Great Britain . The Canadians again won the gold medal in a single championship match by a score of 14 – 10 .
In the 1928 Summer Olympics , 1932 Summer Olympics , and the 1948 Summer Olympics , lacrosse was a demonstration sport . The 1928 Olympics featured three teams : the United States , Canada , and Great Britain . The 1932 games featured a three @-@ game exhibition between a Canadian All @-@ star team and the United States . The United States was represented by Johns Hopkins Blue Jays lacrosse in both the 1928 and 1932 Olympics . In order to qualify , the Blue Jays won tournaments in the Olympic years to represent the United States . The 1948 games featured an exhibition by an " All @-@ England " team organized by the English Lacrosse Union and the collegiate lacrosse team from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute representing the United States . This exhibition ended in a 5 – 5 tie .
There are obstacles to reestablishing lacrosse as an Olympic sport . One hurdle was resolved in 2008 , when the international governing bodies for men 's and women 's lacrosse merged to form Federation of International Lacrosse . Another obstacle is insufficient international participation . In order to be considered as an Olympic sport the game must be played on four continents , and with at least a total of 75 countries participating . According to one US Lacrosse representative in 2004 , " it ’ ll take 15 @-@ 20 years for us to get there . " For the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta , Georgia and 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney , Australia , efforts were made to include lacrosse as an exhibition sport , but these failed .
= = = Pan American Games = = =
In spite of being one of the oldest sports in the continent , lacrosse has never being included as a Pan American sport . According to the Pan American Sports Organization , the number of countries enrolled in its member associations is not enough . Nowadays , there are 12 nations enrolled in FIL ( Canada , The United States , Haudenosaunee or Iroquois , Mexico , Bermudas , Colombia , Argentina , Chile , Peru , Costa Rica , Guatemala and Jamaica ) . However , Haudenosaunee nation is not a member of the Pan American Sports Organization . There have been criticisms for the exclusion of native American sports like lacrosse and Ulama or Mesoamerican Ballgame . To calm criticisms lacrosse was included in the opening ceremony Toronto 2015 Pan American Games .
= = = World Lacrosse Championships = = =
The World Lacrosse Championship began as a four @-@ team invitational tournament in 1967 sanctioned by the International Lacrosse Federation . The 2006 World Lacrosse Championship featured a record twenty @-@ one competing nations . The 2010 World Lacrosse Championship took place in Manchester , England . Only United States , Canada , and Australia have finished in the top two places of this tournament . Since 1990 , the Iroquois Nationals , a team consisting of the Six Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy members , have competed in international competition . This team is the only Native American team sanctioned to compete in any men 's sport internationally . The Federation of International Lacrosse also sanctions the Under @-@ 19 World Lacrosse Championships . The 2008 Under @-@ 19 World Lacrosse Championships included twelve countries , with three first @-@ time participants : Bermuda , Finland , and Scotland .
Other regional international competitions are played including the European Lacrosse Championships , sponsored by the twenty @-@ one member European Lacrosse Federation , and the eight team Asian Pacific Lacrosse Tournament .
= = Attendance records = =
Lacrosse attendance has grown with the sport 's popularity . The 2008 NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championship was won by Syracuse University , beating Johns Hopkins University 13 – 10 , in front of a title game record crowd of 48 @,@ 970 fans at Gillette Stadium . The 2007 NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championship weekend held at M & T Bank Stadium in Baltimore , Maryland , was played in front of a total crowd of 123 @,@ 225 fans for the three @-@ day event . The current attendance record for a regular season lacrosse @-@ only event was set by the 2009 Big City Classic , a triple @-@ header at Giants Stadium which drew 22 @,@ 308 spectators . The Denver Outlaws hold the professional field lacrosse single @-@ game attendance record by playing July 4 , 2010 in front of 23 @,@ 443 fans .
At the 1932 Olympics in Los Angeles , California , over 145 @,@ 000 spectators watched the three @-@ game series between the United States and Canada , including 75 @,@ 000 people who witnessed the first game of the series while in attendance to watch the final of the marathon .
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= Robert Stroud =
Robert Franklin Stroud ( January 28 , 1890 – November 21 , 1963 ) , known as the " Birdman of Alcatraz " , was an American federal prisoner and author who has been cited as one of the United States ' most notorious criminals . During his time at Leavenworth Penitentiary , he reared and sold birds and became a respected ornithologist , but because of regulations , he was not permitted to keep birds at Alcatraz , where he was incarcerated from 1942 to 1959 . Stroud was never released from the Federal prison system .
Born in Seattle , Washington , Stroud ran away from his abusive father at the age of 13 , and by the time he was 18 , he had become a pimp in the Alaska Territory . In January 1909 , he shot and killed a bartender who had attacked one of his prostitutes , for which he was sentenced to 12 years in the federal penitentiary on Puget Sound 's McNeil Island . Stroud gained a reputation as an extremely dangerous inmate who frequently had confrontations with fellow inmates and staff , and in 1916 , he killed a guard . Stroud was convicted of first @-@ degree murder and sentenced to hang , but after several trials , his sentence was eventually commuted to life imprisonment .
Stroud began serving life in solitary confinement at Leavenworth , where in 1920 , after discovering a nest with three injured sparrows in the prison yard , he began raising them , and within a few years had acquired a collection of some 300 canaries . He began extensive research into them after being granted equipment by a radical prison @-@ reforming warden , publishing Diseases of Canaries in 1933 , which was smuggled out of Leavenworth and sold en masse , as well as a later edition ( 1943 ) . He made important contributions to avian pathology , most notably a cure for the hemorrhagic septicemia family of diseases , gaining much respect and some level of sympathy among ornithologists and farmers . Stroud ran a successful business from inside prison , but his activities infuriated the prison staff , and he was eventually transferred to Alcatraz in 1942 after it was discovered that Stroud had been secretly making alcohol using some of the equipment in his cell .
Stroud began serving a 17 @-@ year term at Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary on December 19 , 1942 , and became inmate # 594 . In 1943 , he was assessed by psychiatrist Romney M. Ritchey , who diagnosed him as a psychopath , but with an I.Q. of 134 . Stripped of his birds and equipment , he wrote a history of the penal system .
In 1959 , with his health failing , Stroud was transferred to the Medical Center for Federal Prisoners in Springfield , Missouri , where he stayed until his death on November 21 , 1963 , having been incarcerated for the last 54 years of his life , of which 42 were in solitary confinement . He had been studying French near the end of his life . Robert Stroud is buried in Metropolis , Illinois . Author Carl Sifakis considers Stroud to have been " possibly the best @-@ known example of self @-@ improvement and rehabilitation in the U.S. prison . "
= = Early life and arrest = =
Stroud was born in Seattle , the eldest child of Elizabeth Jane ( née McCartney 1860 @-@ 1938 ) and Benjamin Franklin Stroud . His mother had two daughters from a previous marriage . His father was an abusive alcoholic , and Stroud ran away from home at the age of 13 . His parents both had German ancestry .
By the time he was 18 , Stroud had made his way to Cordova , Alaska , where he met 36 @-@ year @-@ old Kitty O ’ Brien , a prostitute and dance @-@ hall entertainer , for whom he pimped in Juneau . According to Stroud , on January 18 , 1909 , while he was away at work , an acquaintance of theirs , barman F. K. " Charlie " Von Dahmer , had allegedly failed to pay O 'Brien for her services and beat her , tearing a locket from her neck that contained a picture of her daughter that was of sentimental value . That night , after finding out about the incident , Stroud confronted Von Dahmer on Gastineau Avenue , and a struggle ensued , resulting in the latter 's death from a gunshot wound . Stroud went to the police station , and turned himself and the gun in . According to police reports , Stroud had knocked Von Dahmer unconscious , and then shot him at point @-@ blank range .
Stroud 's mother , Elizabeth , retained a lawyer for her son , but he was found guilty of manslaughter on August 23 , 1909 , and sentenced to 12 years in the federal penitentiary on Puget Sound 's McNeil Island . Stroud 's crime was handled in the federal system , as Alaska at that time was still a federal territory , and not a state with its own judiciary .
= = Prison life = =
Known as Prisoner # 1853 @-@ M , Stroud was one of the most violent prisoners at McNeil Island , frequently feuding with fellow inmates and staff , and was also prone to many different physical ailments . Stroud reportedly stabbed a fellow prisoner who had reported him for stealing food from the kitchen . He also assaulted a hospital orderly who had reported him to the prison administration for attempting to obtain morphine through threats and intimidation , and had also reportedly stabbed another fellow inmate who was involved in the attempt to smuggle the narcotics . On September 5 , 1912 , Stroud was sentenced to an additional six months for the attacks , and was transferred from McNeil Island to the federal penitentiary in Leavenworth , Kansas . On March 26 , 1916 , after being there six months , Stroud was reprimanded by cafeteria guard Andrew F. Turner for a minor rule violation that would have annulled Stroud 's visitation privilege to meet his younger brother , whom he had not seen in eight years . With a six @-@ inch shiv , Stroud stabbed Turner through his heart .
Stroud was convicted of first @-@ degree murder , and sentenced to death by hanging on May 2 . He was ordered to await execution of his sentence in solitary confinement , but this was thrown out in December by the U.S. Supreme Court . In a second trial held on May 28 , 1917 , he was also convicted , but received a life sentence , which Stroud appealed , and Solicitor General John W. Davis " confessed error " because he wanted Stroud to receive the death penalty . As a result , Stroud was tried for a third time in May 1918 , and on June 28 he was again sentenced to death by hanging . The Supreme Court intervened , upholding the death sentence , which was scheduled to be carried out on April 23 , 1920 . Stroud 's mother appealed to President Woodrow Wilson and his wife , Edith Wilson , and the execution was halted just eight days before it was to be carried out ; the gallows had already been built and viewed by Stroud from his cell . Stroud 's sentence was commuted to life imprisonment . Leavenworth 's warden , T. W. Morgan , strongly opposed the decision given Stroud 's reputation for violence . Morgan persuaded the President to stipulate that since Stroud was originally sentenced to await his death sentence in solitary confinement , those conditions should prevail until the halted execution could be carried out . President Wilson 's Attorney General , Alexander Mitchell Palmer , saw to it that Stroud was sentenced to a lifetime in solitary .
= = The Birdman of Leavenworth = =
While at Leavenworth in 1920 , Stroud found a nest with three injured sparrows in the prison yard , and raised them to adulthood . Prisoners were sometimes allowed to buy canaries , and Stroud had started to add to his collection to occupy his time raising and caring for his birds , which he could sell for supplies and to help support his mother . According to Stroud , he used a " razor blade and nail for tools " and made his first bird cage out of wooden crates . Soon thereafter , Leavenworth ’ s administration changed , and the prison was then directed by a new warden . Impressed with the possibility of presenting Leavenworth as a progressive rehabilitation penitentiary , the new warden , Bennett , furnished Stroud with cages , chemicals , and stationery to conduct his ornithological activities . Visitors were shown Stroud 's aviary , and many purchased his canaries . Over the years , he raised nearly 300 canaries in his cells , and wrote two books , the 60 @,@ 000 @-@ word treatise Diseases of Canaries ( 1933 ) , which had been smuggled out of Leavenworth , and a later edition , Stroud 's Digest on the Diseases of Birds ( 1943 ) , with updated , specific information . He made several important contributions to avian pathology , most notably a cure for the hemorrhagic septicemia family of diseases . He gained respect and also some level of sympathy in the bird @-@ loving field .
Stroud ’ s activities created problems for the prison management . According to regulations , each letter sent or received at the prison had to be read , copied , and approved . Stroud was so involved in his business that this alone required a full @-@ time prison secretary . Additionally , most of the time , his birds were permitted to fly freely within his cells , and because of the great number of birds he kept , his cell was filthy .
In 1931 , an attempt to force Stroud to discontinue his business and get rid of his birds failed after Stroud and one of his mail correspondents , a bird researcher from Indiana named Della Mae Jones , made his story known to newspapers and magazines . A massive letter campaign and a 50 @,@ 000 @-@ signature petition sent to President Herbert Hoover resulted in Stroud being permitted to keep his birds , and despite prison overcrowding , he was even given a second cell to house them . However , his letter @-@ writing privileges were greatly curtailed . Jones and Stroud grew so close that she moved to Kansas in 1931 , and started a business with him , selling his avian medicines .
Prison officials , fed up with Stroud 's activities and their attendant publicity , intensified their efforts to transfer him out of Leavenworth . Stroud , however , discovered a Kansas law that forbade the transfer of prisoners married in Kansas . To this end , he married Jones by proxy , which infuriated the prison 's administrators , who would not allow him to correspond with his wife . Prison officials were not the only ones perturbed with Stroud 's marriage ; his mother was also incensed . They had a close relationship , but Elizabeth Stroud strongly disapproved of the marriage to Jones , believing women were nothing but trouble for her son . Whereas previously she had been a strong advocate for her son , helping him with legal battles , she now argued against his application for parole , and became a major obstacle in his attempts to be released from the prison system . She moved away from Leavenworth and refused any further contact with him until her death in 1937 .
In 1933 , Stroud advertised in a publication that he had not received any royalties from the sales of Diseases of Canaries . In retaliation , the publisher complained to the warden , and , as a result , proceedings were initiated to transfer Stroud to Alcatraz , where he would not be permitted to keep his birds . In the end , however , Stroud was able to keep both his birds and canary @-@ selling business at Leavenworth . Stroud avoided trouble for several more years , until it came to light that some of the equipment Stroud had requested for his lab was in fact being used as a home @-@ made still to distill alcohol . Officials finally had the wedge they needed to drive Stroud out .
= = Alcatraz = =
On December 19 , 1942 , Stroud was transferred to Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary , and became inmate # 594 . He reportedly was not informed in advance that he was to leave Leavenworth and his beloved birds , and was given just 10 minutes ' notice of his departure ; his birds and equipment were sent to his brother as Alcatraz 's strict policies meant that he was unable to continue his avocation . He spent six years in segregation and another 11 confined to the hospital wing there . In 1943 , he was assessed by psychiatrist Romney M. Ritchey , who diagnosed him as a psychopath , but with an I.Q. of 134 ( although his initial report in 1942 based on Leavenworth states that he had an I.Q. of 116 ) . While there , he wrote two manuscripts : Bobbie , an autobiography , and Looking Outward : A History of the U.S. Prison System from Colonial Times to the Formation of the Bureau of Prisons . A judge ruled that Stroud had the right to write and keep such manuscripts , but upheld the warden ’ s decision to ban their publication . After Stroud 's death , the transcripts were delivered to his lawyer , Richard English .
Rumors of Stroud 's homosexuality were noted at Alcatraz . According to Donald Hurley , whose father was a guard at Alcatraz , " Whenever Stroud was around anyone , which was seldom , he was watched very closely , as prison officials were very aware of his overt homosexual tendencies . " In an interview with Hurley for his book , a former inmate heard Stroud was always in ' dog block ' ( solitary confinement ) or later in the hospital because he was a ' wolf ' ( aggressive homosexual ) who had a bad temper . " In February 1963 Stroud met and talked with actor Burt Lancaster , who portrayed him in The Birdman of Alcatraz . Stroud never got to see the film or read the book it was based on but did share on one of the problems that prevented parole , that he was an " admitted homosexual . " Lancaster quoted Stroud as saying , " Let 's face it , I am 73 years old . Does that answer your question about whether I would be a dangerous homosexual ? "
During his 17 @-@ year term at Alcatraz , Stroud was allowed access to the prison library , and began studying law . Occasionally , he was permitted to play chess with one of the guards . Stroud began petitioning the government that his long prison term amounted to cruel and unusual punishment . In 1959 , with his health failing , Stroud was transferred to the Medical Center for Federal Prisoners in Springfield , Missouri , where he stayed until his death in 1963 . However , his attempts to be released were unsuccessful .
On November 21 , 1963 , Robert Stroud died at the Springfield Medical Center at the age of 73 , having been incarcerated for the last 54 years of his life , of which 42 were spent in solitary confinement . He had been studying French near the end of his life . Stroud is buried in Metropolis , Illinois ( Massac County ) .
= = Legacy = =
Stroud is considered to be one of the most notorious criminals in American history . Robert Niemi states that Stroud had a " superior intellect , " and became a " first @-@ rate ornithologist and author , " but was an " extremely dangerous and menacing psychopath , disliked and distrusted by his jailers and fellow inmates . " However , by his last years , he was seen more favorably , and Judge Becker considered Stroud to be modest , no longer a danger to society , with a genuine love for birds . Given his level of notoriety , the crimes he committed were unremarkable , especially as the assaults he committed had a clear cause . Carl Sifakais considers Stroud to have been a " brilliant self @-@ taught expert on birds , and possibly the best @-@ known example of self @-@ improvement and rehabilitation in the U.S. prison . "
Because of Stroud 's contributions to the field of ornithology , he gained a large following of thousands of bird breeders , and poultry raisers who demanded his release , and for many years a " Committee to Release Robert F. Stroud " campaigned to have Stroud released from prison . However , because Stroud had killed a federal officer , his punishment in solitary confinement remained intact . In 1963 , Richard M. English , a young lawyer who had campaigned for John F. Kennedy in California , took to the cause of securing Stroud 's release . He met with former President Harry S. Truman to enlist support , but Truman declined . He also met with senior Kennedy @-@ administration officials who were studying the subject . English took the last photo of Stroud , in which he is shown with a green visor . The warden of the prison attempted to have English prosecuted for bringing something into the prison he did not take out : unexposed film . The authorities declined to take any action . Upon Stroud 's death , his personal property , including original manuscripts , was delivered to English , as his last legal representative , who later turned over some of the possessions to the Audubon Society .
Stroud became the subject of a 1955 book by Thomas E. Gaddis , Birdman of Alcatraz . Gaddis , who strongly advocated rehabilitation in the prisons , portrayed Stroud in favorable light . This was adapted by Guy Trosper for the 1962 film of the same name , directed by John Frankenheimer . It starred Burt Lancaster as Stroud , Karl Malden as a fictionalized and renamed warden , and Thelma Ritter as Stroud 's mother . Both the book and the film were highly fictionalized , with former inmates stating that Stroud was far more sinister and unpleasant than the character depicted in them . Stroud was never allowed to see the film . Art Carney played Stroud in the 1980 TV movie Alcatraz : The Whole Shocking Story , and Dennis Farina played Stroud in the 1987 TV movie Six Against the Rock , a dramatization of the Battle of Alcatraz of 1946 .
In music , Stroud has been the subject of the instrumental " Birdman of Alcatraz " from Rick Wakeman 's Criminal Record ( 1977 ) , a concept album about criminality , and the song " The Birdman " by Our Lady Peace is also about him . Several video games such as Galerians and Team Fortress 2 pay homage to him .
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= Monte Ne =
Monte Ne is an area in the Ozark hills of the White River valley east of Rogers on the edge of Beaver Lake in the U.S. state of Arkansas . From 1901 until the mid @-@ 1930s the area was a health resort and ambitious planned community . It was owned and operated by William Hope Harvey , a financial theorist and one @-@ time U.S. Presidential nominee . Two of its hotels , " Missouri Row " and " Oklahoma Row " , were the largest log buildings in the world . Oklahoma Row 's " tower section " is one of the earliest examples of a multi @-@ story concrete structure . The tower is the only structure of Monte Ne still standing that can be seen at normal lake levels . Monte Ne introduced the first indoor swimming pool in Arkansas , and was also the site of the only presidential convention ever held in Arkansas .
The Monte Ne resort was not a financial success , due in part to Harvey 's management style . All ventures associated with Harvey 's original Monte Ne concept either were never completed or experienced bankruptcy , and shortly after his death the property was sold off in lots . The remainder of the resort and town was almost completely submerged after Beaver Lake was created in 1964 . All that remains today are foundations and one severely vandalized structure . The area on the edge of Beaver Lake that is still referred to as Monte Ne , is owned and managed by the United States Army Corps of Engineers and serves mainly as a boat ramp .
= = Before Harvey = =
The area that would become Monte Ne was known to have had two establishments often considered essential to a pioneer settlement , a grist mill and a distillery . It is unknown when the distillery was built . It was owned in the 1830s by Abe McGarrah and his brother @-@ in @-@ law . They also operated a small store . The distillery 's output each day was given as thirty gallons by the Federal whiskey gauger who resided in the area . The grist mill was built in 1856 , and was owned by J.R. Pettigrew . It would later be owned by James Wyeth and Amelia Crowder Blake , the parents of Betty Blake , who is often referred to as the " Leading Lady " of Rogers , Arkansas , and who would also go on to marry entertainer Will Rogers . In 1875 the post office in the area changed its name from Mountain Springs to Pettigrew 's Mill . The Blakes ' owned the mill till 1882 , when Mr. Blake died . The Mill was later operated by David Portnell from 1889 to 1895 . He sold his interest in the mill to a retired Congregational minister J.G Bailey . Bailey would later become postmaster . He petitioned the Post Office Department to change the name of the office to Vinola in honor of a well @-@ known vineyard that belonged to his neighbor , Carl A. Starek . The letter was written in longhand , and the o and l were spaced to close together . As a result , the clerk misread the name as " Vinda " , which is how it was recorded . The area 's name was later changed to Silver Springs . Bailey would sell 325 acres of land and a cabin to Harvey .
= = Coin Harvey = =
Monte Ne was entirely conceived and funded by William " Coin " Hope Harvey , a well @-@ known businessman , politician , lecturer and author during the 1890s . Although Harvey was financially successful at silver mining in Colorado , Monte Ne seems to have been funded mostly by the sales of Harvey 's writings which dealt with the subject of free silver . His most popular pamphlet , entitled Coin 's Financial School , was published in 1893 . Sales were buoyed by Harvey 's involvement in the presidential campaign of William Jennings Bryan , and it sold two million copies . Though Bryan lost his bid for President , Harvey had become so important to the campaign that he was made chairman of the Democratic Ways & Means Committee to collect money for the 1900 campaign . However , as a result of an argument before the campaign , he resigned .
During the 1900 campaign Harvey had visited Northwest Arkansas , an area known for its unique pristine natural beauty . In October 1900 , he purchased 320 acres ( 130 ha ) of land in Silver Springs , Arkansas ( close to present day Rogers ) , from Reverend Bailey . From that time on he lived in Arkansas , and claimed that he preferred the state because it had no large cities or extremely wealthy people . Leaving his family behind in Chicago , Harvey moved into Rev. Bailey 's run @-@ down log house . Harvey 's son Tom joined him shortly thereafter to help prepare the house for the rest of the family , and Harvey 's other son Hal , wife Anna , and sister Annette joined them later . The house burned down a few months after they took up residence , and all of the family 's possessions , including Harvey 's large library , were lost . Harvey carried no insurance on the house , and after its destruction Anna went back to Chicago and returned to Arkansas only a few times thereafter for brief visits .
Harvey 's land purchase in Silver Springs coincided with a desire by the local postmaster to change the name of the area , because it was often confused with Siloam Springs , Arkansas . Harvey chose the name Monte Ne , which supposedly combined the Spanish and Omaha Indian words for mountain water , because it " fit the tongue attractively . " Harvey was familiar with European health spas , and wanted to turn Monte Ne into a " watering hole " in the Ozarks . He first commissioned the dredging of a canal , and Silver Springs Creek was narrowed between Big Spring and Elixir Spring , which created Big Spring Lake . The Creek was then channeled to form what Harvey referred to as " the lagoon . " Limestone retaining walls were built along the banks of the creeks and the lake , and along boardwalks and park areas . Monte Ne quickly became a popular spot for pleasure boating , picnics , and other outdoor activities . Many people noted how clear the water was . The Rogers Democrat said that it looked " like pure alcohol . "
= = Hotel rows = =
In December 1900 , with US $ 52 @,@ 000 of individual investor 's money and $ 48 @,@ 000 of his own , Harvey formed the Monte Ne Investment Company , which held the deeds to all of the land . The first hotel completed was the Hotel Monte Ne in April 1901 , which opened in May . It was three stories high and had two wings 300 feet ( 91 m ) long . Each room had a doorway to the outside and the hotel was surrounded with wide porches .
In April 1904 , Harvey organized the Monte Ne Club House Hotel and Cottage Company with capital stock of $ 250 @,@ 000 . A.O. Clarke from St. Louis , Missouri served as architect and superintendent of the company . Harvey wanted to build five large hotels : a three @-@ story main building called the Club House Hotel and four 300 to 450 foot ( 91 to 137 m ) long " cottage rows " , each to be named for a state bordering on Arkansas . Stock holders in the company received stock certificates that listed privileges such as transportation on the Monte Ne Railroad with 150 lb ( 68 kg ) of baggage and a 25 % discount for the stockholder and his family at the Hotel Monte Ne . Missouri Row , begun in August , 1904 , was the first hotel constructed . This Clarke @-@ designed building was 46 feet ( 14 m ) wide and 305 feet ( 93 m ) long and built of 8 @,@ 000 logs with a concrete floor and red tile roof . Fourteen thousand cubic feet ( 396 m ³ ) of concrete were used . The tiles were shipped from Chicago . The center and two ends of the hotel rose to two stories , the remainder being a single story . Hotel Monte Ne , Missouri Row both featured porches 575 feet ( 175 m ) long . The hotel had forty 16 ft ² ( 1 @.@ 5 m ² ) rooms , each with a fireplace . Harvey employed area carpenters and stonemasons to build Missouri Row . In April 1905 , to save time and money , the work schedule was changed from 9 to 10 hours per day and some wages were cut . Many workers went on strike and , when their demands were not met , they quit . The men formed a union , and although Harvey thought of himself as a friend to the working man , he viewed unions as another kind of monopoly or trust . The strike delayed construction , but by the end of May 1905 , a full workforce was in place . In July , carpet , washstands and furniture , including iron @-@ and @-@ brass bedsteads , were installed in the rooms . Cannonballs and shells from the Pea Ridge battlefield were sunk into the concrete porch on either side of the main entrance . The hotel opened in September 1905 with room rates of $ 1 a day and $ 6 a week .
In February 1907 , with nearly 300 new stockholders , Harvey began construction on his next hotel , Oklahoma Row , also designed by A. O. Clarke . It was built to the west of Missouri Row with a wide lawn . It had a similar log , concrete stone , and tile construction . The dining room was on the north end . Each of the 40 rooms had fireplaces , as did the dining room and center hall . Every room featured electric lights , sewerage , and running spring water . The hotel also boasted a three @-@ story concrete tower , one of the earliest multistory concrete constructions in the country . Oklahoma Row and other construction projects drained Harvey 's funds . Harvey managed to raise enough money to finish Oklahoma Row , but due to his lack of funds when that hotel finally opened there was no gala event , as there had been when Missouri Row was finished .
= = = Theme song = = =
In 1901 , Harvey Commissioned a theme song for Monte Ne . " Beautiful Monte Ne " was written by a Rogers local , Edward Wolfe , and copyrighted by Harvey in 1906 .
Beautiful Monte Ne , God 's gift to man they sayHealth resort of all the world is beautiful Monte NeRosy cheeks and purer blood they gain there day by dayin mountain air water rare at beautiful Monte Ne
= = Railroad = =
Harvey needed a way to get people to Monte Ne . In 1900 , there were few adequate roads and automobiles were not yet practical . The natural solution seemed to be to build a railroad from Lowell , Arkansas to Monte Ne . The Arkansas Railroad Commission granted a charter on April 26 , 1902 , and the Monte Ne Railway Company was incorporated in May 1902 , with a capital stock of $ 250 @,@ 000 . Besides Harvey , the company included : Carl A. Starck , P.G. Davidson , A.L. Williams , B.R. Davidson , J.H. McIlroy , J.W. Kimmons , F.F. Freeman , J.F. Felker , Robert H. Harven and Thomas W. Harvey ( Coin 's brother ) . Another of Harvey 's brothers , who was a banker at Huntington , West Virginia , furnished $ 25 @,@ 000 . Of the 250 shares in the company , 240 were registered in Harvey 's name . The five @-@ mile ( 8 km ) private railroad spur started at the Lowell transfer station . Fourteen thousand oak railway ties were laid running through Cross Hollows , south of Rogers , where two ravines met . It then passed through Limedale , terminating above Big Spring Lake at a Log Cabin depot with open @-@ air waiting rooms . Harvey leased an engine , tender , and a passenger coach from the St. Louis and San Francisco Railroad . The railway opened on June 19 , 1902 . Harvey imported a 50 foot ( 15 m ) gondola from Venice , Italy in July 1901 to meet guests arriving by rail and carry them to the resort .
The gondola was a very popular attraction , and Harvey often promoted Monte Ne as : " the only place in America where the gondola meets the train . "
The little railroad went broke a few years later . At about this time , the Arkansas , Oklahoma & Western Railroad ( AO & W ) was forming . The railroad ran from Rogers to Siloam Springs , over a distance of approximately 30 miles ( 43 km ) . It was opened for traffic New Year 's Day 1908 , connecting with the Frisco at Rogers and the Kansas City , Pittsburgh and Gulf ( P & G ) at Siloam Springs . AO & W planned to build eastward to Eureka Springs . On December 1 , 1909 the AO & W purchased the Monte Ne railroad . To connect the AO & W and the Monte Ne , a track would have to be laid from Hazelwood , Arkansas on the AO & W to Lowell ; the Frisco line was in the way and they would not allow a connection . AO & W instead built an expensive underpass of the Frisco . The construction of the underpass enabled the Monte Ne line to turn over much of its outbound freight business to the AO & W rather than competitor Frisco . So the line enjoyed a brief but substantial volume of outgoing freight traffic from the Rogers White Lime Company located at Limedale . The underpass still exists and is still crossed by trains of Frisco Central Division successor Arkansas and Missouri Railroad .
The AO & W went bankrupt a few years later and was bought by another startup railroad , the Kansas City & Memphis Railroad ( KC & M ) in early 1911 . It would build from Cave Springs , Arkansas a few miles west of Rogers , through Fayetteville , Arkansas and towards Memphis , Tennessee . In 1912 the Ozark Land and Lumber Company began construction of a 5 @-@ mile extension east of Monte Ne from the White River to the Piney community and leased the line to the KC & M. The White River bridge consisted of 780 feet of trestle and 2 , 152 foot steel spans making it the longest railroad bridge in Benton County . This extension was used to haul out forestry products . The KC & M entered receivership in 1914 , and in September of that year passenger service to Monte Ne ended . When World War I began , many railroads were seized by the United States government . The KC & M was not seized , and due to unfavorable rulings by the United States Railroad Administration and Arkansas Railroad Commission saw much of its revenue evaporate . In January 1918 Roscoe Hobbs , one of the court @-@ appointed receivers of the KC & M , went to Washington , D.C. to provide testimony to the Senate Committee on Interstate Commerce on the effects of these decisions on small railroads . As part of that testimony Hobbs reported 215 cars from the Rogers White Lime Company and 216 cars of pit props and railroad ties being hauled on the Monte Ne portion of the railway in 1917 . Hobbs was unsuccessful in having the decisions reversed and most portions of the KC & M were abandoned by October 1918 . The Monte Ne portion was used until 1919 . The White River bridge survived longer and was used for horse and foot traffic before becoming unsafe . The steel spans were scrapped during World War II .
= = Business = =
In August 1901 , Harvey 's son Hal and brother @-@ in @-@ law Ernest Halliday opened a large bathhouse on Silver Springs Creek , across the lagoon from Hotel Monte Ne . The indoor pool was the first in Arkansas . It was 25 by 50 ft ( 7 @.@ 6 by 15 m ) and 7 feet ( 2 m ) deep and included springboards and slides . Water from the spring flowed into the swimming pool , half of which was sectioned off and featured heated water piped in from a wood @-@ fired boiler . The bathhouse also had a two @-@ lane bowling alley . The pool continued to be a popular attraction throughout the life of Monte Ne until the opening of an outdoor pool in Willola , Arkansas in 1923 .
In April , Harvey began seeking industries to move to Monte Ne , but few actually did . Monte Ne 's small downtown area had at one time a general store , a livery stable a gristmill , and a post office . The General store also serve as a host for school plays and as well as a Masonic Lodge . The post office erroneously changed the town 's name to Vinda ( a misreading of a local wine ranch called Vinola ) , but later formally changed it to Monte Ne .
Harvey issued his own money , or scrip , which was accepted and used as cash in and around Monte Ne . Scrip was a way of financing his mercantile without requiring operating capital . Harvey would purchase items with the scrip and promised to redeem it within 30 days . If the item did not sell , the scrip had no value . Also in downtown was the Bank of Monte Ne . It was organized by Harvey in 1905 and the building was designed , like many buildings in Monte Ne , by A. O. Clarke . The two @-@ story , 50 by 70 ft ( 15 by 21 m ) building ( usually referred to as the " Bank Block " ) included the bank and a store room on the main floor , as well as a lodge room and offices on the second floor . The building was across the street from the post office . The Interstate Bankers ' Summer Club held their 1906 meeting there and the local Odd Fellows lodge were among the groups who used the upstairs offices . Harvey sold stock in the bank for $ 15 a share . The bank lasted until 1914 . Depositors and lenders were paid off and any other funds were transferred to a bank in Rogers .
To help attract tourists , Harvey often brought in musicians and hosted dances and other events to give Monte Ne a constant festive atmosphere . He used the Monte Ne Herald , run by his son Tom , to promote these events . The newspaper only lasted until 1905 , probably due to financial troubles and Harvey 's publication of personal attacks . There were sporting events in Monte Ne such as tennis , croquet , and fox hunting . Monte Ne also had the first golf course , which was built sometime before 1909 . Harvey 's difficult @-@ to @-@ please nature often ended up driving away more people than it attracted . Harvey had a lights @-@ out at 10 p.m. policy , and would cut the main electricity to the town if the policy was disobeyed , prompting disgruntled guests to leave prematurely . He was also criticized for holding events on Sunday and banning children and people who were ill from the resort .
= = Roads = =
After the Monte Ne Railroad failed , Harvey needed to find other ways for people to get to his resort . He realized the coming importance of the automobile and in 1911 he campaigned for a project he called " The Great White Way " , a turnpike between Monte Ne and Muskogee , Oklahoma . Harvey Requested that a " Good Roads " meeting be held by the Commercial Club of Rogers , however they did not feel that it was their meeting because while fairly well attended hardly any Rogers businessmen were present . Harvey assessed the project would cost Rogers $ 5 @,@ 000 without their permission or consent , and this estimate was far less than what engineers advising the Rogers businessmen believed the cost would be . Ultimately the " Great White Way " project failed , and Harvey blamed the community of Rogers for lack of support .
In 1913 he spearhead the founding of The Ozark Trails Association ( OTA ) to promote the building and education of quality highway design , but not actually building or funding them . At first , he was only interested in bringing people to Monte Ne , he stated : " My Personal interest in the Ozark Trails is that they all lead to Monte Ne " However , he seems to have taken on a more egalitarian opinion of the Ozark Trails as time went on because he later said : " My inclination runs toward doing something of a progressive nature that will promote the collective good , and I have now concentrated all that inclination on carrying out a system of roads known as the Ozark Trails . " The Ozark Trails Association became Harvey 's most successful endeavor . Interest in the project spread and membership swelled to 7 @,@ 000 delegates from states as far away as New Mexico . The group built large obelisks , listing the names of the benefactors , along the routes and trails that it sponsored . He even ran for congress on a platform of building a national highway system , but lost to John W. Tillman who had strong support in Washington County .
Interest in the group began to waver noticeably when Harvey finally stepped down as president at a 1920 convention in Pittsburg , Kansas that was attended by only 200 delegates . By the mid @-@ 1920s , highways and roads had become completely government @-@ funded and there was no longer a need for local sponsorship . The group 's system of giving them historic names and those of contributors had also become confusing and inefficient because of the myriad names and disputes over different names for the same stretch of roadway . So , the U.S. Bureau of Public Roads ( BPR ) changed all the roadways ' names to uniform numbers , despite fierce protest from the OTA . The group had lost its relevance and disbanded in 1924 , but many of the roads they helped develop became part of the historic U.S. Route 66 .
Another group , with no affiliation but with the same name , was created in the early 1970s to promote the maintenance of recreational trails in the Ozarks .
= = The Pyramid = =
By 1910 , Harvey was facing serious setbacks . Harvey 's son Hal had died in 1903 and was interred in a mausoleum in Monte Ne . His other son , Tom , had left in 1908 never to return . The next decade would not bring better news for Harvey either . Harvey and his wife , Anna , were now permanently estranged after 25 years of marriage . Harvey 's close friend William Jennings Bryan would fail to find a place for him in the new Woodrow Wilson administration . Harvey 's 1913 bid for the Third Congressional District of Arkansas would also fail . His Monte Ne was also failing . The railway had been sold and would be scrapped after World War I. The Bank of Monte Ne had also gone out of business . Faced with these severe dilemmas , Harvey had begun reasoning that the end of civilization was at hand . In February 1920 , he published Common Sense , in which Harvey announced his intention to leave a message for the future in the form of a pyramid .
Harvey did some deep research into the history of the Ozark Mountains . He claimed that they were some of the oldest mountains in the world and definitely the oldest in the United States . They had been untouched by volcanoes and earthquakes . He believed that the mountains around Monte Ne would eventually crumble and fill the valley with silt and sediment . Figuring that the mountains were approximately 240 ft ( 73 m ) high , Harvey planned to construct a massive concrete obelisk and its capstone would remain above the debris . Archaeologist in the distant future would be able to dig down and find the monument He called the project " The Pyramid " and dedicated the rest of his life to its construction .
The first part of the obelisk would be 40 ft ² ( 12 m ² ) and 10 feet ( 3 m ) high . It then would reduce to 32 ft ² ( 9 m ² ) square and rise 35 feet ( 11 m ) . The next segment would be 22 ft ² ( 6 m ² ) and would rise 85 feet ( 26 m ) to become 6 ft ² ( 1 @.@ 8 m ² ) at the top . The total height would be 130 feet ( 40 m ) . In the pedestal there would be 300 ft ² ( 91 m ² ) of floor space . Harvey 's books , explaining 20th century civilization , as well as a world globe , a bible , encyclopedias , and newspapers , were to be placed inside two vaults and hermetically sealed in glass . Harvey also wanted to place in this large room : " numerous small items now used in domestic and industrial life , from the size of a needle and safety pin up to a Victrola . " It was estimated that the construction would use 16 @,@ 000 bags of cement , 30 @,@ 000 ft ³ ( 850 m ³ ) of sand , 58 @,@ 000 ft ³ ( 1 @,@ 642 m ³ ) of gravel , and tons of corrugated steel reinforcement . The Portland Cement Association donated the service of one of its experts , who pronounced that the Pyramid would not deteriorate or suffer from erosion and would last for over a million years . To prevent water in the valley from interfering with the foundation and to shore up the low knoll to support the heavy Pyramid , Harvey constructed a 165 feet ( 50 m ) long retaining wall of stone and concrete .
He also built a roughly semi @-@ circular , terraced amphitheater at the foundation of the Pyramid which he called the " foyer " . He intended to rent this out and use the revenue for the pyramid project . The land for the amphitheater was first dug in late 1923 , and construction continued off and on for the next five years whenever financing , building materials , and labor were available . Unlike other Monte Ne building projects designed by architect A. O. Clark , the amphitheater apparently had no architectural input and was not built according to blueprints or a single design . Those who worked with Harvey noted that he seemed to just " work it out in his mind from day to day . " The result was a unique structure , irregular in formation , with seating capacity for anywhere from 500 to 1 @,@ 000 . The amphitheater averaged 20 feet ( 6 m ) high and 140 feet ( 43 m ) long . In the middle of the amphitheater was a small island with two concrete chairs and a concrete couch , intended for an orchestra to play or a speaker to make a presentation . Harvey dedicated the amphitheater before 500 people in 1928 .
Following the Egyptian mania that gripped the country after the discovery of King Tut 's tomb in 1922 , Harvey 's Pyramid project sparked a lot of interest and was widely reported throughout the US . Tens of thousands of people came to Monte Ne during the 1920s to see its progress . Harvey continued to raise funds from events held at the amphitheater , such as conventions .
Harvey moved his office to his cottage next to the amphitheater , as work continued on the Pyramid . In January 1929 , Harvey along with Lowell and H.L. Hardin of Kansas City incorporated the project creating The Pyramid Association . The association was to fulfill Harvey 's Pyramid plans in the event of his death . The estimated cost of the Pyramid itself was $ 75 @,@ 000 , but Harvey exhausted his funds on construction of the amphitheater . The stock market crash of 1929 ended all construction . In a last @-@ ditch effort to save the project , Harvey sent letters to wealthy men asking for funds to complete the project . In his letters he explained that civilization was dying and that only rich men , like the intended readers , could save it , if they could send money for his pyramid . Despite the fact that Harvey claimed his correspondence was " the most important letter ever written " he received no replies and the pyramid was never built . All that remains of the project is a retaining wall and the amphitheater that are under the waters of Beaver Lake most of the time .
= = Failure = =
As Harvey 's interests shifted to the Pyramid , Monte Ne 's resort days effectively ended and the number of visitors slowly dwindled . Activities and events at Monte Ne continued , supported by locals who still visited in large numbers . Harvey sold the Hotel Monte Ne . The hotel went through several name changes and owners , becoming the White Hotel circa 1912 , the Randola Inn in 1918 , the Hotel Frances in 1925 , and in 1930 the Sleepy Valley Hotel . Monte Ne 's larger hotels continued to be active after they , along with the dance pavilion and Elixir Spring , were foreclosed and sold at public auction . From 1927 to 1932 , Missouri Row and Oklahoma Row ( often called the Club House Hotels at this point ) were home to the Ozark Industrial College and School of Theology , a nonsectarian school run by Dan W. Evans . The hotels housed pupils — Missouri Row for boys , Oklahoma Row for girls — and Oklahoma Row also provided classroom and dining spaces . Evans and his family lived in the tower . The dance pavilion was enclosed and served as the school chapel . In May 1932 , following a mortgage foreclosure against the school , school officials were evicted and the property was sold .
After he announced the building of the Pyramid , at age 69 , Harvey began suffering a series of serious health problems , but continued to work tirelessly . In 1926 , blood poisoning in his foot put him in a coma that lasted several days resulting in surgery , and three months of recuperation . In 1929 he and Anna were finally divorced . Three days later Harvey married his long @-@ time personal secretary May Leake . In 1930 , he came down with double pneumonia . He was also going blind and needed younger people to read his letters and the newspaper to him .
Harvey returned to politics after the 1929 stock market crash and the beginning of the Great Depression . He decided to run for the presidency . He formed The Liberty Party and held their national convention at Monte Ne . It was the only presidential convention ever held in Arkansas . Harvey prepared with railroad excursion rates , media facilities , upgraded roads , and food concessions , anticipating 10 @,@ 000 delegates . He tented the amphitheater , set up seating , and installed an amplifier system to reach the thousands to be seated outside . Delegates were only eligible to attend if they certified they had read and agreed with the principles of Harvey 's newest book The Book , which dealt with the harmful effects of usury by the government . In the end only 786 delegates attended , and Harvey was the only candidate the delegates could agree on . They nominated Andrae Nordskog of Los Angeles for vice @-@ president . The Liberty Party ended up merging with the Jobless Party and Harvey ran for president as an independent , however he is usually incorrectly credited as being their candidate in that election . Regardless , Franklin Delano Roosevelt won the 1932 presidential election , and Harvey came in 6th with only 800 votes .
Harvey continued to publish his newsletter , The Liberty Bell , and sell his books as his health and eyesight continued to fail . On February 11 , 1936 he died at Monte Ne due to peritonitis after an attack of intestinal influenza . The tomb made to house his son in 1903 was blasted open and Harvey 's simple cheap pine casket and that of his son were placed in a glass casket filled with copies of Harvey 's books and some of his other papers . The tomb was then resealed . A small funeral was held on February 14 , 1936 , and a small plaque bearing the names and dates of the two Harveys was posted .
He died with a balance of $ 138 , debt of $ 3000 and no will . The courts decided that the property that was still deeded to the Pyramid foundation belonged to his widow , May , who sold it before moving to Springfield , Missouri , never to return . She died in 1948 .
= = After Harvey = =
The bank building was bought in 1944 by D. L. King of Rogers , who remodeled it and made it home to his Atlas Manufacturing Company which produced poultry equipment . However , King moved the business back to Rogers the next year . The building then stood idle , becoming victim to vandalism . All of its windows were smashed and it became covered in graffiti . Eventually , it was nothing more than an empty , roofless , concrete shell .
In 1944 , both Missouri and Oklahoma Row were sold to Springdale businessmen Roy Joyce and Jim Barrack . Missouri Row was torn down and sold in small lots . The roof tiles were bought by a Little Rock law firm . By 1956 , the building had collapsed , leaving only a small section standing .
Oklahoma Row continued to provide lodging , although it was run and managed by several different people . In June 1946 , Company G of the Arkansas State Guard held camp at Monte Ne for field training , using the hotel facilities . Access to Monte Ne improved a bit in August 1947 when the state highway department blacktopped 1 @.@ 4 miles ( 2 @.@ 25 km ) of the Monte Ne road . In January , six Monte Ne men were arrested for grand larceny , charged with stealing doors from Oklahoma Row and 500 feet ( 152 m ) of pipe from the swimming pool . A resident of the area , Iris Armstrong opened up a girls ' camp just east of the amphitheater in 1922 . She named it Camp Joyzelle after the Maurice Maeterlinck play of the same name . The camp made use of the amphitheater for plays and its cabins , named after Greek goddesses , dotted the hillside . Oklahoma Row was used in 1945 for lodging people who had come to visit the campers . It was used for this purpose up until 1962 as well as for social events and activities such as plays and campfire ceremonies . The camp also used the ticketing section of the old railroad depot for its main lodge and crafts building . In 1955 Dallas Barrack , a Springdale antique dealer , bought Oklahoma Row , and renovated it into an antique store called the Palace Art Galleries . He was to have carried " some of the finest antiques in the area " and believed that " the splendor of the old hotel only adds to their value . "
A Baptist church was organized at Monte Ne under the sponsorship of the Benton County Baptist Association as a result of a series of revival meetings conducted there . The Monte Ne Baptist Church is still active . For a time in the summer of 1946 , the Rogers Intermediate Girl Scouts held a camp at the Hotel Frances ( old Hotel Mont Ne ) . Although it was not as active as it once was , the old filling station and store in downtown Monte Ne continued to serve the local population .
The Monte Ne Inn , two to three miles ( 3 to 5 km ) away from where the resort was on highway 94 , opened in 1972 and is still in business .
In 1948 , W.T. McWhorter purchased Harvey 's former log home and office and the amphitheater nearby and turned it into a restaurant serving chicken , steak , and fish . There was also a concession stand at the amphitheater that operated until 1957 , selling drinks , candy , souvenirs , and pamphlets about Harvey .
In January 1957 , the Tulsa Daily World reported that 30 @,@ 000 tourists visited Monte Ne annually to see Harvey 's now deteriorating dream . The Arkansas State Historical Society held its 1960 annual meeting at Monte Ne and gathered at the amphitheater to hear Clara Kennan , a Rogers native and school teacher who had been fascinated by Monte Ne her whole life , give a talk on Harvey and his Pyramid project . Her oral history and interviews provide some of the best information on Harvey and Monte Ne .
= = Beaver Lake = =
Discussion of damming the White River for flood control began in the 1930s , and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers ( COE ) held hearings on building a dam in January 1946 . The new dam would create a lake 50 miles ( 80 km ) long , and one arm would extend to Monte Ne . Work on Beaver Dam began in 1960 as the COE impounded and bought land around the White River . In July 1962 , Mary Powell sold Camp Joyzelle to the COE , and W.T. McWhorten sold his land as well .
The Federal Government required that all cemeteries and burial grounds be moved . This included the Harvey tomb , and it was no easy task . In 1962 contractor Harald Mathis of Springdale took nine days to raze the 40 @-@ ton tomb and one to move it . The first attempt broke a flatbed truck . Another contractor from Huntsville with a stronger truck then had to be called in . A new road was laid to the new site of Harvey 's tomb . The tomb was placed on the crest of a hill donated by Harvey 's longtime friends and neighbors Mr. and Mrs. Kenneth Doescher . Today , the tomb sits on private property visible from the Monte Ne boat launch on Beaver Lake . Relocation of the aging tomb put pressure on it , causing it to crack .
The COE mistakenly believed that the waters of Beaver Lake would cover the area of the large hotels , so those parcels were added to the land they purchased for the project . Dallas Barrack , who owned Oklahoma Row , felt that he had been treated poorly and had received much less than his property was worth . The COE held a sealed @-@ bid auction and J.G. Gladdens purchased what was left of Missouri and Oklahoma Rows . He planned to move the remnants of Oklahoma Row out of the path of the rising lake waters . In order to do this , it was first necessary to remove the log portion or shell of the hotel . The original windows and doors were dismantled for the move and later reinstalled . The fireplaces , as well as all of the major stonework were later torn down . Also sold at auction were two massive concrete chairs that had been at the base of the amphitheater . They were bought by Mr. and Mrs. Ulis Rose of Rogers and were used to decorate the lawns of their Town and Country restaurant and motel . The chairs are still located in Rogers , however they now sit unceremoniously in Frisco Park without any plaque or marker indicating their significance . The concrete couch was left in place at the base of the amphitheater , because no one wanted to try to move it .
For years , stories circulated of a treasure being buried within the amphitheater . W.T. McWhorter was determined to find out if it was true , so he planned to dynamite the amphitheater on the day he was to transfer the deed to the COE . Spectators attended the planned explosion , but it was stopped just in time by COE attorney David Waid .
The dam was completed and Beaver Lake was at full height by June 1966 . For all intents and purposes , Harvey 's Monte Ne was gone . However , in times of drought , some of the structures become visible again . The lake dropped to its lowest level on January 22 , 1977 , more than 27 feet ( 8 m ) below its average depth , and the amphitheater and bridges were visible for the first time in more than 10 years . Before the water flooded downtown Monte Ne again the rest of the buildings were either bulldozed or moved to avoid problems for swimmers , boaters , and fishermen . The few bridges that spanned the lagoon and the amphitheater were not demolished .
In 2006 , the waters of Beaver Lake once again receded to their lowest level since 1984 , just above 1 @,@ 100 feet ( 335 m ) . This generated a new brief interest in Monte Ne and people were once again attracted to the edge of the lake to explore the remains . The upper part of the amphitheater and the retaining wall built for the never constructed pyramid were exposed for a time before being once again swallowed by the lake .
The flooded Monte Ne has become a site of interest for scuba divers who dive by the amphitheater to get a look at the submerged structure . The water is moderately clear and temperatures comfortable .
= = Remains = =
A log portion of the original Oklahoma Row was moved north and now sits on the east side of Highway 94 in Monte Ne . It is used for storage . The three @-@ story concrete @-@ and @-@ stone tower still stands and remains above water on the edge of Beaver Lake . This section is often incorrectly referred to as the bank building and the honeymoon suite . Monte Ne was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1978 because of the historic significance of being so closely associated with Harvey and its unique architecture and engineering . Despite this what is left of Monte Ne has fallen victim to severe neglect and vandalism . It is covered with spray paint and graffiti as well as being cracked and full of debris . In 2011 the fire department was called to help a person who had climbed to the top floor and gotten stuck in the chimney . Because of this incident and the general state of the remains , the Army Corps of Engineers erected a temporary barbed wire fence around the tower .
All that is left of Missouri Row is a four @-@ sided concrete fireplace surrounded by pieces of foundation , a few sets of stairs , metal plumbing , and a retaining wall . East of that , surrounding what is now the Monte Ne boat launch , are remnants of limestone structures . Some of these are foundations from the broad wooden staircase built in front of Hotel Monte Ne ; some are structural components for the twin stone bridges that crossed the lagoon and some are simply low retaining walls . The amphitheater and the retaining wall built for the Pyramid are underwater . Occasionally , when water levels drop in summer , they can be seen .
A few of the roads surrounding the area that was Monte Ne on the edge of Beaver Lake have names reflecting what once was there . Highway 94 , which once led to Monte Ne , is also called Monte Ne Road . Country Road 1195 which runs along the lake , is also called Pyramid Street and is a few hundred feet from where the Pyramid would have stood . Similarly Canal Street is nearby , named for the waterways that Harvey 's gondolas once traveled .
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= Eric Hosmer =
Eric John Hosmer ( born October 24 , 1989 ) is an American professional baseball first baseman for the Kansas City Royals of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He has played for the Royals since making his MLB debut on May 6 , 2011 .
A highly touted prospect coming out of American Heritage High School in Florida , Hosmer was described as a " left @-@ handed hitter with raw power " by scouts . He was drafted as the third overall pick in the 2008 MLB draft where he received a $ 6 million signing bonus . He advanced relatively quickly in minor league baseball , before debuting in MLB . He finished third in the Rookie of the Year ballot for the 2011 season after hitting .293 with 19 home runs in 128 games . He was the MVP of the 2016 MLB All @-@ Star game .
= = Early life = =
Hosmer 's father , Mike , is a retired firefighter , and his mother , Ileana , is a nurse . His mother was born in Cuba and came to the United States at the age of seven with her family to escape Fidel Castro 's regime , growing up in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . His parents met in 1979 when Mike was assigned to duty at Coral Gables Hospital in Coral Gables , Florida , where Illeana worked . They married four years later . Their first son Mike Jr. was born in 1985 , and Eric was born four years later in Miami .
Growing up in Cooper City , Hosmer credited his family for helping him succeed as a baseball player . He began playing baseball at an early age , using a Tony Gwynn teeball hitter to take practice swings . His father volunteered to do 48 @-@ hour shifts in a firehouse in Liberty City , a tough neighborhood in Miami , to focus on his son 's baseball games which he usually coached . The Hosmers traveled all over the state , and as far as Cooperstown , New York , home of the Baseball Hall of Fame , to play in baseball tournaments . At home , Hosmer watched Florida Marlins games to study the hitting techniques of the team players in order to improve his skills . His father helped him with batting practice after finishing long shifts at work , while his mother helped with his homework and taped every baseball game to evaluate Hosmer 's baseball ability and further hone his skills . By the time Hosmer reached high school , he worked out " close to seven hours a day " and mainly ate protein , which helped form his muscular build . Hosmer 's family hired Bladimir Marrero , a highly regarded hitting instructor and the father of Washington Nationals first baseman Chris Marrero , to help with their son 's skills . His brother Mike also played baseball , receiving a scholarship to Florida State University . He was never interested in becoming a professional baseball player , however , and currently is a stock broker in Miami .
= = High school career = =
By the time Hosmer was a teenager , he was a member of several Little League baseball squads that won a couple of state championships . He attended American Heritage School in Plantation , Florida . His parents selected American Heritage because of their rich baseball program , which was considered to be one of the best in the United States , despite the expensive tuition . By Hosmer 's sophomore year , he grew eight inches in size , becoming a powerful prep prospect . In his senior year , Hosmer hit .470 with 11 home runs , as the team was in the top 10 in USA Today 's Super 25 rankings for most of the year and won a state championship . He attracted twenty or more MLB and college scouts who evaluated Hosmer 's every move . Several of his amateur home runs had popularity in YouTube , which caught the attention of sports agent Scott Boras . He received many achievements while in high school including being named as Florida 's Baseball Player of the Year twice by the Miami Herald , a member of the Rawlings High School Gold Glove team , and the American Amateur Baseball Congress Connie Mack MVP award . Hosmer was offered a baseball scholarship to Arizona State University . Hosmer planned to attend Arizona State if negotiations with an MLB team did not go through .
He was named as one of the top five prep baseball players in the country by several scouting agencies by the time he graduated in 2008 , including number two by Rivals.com and third by both RISE Magazine and Sports Illustrated . As " one of high school baseball top power hitters " by scouts , and a consensus top 10 pick , Hosmer was chosen by the Royals in the first round ( third overall selection ) of the 2008 MLB draft . Hosmer remained unsigned for most of the summer while the Royals general manager Dayton Moore and Boras , operating as Hosmer 's agent , negotiated a deal . During negotiations , Hosmer helped lead his team based in Cincinnati , to a second @-@ place finish at the American Amateur Baseball Congress Connie Mack World Series . Both sides agreed to a contract ten minutes before the signing dateline for drafted players on August 15 , 2008 . He received a six million dollar signing bonus , the largest sum given to a draft pick in Royals history .
= = Minor leagues = =
Soon after signing his contract , the Royals assigned Hosmer , # 30 at the time , to the Idaho Falls Chukars of the rookie level Pioneer League in minor league baseball . Before reporting to the Chukars , Royals general manager Moore told reporters that Hosmer would not be " rushed " to reach the Majors , stating that he needs to advance though the Minor League hierarchy in his " own natural pace " . He played a handful of games with the Chukars before a contract dispute with another Boras client , Pittsburgh Pirates second overall pick Pedro Alvarez delayed Hosmer from playing with the team . Boras had claimed that Alvarez signed his contract after the August 15 deadline had passed , thus won 't report to the Pirates . The Major League Baseball Players Association filed a grievance stating that Hosmer 's contract was also signed past the deadline and that Major League Baseball extended the August 15 deadline without the association 's permission . Both sides settled the claim a month later , allowing Hosmer and Alvarez to join their respective teams . Hosmer never disputed his original contract . Instead of heading back to the Chukars , Hosmer was sent to the Arizona Fall League to train .
In Hosmer 's first full season in minor league ball , Hosmer was sent to the Burlington Bees in the Midwest League , the Royals ' other rookie league affiliate . At Burlington , Hosmer struggled at the plate . By June 1 , he hit only one home run in 31 games while leading the team in strikeouts . He missed some time with a left pinkie finger injury . At the end of the season , Hosmer hit .241 with six home runs . He later mentioned the 2009 season as " a tough year " . In 2010 , Hosmer was named the seventh best first base prospect by Scout.com. He started the season with the Royals ' Class A @-@ Advanced affiliate , the Wilmington Blue Rocks of the Carolina League. where his struggles continued . He was soon diagnosed with astigmatism , an eye condition and had laser surgery to correct the problem . Hosmer returned to the Blue Rocks a week later and his hitting significantly improved . By May 23 he was hitting .388 with a .571 slugging percentage . He played in the 2010 All @-@ Star Futures Game where he had four hits and two RBI in a 9 @-@ 1 victory . For his effort , Hosmer was promoted to the Northwest Arkansas Naturals of the Class AA Texas League on July 17 , where in his first at @-@ bat he hit a home run . During the playoffs Hosmer hit six home runs , which was individually , the second highest total in a single Texas League playoff series . The team went on to win the Texas League championship .
The Royals ' farm system was ranked number one in baseball entering the 2011 season , led by Hosmer and another top prospect , third baseman Mike Moustakas . Most baseball critics agreed that the Royals , a team that was known for mediocrity the past two decades , would be a contender within a couple of years , and they had nine prospects in Baseball America 's top 100 , a record for the publication . Hosmer was ranked as the best first baseman prospect in Major League Baseball prior to the 2011 season . He was also rated the eighth best overall prospect by Baseball America , and the top Royals prospect overall . So much hype was placed on the Royals that general manager Dayton Moore traded the team 's best player , Cy Young Award winner Zack Greinke to the Milwaukee Brewers for four top prospects , to focus on the team 's future . Hosmer began the season with the Royals Class AAA affiliate , the Omaha Storm Chasers of the Pacific Coast League ( PCL ) . When the Royals purchased Hosmer 's contract on May 5 , 2011 , he was leading the minor leagues with a .439 batting average and the PCL with 43 hits and a .525 on @-@ base percentage .
= = MLB career = =
The Royals recalled Hosmer on May 5 , 2011 . Veteran catcher Jason Kendall was moved to the 60 @-@ day disabled list to make space for Hosmer on the 40 @-@ man roster . He made his MLB debut at first base the following day against Oakland Athletics starter Gio Gonzalez , replacing Kila Ka 'aihue . Prior to his debut , Hosmer was being touted by journalists as a " super @-@ prospect " and the " most @-@ hyped " rookie to debut for the Royals since Bo Jackson . The Royals promoted Hosmer before a mid @-@ June deadline in which the Royals could have avoided salary arbitration for an extra year . Hosmer went hitless in two at @-@ bats , striking out twice . Hosmer also walked twice and stole a base in a 3 – 2 loss as the Royals had the second biggest crowd of the season .
On May 11 at Yankee Stadium , Hosmer started as the cleanup hitter for the Royals ; he hit his first MLB home run off Yankees pitcher A. J. Burnett . In his first month with the Royals , he hit .283 with five home runs and was named the Royals Player of the Month . His batting average fell 14 points by the end of June , with manager Ned Yost citing " impatience at the plate " . He hit a game @-@ winning two @-@ run home run against closer Matt Capps of the Minnesota Twins on July 16 . The home run led the Twins to replace Capps with Joe Nathan as its closer the next day . In the month of July , Hosmer was named the American League ( AL ) Rookie of the Month . He had five hits , including a three @-@ run home run against Brad Penny in a 10 – 2 win against the Detroit Tigers on September 20 . The next day , sportswriter Ian Casselberry of MLive.com called Hosmer a " Tiger killer " because of his statistics against the Tigers , which included a .346 batting average with four home runs that season . He led all rookies in most major batting categories for September , earning Hosmer a second Rookie of the Month award .
Hosmer finished third in AL Rookie of the Year voting behind Mark Trumbo of the Los Angeles Angels and winner Jeremy Hellickson of the Tampa Bay Rays . He hit .293 with 19 home runs and 73 runs batted in ( RBIs ) in 128 games . Yost praised Hosmer , and another rookie , catcher Salvador Pérez , calling them " future perennial All @-@ Star players " .
On February 18 , 2012 , the Royals announced they had signed Hosmer to a one @-@ year contract for the 2012 season . No financial terms of the deal were released . During spring training , Hosmer led all players with 29 RBIs and had a slugging percentage of .714 . Discussing Hosmer 's spring training , Royals Hall of Famer George Brett said , " He 's a baseball player ... He acts like a baseball player . And boy , he 's going to be a damn good one , too . " By opening day , the Kansas City media was hyping Hosmer as the " face of the franchise " , the city " next future sports star " , among other commentary after his performance last year . He started at first base on opening day against the L.A. Angels , going 0 @-@ for @-@ 4 . He hit a home run in a 6 @-@ 3 victory the next day but later struggled , hitting below .200 for the first couple of weeks of the season as the Royals endured an 11 @-@ game losing streak entering April 24 . He ended the season with a .232 / .304 / .359 slash line to go along with 14 home runs and 60 RBIs . In 2013 his defense earned him his first Gold Glove award .
On July 20 , 2014 , in a game against the Boston Red Sox , Hosmer was hit in the hand by a pitch from Jon Lester . At first , he was only day @-@ to @-@ day with a bruised hand . However , on July 31 , in a game against the Minnesota Twins , he aggravated the injury on a checked swing in the fourth inning . X @-@ rays revealed a displaced fracture of the third finger on his right hand . Hosmer missed four weeks due to the injury . He finished the season batting .270 , 9 home runs and 58 runs batted in .
In the 2014 postseason , Hosmer helped lead the Royals to a record @-@ setting run , winning three consecutive extra @-@ inning games . After getting on base five times in the wildcard game against the Oakland A 's , Hosmer also slammed a game @-@ winning , two @-@ run homer in Game 2 of the ALDS against the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim . In doing so , the first baseman became the first player in MLB history to hit both a triple and a home run during extra innings in one year 's postseason .
In the early morning hours of October 6 , after the Royals had completed their sweep of the Angels , Hosmer posted on Twitter , inviting Kansas City fans to come out celebrate with him at a downtown bar , the Power and Light District . Eventually , it was reported , " ... ( h ) ordes showed up , and many of the fans ended up with free drinks as Hosmer ... decided to help pay for an open bar for an hour . With several teammates , he also sprayed some champagne into the crowd . "
On February 18 , 2015 , Hosmer and the Royals agreed to a $ 13 @.@ 9 million , two @-@ year contract . Hosmer gets $ 5 @.@ 65 million during the 2015 season and $ 8 @.@ 25 million during the 2016 season , and will be eligible for arbitration again in 2017 . He will not be eligible for free agency until 2018 . During the 2015 season , Hosmer had a career year with a .297 batting average , with 18 home runs and 93 RBIs . Hosmer also recorded the final putout of the AL Central and the American League Championship Series clinching games . On October 23 , Hosmer tied George Brett for the most RBIs in the postseason ( 23 ) in Royals ' franchise history when he singled Lorenzo Cain home from first base representing the go @-@ ahead run in Game 6 of the ALCS . In Game 1 of the 2015 World Series , Hosmer overtook Brett 's record for the most RBIs in the postseason with a walk @-@ off sacrifice fly to bring in Alcides Escobar in the 14th inning , representing Hosmer 's 25th postseason RBI and helping atone for an eighth @-@ inning error that helped the Mets take a one @-@ run lead . Hosmer starred again in game 2 with two hits , a run scored , and two RBIs to help the Royals take a 7 @-@ 1 win and a 2 @-@ 0 series lead . On November 1 , 2015 Hosmer scored the tying run in the 9th inning which eventually led to the Royals win in game 5 of the World Series
Hosmer won his third consecutive Gold Glove Award in 2015 .
On July 12 , 2016 , Hosmer was named the 2016 MLB All @-@ Star Game MVP in San Diego . In the second inning of the All @-@ Star Game , Hosmer hit the game @-@ tying home run off of Johnny Cueto .
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= HMS Lion ( 1910 ) =
HMS Lion was a battlecruiser of the Royal Navy , the lead ship of her class , which were nicknamed the " Splendid Cats " . They were significant improvements over their predecessors of the Indefatigable class in terms of speed , armament and armour . The Lion @-@ class ships were 2 knots ( 3 @.@ 7 km / h ; 2 @.@ 3 mph ) faster , exchanged the 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns of the older ships for the same number of 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 343 mm ) guns , and had a waterline belt 9 inches ( 229 mm ) thick versus the 6 inches ( 152 mm ) of the Indefatigables . This was in response to the first German battlecruisers , the Moltke class , which were very much larger and more powerful than the first British battlecruisers , the Invincible class .
Lion served as the flagship of the Grand Fleet 's battlecruisers throughout World War I , except when she was being refitted or under repair . She sank the German light cruiser Cöln during the Battle of Heligoland Bight and served as Vice Admiral Beatty 's flagship at the battles of Dogger Bank and Jutland . She was so badly damaged at the first of these battles that she had to be towed back to port by the battlecruiser Indomitable and was under repair for more than two months . During the Battle of Jutland she suffered a serious propellant fire that could have destroyed the ship had it not been for the bravery of Royal Marine Major Francis Harvey , the turret commander , who posthumously received the Victoria Cross for having ordered the magazine flooded . The fire destroyed one gun turret which had to be removed for rebuilding while she was under repair for several months . She spent the rest of the war on uneventful patrols in the North Sea , although she did provide distant cover during the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight in 1917 . She was put into reserve in 1920 and sold for scrap in 1924 under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty .
= = Design = =
The Lion @-@ class battlecruisers were designed to be as superior to the new German battlecruisers of the Moltke class as the German ships were to the Invincible class . The increase in speed , armour and gun size forced a 65 % increase in size over the Indefatigable class and made them the largest warships in the world .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Lion was significantly larger than her predecessors of the Indefatigable class . She had an overall length of 700 feet ( 210 m ) , a beam of 88 feet 6 @.@ 75 inches ( 27 @.@ 0 m ) , and a draught of 32 feet 5 inches ( 9 @.@ 88 m ) at deep load . She displaced 26 @,@ 270 long tons ( 26 @,@ 692 t ) at load and 30 @,@ 820 long tons ( 31 @,@ 315 t ) at deep load . Lion was 110 feet ( 33 @.@ 5 m ) longer and displaced 8 @,@ 000 long tons ( 8 @,@ 100 t ) more than the earlier ships . She had a metacentric height of 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) at deep load .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Lion had two paired sets of Parsons direct @-@ drive steam turbines housed in separate engine @-@ rooms . Each set consisted of high @-@ pressure ahead and astern turbines driving an outboard shaft and a low @-@ pressure turbine driving an inner shaft . A cruising stage was built into the casing of each high @-@ pressure ahead turbine . Her three @-@ bladed propellers were 12 feet 3 inches ( 3 @.@ 73 m ) in diameter on the inner shafts while the outer propellers were 11 feet 8 inches ( 3 @.@ 56 m ) in diameter . The turbines were powered by 42 Yarrow water @-@ tube boilers in seven boiler rooms . The turbines were designed to produce a total of 70 @,@ 000 shp ( 52 @,@ 199 kW ) , but achieved more than 76 @,@ 000 shp ( 56 @,@ 673 kW ) during her trials , although she did not exceed her designed speed of 28 knots ( 32 mph ; 52 km / h ) .
She carried 3 @,@ 500 long tons ( 3 @,@ 600 t ) of coal , and an additional 1 @,@ 135 long tons ( 1 @,@ 153 t ) of fuel oil that was to be sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . At full capacity , she could steam for 5 @,@ 610 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 390 km ; 6 @,@ 460 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
Lion mounted eight BL 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Mk V guns in four twin hydraulically powered BII turrets , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' Q ' and ' X ' from front to rear . Her secondary armament consisted of sixteen BL 4 @-@ inch Mark VII guns , most of which were mounted in casemates . The two guns mounted above the forward group of casemates were given gun shields during 1913 – 14 to better protect the gun crews from weather and enemy action . The starboard forward group of four @-@ inch guns was removed after April 1917 .
She was built without anti @-@ aircraft guns , but a single QF 6 pounder Hotchkiss gun on a HA Mark Ic mounting was fitted from October 1914 to July 1915 . This had a maximum depression of 8 ° and a maximum elevation of 60 ° . It fired a 6 @-@ pound ( 2 @.@ 7 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 765 ft / s ( 538 m / s ) at a rate of fire of 20 rounds per minute . It had a maximum ceiling of 10 @,@ 000 ft ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) , but an effective range of only 1 @,@ 200 yards ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) . A single QF 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) AA gun on a high @-@ angle Mark II mount was added in January 1915 , and another in the following July . These had a maximum depression of 10 ° and a maximum elevation of 90 ° . The gun fired a 12 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 5 @.@ 7 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 500 ft / s ( 760 m / s ) at a rate of 12 – 14 rounds per minute . It had a maximum effective ceiling of 23 @,@ 500 ft ( 7 @,@ 200 m ) . Two 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) submerged torpedo tubes were fitted on the beam ; fourteen torpedoes were carried .
= = = Armour = = =
The armour protection given to the Lions was heavier than that of the Indefatigables ; their waterline belt of Krupp armour measured 9 inches ( 229 mm ) thick amidships in contrast to the 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) belt of their predecessors . It thinned to four inches towards the ships ' ends , but did not reach either the bow or the stern . The upper armour belt had a maximum thickness of six inches over the same length as the thickest part of the waterline armour and thinned to 5 inches ( 127 mm ) abreast the end turrets . The gun turrets and barbettes were protected by 8 to 9 inches ( 203 to 229 mm ) of armour , except for the turret roofs which used 2 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 25 inches ( 64 to 83 mm ) . The thickness of the nickel steel deck ranged from 1 to 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 25 to 64 mm ) . Nickel steel torpedo bulkheads 2 @.@ 5 inches thick were fitted abreast the magazine and shell rooms . After the Battle of Jutland revealed her vulnerability to plunging shellfire , one inch of additional armour , weighing approximately 100 long tons ( 102 t ) , was added to the magazine crowns and turret roofs .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
Lion received a fire @-@ control director between mid @-@ 1915 and May 1916 that centralised the pointing and firing of the guns under the command of the light aloft tower positioned on the foremast . The turret crewmen merely had to follow pointers controlled by the director to align their guns on the target . This greatly increased accuracy as it was easier to spot the fall of shells and eliminated the problem of the ship 's roll dispersing the shells as each turret fired individually .
By early 1918 Lion carried a Sopwith Pup and a Sopwith 1 ½ Strutter on flying @-@ off ramps fitted on top of ' Q ' and ' X ' turrets . Each platform had a canvas hangar to protect the aircraft during inclement weather .
= = Service = =
= = = Pre @-@ war career = = =
Lion was laid down at the Devonport Dockyard , Plymouth , on 29 November 1909 . She was launched on 6 August 1910 and was commissioned on 4 June 1912 . Upon commissioning , Lion became the flagship of the 1st Cruiser Squadron , which in January 1913 was renamed the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron ( BCS ) . Rear Admiral Beatty assumed command of the 1st BCS on 1 March 1913 . Lion , along with the rest of the 1st BCS , made a port visit to Brest in February 1914 and the squadron visited Russia in June , where Lion entertained the Russian imperial family aboard while in Kronstadt .
= = = World War I = = =
= = = = Battle of Heligoland Bight = = = =
Lion 's first action was as flagship of the battlecruiser force under the command of Admiral Beatty during the Battle of Heligoland Bight on 28 August 1914 . Beatty 's ships had originally been intended as distant support of the British cruisers and destroyers closer to the German coast in case the large ships of the High Seas Fleet sortied in response to the British attacks . They turned south at full speed at 11 : 35 am when the British light forces failed to disengage on schedule and the rising tide meant that German capital ships would be able to clear the bar at the mouth of the Jade Estuary . The brand @-@ new light cruiser Arethusa had been crippled earlier in the battle and was under fire from the German light cruisers Strassburg and Cöln when Beatty 's battlecruisers loomed out of the mist at 12 : 37 pm . Strassburg was able to duck into the mists and evade fire , but Cöln remained visible and was quickly crippled by fire from the squadron . Beatty , however , was distracted from the task of finishing her off by the sudden appearance of the elderly light cruiser Ariadne directly to his front . He turned in pursuit and reduced her to a flaming hulk in only three salvos at close range – under 6 @,@ 000 yards ( 5 @.@ 5 km ) . At 1 : 10 pm Beatty turned north and made a general signal to retire . Beatty 's main body encountered the crippled Cöln shortly after turning north and she was sunk by two salvos from Lion .
= = = = Raid on Scarborough = = = =
The German Navy had decided on a strategy of bombarding British towns on the North Sea coast to draw out the Royal Navy and destroy elements of it in detail . An earlier Raid on Yarmouth on 3 November had been partially successful , but a larger @-@ scale operation was devised by Admiral Franz von Hipper afterwards . The fast battlecruisers would actually conduct the bombardment while the entire High Seas Fleet was to station itself east of Dogger Bank to provide cover for their return and to destroy any elements of the Royal Navy that responded to the raid . But what the Germans did not know was that the British were reading the German naval codes and were planning to catch the raiding force on its return journey , although they were not aware that the High Seas Fleet would be at sea as well . Admiral Beatty 's 1st BCS , now reduced to four ships , including Lion , as well as Vice Admiral Sir George Warrender 's 2nd Battle Squadron with six dreadnoughts , was detached from the Grand Fleet in an attempt to intercept the Germans near Dogger Bank .
Admiral Hipper set sail on 15 December 1914 for another such raid and successfully bombarded several English towns , but British destroyers escorting the 1st BCS had already encountered German destroyers of the High Seas Fleet at 5 : 15 am and fought an inconclusive action with them . Warrender had received a signal at 5 : 40 that the destroyer Lynx was engaging enemy destroyers although Beatty had not . The destroyer Shark spotted the German armoured cruiser Roon and her escorts at about 7 : 00 , but could not transmit the message until 7 : 25 . Admiral Warrender received the signal , as did the battlecruiser New Zealand , but Beatty did not , despite the fact that New Zealand had been specifically tasked to relay messages between the destroyers and Beatty . Warrender attempted to pass on Shark 's message to Beatty at 7 : 36 , but did not manage to make contact until 7 : 55 . Beatty reversed course when he got the message and dispatched New Zealand to search for Roon . She was being overhauled by New Zealand when Beatty received messages that Scarborough was being shelled at 9 : 00 . Beatty ordered New Zealand to rejoin the squadron and turned west for Scarborough .
The British forces split going around the shallow Southwest Patch of the Dogger Bank ; Beatty 's ships passed to the north while Warrender passed to the south as they headed west to block the main route through the minefields defending the English coast . This left a 15 @-@ nautical @-@ mile ( 28 km ) gap between them through which the German light forces began to move . At 12 : 25 , the light cruisers of the II Scouting Group began to pass the British forces searching for Hipper . The light cruiser Southampton spotted the light cruiser Stralsund and signalled a report to Beatty . At 12 : 30 Beatty turned his battlecruisers towards the German ships . Beatty presumed that the German cruisers were the advance screen for Hipper 's ships , however , those were some 50 km ( 31 mi ) behind . The 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron , which had been screening for Beatty 's ships , detached to pursue the German cruisers , but a misinterpreted signal from the British battlecruisers sent them back to their screening positions . This confusion allowed the German light cruisers to escape , and alerted Hipper to the location of the British battlecruisers . The German battlecruisers wheeled to the northeast of the British forces and made good their escape .
= = = = Battle of Dogger Bank = = = =
On 23 January 1915 , a force of German battlecruisers under the command of Admiral Franz von Hipper sortied to clear the Dogger Bank of any British fishing boats or small craft that might be there to collect intelligence on German movements . However , the British were reading their coded messages and sailed to intercept them with a larger force of British battlecruisers under the command of Admiral Beatty . Contact was initiated at 7 : 20 am on the 24th when the British light cruiser Arethusa spotted the German light cruiser SMS Kolberg . By 7 : 35 the Germans had spotted Beatty 's force and Hipper ordered a turn to the south at 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) , believing that this would suffice if the ships that he saw to his northwest were British battleships and that he could always increase speed to Blücher 's maximum speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) if they were British battlecruisers .
Beatty ordered his battlecruisers to make all practicable speed to catch the Germans before they could escape . The leading ships , Lion , her sister Princess Royal and Tiger , were doing 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) in pursuit and Lion opened fire at 8 : 52 at a range of 20 @,@ 000 yards ( 18 @,@ 000 m ) . The other ships followed a few minutes later but , hampered by the extreme range and decreasing visibility , they did not score their first hit on Blücher until 9 : 09 . The German battlecruisers opened fire themselves a few minutes later at 9 : 11 , at a range of 18 @,@ 000 yards ( 16 @,@ 000 m ) , and concentrated their fire on Lion . They first hit her at 9 : 28 on the waterline with a shell that flooded a coal bunker . Shortly afterwards a 21 @-@ centimetre ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) shell from Blücher hit the roof of ' A ' turret , denting it and knocking out the left gun for two hours . At 9 : 35 Beatty signalled ' Engage the corresponding ships in the enemy 's line ' , but Tiger 's captain , believing that Indomitable was already engaging Blücher , fired at Seydlitz , as did Lion , which left Moltke unengaged and able to continue to engage Lion without risk . However , Lion scored the first serious hit of the battle when one of her shells penetrated the working chamber of Seydlitz 's rear barbette at 9 : 40 and ignited the propellant lying exposed . The resulting fire spread into the other turret and burnt out both of them , killing 159 men . Seydlitz returned the damage at 10 : 01 with a 283 @-@ millimetre ( 11 @.@ 1 in ) shell that ricocheted off the water and pierced Lion 's five @-@ inch armour aft , although it failed to explode . However , the resulting 24 @-@ by @-@ 18 @-@ inch ( 610 by 460 mm ) hole flooded the low power switchboard compartment and eventually shorted out two of Lion 's three dynamos . Derfflinger scored the most telling hits on Lion at 10 : 18 when two 305 @-@ millimetre ( 12 in ) shells struck her port side below the waterline . The shock was so great that her captain , Ernle Chatfield , thought that she had been torpedoed . One shell pierced the five @-@ inch armour forward and burst in a wing compartment behind the armour . It drove in a 30 @-@ by @-@ 24 @-@ inch ( 760 by 610 mm ) piece of armour and flooded a number of compartments adjacent to the torpedo flat and the torpedo body room . One splinter put a hole in the exhaust pipe of the capstan engine which eventually contaminated the auxiliary condenser with salt water . The other shell hit further aft and burst on the six @-@ inch portion of the waterline belt . It drove in two armour plates about 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) and flooded some of the lower coal bunkers . At 10 : 41 a 283 mm shell burst against the eight @-@ inch armour of ' A ' barbette , but only started a small fire in the ' A ' turret lobby that was quickly put out , although the magazine was partially flooded when a false report was received that it was on fire as well . Soon afterwards Lion was hit by a number of shells in quick succession , but only one of these was serious . A shell burst on the nine @-@ inch armour belt abreast the engine room and drove a 16 @-@ by @-@ 5 @.@ 75 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 88 by 1 @.@ 75 m ) armour plate about two feet inboard and ruptured the port engine 's feedwater tank . By 10 : 52 Lion had been hit fourteen times and had taken aboard some 3 @,@ 000 long tons ( 3 @,@ 000 t ) of water which gave her a list of 10 ° to port and reduced her speed . Shortly afterwards her port engine broke down and her speed dropped to 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) .
In the meantime Blücher had been heavily damaged by fire from all the other battlecruisers ; her speed had dropped to 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) and her steering gear had been jammed . Beatty ordered Indomitable to attack her at 10 : 48 am . Six minutes later Beatty spotted what he thought was a submarine periscope on the starboard bow and ordered an immediate 90 ° turn to port to avoid the submarine , although he failed to hoist the ' Submarine Warning ' flag because most of Lion 's signal halyards had been shot away . Almost immediately afterwards Lion lost her remaining dynamo to the rising water which knocked out all remaining light and power . He ordered ' Course Northeast ' at 11 : 02 to bring his ships back to their pursuit of Hipper . He also hoisted ' Attack the rear of the enemy ' on the other halyard although there was no connection between the two signals . This caused Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Gordon Moore , temporarily commanding in New Zealand , to think that the signals meant to attack Blücher , which was about 8 @,@ 000 yards ( 7 @,@ 300 m ) to the northeast , so they turned away from the pursuit of Hipper 's main body and engaged Blücher . Beatty tried to correct the mistake , but he was so far behind the leading battlecruisers that his signals could not be read amidst the smoke and haze .
Lion 's starboard engine was temporarily shut down due to contaminated feed water , but it was restarted and Lion headed home at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) when the rest of the battlecruisers caught up with her around 12 : 45 . At 2 : 30 the starboard engine began to fail and her speed was reduced to 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) . Indomitable was ordered to tow Lion back to port at 3 : 00 , but it took two hours and two tries before she could start to tow Lion , and a further day @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half to reach port at speeds of 7 – 10 knots ( 13 – 19 km / h ; 8 @.@ 1 – 11 @.@ 5 mph ) , even after Lion 's starboard engine was temporarily repaired .
Lion was temporarily repaired at Rosyth with timber and concrete before sailing to Newcastle upon Tyne to be repaired by Palmers ; the Admiralty did not wish it known that she was damaged badly enough to require repair at either Portsmouth or Devonport Dockyards lest that be seen as a sign of defeat . She was heeled 8 ° to starboard with four cofferdams in place between 9 February and 28 March to repair about 1 @,@ 500 square feet ( 140 m2 ) of bottom plating and replace five armour plates and their supporting structure . She rejoined the Battlecruiser Fleet , again as Beatty 's flagship , on 7 April . She had fired 243 rounds from her main guns , but had only made four hits : one each on Blücher and Derfflinger , and two on Seydlitz . In return she had been hit by the Germans sixteen times , but only suffered one man killed and twenty wounded .
= = = = Battle of Jutland = = = =
On 31 May 1916 Lion was the flagship of Admiral Beatty 's Battlecruiser Fleet which had put to sea to intercept a sortie by the High Seas Fleet into the North Sea . The British were able to decode the German radio messages and left their bases before the Germans put to sea . Hipper 's battlecruisers spotted the Battlecruiser Fleet to their west at 3 : 20 pm , but Beatty 's ships did not spot the Germans to their east until 3 : 30 . Almost immediately afterwards , at 3 : 32 , he ordered a course change to east south @-@ east to position himself astride the Germans ' line of retreat and called his ships ' crews to action stations . Hipper ordered his ships to turn to starboard , away from the British , to assume a south @-@ easterly course , and reduced speed to 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) to allow three light cruisers of the 2nd Scouting Group to catch up . With this turn Hipper was falling back on the High Seas Fleet , then about 60 miles ( 97 km ) behind him . Around this time Beatty altered course to the east as it was quickly apparent that he was still too far north to cut off Hipper .
This began what was to be called the ' Run to the South ' as Beatty changed course to steer east south @-@ east at 3 : 45 , paralleling Hipper 's course , now that the range closed to under 18 @,@ 000 yards ( 16 @,@ 000 m ) . The Germans opened fire first at 3 : 48 , followed almost immediately afterward by the British . The British ships were still in the process of making their turn as only the two leading ships , Lion and Princess Royal , had steadied on their course when the Germans opened fire . The German fire was accurate from the beginning , but the British overestimated the range as the German ships blended into the haze . Lion , as the leading British ship , engaged Lützow , her opposite number in the German formation . Lützow 's fire was very accurate , and Lion was hit twice within three minutes of the Germans ' opening fire . By 3 : 54 the range was down to 12 @,@ 900 yards ( 11 @,@ 800 m ) , and Beatty ordered a course change two points to starboard to open up the range at 3 : 57 . Lion scored her first hit on Lützow two minutes later , but Lützow returned the favour at 4 : 00 when one of her 305 mm shells hit ' Q ' turret at a range of 16 @,@ 500 yards ( 15 @,@ 100 m ) . The shell penetrated the joint between the nine @-@ inch turret face plate and the 3 @.@ 5 @-@ inch roof and detonated over the center of the left @-@ hand gun . It blew the front roof plate and the center face plate off the turret , killed or wounded everyone in the turret , and started a fire that smouldered , despite efforts to put it out that had been thought to have been successful . Accounts of subsequent events differ , but the magazine doors had been closed and the magazine flooded when the smouldering fire ignited the eight full propellant charges in the turret working room at 4 : 28 . They burned violently , with the flames reaching as high as the masthead , and killed most of the magazine and shell room crews still in the lower part of the mounting . The gas pressure severely buckled the magazine doors , and it is probable that the magazine would have exploded if it had not already been flooded . Royal Marine Major Francis Harvey , the mortally wounded turret commander , was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross for having ordered the magazine flooded .
At 4 : 11 pm Lion observed the track of a torpedo fired by Moltke pass astern , but it was thought that the torpedo was fired by a U @-@ boat on the disengaged side . This was confirmed when the destroyer Landrail reported having spotted a periscope before the torpedo tracks were seen . The range had grown too far for accurate shooting so Beatty altered course four points to port to close the range again between 4 : 12 and 4 : 15 . This resulted in Lion hitting Lützow again at 4 : 14 , but Lützow hit Lion several times in return shortly afterwards . The smoke and haze from these hits caused Lützow to lose sight of Lion , and she switched her fire to Queen Mary at 4 : 16 . By 4 : 25 the range was down to 14 @,@ 400 yards ( 13 @,@ 200 m ) , and Beatty turned two points to starboard to open the range again . However , it was too late for Queen Mary , which was hit multiple times in quick succession about that time , and her forward magazines exploded . At 4 : 30 the light cruiser Southampton , scouting in front of Beatty 's ships , spotted the lead elements of the High Seas Fleet charging north at top speed . Three minutes later she sighted the topmasts of Vice @-@ Admiral Reinhard Scheer 's battleships , but did not transmit a message to Beatty for another five minutes . Beatty continued south for another two minutes to confirm the sighting himself before ordering a sixteen @-@ point turn to starboard in succession .
Lion was hit twice more , during what came to be called the ' Run to the North ' , after the German battlecruisers made their own turn north . Beatty 's ships maintained full speed to try to put some separation between them and the High Seas Fleet and gradually moved out of range . They turned north and then northeast to try to rendezvous with the main body of the Grand Fleet . At 5 : 40 pm they opened fire again on the German battlecruisers . The setting sun blinded the German gunners , and they could not make out the British ships and turned away to the northeast at 5 : 47 . Beatty gradually turned more towards the east to allow him to cover the deployment of the Grand Fleet into its battle formation and to move ahead of it , but he mistimed his manoeuvre and forced the leading division to fall off towards the east , further away from the Germans . By 6 : 35 Beatty was following the 3rd BCS as they were steering east @-@ southeast , leading the Grand Fleet , and continuing to engage Hipper 's battlecruisers to their southwest . A few minutes earlier Scheer had ordered a simultaneous 180 ° starboard turn , and Beatty lost sight of them in the haze . At 6 : 44 Beatty turned his ships southeast and to the south @-@ southeast four minutes later searching for Hipper 's ships . Beatty took this opportunity to recall the two surviving ships of the 3rd BCS to take position astern of New Zealand and then slowed down to eighteen knots and altered course to the south to prevent himself from getting separated from the Grand Fleet . At this moment Lion 's gyrocompass failed , and she made a complete circle before her steering was brought under control again . At 6 : 55 Scheer ordered another 180 ° turn , which put them on a converging course again with the Grand Fleet , which had altered course itself to the south . This allowed the Grand Fleet to cross Scheer 's T , and they badly damaged his leading ships . Scheer ordered yet another 180 ° turn at 7 : 13 in an attempt to extricate the High Seas Fleet from the trap into which he had sent them .
This manoeuvre was successful , and the British lost sight of the Germans until 8 : 05 pm , when Castor spotted smoke bearing west @-@ northwest . Ten minutes later she had closed the range enough to identify German torpedo boats and had engaged them . Beatty turned west upon hearing the sounds of gunfire and spotted the German battlecruisers only 8 @,@ 500 yards ( 7 @,@ 800 m ) away . Inflexible opened fire at 8 : 20 , followed almost immediately by the rest of Beatty 's battlecruisers . Shortly after 8 : 30 the pre @-@ dreadnought battleships of Rear Admiral Mauve 's II Battle Squadron were spotted and fire switched to them . The Germans were able to fire only a few rounds at them because of the poor visibility and turned away to the west . The British battlecruisers hit the German ships several times before they blended into the haze around 8 : 40 . After this Beatty changed course to south @-@ southeast and maintained that course , ahead of both the Grand Fleet and the High Seas Fleet , until 2 : 55 the next morning when the order was given to reverse course .
Lion and the rest of the battlecruisers reached Rosyth on the morning of 2 June 1916 where she began repairs that lasted until 19 July . The remains of ' Q ' turret were removed during this period and not replaced until later . She had been hit a total of fourteen times and suffered 99 dead and 51 wounded during the battle . She fired 326 rounds from her main guns , but can only be credited with four hits on Lützow and one on Derfflinger . She also fired seven torpedoes , four at the German battleships , two at Derfflinger and one at the light cruiser Wiesbaden without success .
= = = Post @-@ Jutland career = = =
She rejoined the Battlecruiser Fleet , again as Beatty 's flagship , on 19 July 1916 without ' Q ' turret , but then had the turret replaced during a visit to Armstrong Whitworth at Elswick that lasted from 6 to 23 September . In the meantime , on the evening of 18 August the Grand Fleet put to sea in response to a message deciphered by Room 40 which indicated that the High Seas Fleet , less the II Squadron , would be leaving harbour that night . The German objective was to bombard Sunderland on the 19th , with extensive reconnaissance provided by airships and submarines . The Grand Fleet sailed with 29 dreadnought battleships and six battlecruisers . Throughout the 19th , Jellicoe and Scheer received conflicting intelligence , with the result that having reached its rendezvous in the North Sea , the Grand Fleet steered north in the erroneous belief that it had entered a minefield before turning south again . Scheer steered south @-@ eastward pursuing a lone British battle squadron reported by an airship , which was in fact the Harwich Force under Commodore Tyrwhitt . Having realised their mistake the Germans then shaped course for home . The only contact came in the evening when Tyrwhitt sighted the High Seas Fleet but was unable to achieve an advantageous attack position before dark , and broke off contact . Both the British and the German fleets returned home , the British having lost two cruisers to submarine attacks and the Germans having a dreadnought damaged by torpedo .
Lion became the flagship of Vice @-@ Admiral W. C. Pakenham in December 1916 when he assumed command of the Battlecruiser Fleet upon Beatty 's promotion to command of the Grand Fleet . Lion had an uneventful time for the rest of the war , conducting patrols of the North Sea as the High Seas Fleet was forbidden to risk any more losses . She provided support for British light forces involved in the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight on 17 November 1917 , but never came within range of any German forces . The 1st BCS , including Lion , sailed on 12 December in a futile attempt to intercept the German destroyers that had sunk the convoy en route to Norway earlier that day , but returned to base the following day . Lion , along with the rest of the Grand Fleet , sortied on the afternoon of 23 March 1918 after radio transmissions had revealed that the High Seas Fleet was at sea after a failed attempt to intercept the regular British convoy to Norway . However , the Germans were too far ahead of the British and escaped without firing a shot . When the High Seas Fleet sailed for Scapa Flow on 21 November 1918 to be interned , she was among the escorting ships . Along with the rest of the 1st BCS she guarded the interned ships until she was assigned to the Atlantic Fleet in April 1919 and then placed in reserve in March 1920 . Paid off on 30 March 1922 , despite a press campaign to have her saved for the nation as a memorial , Lion was sold for scrap on 31 January 1924 for £ 77 @,@ 000 to meet the tonnage limitations of the Washington Naval Treaty .
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= HMS Foresight ( H68 ) =
HMS Foresight was one of nine F @-@ class destroyers built for the Royal Navy during the 1930s . She was assigned to the Home Fleet upon completion . Unlike her sister ships , she does not appear to have been attached to the Mediterranean Fleet in 1935 – 36 during the Abyssinia Crisis , nor did she enforce the arms blockade imposed by Britain and France on both sides of the conflict the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 1939 . The ship escorted the larger ships of the fleet during the early stages of World War II and played a minor role in the Norwegian Campaign of 1940 . Foresight was sent to Gibraltar in mid @-@ 1940 and formed part of Force H where she participated in the attack on Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir and the Battle of Dakar . The ship escorted numerous convoys to Malta in 1941 and Arctic convoys during 1942 . Later that year , Foresight participated in Operation Pedestal , another convoy to Malta . She was torpedoed by an Italian aircraft on 12 August and had to be scuttled the next day .
= = Description = =
The F @-@ class ships were repeats of the preceding E @-@ class destroyers . They displaced 1 @,@ 405 long tons ( 1 @,@ 428 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 940 long tons ( 1 @,@ 970 t ) at deep load . The ships had an overall length of 329 feet ( 100 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 33 feet 3 inches ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . They were powered by two Parsons geared steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam provided by three Admiralty three @-@ drum boilers . The turbines developed a total of 36 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 27 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 35 @.@ 5 knots ( 65 @.@ 7 km / h ; 40 @.@ 9 mph ) . Foresight carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 6 @,@ 350 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 760 km ; 7 @,@ 310 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ships ' complement was 145 officers and ratings .
The ships mounted four 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) Mark IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' in sequence from front to rear . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , they had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . The F class was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rack and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 38 shortly after the war began .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
Between October 1940 and April 1941 , Foresight had her rear torpedo tubes replaced by a 12 @-@ pounder AA gun . Around this time , she probably had two single 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) Oerlikon light AA guns installed abreast the bridge . By July 1942 , a Type 286 short @-@ range surface search radar was fitted as was a HF / DF radio direction finder mounted on a pole mainmast .
= = Construction and career = =
Foresight was ordered on 17 March 1933 from Cammell Laird and was laid down at their Birkenhead shipyard on 31 July , launched on 29 June 1934 , and completed on 15 May 1935 . The ship cost 245 @,@ 428 pounds , excluding government @-@ furnished equipment such as the armament . All of the F @-@ class destroyers were assigned to the 6th Destroyer Flotilla ( DF ) of the Home Fleet , and , Foresight , unlike her sisters , did not leave home waters during the 1930s . The 6th DF was renumbered the 8th Destroyer Flotilla in April 1939 , and Foresight remained assigned to it until July 1940 . World War II began in September and she was tasked to escort the larger ships of the fleet during this time . She played a minor role in the Norwegian Campaign in early 1940 .
In late June , the 8th DF was ordered to Gibraltar where they were to form the escorts for Force H. A few days later , they participated in the attack on Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir against the Vichy French ships stationed there . On 13 September , Force H rendezvoused with a convoy that was carrying troops intended to capture Dakar from the Vichy French . Ten days later , they attacked Dakar where Foresight and the destroyer Inglefield sank the French submarine Persée and Foresight sank the submarine Bévéziers on the 25th . She returned home for a refit after the battle and was damaged by a near @-@ miss during a German air raid on Liverpool on the night of 21 / 22 December .
On 31 January 1941 , Force H , including Foresight , departed Gibraltar to carry out Operation Picket , an unsuccessful night torpedo attack by eight of Ark Royal 's Fairey Swordfish on the Tirso Dam in Sardinia . The British ships returned to Gibraltar on 4 February and began preparing for Operation Grog , a naval bombardment of Genoa , that was successfully carried out five days later . Two months later , Foresight escorted the aircraft carrier Ark Royal as she flew off aircraft for the beleaguered island of Malta near Sicily on 3 April and again on the 27th . The following month she was part of the escort screen , with five other destroyers , for the battleship Queen Elizabeth and the light cruisers Naiad , Fiji and Gloucester which were joining the Mediterranean Fleet . This was part of Operation Tiger which included a supply convoy taking tanks to Egypt and the transfer of warships to and from the Mediterranean Fleet . Foresight and her sisters had their Two @-@ Speed Destroyer Sweep ( TSDS ) minesweeping gear rigged to allow them to serve as fast minesweepers en route to Malta . Despite this , one merchant ship was sunk by mines and another damaged . Later that month , she escorted the capital ships of Force H as they searched for the German battleship Bismarck and the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen in the North Atlantic after the Battle of the Denmark Strait on 23 May . Foresight escorted another flying @-@ off mission to Malta on 14 June ; two days later , after German blockade runners reached France , Force H sortied into the Atlantic on a failed search for more blockade runners . Together with her sisters Faulknor , Fearless , Forester and Foxhound , Foresight helped to sink the German submarine U @-@ 138 on 18 June . The ship participated in another Malta convoy in late July , during which she had to scuttle her sister Fearless , after she had been crippled by an airborne torpedo on 23 July . Foresight continued to escort the ships of Force H until October , after she participated in another convoy to Malta , Operation Halberd . During this operation , the ship again served as a fast minesweeper , albeit more successfully than the last time she had done so .
The 8th DF returned to Britain after Halberd and resumed their previous task of escorting the ships of Home Fleet for the next six months . In early April 1942 , Foresight , Forester and the light cruiser Edinburgh were part of the close escort for Convoy PQ 14 , bound for Murmansk . The trio were then the close escort for Convoy QP 11 , returning from Murmansk to Iceland , when Edinburgh was torpedoed on 29 April . The two hits disabled her steering and she had to be towed by the sisters . Two days later , they were attacked by three German destroyers which badly damaged the two destroyers and put another torpedo into Edinburgh , crippling her . Foresight had eight men killed and eleven wounded during the battle . The two destroyers took off the survivors from the cruiser and Foresight scuttled the cruiser with a torpedo . Temporarily repaired at Murmansk , the sisters were part of the light cruiser Trinidad 's escort home in May . She had to be scuttled on 15 May by the destroyer Matchless after she was set on fire by a German bomber . Foresight spent June under repair .
Foresight was assigned to the convoy escort force for Operation Pedestal , a heavily escorted convoy to Malta in August . On the 12th , she was torpedoed by an Italian Savoia @-@ Marchetti SM.79 bomber at 18 : 45 ; the hit broke her back , knocked out her steering , and killed one officer and three ratings . By the time the destroyer HMS Tartar arrived , Foresight could only steam at two knots ( 3 @.@ 7 km / h ; 2 @.@ 3 mph ) and a towline was secured by 19 : 30 . Shortly afterwards , the towing wire fouled Tartar 's starboard propeller ; another wire was rigged by 20 : 40 , but it had to be slipped when an unknown force of one cruiser and two destroyers was spotted at close range . Around 22 : 30 , Foresight was secured alongside Tartar until 05 : 15 the following day when the cables snapped . Another tow wire was rigged at 06 : 10 , but it was dropped when a submarine periscope was spotted at 09 : 30 and Tartar dropped depth charges as a precautionary measure even though her ASDIC had not detected any submarines . Around that same time several Axis shadowing aircraft were seen and Tartar 's commander thought the likelihood of attack was now too high to proceed . He took off the 181 surviving crew and scuttled Foresight with torpedoes at 09 : 55 at coordinates ( 37 ° 40 ′ N 10 ° 00 ′ W ) .
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= Bridge to Terabithia ( 2007 film ) =
Bridge to Terabithia is a 2007 American fantasy adventure drama film directed by Gábor Csupó and adapted for film by David L. Paterson and Jeff Stockwell . The film is based on the Katherine Paterson novel of the same name , and released by Walt Disney Pictures . The film stars Josh Hutcherson , AnnaSophia Robb , Robert Patrick , Bailee Madison and Zooey Deschanel . Bridge to Terabithia tells the story of Jesse Aarons and Leslie Burke , 12 @-@ year @-@ old neighbors who create a fantasy world called Terabithia and spend their free time together in an abandoned tree house .
The original novel was based on events from the childhood of the author 's son , screenwriter David Paterson . When he asked his mother if he could write a screenplay of the novel , she agreed in part because of his ability as a playwright . Production began in February 2006 , and the film was finished by November . Principal photography was shot in Auckland , New Zealand within sixty days . Film editing took ten weeks , while post @-@ production , music mixing , and visual effects took several months .
Bridge to Terabithia was released to positive reviews ; critics called it a faithful adaptation of the children 's novel , and found dynamic visuals and natural performances further enhanced the imaginative film . Bridge to Terabithia was nominated for seven awards , winning five at the Young Artist Awards .
= = Plot = =
Jesse " Jess " Aarons ( Josh Hutcherson ) is a 12 @-@ year @-@ old aspiring artist living with his financially struggling family in Lark Creek . He rides the bus to school with his little sister May Belle ( Bailee Madison ) , where he avoids the school bully Janice Avery ( Lauren Clinton ) . In class , Jess is teased by classmates Scott Hoager ( Cameron Wakefield ) and Gary Fulcher ( Elliot Lawless ) , and meets new student Leslie Burke ( AnnaSophia Robb ) . At recess , Jess enters a running event , for which he had been training at home . Leslie also enters and manages to beat all the boys , much to Jess ' irritation . On the way home , Jess and Leslie learn that they are next @-@ door neighbors .
Later in the evening , Jess becomes frustrated when he finds that May has drawn in his notebook , but his strict yet caring father ( Robert Patrick ) sides with her . He later watches them gardening together , disappointed that his father does not spend time with him . Moreover , his mother cherishes her daughters than himself . The next day at school , Leslie compliments Jess ' drawing ability , and they soon become friends . After school , they venture into the woods and swing across a creek on a rope . Jess and Leslie find an abandoned tree house on the other side , and invent a new world , which they call Terabithia . The fantasy world , which is a reflection on their lives , comes to life through their eyes as they explore the surroundings . For the next few days , Jess and Leslie spend their free time in the tree house getting to know each other .
Leslie gives Jess an art kit on his birthday , much to his delight . Jess becomes his father 's attitude , and refuses the existence of Terabithia the next day at school . Afterwards , Jess apologizes to Leslie by giving her a puppy , whom she names Prince Terrien . Once in Terabithia , they fight with various creatures , including a troll resembling Janice . At school , Leslie becomes frustrated by Janice 's fee for using the toilet . Jess and Leslie play a prank on Janice , and she becomes the laughing stock of everyone on the bus . Once Leslie 's parents finish their book , she and Jess help paint their house . Jess is impressed by her parents ' happiness , and smiles as he watches their family . At school , Leslie discovers an upset Janice that her bullying is due to her abusive father , and they become friends and later Janice becomes Jess ' friend . Jess and Leslie take P.T. to Terabithia , where they fight off several creatures resembling students at their school . They decide to go home , and Jess smiles as Leslie runs away .
The next morning , Ms. Edmunds ( Zooey Deschanel ) , Jess ' music teacher , calls to invite him on a one @-@ on @-@ one field trip to an art museum . Jess tries to ask his mother 's permission ; however , she is half @-@ asleep and he takes her mumbling as approval . Jess doesn 't ask Leslie to accompany him , and merely looks at her house as they drive by . When he returns home , Jess finds that his father and mother were worried sick since they didn 't know where he was . His father reveals to Jesse that Leslie had died that morning while trying to swing across the rain @-@ swollen creek .
The following day , Jesse and his parents visit the Burke family home to pay their respects . Leslie 's father , Bill Burke ( Latham Gaines ) , tells Jess that she loved him , and thanks him for being a very good friend to her , since she had trouble making friends at her old school . Jess feels overwhelming guilt for Leslie 's death , but his father actually consoles him to keep their friendship alive for her sake .
Jess decides to re @-@ imagine Terabithia and builds a bridge across the river to welcome a new ruler . He invites May Belle to Terabithia ; she is delighted because she was previously denied any opportunity to enter . She and Jess bring back Terabithia in even greater splendor , with Jess as king and his sister as princess .
= = Cast = =
Josh Hutcherson as Jess Aarons
AnnaSophia Robb as Leslie Burke
Bailee Madison as May Belle Aarons
Robert Patrick as Jack Aarons
Kate Butler as Nancy Aarons
Lauren Clinton as Janice Avery
Cameron Wakefield as Scott Hoager
Elliot Lawless as Gary Fulcher
Isabelle Kircher as Carla
Carly Owen as Madison
Latham Gaines as Bill Burke
Judy McIntosh as Judy Burke
Zooey Deschanel as Ms. Edmunds
Patricia Aldersley as Grandma Burke ( on Leslie 's funeral )
Jen Wolfe as Mrs. Myers
James Gaylayn as Principal Turner
Ian Harcourt as Kenny ( bus driver )
Devon Wood as Brenda Aarons
Emma Fenton as Ellie Aarons
Grace Brannigan as Joyce Aarons
Random dog as Troll hunter
= = Production = =
= = = Overview = = =
Production for the film began in February 2006 , with a budget of $ 20 – 25 million . Principal photography for the film was shot in Auckland , New Zealand within sixty days . Film editing took ten weeks , while post @-@ production , music mixing , and visual effects took a few months . The film was finished by November 2006 , because the crew " had to rush " to meet the February 16 deadline . The film was directed by Nickelodeon 's Rugrats co @-@ creator and former Hanna @-@ Barbera animator Gábor Csupó , who was first recommended for the job by Walden Media President Cary Granat . Although Csupó had never worked on a live @-@ action film before , it " didn 't worry Granat in the least " . Csupó stated that he was interested in making the film because he " had the ambition to do a live @-@ action film for a long time " , but that he " didn 't like anything until I read this book " . He described the book as " beautiful " and said that it " moved [ him ] " . Bridge to Terabithia was cinematographer Michael Chapman 's final film before his retirement . Chapman mentioned in the film 's DVD commentary that he retired after shooting this film because he wanted his last film to be a good one ; " this is such a beautiful story , and it 's exactly the kind of movie I want to do at this time in my life " .
= = = Casting = = =
Director Csupó stated that they had no actors initially in mind for the film . The first actor cast was AnnaSophia Robb as Leslie Burke . Robb wrote Csupó " such a beautiful , heartwarming letter " that expressed her love for the book and the character . Csupó said that he cast her because of " her letter , her enthusiasm , and her love of the material " . Robb also conversed with producer Lauren Levine before casting even began , and " their conversation convinced her that , without a doubt , AnnaSophia was meant for this role " . Levine said that " it was just so clear in talking to her about all this fantasy that I was basically talking to Leslie , that she had that same kind of spark and magical presence . She might be physically different from Leslie in the book , but the spirit of Leslie and the spirit of AnnaSophia are nearly identical . It was a match made in heaven . " With regard to the character , Robb said " [ Leslie ] ' s one of those people who 's just always lit up , who has this glow about her , and no one can bring her down . Leslie 's such a lively and energetic character , it was really fun for me to become her . "
Levine stated that " looking for Jesse was a really tough hunt . We needed someone who could go from an introverted boy in an isolated world to someone who completely taps into his imagination and becomes a confident , brave leader in Terabithia . That 's a heck of a range for such a young actor . " Josh Hutcherson was not their first choice for the role of Jesse Aarons , but they settled with him because they " felt the chemistry between AnnaSophia Robb and him " . Hutcherson said that the project appealed to him because of " the real life day @-@ to @-@ day drama as well as the arc of the character Jesse " .
The filmmakers cast Robert Patrick as Jess 's hardworking and strict father based on his previous roles in the films Walk the Line , Flags of Our Fathers , and the television series The Unit . Patrick explained that he related to the story because he was " constantly creating imaginary worlds as a kid " himself , and that the film 's setting reminded him of where he grew up . He also said that he took on the role because he wanted to star in a film that his children could watch .
Csupó said that they cast Bailee Madison as May Belle Aarons after weeks of searching for an actress to play the part . He went on to say that " she had such a charm , even before the camera , she was just like a little sweetheart . She was very confident , she showed up , shook hands with everybody , totally sweet and perky . I said ' WOW ! ' — she was just stealing everybody 's heart on the spot . "
= = = Design and effects = = =
Csupó explained that " it was a very conscious decision from the very beginning that we 're not going to overdo the visual effects because of the story 's integrity and the book 's integrity " , because there was only a brief mention of Jess and Leslie fighting imaginary creatures in the forest in the novel . With that in mind , they " tried to do the absolute minimum , which would be required to put it into a movie version " .
In designing the fantasy creatures found in Terabithia , Csupó wanted to make creatures that were " little more artsy , imaginative , fantastical creatures than the typical rendered characters you see in other movies " , and drew inspiration from Terry Gilliam and Ridley Scott . Dima Malanitchev came up with the drawings for the creatures with Csupó 's guidance . Csupó chose to have Weta Digital render the 3D animation because he " was impressed with their artistic integrity , the teamwork , the [ fact that ] people were really nice , and also they responded to our designs very positively " . Weta modified some of the creature designs , but ultimately remained faithful to Csupó 's original designs .
There were around 100 crew members from Weta working on the effects for the film . Weta was already working on animating the creatures while the film was being shot , and Weta crew members were on @-@ set for all the scenes that involved special effects during the filming . Weta visual effects supervisor Matt Aitken explained that process involved in interpreting the creatures was " split into two steps " . First , natural @-@ looking creatures were created based on pencil sketches by Csupó and Malanitchev , and this was done mostly through Photoshop collages done by visual effects art director Michael Pangrazio . The second step was to figure out animation or motion styles that best suited these creatures .
Leslie 's costumes in the film were designed to look as if the character " might have made some of them herself " , and they were updated from those described in the book to reflect what would currently be considered eccentric .
= = = Writing = = =
Producer and screenwriter David L. Paterson is the novel 's author 's son , and his name was featured on its dedication page . The story was based on his real life best friend , Lisa Hill , who was struck by lightning and killed when they were both eight years old . Paterson had asked his mother , Katherine Paterson , if he could write a screenplay of the novel , and she agreed " not only because he 's [ her ] son , but also because he 's a very good playwright " . Paterson had difficulty marketing the screenplay , mostly because of Leslie 's death ; " if you can believe this , I did meet with some companies that asked if I could just ' hurt ' Leslie a little bit — put her in a light coma and then bring her out " .
The most important thing for Paterson was to keep the spirit of the book alive while finding a way to transform it from " a novel that takes place mostly in the characters ' heads to a dynamic visual medium " . Paterson knew that the film had to be about friendship and imagination . While Paterson focused on " bringing out the emotions of the story , " he admitted to having difficulty writing about Terabithia " because it was too close " . He credited fellow screenwriter Jeff Stockwell for recreating Terabithia for the film . " What Jeff was able to do as an outsider who wasn 't so attached to the story was to really let his imagination go free and make up this world in a wonderful way " , David said . Csupó noted that the two main characters are a little bit older in the film than they are in the book . Csupó reasons that the movie " deals with so many issues including friendship , and maybe first innocent love , things like that " , so it " made more sense " to make the characters older .
= = Soundtrack = =
The film features a musical score by Aaron Zigman , who was hired after Alison Krauss backed out of the job . Zigman mentioned that there are similarities between the music he composed for Bridge to Terabithia and the film Flicka in that " ... at times there 's a bit of a Celtic influence but not much " , but he also went on to say that there was a more modern feel to the music he composed for Bridge to Terabithia . He did so as Csupó requested him to do not compose " your typical Hollywood Score " ; he then mixed up orchestral melody with " a bit of a modern flavor . " The score he composed for the film is described as " very large " compared to his other work , and Zigman commented that " Aside from the minimalist stuff and coloring that I love to do , I also like big orchestral stuff , and want to do more of that , and this film enabled me to spread my wings out a bit . " The official soundtrack for the film was released as Music from and Inspired by Bridge to Terabithia by Hollywood Records on February 13 , 2007 .
= = Release = =
= = = Marketing and promotion = = =
The promotion and advertising for the film was met with criticism and controversy . The filmmakers distanced themselves away from the advertising campaign for the film , saying that it was deliberately misleading and made the film seem to be about , or occurring in , a fantasy world . David Paterson was surprised by the trailer , but understood the marketing reasoning behind it , saying :
Critics commented on the film 's misleading advertisement campaign . One critic said the film was actually " grounded in reality far more than in fantasy " , while another thought , " far from a computer generated escapist fantasy , this film is an unpretentious and touching tale of preteen companionship and loss " .
= = = Distribution = = =
The film premiered at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood on February 16 , 2007 . Paterson , an alumnus of The Catholic University of America , held a special advance screening of the film for members of the CUA community at the AFI Silver Theatre in Silver Spring , Maryland on February 1 , 2007 . The film opened in the United Kingdom on May 4 , 2007 , and in New Zealand June 7 , 2007 . The film had a strong second place domestic opening over the Presidents ' Day weekend , grossing " a higher @-@ than @-@ expected " $ 28 @,@ 536 @,@ 717 from 2 @,@ 284 screens , earning an average of $ 9 @,@ 885 per screen . The opening Friday box office was $ 6 @.@ 3 million . The film has a worldwide gross of US $ 137 million , taking in $ 82 million in the US and Canada alone .
The film was produced by Walden Media . Buena Vista Distribution had released the film in North America and Australia through Walt Disney Pictures , while Summit Entertainment handled distribution in other territories , except for Latin America , where the film was released by Paramount Pictures , and the United Kingdom , where release was handled by Icon Film Distribution .
The DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc were released on June 19 , 2007 in the US . The DVD and high definition Blu @-@ ray version shared the same special features ; including : " Digital Imagination : Bringing Terabithia to Life " , " Behind the Book : The Themes of Bridge to Terabithia " , " Keep Your Mind Wide Open " music video by Robb , and two audio commentaries , the first with director Gabor Csupo , writer Jeff Stockwell , and producer Hal Lieberman , and the second with producer Lauren Levine and actors Hutcherson and Robb .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Bridge to Terabithia received positive reviews from film critics . Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 85 % based on 157 reviews , with an average score of 7 @.@ 2 / 10 . The site 's consensus is , that the film is " a faithful adaptation of a beloved children 's novel and a powerful portrayal of love , loss , and imagination through children 's eyes . Dynamic visuals and natural performances further enhance the imaginative film " . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the film received an average score of 74 % based on 25 reviews , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
James Berardinelli of ReelViews called Bridge to Terabithia " easily the best family feature of the early year " . Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post praised the script for being " utterly recognizable and authentic " , and thought Robb and Hutcherson were " perfectly cast " . Hornaday wrote that although the final five minutes succumbed to " oversweet sentiment " , viewers would remember the film 's " warmth and respect with which it pays homage to first love " . Jessica Grose of The Village Voice commended director Csupó for omitting " cutesy tween stereotypes " , and felt Jess 's relationship with his father elevated Bridge to Terabithia from " a good kids movie to a classic contender " . The New York Times critic Jeannette Catsoulis believed that the fantasy was kept in the background " to find magic in the everyday " , and thought Csupó directed " like someone intimate with the pain of being different , allowing each personality more than a single characteristic " . The reviewer praised all the leads for their strong performances , especially Deschanel and Madison . Catsoulis found the film was able to handle adult topics " with nuance and sensitivity " , and being consistently smart and " delicate as a spider web " , it was the kind of children 's movie " rarely seen nowadays " . Miriam di Nunzio of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times praised Hutcherson and Robb 's performances , saying that " the film 's heart and soul rests on the abilities of its young lead characters to make us really see the world through children 's eyes . The dynamic duo of Hutcherson and Robb do not disappoint . "
Despite the critical acclaim , not all reviews were as positive . Claudia Puig of USA Today wrote that " for a movie about the power of imagination , Bridge to Terabithia is not as clever as you would hope " . Puig called the film a " serviceable translation " of the novel , but thought the adult characters were caricatured . The reviewer found the real @-@ life portions of the movie were " derivative and simplistic " , but found Jess 's emotional tumult felt " powerfully authentic , and this is where the film finds its truth and soul " . The Wall Street Journal critic Joe Morgenstern felt that despite the occasional misuse of enchantment — " brief spasms of overproduced fantasy " — the novel 's screen adaptation was told with " agreeable simplicity in between computer @-@ generated monsters " . Morgenstern was disappointed with the performances by the young members of the cast , which he described as " appealing but unpolished " . Morgenstern thought Csupó lacked experience directing actors , and that although Deschanel was the best adult performer , she seemed self @-@ directed . Entertainment Weekly 's Gregory Kirschling was confused by the main characters ' lack of excitement towards Terabithia , and felt the film could not decide if it was " a fantasy or a coming @-@ of @-@ age story " .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Bridge to Terabithia was nominated for seven awards , of which it won five . Josh Hutcherson was nominated at the 2008 Saturn Awards for " Best Performance by a Younger Actor " . AnnaSophia Robb was nominated for a Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for " Best Young Actress " . The film won five awards at the Young Artist Awards , including " Best Family Feature Film ( Fantasy or Musical ) " . Hutcherson won " Best Performance in a Feature Film – Leading Young Actor " , Robb won " Best Performance in a Feature Film – Leading Young Actress " , and Bailee Madison won " Best Performance in a Feature Film – Young Actress Age Ten or Younger " . The cast won the award for " Best Performance in a Feature Film – Young Ensemble Cast " , which included Hutcherson , Robb , Madison , Wakefield , Clinton , Lawless , Isabelle Rose Kircher , Carly Owen , Devon Wood , Emma Fenton and Grace Brannigan .
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= American Gangster ( album ) =
American Gangster is the tenth studio album by American rapper Jay @-@ Z , released November 6 , 2007 on Roc @-@ A @-@ Fella Records . It is his first concept album , which was inspired by the film of the same name . The album features production from Diddy & The Hitmen , Just Blaze , and The Neptunes , among others . Guest appearances include Beanie Sigel , Lil Wayne , Pharrell and Nas . Jay @-@ Z released an a cappella version of the album on the date of his 38th birthday , December 4 , 2007 .
The album was released to commercial success , despite being pulled from the iTunes Store at Jay @-@ Z 's request , at the time of its initial release . It debuted at number one on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart , selling 425 @,@ 861 copies in its first week , while tying Elvis Presley for the second most U.S. number @-@ one albums . Upon its release , American Gangster received general acclaim from most music critics . Rolling Stone named it the third best album of 2007 . The album has been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipments in excess of one million copies in the United States .
= = Background = =
On November 9 , 2007 , Jay @-@ Z appeared on the Charlie Rose Show to discuss the album . When asked about how the film gave life to this album , he stated " It 's a New York City true story , you know . So as soon as the movie came on , it was like familiar , things that my pop seen and my uncles seen and , you know , different things like that , things I 've seen growing up . So they resonated with me in a way , the story , as well as , I mean , even though everything happens , you know , the way it turns out , you know , it 's one of those movies that where you champion the bad guy , because the bad guy , you know , he don 't seem like a bad guy , and the good guy – I mean the good guys are bad . You know , that complex – the complexity of human beings in this thing was amazing to me . I loved the complexity of the human beings " .
= = Recording = =
Jay @-@ Z would have the film – American Gangster – playing on the monitors above the recording booth to keep him inspired . In an interview with MTV producer LV from The Hitmen said " Jay would have the beats ... He 'd do the record , and he 'd send it back to us . We 'd fill in the blanks as far as making them full records . From having live horns , live strings , live drummers . This percussion dude , he was coming in with bottles , banging on bottles , just sprinkles of shit . We went all out . We brought in musicians to bring it out . Jay probably just heard a sample and some drums . Once we got the vocals back , we brought in all the extra candy " .
Beanie Sigel and Lil Wayne are two of the few featured guest spots on the album , in which Sigel appears on the new version of " Ignorant Shit " , and Lil Wayne joins Jay @-@ Z on the Beastie Boys @-@ sampling " Hello Brooklyn 2 @.@ 0 " . Jay returned the favor on " Mr. Carter " from Lil Wayne 's Tha Carter III . Also , fellow New York City rapper and former rival Nas is featured on the No I.D.-produced track " Success " , while the Neo soul singer Bilal sings the hook on " Fallin ' " , but is not officially credited .
= = Composition = =
= = = Lyrics = = =
Allmusic says that " And that might be the most common complaint about the album – it 's really just another case of Jay @-@ Z being Jay @-@ Z , albeit with different presentation . Unless you know each verse from Reasonable Doubt through Kingdom Come , it might sound like he 's dealing with no variation on well @-@ worn themes , the exact same thoughts and emotions that make up older tracks about his past as a drug dealer – the rise , the arrogance , the conflictedness , the fall , and all stages in between . " Yahoo ! Music writer Angus Batey viewed its thematic concept in the context of the " gangsta " ideal , stating " Using a selection of beats built from ' 70s soul and funk , it reflects the period setting ; lyrically , its primary theme is an investigation of the evolution of the gangsta archetype , looking at how the drug dealer became a semi @-@ sympathetic outlaw figure , examining the contradictions inherent in those who chase the American Dream on the far side of legality , and ruminating on what this period of US history might yet come to mean " . Pitchfork Media reviewer Tom Breihan noted that " ' No Hook ' has some of the most complicated rhyme @-@ patterns Jay has tried in years " : Although Jay @-@ Z says American Gangster was inspired by the movie of the same name , he touches on the topics of censorship and the Jena 6 controversy :
= = = Production = = =
The Neptunes provide production twice on the album , with the first single " Blue Magic " which is the fourteenth track , and the eighth track " I Know " . Diddy and two of his producers known as LV & Sean C , who are from his production team , The Hitmen , are responsible for six tracks on the album . They are credited with the second single " Roc Boys ( And the Winner Is ) ... " , " American Dreamin ' " ( where his other production partner Mario Winans assists ) , " No Hook " , " Party Life " , " Pray " , and finally " Sweet " .
DJ Toomp delivers one track for the album , while Just Blaze is credited for a bonus track and the re @-@ make of " Ignorant Shit " . Kanye West mentor No I.D. gives two tracks also , one which he co @-@ produces with Jermaine Dupri and vice versa . Finally , three lesser known producers lend hand to the " Intro " , which is credited to Chris Flames and co @-@ production from Idris " Driis " Elba , while Bigg D produces the Beastie Boys @-@ sampling Lil Wayne assisted track , " Hello Brooklyn 2 @.@ 0 " .
= = Release and promotion = =
= = = Removal from iTunes = = =
Jay @-@ Z pulled American Gangster from the popular iTunes Store . Jay @-@ Z stated " as movies are not sold scene by scene , this collection will not be sold as individual singles . " The album was made available for digital download , in its entirety , at Amazon.com , Rocafella.com and Rhapsody.com. It was subsequently released to the iTunes Store in 2011 .
= = = Tour = = =
On October 21 , 2007 , Jay @-@ Z announced his American Gangster Live tour to promote the album . Jay @-@ Z stated that he would only perform material from American Gangster . The tour consisted of five smaller sized venues across the U.S. , starting on November 6 , 2007 in L.A. and ending on November 12 , 2007 in Philadelphia . According to a statement on the Roc @-@ A @-@ Fella website , the five @-@ city club tour sold out in less than 60 seconds .
= = = A Cappella CD and remixes = = =
Like Jay @-@ Z 's 2003 album The Black Album , Jay @-@ Z released an a cappella version of American Gangster . Released in December 2007 , the a cappella version of the CD caused a string of remix and mash @-@ up albums by both fans and professional DJs / producers alike . Although none of the remix or mash @-@ up albums have yet reached the public notoriety of DJ Danger Mouse 's The Grey Album , several versions of the CD have made their way into the mainstream .
Several of the notable American Gangster Remix albums are listed below :
2007 : The American Godfather – DJ Skee
Samples : The Godfather I & The Godfather II
2007 : Brooklyn Soul – Mick Boogie , Shuko & The Gunna
Samples : Marvin Gaye
2007 : American Zeppelin – DJ Doc Rok
Samples : Led Zeppelin
2009 : Hindustani Gangster – Music Without Borders : Kunal Merchant & Seif Al @-@ Din
Samples : Indian & Bollywood samples
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial performance = = =
American Gangster debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 , Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums and Top Rap Album charts selling 425 @,@ 861 records in the United States its first week . American Gangster is Jay @-@ Z 's tenth number one album , officially tying him with Elvis Presley for the second highest number of number one albums behind The Beatles . On December 6 , 2007 , the album was certified platinum in sales by the Recording Industry Association of America , for shipments of one million copies in the United States .
Two singles have been released from American Gangster . The first , " Blue Magic " , was released on September 20 , 2007 , peaking at 55 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 , 31 on the U.S. Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , and 17 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Rap Tracks . The track 's name is a reference to the kind of heroin that Frank Lucas sold in the movie American Gangster ; the CD even came in a package similar to the one the heroin came in . The second single , " Roc Boys ( And the Winner Is ) ... " was released on October 10 , 2007 , and reached 63 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 , 15 on the U.S. Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , and 8 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Rap Tracks .
= = = Critical response = = =
American Gangster received universal acclaim from contemporary music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 83 , based on 25 reviews , which indicates " universal acclaim " . Rolling Stone 's Rob Sheffield commented that the album " definitely doesn 't have any fluff like Kingdom Come 's ' 30 Something ' or ' Beach Chair ' . Jay sounds relaxed , no longer worried about impressing anyone . Instead , he follows the story from the uptown dope @-@ king ambition of ' American Dreamin ' ' to the big @-@ payback crash of " Fallin ' . " Neil Drumming of Entertainment Weekly wrote that , " While Jay @-@ Z does not make the ambitious leap of trying to write from Lucas ' point of view , he does use the film 's story and period vibe to color his own elaborate legend . On ' American Dreamin ' , a Marvin Gaye sample provides the backdrop as Jay @-@ Z wistfully recounts his early days as a dealer , scheming with his buddies . " Allmusic writer Andy Kellman found it to be " a very good Jay @-@ Z album " . The A.V. Club critic Nathan Rabin commented that Jay @-@ Z " finds inspiration in the Ridley Scott film of the same name , the lush atmosphere of ' 70s soul , and the bracing grit of blaxploitation " .
Uncut complimented the " comfortable cruising altitude " of Jay @-@ Z 's delivery and called the album " an effective reminder of what success is about – leaving the hustle behind . " Amy Linden of The Village Voice lauded its retro musical references and stated , " As you 'd expect from ( still ) one of the best wordsmiths in hip @-@ hop , there 's some killer wordplay here " . The New York Times writer Kelefa Sanneh commended Jay @-@ Z for his lyricism , stating " he packs his wordy stanzas full of unexpected syllables , clever allusions and unpredictable rhymes schemes . This is probably as close as the new Jay @-@ Z will ever come to sounding like the old Jay @-@ Z " . PopMatters editor Mike Schiller perceived " no narrative thread " , but viewed it as " sonically consistent " and praised Jay @-@ Z 's performance , stating " What American Gangster truly gives us is Jay @-@ Z through and through ... It ’ s superhero music in that Jay ’ s supremacy is never questioned , but it ’ s superhero music that insists on showing off more than just that hero ’ s immense power " . XXL 's Alvin Samuels and described it as " a pot of pure uncut crack music " , while writing " Rediscovering his hustler ’ s ambition , Jay delves into the many facets of the drug game like an OG passing knowledge down to a new jack " .
Despite finding its conceptual style flawed , The Observer 's Steve Yates praised Jay @-@ Z 's reflections on fame and " the voracious capitalism ( up- and downside ) , which is proving hip hop 's most durable legacy " , adding that " It 's Jay @-@ Z 's and American Gangster 's triumph that reflecting on his appetite seems to have reawakened it " . Sputnikmusic 's Cam commented that lyrically , it " may be the smartest album Jay has ever released " . In a mixed review , Louis Pattison of NME was ambivalent towards its " low @-@ key " style and stated , " You leave ‘ American Gangster ’ longing for more of this don ’ t @-@ give @-@ a @-@ fuck attitude , but the feeling that presides is Jay @-@ Z patting his wallet " . In his consumer guide for MSN Music , Robert Christgau gave the album a one @-@ star honorable mention ( ) , indicating " a worthy effort consumers attuned to its overriding aesthetic or individual vision may well like . " He cited " Blue Magic " and " Say Hello " as highlights and quipped , " Jay @-@ Z , that 's a brand name , like Pepsi , that 's a brand name – he stands behind it , he guarantees it , even if you don 't know him any more than you know the chairman of Universal Music " .
= = = Accolades = = =
American Gangster was ranked in the top ten of several music publications ' end @-@ of @-@ year lists , including The Austin Chronicle ( number one ) , Spin ( number eight ) , and Rolling Stone magazine ( number three ) . Rolling Stone also named the album 's second single , " Roc Boys ( And the Winner Is ... ) " , the best single of 2007 . In an interview with Jeff Johnson of cable network BET , 44th United States President Barack Obama stated that he is a fan of the album .
= = Track listing = =
• ( co . ) Co @-@ producer
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = Certifications = =
= = = Chart procession and succession = = =
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= Typhoon Faye ( 1982 ) =
Typhoon Faye was a long @-@ lived typhoon that struck the Philippines in August 1982 . On August 16 , a weak tropical disturbance was moving towards the southern Philippines . Initially , land interaction with the Philippines with prevented significant development . After crossing the Philippines , the disturbance emerged into the South China Sea and increased in organization . It was upgraded into a tropical storm by midday on August 22 . Thereafter , Faye began to steadily strengthen , and attained typhoon intensity later that day . On August 23 , Typhoon Faye reached its peak intensity , which the storm would maintain for approximately 12 hours . A small cyclone , Faye moved northward on August 24 due to the weakening of a ridge over China . Thereafter , its center was disrupted by land interaction with the Philippines . As such , the storm weakened slightly before striking Luzon on the morning of August 25 . Severe flooding and strong winds were recorded . More than 5 @,@ 000 houses were damaged while 220 @,@ 000 were homeless . Furthermore , around 7 @,@ 000 people sought shelter . There were 18 injuries and 41 deaths in the Philippines . Overall , damage amounted to $ 9 @.@ 6 million ( 1982 USD ) . Across Japan , two people perished .
Recurving to the northeast , Faye continued weakening due to strong wind shear , with dissipation as a tropical cyclone occurring on the afternoon of August 27 . The remnants of the typhoon initially continued moving east @-@ northeast before stalling that evening . Faye began to reorganize , and was estimated to have re @-@ attained typical storm strength on August 28 . Faye intensified slightly , nearly attaining typhoon intensity on August 29 , but this trend was short @-@ lived due to increased wind shear . By August 31 , a building ridge to Faye 's north led to a southwest motion as the system steadily weakened . However , Faye managed to maintain its identity as a weak tropical cyclone for several days , before finally dissipating on September 3 .
= = Meteorological history = =
Typhoon Faye originated from a westward @-@ moving weak area of disturbed weather located within the Philippine Sea in the middle of August . On August 16 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) started monitoring the disturbance for possible development . Initially , little development was expected due to its close proximity to land and Typhoon Ellis . The disturbance was poorly organized and the atmospheric circulation was exposed from the deep convection despite being located near an anticyclone , which tends to favor tropical cyclogenesis . On August 20 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) started tracking the disturbance . Later that day , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) also started monitoring the storm , assigning it with the local name Norming . After emerging into the South China Sea , the storm began to intensify . Later on the morning of August 20 , the JTWC issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert ( TCFA ) for the disturbance . At 0000 UTC on August 21 , the JTWC upgraded the system into a tropical depression . Six hours later , the agency determined that the depression attained tropical storm status , naming it Faye .
Tropical Storm Faye slowly tracked west @-@ northwest since a subtropical ridge was situated near Hong Kong ; however , the presence of a cold front and Ellis prevented the ridge for strengthening . Despite moderate wind shear , Faye gradually intensified . Midday on August 22 , the JMA classified Faye as a tropical storm . Meanwhile , the JTWC estimated that Faye reached typhoon status . Over the south China Sea , Faye continued to intensify , and according to the JMA , Faye also attained typhoon intensity on August 23 . That afternoon , the JMA estimated that Faye reached peak intensity of 145 km / h ( 90 mph ) ; it would maintain this intensity for about twelve hours . Around this time , the JTWC expected Faye to move westward since the ridge atop of southern China was expected to build . Instead , the typhoon turned north as the ridge over southern China weakened , and a trough was noted between Ellis and Faye . On the morning of August 24 , the JTWC assessed the peak intensity of the storm at 170 km / h ( 105 mph ) . This intensity is equivalent to a moderate Category 2 hurricane on the United States @-@ based Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale . Shortly after its peak , the typhoon started to weaken as its circulation interacted with the Philippines . At 1800 UTC that day , the storm made landfall in Luzon . At that time , the JMA estimated winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) .
Due to a combination of land interaction and strong wind shear from Typhoon Ellis , Faye became less organized . At 0000 UTC on August 25 , the JMA downgraded Faye to a severe tropical storm while the JTWC reduced it to tropical storm status . After re @-@ emerging into open water , Faye turned northeast under the influence of Typhoon Ellis . Initially , re @-@ intensification was expected to occur ; however , the shear did not relent . Late on August 26 , the JMA estimated that Faye was no longer a tropical storm . By August 27 , Faye began to turn east despite the JTWC forecasting the storm to continue northeast and pass west of Japan . Additionally , Faye continued to weaken , and by that time , all the thunderstorm activity was displaced from the center . At 0600 UTC on August 27 , the JTWC discontinued warnings on the system as only a few areas of thunderstorm activity remained present . Despite this , the JMA continued to track the cyclone .
The remnants of Faye continued on an east @-@ northeasterly track , despite indications from tropical cyclone forecast models that the cyclone would move northeast . Late on August 27 , Faye stalled between a trough and Typhoon Gordon . Thus , environmental conditions became considerably more conductive , and Faye began to rapidly intensify again . At 0000 UTC on August 28 , data from both the JTWC and the JMA suggested that Faye regenerated into a tropical storm . Operationally , the JTWC did not resume watching the cyclone until six hours later . At 0900 UTC , the JTWC upgraded Faye back to a typhoon , just a mere 27 hours after the agency discontinued watching the system for the first time . However , data from the JMA indicates that only slight intensification occurred during this time . Shortly thereafter , a Hurricane Hunter aircraft measured winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) . Early on August 29 , the JMA estimated that Faye attained winds of 105 km / h ( 65 mph ) , its secondary peak intensity . At 1500 UTC , the JTWC demoted Faye to a tropical storm . Subsequently , Faye began to gradually weaken due to increased wind shear caused by a trough , which resulted in all of the deep convection to become displaced from the center . On August 31 , Faye slowly began drifting westward as a ridge deepened south of Japan . At 0600 UTC on August 31 , the JTWC downgraded Faye to a tropical depression under the anticipation that Tropical Depression Faye would dissipate within 24 to 48 hours . Accelerating , Faye managed to maintain its circulation for much longer than anticipated . On the morning of September 3 , the JMA stopped watching Faye ; the JTWC followed suit around this time as the surface circulation had dissipated within the Sea of Japan . The remnants of the system became absorbed into the monsoon trough , which eventually spawned Typhoon Hope off the west coast of China .
= = Preparations and impact = =
When Faye struck the central portion of the Philippines , three people were initially reported as missing . The typhoon brought heavy rainfall to Luzon , resulting in overflowing rivers , which in turn flooded low @-@ lying areas . Numerous roads and bridges were washed out . Coconut trees were uprooted , while sugarcane and rice suffered severe damage . There , damage to crops , school buildings , and fish ponds totaled $ 1 @.@ 5 million . When the typhoon veered toward the island nation for the second time , school classes were briefly halted and six flights of the Philippine Airlines were called off . Typhoon warnings were posted for much of the northern portion of the country .
Due to its second landfall , Faye brought significant destruction . Forty @-@ one people were killed , at least 19 of which died due to flying debris , drownings or shipwrecks . Offshore Palawan , Faye capsized a boat , killing seven of the 54 aboard ; the remaining were rescued . In Iba , the typhoon de @-@ roofed 80 % of the city 's homes , where 200 @,@ 000 out of 500 @,@ 000 residents were rendered homeless , which is 40 % of the city 's population . Around 40 % of the city 's crops were wiped out . In the La Union , Pangasinan , and Iloilo provinces , 1 @,@ 286 residences were destroyed , sending 7 @,@ 608 people to seek shelter in churches , schools and town halls .
Overall , damage amounted to $ 9 @.@ 6 million ; including $ 4 million in property damage . Moreover , 18 individuals were injured . Around 220 @,@ 000 were homeless . In all , 5 @,@ 365 homes were damaged due to Typhoon Faye . Although the typhoon passed well to the south of Japan , Faye killed two people there , including one due to a landslide .
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= Jesse L. Brown =
Jesse LeRoy Brown ( 13 October 1926 – 4 December 1950 ) was a United States Navy officer . He was the first African @-@ American aviator in the U.S. Navy , a recipient of the Distinguished Flying Cross , and the first African @-@ American naval officer killed in the Korean War .
Born in Hattiesburg , Mississippi , to an impoverished family , Brown was avidly interested in aircraft from a young age . He graduated as salutatorian of his high school , notwithstanding its racial segregation , and was later awarded a degree from Ohio State University . Brown enlisted in the U.S. Navy in 1946 , becoming a midshipman . Brown earned his pilot wings on 21 October 1948 amid a flurry of press coverage ; in January 1949 he was assigned to Fighter Squadron 32 aboard the USS Leyte .
At the outset of the Korean War , the Leyte was ordered to the Korean Peninsula , arriving in October 1950 . Brown , an ensign , flew 20 combat missions before his F4U Corsair aircraft came under fire and crashed on a remote mountaintop on 4 December 1950 while supporting ground troops at the Battle of Chosin Reservoir . Brown died of his wounds despite the efforts of wingman Thomas J. Hudner , Jr . , who intentionally crashed his own aircraft in a rescue attempt , for which he was awarded the Medal of Honor .
Brown 's successes in the segregated and desegregated U.S. military were memorialized in several books . The frigate USS Jesse L. Brown ( FF @-@ 1089 ) was named in his honor .
= = Early life and education = =
Brown was born on 13 October 1926 in Hattiesburg , Mississippi . He was one of six children born to Julia Lindsey Brown , a schoolteacher , and John Brown , a grocery warehouse worker . He had four brothers , Marvin , William , Fletcher , and Johnny , as well as a sister , Lura . Brown 's ancestry was African American , Chicksaw , and Choctaw . The family lived in a house without central heating or indoor plumbing so they relied on a fireplace for warmth . As a child , Jesse 's brother William fell into this fireplace and was severely burned .
At the beginning of the Great Depression , John Brown lost his job and relocated the family to Palmer 's Crossing , 10 miles ( 16 km ) from Hattiesburg , where he worked at a turpentine factory until he was laid off in 1938 . John Brown then moved the family to Lux , Mississippi , to be a part of a sharecropper farm . During this time , Jesse Brown shared a bed with his brothers and attended a one @-@ room school 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) away . His parents were very strict about school attendance and homework , and Jesse Brown walked to school every day . The Browns also were committed Baptists and Jesse , William , and Julia Brown sang in the church choir . In his spare time , Brown also worked in the fields of the farm harvesting corn and cotton .
When Brown was six years old , his father took him to an air show . Brown gained an intense interest in flying from this experience , and afterward , was attracted to a dirt airfield near his home , which he visited frequently in spite of being chased away by a local mechanic .
At the age of thirteen , Brown took a job as a paperboy for the Pittsburgh Courier , a black press paper , and developed a desire to pilot while reading in the newspaper about African @-@ American aviators of the time including C. Alfred Anderson , Eugine Jacques Bullard , and Bessie Coleman . He also became an avid reader of Popular Aviation and the Chicago Defender , which he later said heavily influenced his desire to fly naval aircraft . In his childhood he was described as " serious , witty , unassuming , and very intelligent . " In 1937 , he wrote a letter to U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt in which he complained of the injustice of African @-@ American pilots being kept out of the U.S. Army Air Corps , to which the White House responded with a letter saying that it appreciated the viewpoint .
Because the schools closer to his family were of lower quality , in 1939 , Brown lived with his aunt and attended the segregated Eureka High School in Hattiesburg . He was a member of the basketball , football , and track and field teams and he was an excellent student , graduating as the salutatorian in 1944 . During this time , Brown met his future wife , Daisy Pearl Nix .
Following graduation , Brown sought to enroll in a college outside of the South . His principal , Nathaniel Burger , advised he attend an all @-@ black college , as his brother Marvin Brown had done , however , he ended up enrolling at Ohio State University as his childhood role model , Jesse Owens , had done . Burger told Brown only seven African Americans had graduated from the school that year , but Brown nonetheless was determined to enroll , feeling he would compete well with white students .
Brown took several side jobs to save money for college , including waiting tables at the Holmes Club , a saloon for white U.S. Army soldiers . In this job , Brown was frequently the target of racist vitriol and abuse , but nonetheless persevered , earning $ 600 to pay for college . In the autumn of 1944 , Brown took a segregated train to Columbus , Ohio , and began school at Ohio State .
Brown moved into an on @-@ campus boarding house at 61 East Eleventh Avenue in the primarily black neighborhood of the University District in Columbus , and majored in architectural engineering . Brown attempted several times to apply to the school 's aviation program , but was denied because of his race . Brown joined the track and field team as well as the wrestling team , but soon dropped both for financial reasons . He took a job as a janitor at a local Lazarus department store and then was hired by the Pennsylvania Railroad to load boxcars from 15 : 30 to midnight each day . In spite of this , he maintained top grades in his classes . Facing difficulties with his academics and the institutional segregation in the city , Brown nevertheless found most of his fellow students were friendly toward him . Brown rarely returned to Mississippi during the school year , but in the summers he worked at a dry cleaner in Hattiesburg to help pay for his classes .
During his second year in college , Brown learned of the V @-@ 5 Aviation Cadet Training Program being conducted by the U.S. Navy to commission naval aviation pilots . This program operated at 52 colleges , none of which were predominantly black colleges , so only students such as Brown , who attended integrated colleges , were eligible . In spite of resistance from recruiters , Brown passed the entrance exams . Brown enlisted in the U.S. Naval Reserve on 8 July 1946 and was admitted to the aviation program , becoming a Seaman Apprentice in the U.S. Navy and a member of the school 's Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps ( NROTC ) program . A $ 50 monthly stipend allowed him to quit his jobs and complete his architectural engineering degree in 1947 . At this time , the NROTC was the normal route to a regular Naval commission , but only 14 out of more than 5 @,@ 600 NROTC students in 1947 were black .
= = Career = =
On 15 March 1947 , Brown reported to Glenview Naval Air Station in Glenview , Illinois , for Naval Flight Officer training . There , his enlistment ended 15 April and Brown reverted to the rank of midshipman , becoming the only African American in the program . Although he anticipated antagonism , he found the other cadets were generally friendly and welcoming . He found many of the black cooks and janitors hostile to him , however , possibly due to jealousy . Brown got his first flight time aboard a Stearman N2S trainer aircraft .
In spite of the rigors of the initial training , Brown was encouraged by instructors and completed the first phase of training , transferring to Ottumwa Naval Air Station in Ottumwa , Iowa , for the next phase . The Ottumwa training involved intense physical fitness and technical training , which Brown completed . Thereafter , he was moved to Pensacola Naval Air Station in Pensacola , Florida , to train in aircraft flight .
In Pensacola , Brown and Nix married in secret , as Naval Cadets were not allowed to marry until their training was complete , under threat of immediate dismissal . Nix took a room in Pensacola , and the two visited one another on weekends . In spite of overt racism from at least one instructor and several classmates at this posting , Brown completed the rigorous training in August 1947 .
By June 1948 , Brown had begun training for carrier @-@ based aircraft , and hoped to fly either the F4U Corsair or F6F Hellcat , both of which were fighters . He trained in carrier takeoffs and landings aboard the light carrier USS Wright , after which he was sent to Jacksonville , Florida , for final flight qualifications . On 21 October 1948 , he completed his training and was given his Naval Aviator Badge . This accomplishment was widely publicized , and Brown became known nationally . The Associated Press profiled him and his photograph appeared in Life magazine . Author Theodore Taylor later wrote that through Brown 's efforts to become a pilot , he had broken the " color barrier " which had been longstanding and preventing blacks in naval aviation .
Brown was commissioned as an ensign in the U.S. Navy on 26 April 1949 . He was assigned to Quonset Point Naval Air Station in Quonset , Rhode Island , as a part of the U.S. Atlantic Fleet . Brown reported that incidents of racism and discrimination , which had been harsh late in his training , were substantially relieved once he became an officer . Following his commissioning , Brown was assigned to temporary duty at Norfolk Naval Air Station in Norfolk , Virginia . His daughter , Pamela Elise Brown , was born in December . In January 1949 , Brown was assigned to Fighter Squadron 32 aboard the USS Leyte . Over the next 18 months , the unit conducted numerous training exercises along the East Coast , many of them taking place at Quonset Point . Brown reported here his superiors treated him fairly and held others to equal standards . The unit trained rigorously in aircraft maneuvers .
By the outbreak of the Korean War , he had gained a reputation among the others in the squadron as an experienced pilot and a capable section leader . He was well @-@ liked among other pilots and the black stewards and support staff of the carrier . Brown did not socialize much with the other pilots , however , and was known to spend as much time as possible visiting his wife . He was able to reveal his marriage following his commissioning .
= = = Korean War = = =
On the night of 25 June 1950 , ten divisions of the North Korean People 's Army launched a full @-@ scale invasion of the nation 's neighbor to the south , the Republic of Korea . The force of 89 @,@ 000 men moved in six columns , catching the Republic of Korea Army by surprise , resulting in a rout . The smaller South Korean army suffered from widespread lack of organization and equipment , and was unprepared for war . The numerically superior North Korean forces destroyed isolated resistance from the 38 @,@ 000 South Korean soldiers on the front before it began moving steadily south . Most of South Korea 's forces retreated in the face of the invasion . The North Koreans were well on their way to South Korea 's capital of Seoul within hours , forcing the government and its shattered army to retreat farther south .
To prevent South Korea 's collapse the United Nations Security Council voted to send military forces . The United States Seventh Fleet dispatched Task Force 77 , led by the fleet carrier USS Valley Forge ; the British Far East Fleet dispatched several ships , including HMS Triumph , to provide air and naval support . Although the navies blockaded North Korea and launched aircraft to delay the North Korean forces , these efforts alone did not stop the North Korean Army juggernaut on its southern advance . U.S. President Harry S. Truman ordered ground troops into the country to supplement the air support . All U.S. Navy units , including the Leyte , were placed on alert . At the time , the ship was in the Mediterranean Sea and Brown did not expect to be deployed to Korea , but on 8 August a relief carrier arrived in the area and the Leyte was ordered to Korea . Commanders felt the pilots on the carrier were better trained , and hence needed in the theater . The ship sailed from the Strait of Gibraltar across the Atlantic Ocean and to Quonset , then through the Panama Canal and to San Diego , California , Hawaii , and Japan before arriving in Korea around 8 October .
The ship joined Task Force 77 off the northeast coast of the Korean Peninsula , part of a fleet of 17 ships from the Seventh Fleet , including the aircraft carrier USS Philippine Sea , battleship USS Missouri and cruiser USS Juneau . Brown flew 20 missions in @-@ country . These missions included attacks on communication lines , troop concentrations , and military installations around Wonsan , Chongpu , Songjim , and Senanju .
Following the entrance of the People 's Republic of China into the war in late November 1950 , Brown and his squadron were dispatched to the Chosin Reservoir , where an intense campaign was being fought between the People 's Volunteer Army and the US X Corps . Approximately 100 @,@ 000 Chinese troops had surrounded 15 @,@ 000 U.S. troops , and Brown and other pilots on the Leyte flew dozens of close air support missions every day to prevent the Chinese from overrunning the U.S. troops .
= = = Death = = =
On 4 December 1950 , Brown was part of a six @-@ aircraft flight supporting U.S. Marine Corps ground troops trapped by Chinese forces . At 13 : 38 KST , Brown took off from the Leyte with squadron executive officer Lieutenant Commander Dick Cevoli , Lieutenant George Hudson , Lieutenant Junior Grade Bill Koenig , Ensign Ralph McQueen , and Lieutenant Junior Grade Thomas J. Hudner , Jr . , who was Brown 's wingman . During this flight , Brown had the call sign " Iroquois 13 " . The flight traveled 100 miles ( 160 km ) from the Task Force 's location to the Chosin Reservoir , flying 35 to 40 minutes through very harsh wintery conditions to the vicinity of the villages of Yudam @-@ ni and Hagaru @-@ ri . The flight began searching for targets along the west side of the reservoir , decreasing their altitude to 700 feet ( 210 m ) . The mission was a three @-@ hour search and destroy flight as well as an attempt to probe Chinese troop strength in the area .
Although the flight spotted no Chinese , at 14 : 40 Koenig radioed that Brown appeared to be trailing fuel . The damage had likely come by small arms fire from Chinese infantry , who were known to hide in the snow and to ambush passing aircraft by firing in unison . At least one bullet had ruptured a fuel line . Brown , losing fuel pressure and increasingly unable to control the aircraft , dropped his external fuel tanks and rockets and attempted to land the craft in a snow @-@ covered clearing on the side of a mountain . Brown crashed into a bowl @-@ shaped valley at approximately 40 ° 36 ′ N 127 ° 06 ′ E. The aircraft broke up violently upon impact and was destroyed . In the crash , Brown 's leg was pinned beneath the fuselage of the aircraft , and he stripped off his helmet and gloves in an attempt to free himself , before waving to the other pilots , who were circling close overhead . The other pilots had thought he had died in the crash . Brown had crash @-@ landed near Somong @-@ ni , 15 miles ( 24 km ) behind Chinese lines in 15 ° F ( − 9 ° C ) weather , and the other pilots began a Mayday radio to any heavy transport aircraft in the area as they canvassed the mountain for any sign of Chinese ground forces who might threaten Brown . They received a signal that a rescue helicopter would come as soon as possible , but Brown 's aircraft was smoking and a fire had started near its internal fuel tanks .
Before it became clear Brown was seriously injured , Hudner attempted in vain to rescue Brown by radioing him instructions for escaping his damaged aircraft . Hudner then intentionally crash @-@ landed his aircraft , ran to Brown 's side and attempted to wrestle him free from the wreck . While Brown 's condition worsened by the minute , Hudner attempted in vain to put out the aircraft fire using snow and to pull Brown from the aircraft . In great pain , Brown began slipping in and out of consciousness . A rescue helicopter arrived around 15 : 00 ; its pilot Lieutenant Charles Ward and Hudner were unable to put out the engine fire with a fire extinguisher , and tried unsuccessfully to free Brown with an axe for 45 minutes . They even considered , at Brown 's request , amputating his trapped leg . Brown lost consciousness shortly thereafter . His last known words to Hudner were , " Tell Daisy I love her . " The helicopter , which was unable to operate in the darkness , was forced to return to base at nightfall with Hudner , leaving Brown behind . Brown is believed to have died shortly thereafter of his injuries and exposure to the extreme cold . No Chinese forces threatened the site , likely owing to the heavy air presence of Brown and Hudner 's unit .
Hudner begged superiors to allow him to return to the wreck to help extract Brown , but he was not allowed , as other officers feared an ambush of the vulnerable helicopters resulting in casualties . To prevent the body and the aircraft from falling into Chinese or North Korean hands , the U.S. Navy bombed the aircraft with napalm two days later , with pilots reportedly reciting the Lord 's Prayer over the radio as they watched Brown 's body be consumed by flames . The pilots observed that Brown 's body was still stuck in the aircraft , but his clothes were gone . The remains of both Brown and the aircraft were never recovered . Brown was the first African @-@ American U.S. Navy officer killed in the war .
= = Legacy = =
For his actions in Korea leading up to his death , Brown was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross , the Purple Heart Medal , and the Air Medal . For the failed rescue attempt , Hudner received the Medal of Honor , the highest valor award presented by the U.S. military .
Brown 's shipmates memorialized him in a shipwide newspaper as " a Christian soldier , a gentleman , a shipmate , and friend ... His courage and faith ... shone like a beacon for all to see . " As word of his death spread , Brown inspired numerous other African Americans to become pilots , notably Seaman Apprentice Frank E. Petersen . Petersen would become the first African @-@ American Marine Corps aviator and the first African @-@ American Marine Corps general , being graduated from the Naval Aviation Training Program in 1952 and retiring from the military after 38 years in 1988 with the rank of lieutenant general .
On 17 February 1973 , the Navy commissioned the Knox @-@ class frigate USS Jesse L. Brown ( FF @-@ 1089 ) , the third U.S. ship named in honor of an African American . Present at the commissioning ceremony in Boston , Massachusetts , were Daisy Brown Thorne ( who had remarried ) , Pamela Brown , and Hudner , who gave a dedication . The ship was decommissioned on 27 July 1994 and renamed the Damiyat after being commissioned with the Egyptian navy .
An extensive biography of Brown later was compiled by author Theodore Taylor , who had served in Korea and had been deeply moved by the news of Brown 's death at the time . Taylor interviewed many of Brown 's closest friends and family and consulted Daisy Brown 's personal diary and records from the Leyte 's ship log while preparing his 300 @-@ page book , published in 2007 .
In July 2013 , Hudner visited Pyongyang in an attempt to recover Brown 's remains from the crash site . He was told by North Korean authorities to return in September when the weather is more predictable .
= = Awards and decorations = =
Brown 's military decorations and awards included the following :
His Distinguished Flying Cross citation reads :
The President of the United States of America takes pride in presenting the Distinguished Flying Cross ( Posthumously ) to Ensign Jesse Leroy Brown ( NSN : 0 @-@ 504477 ) , United States Navy , for heroism in aerial flight as Pilot of a fighter plane in Fighter Squadron Thirty @-@ Two ( VF @-@ 32 ) , attached to the USS Leyte ( CV @-@ 32 ) , in hostile attacks on hostile North Korean forces . Participating in 20 strikes on enemy military installations , lines of communication , transportation facilities , and enemy troop concentrations in the face of grave hazard , at the Chosin Reservoir , Takshon , Manp Jin , Linchong , Sinuiju , Kasan , Wonsan , Chonjin , Kilchu , and Sinanju during the period 12 October to 4 December 1950 . With courageous efficiency and utter disregard for his own personal safety , Ensign Brown , while in support of friendly troops in the Chosin Reservoir area , pressed home numerous attacks destroying an enemy troop concentration moving to attack our troops . So aggressive were these attacks , in the face of enemy anti @-@ aircraft fire , that they finally resulted in the destruction of Ensign Brown 's plane by anti @-@ aircraft fire . His gallant devotion to duty was in keeping with the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service .
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= USS Canonicus ( 1863 ) =
USS Canonicus was a single @-@ turret monitor built for the United States Navy during the American Civil War , the lead ship of her class . The ship spent most of her first year in service stationed up the James River , where she could support operations against Richmond and defend against a sortie by the Confederate ironclads of the James River Squadron . She engaged Confederate artillery batteries during the year and later participated in both attacks on Fort Fisher , defending the approaches to Wilmington , North Carolina , from December 1864 to January 1865 .
Canonicus was transferred to the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron at Charleston , South Carolina , after the capture of Fort Fisher in January and helped to capture one blockade runner . She was sent to Havana , Cuba , to search for the Confederate ironclad CSS Stonewall and became one of the first ironclads to visit a foreign port . The ship was intermittently in commission from 1872 until she was permanently decommissioned in 1877 . Canonicus was exhibited at the Jamestown Exposition of 1907 before she was sold for scrap the following year .
= = Description and construction = =
The ship was 224 feet ( 68 @.@ 3 m ) long overall , had a beam of 43 feet 4 inches ( 13 @.@ 2 m ) and had a maximum draft of 13 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 1 m ) . Canonicus had a tonnage of 1 @,@ 034 tons burthen and displaced 2 @,@ 100 long tons ( 2 @,@ 100 t ) . Her crew consisted of 100 officers and enlisted men .
Canonicus was powered by a two @-@ cylinder horizontal vibrating @-@ lever steam engine that drove one propeller using steam generated by two Stimers horizontal fire @-@ tube boilers . The 320 @-@ indicated @-@ horsepower ( 240 kW ) engine gave the ship a top speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) . She carried 140 – 150 long tons ( 140 – 150 t ) of coal . Canonicus 's main armament consisted of two smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading , 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) Dahlgren guns mounted in a single gun turret . Each gun weighed approximately 43 @,@ 000 pounds ( 20 @,@ 000 kg ) . They could fire a 350 @-@ pound ( 158 @.@ 8 kg ) shell up to a range of 2 @,@ 100 yards ( 1 @,@ 900 m ) at an elevation of + 7 ° .
The exposed sides of the hull were protected by five layers of 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) wrought iron plates , backed by wood . The armor of the gun turret and the pilot house consisted of ten layers of one @-@ inch plates . The ship 's deck was protected by armor 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) thick . A 5 @-@ by @-@ 15 @-@ inch ( 130 by 380 mm ) soft iron band was fitted around the base of the turret to prevent shells and fragments from jamming the turret as had happened during the First Battle of Charleston Harbor in April 1863 . The base of the funnel was protected to a height of 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) by 8 inches ( 200 mm ) of armor . A " rifle screen " of 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ inch ( 13 mm ) armor 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) high was installed on the top of the turret to protect the crew against Confederate snipers based on a suggestion by Commander Tunis A. M. Craven , captain of her sister ship Tecumseh .
The contract for Canonicus , the first Navy ship to be named for the chief of the Narragansett Indians , was awarded to Harrison Loring ; the ship was laid down in 1862 at their Boston , Massachusetts shipyard . She was launched on 1 August 1863 and commissioned on 16 April 1864 with Commander E. G. Parrott in command . The ship 's construction was delayed by multiple changes ordered while she was being built that reflected battle experience with earlier monitors . This included the rebuilding of the turrets and pilot houses to increase their armor thickness from 8 inches ( 203 mm ) to 10 inches and to replace the bolts that secured their armor plates together with rivets to prevent them from being knocked loose by the shock of impact from shells striking the turret . Other changes included deepening the hull by 18 inches ( 457 mm ) to increase the ship 's buoyancy , moving the position of the turret to balance the ship 's trim and replacing all of the ship 's deck armor . As far as is known the ship was not modified after her completion .
= = Service = =
Canonicus sailed from Boston on 22 April 1864 and arrived at Newport News , Virginia on 3 May for service with the James River Flotilla . She reached the mouth of the Appomattox River by 5 May . By 22 May , the ship was deployed with her sisters Saugus and Tecumseh on the James River where they protected the transports of Major General Benjamin Butler 's Army of the James , supplying the army as it operated on the south bank of the river during the Bermuda Hundred Campaign . On 21 June , Commander Craven of the Tecumseh spotted a line of breastworks that the Confederates were building at Howlett 's Farm and his ship opened fire at the workers . The Confederates replied with a battery of four guns near the breastworks and Saugus and Canonicus joined in the bombardment . A half @-@ hour later , Confederate ships near Dutch Gap joined in , but their fire was ineffective because they were firing blindly at the Union monitors . During the engagement , Canonicus fired forty 15 @-@ inch shells and was hit twice by Confederate shells . One shell pierced the upper part of the funnel and the other struck the deck and ricocheted into the turret ; no one was wounded or killed during the engagement . The ship duelled with Howlett 's Battery on 5 and 6 December , firing 46 shells without being hit in return . The only damage sustained was from the muzzle blast of the right gun that forced the armor at the gun port out about one inch ( 25 mm ) and broke a number of bolts .
Reassigned to the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron , the monitor arrived at Beaufort , North Carolina , accompanied by the sidewheel gunboat Rhode Island , on 15 December 1864 , and took part in the attacks on Fort Fisher , North Carolina . In the first engagement on 24 – 25 December , Canonicus anchored at ranges from 900 – 1 @,@ 200 yards ( 820 – 1 @,@ 100 m ) and fired 144 rounds , Lieutenant Commander George Belknap claiming to have dismounted two Confederate guns . The ship was hit four times , but suffered no casualties and no significant damage . On 13 – 15 January 1865 , during the second attack , Canonicus fired 279 shells at the fort , most on the first day , again claiming to have dismounted two guns . She was hit at least 38 times in return but was only lightly damaged , and three crewmen were wounded . The ship 's flag was twice shot away and replaced each time by Quartermaster Daniel D. Stevens . Stevens was later awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions .
On 17 January 1865 , Canonicus , towed by the steam sloop @-@ of @-@ war Tuscarora , was ordered to join the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron and arrived at Charleston on 19 January . The following month , Canonicus and the monitors Monadnock and Catskill captured a blockade runner that had run aground on Sullivan 's Island on the night of 18 February . The ship , towed by the steamer Fahkee , together with Monadnock and other ships steamed to Havana , Cuba in late May in search of the CSS Stonewall and arrived there after the ship had been turned over to the Spanish authorities by her captain . The two monitors were the first American ironclads to arrive at a foreign port and returned to the United States on 6 June .
Canonicus arrived at the Philadelphia Navy Yard on 25 June 1869 and was decommissioned five days later . The ship was renamed Scylla on 15 June 1869 , but resumed her former name on 10 August 1869 . She was recommissioned on 22 January 1872 , and cruised the coastal waters of the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico whenever she was in commission . Canonicus was finally decommissioned in 1877 at Pensacola , Florida . The elderly monitor was towed to Hampton Roads , Virginia , in mid @-@ 1907 as an exhibit during the Jamestown Exposition as the last survivor of the Civil War monitors . Canonicus was sold for scrap on 19 February 1908 .
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= Chittenango ovate amber snail =
The Chittenango ovate amber snail , scientific name Novisuccinea chittenangoensis , is a species of small air @-@ breathing land snail in the family Succineidae , the amber snails . This species was discovered in 1905 , and was reported three years later as a subspecies of the oval ambersnail , Succinea ovalis . Several taxonomic reviews took place in the subsequent decades until the end of the 1980s , when the Chittenango ovate amber snail was finally judged to be a distinct species Novisuccinea chittenangoensis , based on chemical and morphological data .
The Chittenango ovate amber snail is endemic to the Chittenango area of Madison County , New York , United States . There is only one population of this species at Chittenango Falls State Park in central New York , even though it was believed to have a broader range previously ; based on fossil records , some authors argue that the distribution of this species may have been much wider in the past . In opposition to this , other authors argue that it is impossible to identify this species based on fossil records , because they only allow for examination of shell features . Shell features of species in this particular family of snails are usually not very distinctive .
Novisuccinea chittenangoensis has a small ( an average of 20 @.@ 9 mm in length in adult individuals ) , delicate , ovate shell of 3 ¼ whorls , with deep sutures . The shell is almost translucent , and varies in color from a chalky pale yellow to white , with a glossy surface . Several internal organs of the animal can be distinguished through the shell 's outer surface . The visible soft parts of the animal are of a pale subtranslucent yellow color , with different markings during distinct stages of development .
Studies on the ecology of the Chittenango ovate amber snail are fairly recent . It is an herbivorous species which lives in the fresh spray zone of the Chittenango Falls , in partially sunlit areas with lush herbaceous growth . Several parameters appear to be influential in its habitat selection , namely humidity , substrate , temperature , vegetation , and water quality . Novisuccinea chittenangoensis is a hermaphroditic species , and its mating season is from May through July . It lays egg clusters , each one containing an average of 8 to 14 eggs , at the base of plants , under matted vegetation , or in loose , wet soil . Maturity is reached in five to eight months , and its life span is roughly 2 @.@ 5 years . Some of its predators include insects , amphibians , mammals , birds , and occasionally other snails .
Since the time of its discovery in 1905 , there have been many attempts to estimate the population size of this species . Results varied greatly , but the more recent ones suggest a very reduced number of individuals . This coupled with a very restricted distribution have led to the listing of Novisuccinea chittenangoensis as an endangered or threatened species . Humans frequently invade its habitat , though such disturbances have been greatly reduced by preventive measures . Recent efforts in conservation include perpetuating the extant population at a baseline size as well as maintaining captive populations .
= = Taxonomy = =
The snail was first discovered at Chittenango Falls in August 1905 by a field party from the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia . In 1908 , Henry Augustus Pilsbry reported the discovery , describing the snail as a subspecies of the widely distributed Succinea ovalis . Because of this , the Chittenango ovate amber snail is referred to in many publications as Succinea ovalis chittenangoensis .
Pilsbry placed Succinea ovalis in the subgenus Novisuccinea in 1948 . Alan Solem ( 1976 ) considered this snail to be merely a form of Succinea ovalis , citing similarities in genitalia and radula , and attributing shell differences to , possibly , a marked genetic mutation . Grimm ( 1981 ) considered it to be a distinct species due to external morphological differences ( color and shell shape ) . By 1981 , Succinea ovalis could not be found at the Falls ; however , during sampling for Hoagland ’ s electrophoretic analyses , Succinea ovalis was found at two locations within approximately 16 kilometers of Chittenango Falls . Individuals assigned to Novisuccinea chittenangoensis appeared to be divided into two color morphs , a " gray morph " that was relatively common and widespread at the Falls , and a " red morph " that was restricted to the ledges at the base of the Falls . A preliminary analysis by Hoagland ( 1984 ) stated unequivocally that the red and the gray morphs were two distinct species , possibly in separate genera . Solem examined specimens of the gray morph and assigned it to Succinea putris , an introduced snail possibly from Europe which appears to crowd out all other species .
Hoagland and Davis ( 1987 ) subsequently completed a thorough analysis , based on electrophoresis , shell morphology , and internal anatomy , of the succineids at Chittenango Falls . They divided Succinea into two genera , keeping the Old World Succinea in the genus and elevating the New World Succinea , of the Section Novisuccinea including ovalis and chittenangoensis , to the genus level . They also determined that the Old World Succinea putris is probably a species complex and that the gray morph , although closely related to Succinea putris sensu lato , is a distinct species , which they designated Succinea sp . B. Based on these factors , the species designation Novisuccinea chittenangoensis is considered valid . Both species have been observed with red and gray morphs , bringing into question whether the earlier separation truly represented taxonomic distinctiveness . Currently , Novisuccinea chittenangoensis , Succinea sp . B , and 3 – 4 Oxyloma spp. are considered to be the only succineid species present at Chittenango Falls . In 2003 , the U.S. Geological Survey ( T. King , unpublished data ) amplified and sequenced the cytochrome oxidase I region of mitochondrial DNA and the ITS @-@ 1 region of nuclear DNA in Novisuccinea chittenangoensis and Succinea sp . B. The results ( sequence divergence of 10 – 15 percent ) suggest large differences between the two species . No hybridization was observed .
= = Distribution = =
The only verified extant colony of Novisuccinea chittenangoensis is the type population , which is at Chittenango Falls , in Chittenango Falls State Park , 3 @.@ 6 miles north of Cazenovia , between the towns of Cazenovia and Chittenango , in Madison County , New York . At various times in the past , the species has been thought to have a broader range . To date , although many potentially suitable colony sites have been searched , no colony has been conclusively identified as Novisuccinea chittenangoensis outside of the Chittenango Falls area .
During the summer of 1982 , " sub @-@ fossil " shells of what appeared to be Novisuccinea chittenangoensis were found in the banks on the west side of Chittenango Creek near the Falls . Grimm ( 1981 ) postulated that Pleistocene deposits of what was originally described as Novisuccinea ovalis pleistocenica ( Baker , 1927 ) are in fact shells of Novisuccinea chittenangoensis , and that this species was widely distributed during the Pleistocene epoch . Shell specimens have been recorded from Yarmouthian Interglacial , Sangamonian Stage , and Peorian Stage deposits in the states of Arkansas , Illinois , Iowa , Michigan , Missouri , and Nebraska , and in Ontario . Alan Solem , however , questioned the assignment of the fossil succineid shell deposits to any species group . Although Hubricht ( 1985 ) mapped the location of extant populations of Novisuccinea chittenangoensis to include New York , West Virginia , Virginia , Tennessee , and North Carolina , with fossil records from Iowa , Illinois , Missouri , and Arkansas , Hoagland and Davis ( 1987 ) concluded that there is only one verified extant population of Novisuccinea chittenangoensis and that it is impossible to verify fossil records as being Novisuccinea chittenangoensis based on shell characteristics alone .
= = Description = =
The shell of Novisuccinea chittenangoensis is ovate , slender , acute , and of moderate thickness . The shell suture is deep . The spire is gently convex , laterally compressed , with 3 ¼ whorls . The spire is long , slightly less than half the shell length , and the aperture is very oblique . The shell color is subtranslucent , calcareous pale yellow to white . The surface is somewhat glossy and marked with growth wrinkles and lines . The size varies somewhat , but adult specimens of the type lot averaged 20 @.@ 9 millimeters ( mm ) in shell length . Various adult specimens measured during the summer of 1981 and 1982 ranged from 19 to 24 mm .
Hatchlings measure 1 to 2 mm in shell length , and yearlings average around 10 mm . Measurements of all Novisuccinea chittenangoensis in 2002 ranged from 7 to 23 mm .
The base color of the living animal is very pale subtranslucent yellow . The mantle , kidney , and hepatopancreas are visible through the shell but are often slightly obscured by the thickness of the shell . The dorsal surface of the mantle is pale yellow , tinted with olive , often marked with black streaks and blotches . Over the hepatopancreas is a golden yellow tessellation that is marked with gray or black spots and streaks . A dark marking on the posterior surface of the foot is distinctive . However , the mark is not present on the hatchlings , making them impossible to identify in the field . The mark becomes obvious once the snail reaches approximately 6 to 9 mm in length .
= = Ecology = =
Until recently , relatively little was known about the biology of the Chittenango ovate amber snail . Studies by investigators at the State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry ( ESF ) since 1981 have contributed to the base of knowledge about the biology and life history of Novisuccinea chittenangoensis . Aloi ( 1985 ) analyzed the population dynamics of the succineid snails at Chittenango Falls . Thomee ( 1986 ) investigated their behavioral ecology , and Molloy and Norton ( 1993 ) developed techniques for captive propagation . Molloy ( 1995 ) reported on the captive population of Novisuccinea chittenangoensis and associated field studies related to factors influencing the distribution of Succinea sp . B. Confusion on snail identification may have affected the results of Thomee 's and Aloi 's work , but by the time Molloy 's study was initiated , the identification problems had been resolved .
= = = Habitat = = =
Novisuccinea chittenangoensis survives in and presumably prefers cool , partially sunlit areas of lush herbaceous growth within the spray zone of the Falls .
The habitat of Novisuccinea chittenangoensis lies within the ravine at the base of the 167 @-@ foot @-@ tall waterfall formed by Chittenango Creek as it flows north from its origin toward Oneida Lake . This north @-@ south oriented ravine forms a deep gorge that is shaded or partially shaded throughout most of the growing season , resulting in a microclimate that stays relatively cool during the summer , and because of the creek flow and ice formations , is relatively warm in the winter compared to the surrounding area . Spring thaws and periodic major rainfall events tend to remove vegetation from significant portions of the primary Novisuccinea chittenangoensis habitat .
Pilsbry ( 1948 ) reported that Novisuccinea chittenangoensis was found " on a sloping weedy talus near the foot of the falls . " The only sloping weedy talus is on the east side of the Falls . This area is adjacent to and between the vegetated ledge at the base of the Falls where Novisuccinea chittenangoensis now occurs and the spring @-@ fed watercress beds previously reported to be Novisuccinea chittenangoensis habitat . Presence of Novisuccinea chittenangoensis has not been verified on the west side of the Falls .
Thomee ( 1986 ) mapped the habitat occupied by Novisuccinea chittenangoensis . The snails occupied an area of 53 @.@ 7 m2 at the base of the Falls , with most snails found in an area of 11 @.@ 4 m2 . More intense studies from 2002 to 2004 have further defined the occupied habitat . Novisuccinea chittenangoensis is found on a ledge beginning at 4 m from the eastern edge of the Falls and extending to 16 m from the Falls . In addition , Novisuccinea chittenangoensis can be found on the middle ledge 4 m above the primary ledge and in the talus as far as 3 m downslope from the primary ledge .
= = = Habitat parameters = = =
Five parameters appear to have significance in the preferred habitat : humidity , substrate , temperature , vegetation , and water quality .
Humidity : Novisuccinea chittenangoensis appears to require sustained , very high humidity . Active snails were found only when relative humidity approached 100 percent ; during dry periods , snails were found to be relatively inactive . Portions of the habitat and substrate are consistently at near maximum humidity or saturation in the spray zone of the Falls . However , during 2002 , the majority of Novisuccinea chittenangoensis were found > 5 m from the edge of the ledge nearest the Falls . Recent monitoring ( prior to 2006 ) with temperature and humidity data loggers shows that these snails occur in an area where the humidity generally varies from 80 to 100 percent during the active season . Further investigation is needed into seasonal and annual hydrological conditions within the Chittenango Creek watershed and at the Falls relative to the high @-@ humidity areas used by Novisuccinea chittenangoensis .
Substrate : Novisuccinea chittenangoensis appears to be a calciphile , requiring a substrate either derived from limestone dolomite or rich in calcium carbonate from other sources . The dynamic nature of its habitat does not allow for development of soil .
Temperature : The species appears to require the cool , mild temperatures and relatively constant conditions provided by the waterfalls and the mist they generate . Water volume and flow rates within the Chittenango Creek watershed influence the size of the waterfall as well as the mist @-@ zone and the actual temperature at the site . Active Novisuccinea chittenangoensis are generally found at temperatures from 12 to 20 ° C. During warmer periods , snails retreat to cool areas provided by the moist rock and moss , or aestivate in the vegetation . During cold winter temperatures , it is believed that the snails at the Falls retreat into cracks or fissures in the rocks and remain inactive . Various temperature readings were gathered during the summers of 1980 @-@ 1982 . In the spray zone , the rock surface temperatures averaged 16 ° C , the moss averaged 14 ° C , and the combined temperatures of the substrate , water , and vegetation averaged 16 ° C. Seasonal and daily temperature variation has been monitored for 2 years using data loggers that record temperature every hour , but this data has not yet been analyzed ( Breisch , unpublished data ) .
Vegetation : Most of the spray zone adjacent to the Falls is covered with patches of various mosses , liverworts , and other low herbaceous vegetation , including Eutrochium purpureum , Angelica atropurpurea , and Aster spp . In addition , watercress Nasturtium officinale increased after the 1993 flood event . Novisuccinea chittenangoensis were found on vegetation up to 92 cm above the ground and at 1 / 3 the maximum sunlight intensities of the sympatric Succinea sp . B. Vegetation is quite sparse on the west side of the Falls , and the only snails that have been observed there are Succinea sp . B. In drier talus adjacent to the mossy areas are various plant species , such as eastern skunk cabbage Symplocarpus foetidus and Angelica atropurpurea , upon which Succinea sp . B has also been found . During periods of heavy water flow , dew , or rain , when the vegetation is saturated , the snails have been observed actively crawling on the vegetation . During drier times , both species of snails attach themselves to the underside of leaves with a mucous epiphragm . In the patch of watercress , the vegetation is dense and lush . Although the watercress is dominant , other species include Angelica atropurpurea , jewelweed Impatiens capensis and Impatiens pallida , forget @-@ me @-@ nots Myosotis scorpioides , various mints Mentha spp . , and poison ivy Toxicodendron radicans , which again support Succinea sp . B but not Novisuccinea chittenangoensis . The ledges where Novisuccinea chittenangoensis is found clearly comprise an early successional sere , periodically rejuvenated to a bare rock substrate by flood waters .
Water quality : It may be fair to presume that clean water is necessary to maintain essential habitat and a healthy population of Novisuccinea chittenangoensis , just as it is to the survival of many other invertebrates ; however , since Novisuccinea chittenangoensis is a terrestrial snail , the effects of water quality are expected to be somewhat indirect . While water quality may play a potential role in the success or decline of Novisuccinea chittenangoensis , this relationship has not been clearly defined to date .
= = = Life cycle = = =
The snails mate from May through July , and lay eggs from June through July . They are hermaphroditic ; however , it is unclear if self @-@ fertilization is possible . The eggs , numbering 8 to 14 , are approximately 2 mm in diameter , spherical , transparent , and very distinctive within a cluster . Generally , Novisuccinea chittenangoensis eggs are not found to have a heavy gelatinous layer surrounding the entire cluster , which is associated with egg masses of Succinea sp . B. Novisuccinea chittenangoensis egg clusters are deposited at the base of plants , under matted vegetation , or in loose , wet soil . The young snails hatch in 2 to 3 weeks , measuring barely 2 mm . It is still unclear when the snails mature , although Grimm ( 1981 ) believes they reach maturity in five to eight months , or the spring following hatching . At the end of their first full year of growth , snails observed by Aloi and Ringler ( 1982 ) averaged around 10 mm . By the end of the following year , the adult snails were observed to reach a length of approximately 21 mm ; they then die , completing a life span of about 2 @.@ 5 years . This life span is similar to those in captive populations ( Rosamond Gifford Zoo , unpublished data ) .
= = = Feeding habits = = =
Novisuccinea chittenangoensis apparently feed on microflora and must obtain high levels of calcium carbonate from their environment for proper shell formation . Novisuccinea chittenangoensis were generally found on green vegetation , whereas Succinea sp . B was more frequently found on dead vegetation .
= = = Predators = = =
Predators may include beetles and sciomyzid fly larvae , many of which specialize in feeding upon snails . Other potential predators may include the northern two @-@ lined salamander ( Eurycea bislineata ) , northern dusky salamander ( Desmognathus fuscus ) , and Allegheny Mountain dusky salamander ( Desmognathus ochrophaeus ) , which are common in the talus and on the ledges , as well as various small mammals or passerine birds such as robins and pigeons , which are often seen in or near the habitat . Although predation does not appear to be a limiting factor at this time , its potential impact on a low or stressed population is unclear . The 1978 listing rule included predation by the introduced European snails , Discus rotundatus and Oxychilus spp. as serious threats to Novisuccinea chittenangoensis . Little is currently known about this relationship .
= = = Interspecific relationships = = =
Interactions with Succinea sp . B may be having a significant impact on Novisuccinea chittenangoensis , as both species may be competing for food , breeding or wintering habitat . Hubricht ( 1985 ) reported that Succinea putris ( Succinea sp . B of Hoagland and Davis ) is a " very common species within its range . I found no other Succineidae with it . It appears to crowd out all other species . " It does not appear that the other sympatric snail species ( e.g. , Oxyloma spp . ) occurring at the Falls are having a significant impact on Novisuccinea chittenangoensis , as they are thought to be native species . There are no reports of disease or parasites threatening Novisuccinea chittenangoensis .
= = Population size = =
Accurate population trends are not available for this species . The species was supposedly found " in great abundance " when a field party collected it in 1905 , but was not surveyed again until 1954 , when Hubricht found it in " equal abundance " with Novisuccinea ovalis . Grimm found Novisuccinea ovalis more abundant than Novisuccinea chittenangoensis during field surveys in 1964 , 1965 , and 1973 . In 1972 , Grimm estimated the total Novisuccinea chittenangoensis population at less than 200 , but Solem estimated it at about 500 in 1974 . Three investigators spent two hours searching the habitat in 1973 and located only 13 specimens ; a trip later that summer yielded none . Surveys by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation Endangered Species Unit ( beginning in 1976 ) generally uncovered only a few shells or living animals during annual trips , although an intensive search in July 1981 , with Grimm 's assistance , yielded 18 live individuals .
Past surveys are suspect , as Grimm ( 1981 ) and Hubricht ( 1985 ) no longer believe that Novisuccinea ovalis even occurs in Novisuccinea chittenangoensis habitat at Chittenango Falls . They surmise , rather , that earlier reported specimens of Novisuccinea ovalis were instead immature Novisuccinea chittenangoensis . However , a review of photographic records showed shells of Novisuccinea ovalis that were collected at the Falls when the type specimens of Novisuccinea chittenangoensis were collected . Apparently , Novisuccinea ovalis occurred at or near the Falls historically but is no longer encountered there or is only located in adjacent habitats . Therefore , relative comparisons between the two species ' abundance is problematic and confusing .
During the summer of 1982 , Aloi and Ringler conducted a mark and recapture study in the patch of watercress where the snails appeared most densely . Using two methods ( Jolly and Schnabel ) and two models , they estimated a population of about 300 snails with a density of four snails per square meter of watercress habitat . These snails have subsequently been identified as Succinea sp . B , not Novisuccinea chittenangoensis . A 1983 collection of 83 snails for use in electrophoretic studies resulted in removal of 24 Novisuccinea chittenangoensis from the population ; unfortunately , their identity was not verified at the time of collection , on top of which Novisuccinea chittenangoensis was thought to be more abundant than it actually was . The population of Succinea sp . B expanded rapidly to an estimate of more than 3 @,@ 000 snails in 1984 , whereas counts of Novisuccinea chittenangoensis in 1984 indicated the presence of approximately 100 adults . Counts of live Novisuccinea chittenangoensis from 1995 to 2001 yielded an average of five adults per survey with a high of 12 adults in 2001 @.@ and post @-@ reproductive shell counts made at the end of each activity season from 1987 to 2001 generally identified 4 to 20 Novisuccinea chittenangoensis adults . Subsequent studies have shown that Succinea sp . B outnumbers Novisuccinea chittenangoensis by as much as 10 to 1 in the primary habitat areas .
In 2002 , the NYSDEC , ESF , and the USFWS increased the survey effort and conducted a mark @-@ release @-@ recapture study at the Falls . Sixteen surveys were conducted during the study period between July and October 2002 . The final population estimate using the Schumacher @-@ Eschmeyer method was 183 individuals ( 95 percent C.I. : 145 – 222 individuals ) . Population size was also estimated on the basis of capture frequencies , with a final estimate of 206 individuals . Due to differences in survey intensity and questionable species identifications in years past , the validity and comparability of survey data over the 20 @-@ year period do not provide a sound basis for any accurate status statement . The protocol for the mark @-@ release @-@ recapture study was modified slightly and continued in 2003 , 2004 , and 2005 . The Novisuccinea chittenangoensis population was estimated to be 178 in 2003 and 680 in 2004 . Preliminary 2005 survey results show a population slightly larger than the 2004 estimate .
In addition to the wild population at Chittenango Falls State Park , efforts to establish captive populations began in 1990 . A captive Novisuccinea chittenangoensis colony was being maintained at the Rosamond Gifford Zoo in Syracuse , New York , however , the last remaining snails died in November 2002 . Other unsuccessful breeding programs were tried in 1990s : at ESF at Syracuse ; at the Wildlife Conservation Park / Bronx Zoo ; an early effort at the Rosamond Gifford Zoo ( then called the Burnet Park Zoo ) ; at the Seneca Park Zoo ( Rochester , New York ) ; and at the Buffalo Zoo . Further experiments are necessary in order to determine what the proper conditions are for maintaining a healthy captive population of Novisuccinea chittenangoensis .
= = Conservation = =
Novisuccinea chittenangoensis was originally proposed as a Federal endangered species in April 1976 ( 41 FR 17742 @-@ 17747 ) , owing to an apparent decline in the species ’ population coupled with its extremely limited range . Ultimately , however , the species was listed as threatened in July 1978 ( 43 FR 28932 @-@ 28935 ) because of the presumed existence of a second colony in Tennessee and North Carolina . After listing , it was determined that the Tennessee / North Carolina snails were not Novisuccinea chittenangoensis , and the Chittenango Falls colony remains the only known population of this species . In 1977 , the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation ( NYSDEC ) amended the " List of Endangered , Threatened and Special Concern Fish & Wildlife Species of New York State " to include Novisuccinea chittenangoensis as an endangered species in New York .
Approximately 57 @,@ 000 visitors come to the park each year for a variety of outdoor recreational activities . The 1978 final rule listing Novisuccinea chittenangoensis as threatened estimated that 60 percent of the habitat at Chittenango Falls was trampled by humans . Human disturbance also continues to threaten Novisuccinea chittenangoensis , although this has been greatly minimized by fencing of the snail 's habitat area at Chittenango Falls . The current strategy for recovering Novisuccinea chittenangoensis includes buffering the species against extinction by perpetuating the extant population at Chittenango Falls at a baseline size , and new attempts in maintaining multiple captive populations .
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= USS West Bridge ( ID @-@ 2888 ) =
USS West Bridge ( ID @-@ 2888 ) was a cargo ship in the United States Navy during World War I. She was begun as SS War Topaz but was completed as SS West Bridge , though she was referred to in some publications under the spelling Westbridge . After the ship was decommissioned from the Navy , the ship returned to civilian service as SS West Bridge , but was renamed SS Barbara Cates , and SS Pan Gulf over the course of her civilian career under American registry . Near the end of World War II , the ship was renamed SS Lermontov ( Russian : Лермонтов ) when she sailed under the Soviet flag .
West Bridge was one of the West ships , a series of steel @-@ hulled cargo ships built for the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) on the West Coast of the United States . The ship was launched in April 1918 and delivered to the U.S. Navy upon completion in May . After commissioning , USS West Bridge sailed from the Pacific Northwest to the East Coast of the United States and joined a convoy of cargo ships headed to France in August . After West Bridge suffered an engine breakdown at sea , the convoy was attacked by two German submarines and West Bridge was torpedoed and abandoned . A salvage crew from American destroyer Smith boarded the ship the following day , and , working with four tugs dispatched from France , successfully brought the ship into port . Four men received the Navy Cross for their efforts in saving West Bridge .
After seven months of repair , West Bridge resumed Navy service until her December 1919 decommissioning and return to the USSB . West Bridge was laid up for nearly seven years from 1922 to 1929 , when she was sold for service on an intercoastal cargo service under the name SS Barbara Cates . By 1938 , the ship had been renamed Pan Gulf for service with a subsidiary of the Waterman Steamship Company . During World War II , Pan Gulf made nine roundtrips between the United States and the United Kingdom without incident in wartime convoys . She also sailed between New York and ports on the Gulf Coast and in the Caribbean . In May 1945 , the ship was transferred to the Soviet Union under Lend @-@ Lease . Renamed SS Lermontov , the ship sailed in support of the war and continued in civilian service for the Soviets until 1966 , when she was scrapped at Split .
= = Design and construction = =
To replace shipping tonnage lost to German submarines during World War I , the British Shipping Controller sought newly built ships from American shipyards . As part of 700 @,@ 000 long tons ( 710 @,@ 000 t ) of shipping which had been ordered by March 1917 , an order for nine vessels of 8 @,@ 800 long tons deadweight ( DWT ) was placed with J. F. Duthie & Company of Seattle . Because the United States had not yet entered World War I , the Shipping Controller , to skirt neutrality laws , placed orders through various British shipping companies . Although the specific company that placed the order with Duthie is not reported in secondary sources , the company most often used for these orders was the Cunard Steamship Company . As one of the nine ships ordered , J. F. Duthie & Company laid down the keel of War Topaz as the eleventh ship begun at their shipyard .
On 6 August 1917 , the Emergency Fleet Corporation — an entity created by the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) shortly after the United States entered the war on 6 April and tasked with overseeing U.S. shipbuilding — requisitioned most ships under construction in the United States ; included among those was War Topaz . By the time of her 24 April 1918 launch , the ship had been renamed West Bridge , becoming one of the West ships , cargo ships of similar size and design built by several shipyards on the West Coast of the United States . Just a bit over one month later , on 26 May , the finished West Bridge was delivered to the United States Navy .
As completed , the steel @-@ hulled ship was 409 feet 5 inches ( 124 @.@ 79 m ) long ( between perpendiculars ) , 54 feet ( 16 @.@ 5 m ) abeam , and drew 24 feet 1 inch ( 7 @.@ 34 m ) . West Bridge had a displacement of 12 @,@ 200 long tons ( 12 @,@ 400 t ) , and her 29 @-@ foot @-@ 9 @-@ inch ( 9 @.@ 07 m ) -deep hold allowed the ship to be rated at 5 @,@ 799 gross register tons ( GRT ) . The ship was powered by a single triple @-@ expansion steam engine built by the Hooven , Owens , & Rentschler Company of Hamilton , Ohio . The engine , with cylinders of 24 1 ⁄ 2 , 41 1 ⁄ 2 , and 72 inches ( 62 , 105 , and 180 cm ) diameter with a 48 @-@ inch ( 120 cm ) stroke , was capable of generating up to 2 @,@ 500 horsepower ( 1 @,@ 900 kW ) , allowing the single screw propeller to move the ship at up 10 @.@ 5 knots ( 19 @.@ 4 km / h ) . For her U.S. Navy service in World War I , West Bridge was equipped with one 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) and one 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) gun .
= = Military career = =
USS West Bridge ( ID @-@ 2888 ) was commissioned into the Naval Overseas Transportation Service ( NOTS ) at the Puget Sound Navy Yard on 26 May with Lieutenant Commander Mortimer Hawkins , USNRF , in command . West Bridge took on an initial load of flour and departed 10 June for the East Coast . Along the way , the ship developed troubles with her engine , which required her to put in at Balboa in the Panama Canal Zone for repairs . Getting under way again on 4 July , West Bridge sailed for New York , arriving on 16 July .
After refueling at New York , West Bridge joined Convoy HB @-@ 8 bound for France , sailing on 1 August in company with Navy cargo ship West Alsek , United States Army transport Montanan , and 13 others . Escorted by armed yacht Noma , destroyers Burrows and Smith , and French cruiser Marseillaise , the convoy was some 500 nautical miles ( 900 km ) west of its destination of Le Verdon @-@ sur @-@ Mer by the end of the day on 15 August .
= = = Torpedo attack = = =
At 17 : 40 , West Bridge 's engine broke down once again and her crew was unable to repair it . West Bridge , falling off the back of the convoy and adrift , signaled Marseillaise to request a tow . At sundown , shortly before 18 : 00 , Montanan — still in the convoy , which was by now some 4 nautical miles ( 7 @.@ 4 km ) ahead of West Bridge — was hit by one of three torpedoes launched by German submarine U @-@ 90 . Montanan began to settle and was quickly abandoned . On West Bridge , Lieutenant Commander Hawkins realized the potential for another submarine attack and ordered his crew to general quarters and reduced the number of men in the mechanical spaces below decks . Noma sailed back to West Bridge , ordered the freighter to extinguish her lights , and stood by . At nearly the same time , U @-@ 107 approached and launched two torpedoes at the stationary cargo ship , scoring hits with both . The first struck near the No. 3 cargo hold in the front of the ship , while the second hit amidships near the engine room . West Bridge immediately began listing to starboard , and Hawkins ordered the crew to abandon the vessel . He and two crewmen remained behind until they felt sure that everyone else had departed . By the time they left the stricken ship , water was up to the gunwales and lapping at the well deck .
Immediately after the attack , Noma sped off to depth charge the submarine while sending an SOS for West Bridge , since the initial explosion destroyed the cargo ship 's wireless . Destroyer Burrows arrived to take on West Bridge 's survivors , who had situated themselves about a mile ( 2 km ) from the still @-@ floating West Bridge . After boarding the destroyer , a head count revealed that four men were missing , but it also turned up two female stowaways .
By the morning of 16 August , both Montanan and West Bridge were still afloat , albeit with decks awash . Despite attempts to get Montanan under tow , she foundered later in the morning . Meanwhile , Hawkins and his executive officer were taken by boat to West Bridge to assess her situation . After boarding the ship and finding three cargo holds and her engineering spaces completely flooded , Hawkins advised Burrows ' captain that the situation was hopeless and he would only be endangering his ship , crew , and the West Bridge survivors by remaining alongside . Consequently , Burrows departed for Brest , France , leaving destroyer Smith to stand by West Bridge .
A volunteer work and salvage party from Smith , led by Lieutenant Richard L. Conolly , and which included Chief Boatswain 's Mate John Henry Caudell , and Construction Mechanic , 3rd class Walter Homer Todd , boarded West Bridge and awaited four tugs which had been dispatched from Brest : the U.S. Navy tug Favorite , two French tugs , and one British tug . Over the course of the next five days , the tugs , joined by patrol yacht Isabel , slowly made their way to the French coast , eventually arriving at Brest . West Bridge was towed over 400 nautical miles ( 740 km ) with only 1 % buoyancy remaining . Conolly , Caudell , and Todd were each awarded the Navy Cross for their efforts in saving West Bridge ; W. W. Wotherspoon , the fleet salvage officer on Favorite was also honored with a Navy Cross , in part for his salvage efforts for West Bridge .
The extent of the damage and the condition of West Bridge led to some erroneous reports of her loss . News articles on 24 August in both The New York Times and the Chicago Daily Tribune reported the loss of West Bridge , and the mistaken information also made it into book form . Authors Benedict Crowell and Robert Forrest Wilson , in their work The Road to France : The Transportation of Troops and Military Supplies , 1917 – 1918 , repeat the misinformation about the loss of West Bridge .
After West Bridge underwent seven months of repairs , the ship resumed service with the NOTS through 1 December 1919 , at which time she was decommissioned and handed over to the USSB .
= = Interwar years = =
Little is known about West Bridge 's activities after her return to the USSB in 1919 , but in June 1922 she was laid up in Philadelphia , where she would remain for almost seven years . In March 1929 , the USSB approved the sale of West Bridge for $ 57 @,@ 000 to the Sudden and Christenson Steamship Company of San Francisco . By May , the ship had been renamed Barbara Cates and was slated for service on the intercoastal freight service of their Arrow Line , which sailed to the Pacific coast from Baltimore ; Norfolk , Virginia ; Savannah , Georgia ; and Jacksonville , Florida . The addition of Barbara Cates and other ships purchased around the same time allowed the Arrow Line to increase its sailings from fortnightly to once every ten days . Barbara Cates ' nine years with the Arrow Line were uneventful .
By October 1938 , the ship had been renamed Pan Gulf to reflect the naming style of her new owners , the Pan @-@ Atlantic Steamship Company , a subsidiary of Waterman Steamship Company . The Pan @-@ Atlantic Line sailed in coastal service along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts , and it is likely that Pan Gulf called at typical Pan @-@ Atlantic ports such as Baltimore , Miami , Tampa , New Orleans , Philadelphia , New York , and Boston during this time .
In October 1941 , The Christian Science Monitor reported that Pan Gulf had become stuck in the mud off Governors Island after her crew misjudged how far to back out of her berth at the Army base there . The first , unsuccessful attempt to free Pan Gulf from her predicament involved eight tugs , but the ship did not budge . The newspaper , which had also reported that there was no apparent damage to Pan Gulf in the grounding , carried no further reports on the ship .
= = World War II and later career = =
After the United States entered World War II , Pan Gulf frequently sailed in convoys on the North Atlantic , as well as some in the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico . Between April and September 1942 , Pan Gulf made two roundtrips from the U.S. to Liverpool . In September , the cargo ship sailed from New York to the Caribbean to take on a load of bauxite in early November , and then sailed on to Galveston , Texas , before returning to New York in mid @-@ February 1943 .
In late February , Pan Gulf began the first of a further seven roundtrips to the United Kingdom over the next 21 months , when she sailed from New York in Convoy HX 228 for Halifax . In July , the United States Maritime Commission ( USMC ) purchased Pan Gulf from the Pan @-@ Atlantic Line , overpaying her value by some 16 times , according to Senator George Aiken ( R @-@ VT ) .
On 5 May 1945 , the USMC turned over Pan Gulf to the Far East Shipping Company ( FESCO ) of the Soviet Union under Lend @-@ Lease ; FESCO renamed the ship SS Lermontov ( Russian : Лермонтов , Russian pronunciation : [ ˈlʲɛrməntəf ] ) after the poet Mikhail Lermontov . The Soviets armed the ship with a 4 @-@ inch ( 100 mm ) gun and other weapons and employed the ship in cargo duties in support of the war .
At war 's end , Lermontov remained with FESCO through 1950 . At that time she was transferred to the Black Sea Shipping Company , with which she remained into the 1960s , IMO 5520680 . Lermontov was delivered to shipbreakers in Split on 26 June 1966 .
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= The Doughnut =
" The Doughnut " is the nickname given to the headquarters of the Government Communications Headquarters ( GCHQ ) , a British cryptography and intelligence agency . It is located on a 71 @-@ hectare ( 176 @-@ acre ) site in Benhall , in the suburbs of Cheltenham , Gloucestershire , in South West England . The Doughnut houses 5 @,@ 500 employees ; GCHQ is the largest single employer in Gloucestershire . Built to modernise and consolidate GCHQ 's multiple buildings in Cheltenham , The Doughnut was completed in 2003 , and GCHQ moved into the building in 2004 . It is the largest building constructed for secret intelligence operations outside the United States . The Doughnut was too small for the number of staff at its completion , and a second building in a secret and undisclosed location in the ' Gloucestershire area ' now also accommodates staff from GCHQ . The Doughnut is surrounded by car and bicycle parking in concentric rings , and well protected by security .
The construction of the building was financed by a private finance initiative and construction costs were greatly increased after difficulties in transferring computer infrastructure to the building . The building is modern in design and built primarily from steel , aluminium , and stone .
= = Background = =
The construction of the Doughnut in 2003 consolidated the operations previously spread across two sites into a single location , replacing more than 50 buildings in the process . The last staff from the nearby GCHQ site at Oakley were transferred to the Doughnut in late 2011 .
The design of the Doughnut reflects GCHQ 's intended new mode of work after the end of the Cold War , with its design facilitating talking among staff , and between them and the Director of GCHQ and his subordinates . It was estimated that anyone in the building could reach any other worker within five minutes . The director of GCHQ has no office ; in 2014 director Iain Lobban described his desk as being located " within the shouting distance of lawyers " .
At a cost of £ 330m , the construction of the Doughnut was funded by a private finance initiative ( PFI ) put forward by a collective that included British facilities management and construction company Carillion , the Danish security company Group 4 / Falck ( now G4S ) , and the British telecommunications company BT Group . The consortium are scheduled to be paid £ 800m to maintain the Doughnut for 30 years . The creation of the Doughnut was the largest PFI project to date for the British government . The building was designed by the British architect Chris Johnson for the American architectural firm Gensler , and constructed and built by Carillion .
In 2004 the chairman of the Commons Public Accounts Committee , Edward Leigh , criticised the increasing cost of GCHQ 's move to the Doughnut . Leigh said that " It was astonishing GCHQ did not realise the extent of what would be involved much sooner " . Leigh had said in 2003 that GCHQ 's original estimate for the cost of the move was " staggeringly inaccurate " .
For security reasons , GCHQ moved its own computers and technical infrastructure to the Doughnut , which caused the cost of its move to increase from £ 41m to £ 450m over two years . The moves of MI5 and the SIS to new buildings had also cost more than three times their original estimates due to issues with transferring computers . HM Treasury paid £ 216m toward a newly agreed budget of £ 308m , having initially refused to finance the original high figure . The final cost of GCHQ 's move to their new headquarters was more than seven times the original estimate .
The complexity of the computer network at GCHQ was responsible for the increase in costs . Issues with the network were found while preparing computers for the " Millennium bug " . Simply shutting down each computer individually before restarting them in the Doughnut would have left GCHQ unable to complete key intelligence work for two years , while moving their electronics according to the original schedule without " unacceptable damage " to intelligence gathering would cost £ 450m . In a review of GCHQ 's move in 2003 , the National Audit Office said government ministers might never have approved the consolidation of facilities had the final cost been known .
= = Design = =
The Doughnut is divided into three separate four @-@ storey structures , identical in design and connected at the top and bottom . With a total floor area of 140 @,@ 000 square metres ( 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , the building contains two circular blocks , internally divided by a " street " covered in glass . Construction materials were primarily steel , aluminium , and stone , particularly granite and local limestone from the Cotswolds ; designers incorporated recycled materials in the steelwork and the construction of desks . The design of the Doughnut was subsequently nominated for an award to " highlight improvements to the built and landscaped environment " given by Cheltenham 's Civic Society .
A circular walkway named " The Street " runs throughout the building . An open @-@ air garden courtyard lies in the middle of the Doughnut ; this garden is large enough to contain the Royal Albert Hall . The courtyard has a memorial to GCHQ staff who have been killed on active service ; some five staff died in the War in Afghanistan . Below the garden are banks of supercomputers . The Doughnut is 21 metres ( 70 ft ) high and 180 metres ( 600 ft ) in diameter . Individual spaces in the Doughnut include the 24 / 7 / 365 area where people working in " ... small 12 @-@ hour shifts monitor GCHQ systems and news bulletins . " The ' Action On ' programme enables the 24 / 7 / 365 staff to act " quickly and freely " to supply information to British armed forces to help their operations . The Doughnut 's Internet Ops Centre ( INOC ) , is where " the best technical capabilities [ are matched ] with the most urgent operational requirements " according to Charles Moore who visited the Doughnut in 2014 for the Daily Telegraph .
The structure of the Doughnut is designed to minimise any potential effect of a fire or a terrorist attack on the building ; it also includes independent power generators which can supply power to the facilities in an emergency . About 3 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 850 mi ) of fibre optics were installed in the Doughnut by British Telecom , and about 10 @,@ 000 km ( 6 @,@ 000 mi ) of electrical wiring were used in the building .
The Doughnut is surrounded by car and bicycle parking in concentric rings , guarded by a two @-@ metre metal fence and half a dozen vehicle checkpoints . The Doughnut is served by an underground road .
Facilities available to staff at the Doughnut include a 600 @-@ seat restaurant , shops , a gym , and a prayer or quiet room . Exhibits from the history of GCHQ are displayed throughout the building , including the radios used by the Portland Spy Ring .
= = History = =
The Doughnut was officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II and the Duke of Edinburgh in 2004 . The then Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , Gordon Brown , visited the Doughnut in 2008 , and praised the staff working there in a speech . The Doughnut has twice been visited by Charles , Prince of Wales , since its opening . Charles was accompanied by Camilla , Duchess of Cornwall in 2011 , on his second visit to the Doughnut .
The Doughnut was already too small for the number of GCHQ staff at its completion , as a vast expansion in the number of employees had occurred as a consequence of the September 11 attacks in 2001 . The staff numbered almost 6 @,@ 500 by 2008 . The addition of a two @-@ storey office block and a three @-@ story car park to the Doughnut was proposed in 2008 , but eventually suspended in 2011 . The new buildings were intended to facilitate the arrival of 800 staff from GCHQ 's former site at Oakley . Though it was initially felt that the Doughnut would be adequate for the new staff , 600 contractors working on technical projects for GCHQ were eventually relocated in a secret undisclosed building in the ' Gloucestershire area ' . The parking of cars by GCHQ staff on residential roads has caused ' annoyance ' among local residents in Benhall . It was believed that the arrival of new staff may have further affected local parking but GCHQ stated the presence of the new employees would have been offset by redundancies .
Access to the Doughnut is rarely granted to representatives from the media , but it was visited for the March 2010 BBC Radio 4 documentary GCHQ : Cracking the Code , by The Sun newspaper in December 2010 , by Charles Moore for an interview with GCHQ director Iain Lobban for the Daily Telegraph in October 2014 , and by historian and writer Ben Macintyre who visited the Doughnut for a series of articles for The Times in October 2015 in anticipation of the Draft Investigatory Powers Bill .
= = = Charitable efforts = = =
In October 2014 1 @,@ 308 GCHQ staff formed a giant red poppy in the Doughnut 's central courtyard to mark the start of the Royal British Legion 's Poppy Appeal . The poppy was 38m in size with a 28m long stalk . The staff wore red rain ponchos , with the black centre of the poppy formed by the uniforms of Royal Navy personnel . The Doughnut was illuminated with yellow light to mark GCHQ staff 's support for Guide Dogs and by a spectrum of colours to mark the International Day Against Homophobia , Transphobia and Biphobia . An annual Community Day is held at the Doughnut to highlight the charitable and volunteer work by GCHQ staff in the local Cheltenham community .
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= And I 'm Joyce Kinney =
" And I 'm Joyce Kinney " is the ninth episode of the ninth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on January 16 , 2011 . The episode follows housewife Lois as she becomes close friends with the local news anchor Joyce Kinney . In an attempt to become closer , the two decide to get drinks together , and reveal their darkest secrets . Wanting to fit in , Lois reveals her participation in a pornographic film when she was in college , with Joyce promising to keep her revelation a secret . The next day , Kinney unveils the story on the local news , much to the anger of Lois , who quickly becomes shunned by the entire town . The next day at church , she was banned from church forever .
The episode was written by Alec Sulkin and directed by Dominic Bianchi . It received mixed reviews from critics for its storyline and many cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 7 @.@ 08 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Kirker Butler , Colin Ford , Christine Lakin , Rachael MacFarlane , Helen Reddy and Jennifer Tilly , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series . " And I 'm Joyce Kinney " was one of five episodes submitted for consideration for an Emmy Award in the " Outstanding Comedy Series " category in 2011 .
= = Plot = =
As the family gathers around the television to watch the local news , Lois admits her fondness of the new co @-@ anchor , Joyce Kinney . Later that day , the family attends church , and while there , Lois learns of a local bake sale , and decides to bring her own baked goods . Going to the store to buy ingredients , Lois notices Kinney shopping there as well , and approaches her . The two quickly become close friends , and they decide to spend the day together at the news studio . That night , Lois and Joyce decide to get a drink together , and share stories . Reluctant at first to tell Joyce her darkest secret , she soon reveals that she was in a porn film when she was in college in the early 1980s , before she met Peter . Expecting Joyce will keep it a secret , as she promised , she is shocked when the local news reveals her participation in the making of the pornography , and Lois is made a social outcast .
Confronting Joyce about the story , Lois questions her intentions , with Joyce revealing that the two attended high school together , where she was known as Joyce Chevapravatdumrong . She also reveals that Lois humiliated her in front of the entire school , by placing a hotdog in her mouth and pulling down her pants while blindfolded ( revealing her pink underwear ) , and has sought revenge ever since . At church the next day , Lois and her family enter , and are immediately demanded to leave by the preacher . Becoming extremely depressed Brian walks to the Master 's Bedroom asking Lois to talk to her as she tells him that there is no link in the house online , and Lois is persuaded , after some coaxing by Brian , to confront her church by showing the film . The porno causes the church to reaccept her and admit the Griffin family back into their congregation due to a positive opinion of the film , much to Joyce 's anger . Stewie in the meantime develops suspicions of having been conceived through the creation of the porno , heightened when he sees that one of the actors has a football @-@ shaped head like his .
= = Production and development = =
" And I 'm Joyce Kinney " was written by series regular Alec Sulkin , in his first episode for the season . The episode was directed by series regular Dominic Bianchi , shortly after the conclusion of the eighth production season , also in his first episode for the season . Series veterans Peter Shin and James Purdum , both of whom having previously served as animation directors , served as supervising directors for the episode . Alex Carter , Andrew Goldberg , Elaine Ko , Spencer Porter and Aaron Blitzstein served as staff writers for the episode . Composer Walter Murphy , who has worked on the series since its inception , returned to compose the music for " And I 'm Joyce Kinney " .
The episode served as a continuation of the season premiere , in which local news anchor Diane Simmons was killed after being shot with a sniper rifle by Stewie , after she had killed several other secondary characters . News anchor Joyce Kinney was brought in as a replacement for Simmons on the local news , alongside Tom Tucker . The character is voiced by actress Christine Lakin , who has guest starred in various roles throughout the course of the series .
In addition to the regular cast , former series writer and current The Cleveland Show writer Kirker Butler , actor Colin Ford , actress Christine Lakin , voice actress Rachael MacFarlane , sister of series creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane , singer Helen Reddy , and actress Jennifer Tilly guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Ralph Garman , writer Chris Sheridan , writer Danny Smith , episode writer Alec Sulkin and writer John Viener made minor appearances throughout the episode .
= = Cultural references = =
In the opening scene of the episode , instead of the usual theme song , a sequence similar to that of the 1977 CBS series The Incredible Hulk is played , with Stewie portraying Bruce Banner , Tom Tucker portraying Mr. McGee , and Peter portraying Hulk . After Lois meets Joyce Kinney at the local supermarket , the two decide to meet up at the news studio later that evening . Admitting her enjoyment of their friendship , Lois continually praises Joyce for her celebrity status , calling her as much of a bigshot as The Muppets character Miss Piggy . The scene then cuts to Kermit the Frog , who has been badly beaten , with Fozzie Bear approaching him about a proposed " Bears in Space " number . Kermit then reveals that the skit has been changed to " Pigs in Space " instead .
Returning home , the Griffin family are shown to be watching the syndicated talk show The Ellen DeGeneres Show with actress and comedian Ellen DeGeneres appearing as host of the show . Lois then interrupts the family , and announces that she is going out to drink with Joyce . The two then share their darkest secrets , with Lois revealing that she had participated in the making of a pornographic film . Asked if the film still exists , Lois states that it is " long gone , " just like the original ending to the 1978 musical film Grease . After Joyce shows the film on the local news , Lois becomes angered , and decides to confront Joyce , who reveals that Lois had tormented her during high school , under the name Joyce Chevapravatdumrong , a reference to the Family Guy writer and series producer Cherry Chevapravatdumrong . The scene then transitions into a Facebook cutaway gag , showing Lois 's Facebook profile . Becoming depressed once she is kicked out of her church , Lois is confronted by Brian , who suggest that she take the criticism head on , giving the example of television host Ryan Seacrest taking on jokes about his alleged homosexuality .
= = Reception = =
" And I 'm Joyce Kinney " was broadcast on January 16 , 2011 , as a part of an animated television night on Fox , and was preceded by American Dad ! , The Simpsons and the second episode of the animated series Bob 's Burgers . It was followed by Family Guy creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane 's spin @-@ off , The Cleveland Show . Family Guy was watched by 7 @.@ 08 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings , despite airing simultaneously with Desperate Housewives on ABC , Undercover Boss on CBS and the Golden Globe Awards on NBC . The episode also acquired a 3 @.@ 7 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , beating American Dad ! , The Simpsons , Bob 's Burgers and The Cleveland Show , in addition to significantly edging out all four shows in total viewership . The episode 's ratings decreased significantly from the previous week 's episode , largely due to the lead @-@ in that had been provided by the NFL Wild Card game that preceded the " Animation Domination " line @-@ up .
Television critics reacted with mixed reaction toward the episode , with one critic calling the storyline " pretty dull . " In a simultaneous review of the episodes of American Dad ! , The Simpsons and Bob 's Burgers that preceded the show , and the episode of The Cleveland Show that followed it , The A.V. Club 's Rowan Kaiser wrote , " I don 't have much to say about tonight 's Family Guy . Last week , we had some comments about how Family Guy seems to be willing to play with its format this season . That didn 't happen this week at all . " Kaiser went on to criticize the flashback involving Lois and Joyce in high school , stating , " Having a previously unknown flashback as the big reveal feels like cheating , if you 're inclined to view Family Guy as consistent . " He concluded his review by praising " the burning bush " joke , and ultimately gave the episode a C- rating , the worst rating of the night . It was beaten by the American Dad ! episode " Fart @-@ Break Hotel " , The Cleveland Show episode " How Do You Solve a Problem Like Roberta ? " , The Simpsons episode " Flaming Moe " , and the Bob 's Burgers episode " Crawl Space " . In a slightly more positive review of the episode , Jason Hughes of TV Squad praised the episode for some of its " silly side jokes , " but felt disappointed by the ending to the show , commenting , " it didn 't follow any real logic [ ... ] It was an easy way out , as if they 'd written themselves into a corner . " Hughes also criticized the episode for its dependence on cutaway gags , writing , " at least there were some funnier moments in this one . Unfortunately , a lot of those came in the cutaways . And I thought we were starting to move away from a dependence on them . " Hughes went on to comment that he felt confused by Stewie possibly being fathered by a porn star , adding that " it would be far more likely that Chris or Meg was fathered by the porn star . "
The episode was among four other episodes submitted by the Family Guy production team for consideration of an Emmy Award nomination , in the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series category . " And I 'm Joyce Kinney " was submitted , along with " Halloween on Spooner Street " , " Road to the North Pole " , " New Kidney in Town " and " Trading Places " . The series was successfully nominated in 2009 , but failed to merit an award . Mark Hentemann , executive producer and showrunner of Family Guy said of the nominating process , " We had internal discussions in the writers ' room , and it seemed like we were much more akin to the other primetime comedies than we were to children 's shows in animation . We assumed we would not get anywhere , and so it was a great surprise when we got the nomination . "
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= O Street Market =
O Street Market , also known as Northern Market , is a historic structure located at 1400 7th Street NW in the Shaw neighborhood of Washington , D.C. Built in 1881 , it is one of three 19th @-@ century public market buildings still standing in the city , along with Eastern Market and Georgetown Market . The market was listed on the District of Columbia Inventory of Historic Sites in 1968 and the National Register of Historic Places in 1995 . The most distinctive architectural element of the Gothic Revival building is its corner tower on 7th and O Streets .
For decades , the market was a vital shopping destination for area residents . Following World War II , the market and surrounding neighborhood began to deteriorate . The building was slightly damaged during the 1968 Washington , D.C. , riots , but was restored and reopened in 1980 . Renovations were to begin in 2003 , but in February of that year , the building 's roof collapsed under snow following a historic blizzard . A decade later , the rehabilitated building reopened as part of a $ 325 million mixed @-@ use development , CityMarket at O.
= = History = =
= = = 19th century = = =
Following the Civil War , local government officials led by Board of Public Works head Alexander " Boss " Shepherd sought to change the image of Washington , D.C. , as a small , unattractive city . Among the many improvements Shepherd planned was the replacement of the city 's existing public markets with new , brick facilities in heavily populated neighborhoods . One of the older markets , Northern Liberties Market at Mount Vernon Square , was razed in 1872 . Many vendors refused to leave the market and several were killed during the demolition . With the help of businessmen , other vendors started the Northern Liberty Market Company ( NLMC ) , which in 1875 opened a new public market at 5th and K Streets NW , in what is the present @-@ day Mount Vernon Triangle neighborhood .
Shepherd nevertheless moved ahead with plans for a city @-@ owned public market , and allocated land for the facility on the southwest corner of Square 446 ( a city block bounded by 6th , 7th , O , and P Streets NW ) . As he did with many citywide improvement projects , Shepherd awarded contracts to businesses in which he owned large amounts of stock . After this corrupt practice was discovered , Shepherd was relieved of his post and many of the city projects he spearheaded were abandoned — including the new market .
The Northern Liberties Market struggled financially , as many residents found it too far from the commercial district on 7th Street . The NLMC sought to relocate , and in 1881 purchased the southwest corner of Square 422 ( a city block bounded by 7th , 8th , O , and P Streets NW ) . Butcher Michael Hoover owned Square 422 in the early 1800s and sold it to printer Andrew Rothwell about 1845 . Rothwell made many improvements to the property and added gardens which became popularly known as Rothwell 's Gardens . The NLMC applied for building permits for a $ 15 @,@ 000 ( $ 367 @,@ 810 in 2016 dollars ) , one @-@ story brick building on May 31 , 1881 . The permit was signed by NLMC president Jesse B. Wilson . The new building was named O Street Market to avoid confusion with the company 's other markets .
= = = 20th century = = =
The area surrounding the O Street Market , known as Shaw , was demographically mixed . The white population included a large number of German immigrants , many of whom were vendors at the market . 7th Street NW was the heart of the city 's Jewish community , and a significant number of African Americans lived in the neighborhood . The market continued to thrive even as the demographic and retail nature of the area neighborhood dramatically changed . By the 1920s , Shaw was overwhelmingly black , black vendors had supplanted the German American retailers at the market , and black @-@ owned and operated businesses formed new retail corridors along 7th , 9th , and 14th Streets between P and U Streets . The market and Shaw neighborhood both deteriorated after World War II . By the 1960s , the market faced heavy competition from modern grocery stores and fell into disrepair . Local residents picketed the market , which led the city to enforce cleanliness regulations and building codes at the facility .
In 1966 , the District of Columbia , the National Capital Planning Commission , and the Redevelopment Land Agency ( RLA ; a joint city @-@ federal agency overseeing redevelopment in the city ) announced the establishment of the Shaw Urban Renewal Area . The 1968 riots caused only minor damage to the building , but the market did not reopen afterward . The closure of the market and many other nearby businesses caused a widespread decline in the neighborhood , and left local residents without easy access to retail establishments . In 1972 , the Council of the District of Columbia approved a $ 30 @.@ 4 million ( $ 185 @.@ 2 million in 2016 dollars ) plan which , in part , provided for the purchase the O Street Market and its demolition . A modern shopping mall was planned for the site . The RLA purchased the property from the NLMC . Although neighborhood residents wanted the market torn down , the RLA declined to order its destruction . In 1974 , the RLA proposed renovating the O Street Market and making it the retail centerpiece of a revived Shaw neighborhood . The agency awarded a $ 338 @,@ 974 ( $ 1 @,@ 626 @,@ 481 in 2016 dollars ) contract in June 1974 to the firm of James Cox & Sons to renovate the structure .
In 1977 , local African American entrepreneur James C. Adkins purchased the market and the rest of Square 422 for $ 200 @,@ 000 ( $ 780 @,@ 999 in 2016 dollars ) . Adkins began construction on a modern grocery store next to the O Street Market , and won a $ 1 @.@ 75 million ( $ 68 @.@ 3 million in 2016 dollars ) loan from the federal Economic Development Administration to help renovate the 1881 market building . Adkins said he would add stalls inside and outside the market and lease them to food and other vendors . Renovation of the historic structure was more costly than anticipated , and Adkins was forced to seek an additional $ 300 @,@ 000 ( $ 978 @,@ 129 in 2016 dollars ) in 1979 to complete its rehabilitation . Adkins , who had also purchased Square 426 , successfully petitioned the National Capital Planning Commission to close 8th Street between P and O Streets NW . Adkins planned to turn the street into a pedestrian mall , parking lot , and landscaped area . Giant Food opened on October 10 , 1979 , and the O Street Market reopened on February 23 , 1980 .
On March 31 , 1994 , during the two @-@ decade crime wave of the 1980s and 1990s , the O Street Market was the site of a deadly shooting rampage . Seventeen @-@ year @-@ old Kevin Aaron McCrimmon paid five young men to kill 15 @-@ year @-@ old Duwan A 'Vant , who was known to frequent the market , because A 'Vant had reportedly stolen a car from McCrimmon . At around 7 pm , the five men entered the market and fired more than 30 rounds , killing A 'Vant and wounding eight others ( including a toddler and two elderly women ) . Although there were 399 homicides in the city that year , the event shocked residents because it was such a brazen attack in a public place .
By the late 1990s , the O Street Market had once more become dilapidated . The structure fell into disrepair , trash collected around the building , many vendors were squatters without leases , and drug dealers and gang members loitered nearby , driving customers away . The building 's owner fell behind on tax payments , and the city threatened to place a lien on the building and foreclose .
Because O Street Market is one of only three 19th @-@ century public market buildings remaining in Washington , D.C. , it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on April 28 , 1995 . It was previously added to the District of Columbia Inventory of Historic Sites on July 24 , 1968 .
= = = 21st century = = =
In 2001 , local firm Roadside Development purchased the building with plans to rehabilitate the facility along with the Madison Retail Group . They proposed the partial closure of a 40 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 12 m ) plaza on 8th Street to be replaced with a sidewalk , parking lot , and retail space , and for the addition of new windows in the walls . The D.C. Historic Preservation Review Board refused to authorize these changes , but the renovation of the interior was approved . The last tenants , consisting of small restaurants and shops , vacated the structure in late 2002 in preparation for remodeling set to begin in March or April 2003 . On February 18 , 2003 , following a historic blizzard , the roof collapsed .
Redevelopment of the O Street Market was delayed for two years as the developers sought to meet the demands imposed by the Historic Preservation Review Board . Community leaders and neighborhood residents regularly called for the project to resume in hopes that it would spur other development and decrease gang activity in the area .
Roadside Development proposed a significantly expanded redevelopment in June 2004 that included most of Square 422 . The company determined that the only way to make the O Street Market viable was to greatly enhance parking at the site . It could not do so without building extensive underground parking , and to build the parking garage would require construction of new buildings adjacent to the O Street Market and the Giant Food grocery store . The company initially proposed a $ 100 million project consisting of new construction and renovations which would add condominiums , apartments , a two @-@ story underground parking garage , and either a new or renovated grocery store . By March 2005 , when Roadside Development won its first design and zoning approval reviews , the plan had expanded into a $ 260 million project which included a 180 @-@ room hotel , 300 condominiums , 300 apartments , 700 underground parking spaces , and 7 @,@ 500 square feet ( 700 m2 ) of new retail space . The O Street Market would be restored , renovated and incorporated into a new 65 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 6 @,@ 000 m2 ) Giant Food store . The proposal also called for the city to reopen 8th Street NW .
The O Street Market redevelopment received a setback in November 2007 when the District of Columbia Zoning Commission demanded that the development reduce the height of the new buildings to 90 feet ( 27 m ) from 110 feet ( 34 m ) and refused to reconsider its decision . Local residents denounced the zoning board 's actions , which they perceived as imperiling redevelopment of their poverty @-@ stricken neighborhood . After Roadside met the height requirements by removing penthouse apartments , the zoning commission approved the project in late March 2008 . The project received its final approvals from the Historic Preservation Review Board and the D.C. Office of Planning in April and May 2008 .
By mid @-@ summer 2008 , the cost of the project had grown to $ 325 million . Now named " CityMarket at O " , the nine @-@ story development included over 600 units of housing , a 200 @-@ room hotel , retail space , and a new Giant supermarket almost doubling the size of the existing store . Mayor Adrian Fenty announced the city government would provide $ 35 million in tax increment financing ( TIF ) and plans were made to break ground in late 2009 . The city also contributed $ 1 million toward the construction of the rent @-@ controlled apartments for low @-@ income residents , and $ 1 @.@ 5 million in pre @-@ development grants . Rising costs and delays pushed the project 's cost higher , and by the time the city council acted , the city 's TIF commitment had risen to $ 46 @.@ 5 million .
The official CityMarket groundbreaking ceremony was held September 1 , 2010 . The Department of Housing and Urban Development ( HUD ) provided a $ 117 million loan for the development and the Obama administration chose CityMarket at O as one of 14 nationwide projects to receive expedited permitting and environmental reviews in order to provide hundreds of infrastructure jobs . The Giant Food store closed and was razed in mid @-@ 2011 , and Cambria Suites agreed to operate the hotel in October . The project was designed by Shalom Baranes Associates and built by Clark Construction .
The new development opened in stages beginning in 2013 . The 90 @-@ unit low @-@ income senior housing apartment complex opened on August 21 , 2013 , and the 555 @-@ unit luxury apartment building was occupied on November 4 . The apartment buildings offered a combined 86 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 8 @,@ 000 m2 ) of retail space . The new Giant opened on November 21 , 2013 . The 72 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 6 @,@ 700 m2 ) grocery store includes a cafe and bar built into the O Street Market 's historic tower . In the middle of the store , arches utilizing some of the original brickwork designate the former location of the market 's exterior wall . Progressive Grocer , an industry trade journal , gave an award for best overall design to the new Giant Food store in 2014 . In 2015 , CityMarket at O was a winner of the Urban Land Institute 's Global Awards for Excellence competition . The 182 @-@ room Cambria Suites hotel opened in May 2014 . The final phase of the development , 880 P , is a 142 @-@ unit apartment building under construction and expected to be completed in 2017 .
= = Original design = =
O Street Market previously consisted of between 12 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 1 @,@ 100 m2 ) and 12 @,@ 500 sq ft ( 1 @,@ 160 m2 ) on the main level and a 4 @,@ 500 sq ft ( 420 m2 ) basement . The facade of the original one @-@ story , rectangular brick building is 95 ft ( 29 m ) wide and 150 ft ( 46 m ) long . The most distinctive feature of this Gothic Revival section is the square tower on the northwest corner of 7th and O Streets NW . A gable roof and a monitor run the length of the remaining portion of the original facade . Including the tower , there are six bays on the 7th Street facade and five on the O Street facade . On the 7th Street facade , each bay features a pair of doors and transom windows . The bays on the O Street facade also have double doors and transom windows , except for the central bay , which projects and features a large window . The second and fourth bay transom windows on the O Street facade are surmounted by double @-@ hung windows .
The tower is crowned with a large pyramidal roof and dormers . On each street @-@ facing facade of the tower there are two sets of doors with large transom windows . Each set of doors is framed by columns topped with cast iron foliate capitals . The columns support a projection that features decorative brickwork and a segmental arch . The windows on the second level of the tower are surmounted by a decorative wood panel and corbelled cornice .
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= Ben Franklin ( The Office ) =
" Ben Franklin " is the fifteenth episode of the third season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's forty @-@ third episode overall . Written by Mindy Kaling , who also acts in the show as Kelly Kapoor , and directed by Randall Einhorn , the episode first aired in the United States on February 1 , 2007 on NBC . " Ben Franklin " received 5 @.@ 0 / 13 in the ages 18 – 49 demographic of the Nielsen ratings , and was watched by an estimated audience of 10 @.@ 1 million viewers , and the episode received mixed reviews among critics .
In the episode , the employees from the office prepare for Phyllis 's wedding . Michael , acting under advice from Todd , instructs Dwight to hire a stripper for the men and delegates Jim to hire one for the women . While Dwight hires a stripper , Jim ends up hiring a Ben Franklin impersonator instead .
= = Plot = =
The office plays host to a bridal shower for Phyllis Lapin ( Phyllis Smith ) while Bob Vance 's ( Robert R. Shafer ) bachelor party is held in the warehouse . Todd Packer ( David Koechner ) convinces Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) that it is okay to hire a stripper for the bachelor party if he also gets a male stripper for the bridal shower . Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) is tired at work because he has been having many " late @-@ night talks " with Karen Filippelli ( Rashida Jones ) after she learned that he still has feelings for Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) .
Michael delegates the work of finding the two strippers to Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) and Jim . Dwight asks Jim if he prefers either a redhead or a brunette , and Jim responds " blonde " while Pam and Karen ( redhead and brunette respectively ) look over Jim and then at each other for a quick second . While Dwight locates a stripper named Elizabeth ( Jackie Debatin ) for Bob Vance 's party , Jim orders an educational Benjamin Franklin impersonator ( Andrew Daly ) as a joke . Pam and Karen have fun gently heckling the impersonator . During a talking head interview Dwight reveals that Jim has told him that the impersonator is the real Ben Franklin . Dwight says he 's " 99 % sure " the impersonator is not the real Ben Franklin but ask questions to the impersonator that he believes only the real Ben Franklin would know . However , because the impersonator is an historian and studied the life of Ben Franklin , he answers each question correctly without hesitation , much to Dwight 's anger and disbelief . In the break room , Pam and Karen share an awkward conversation about Jim and Pam 's kiss .
At the bachelor party , Bob Vance refuses a lap dance , so Michael volunteers . Before the stripper is able to perform the lap dance , Michael brings the show to an abrupt close , unwilling to do what he considers cheating on Jan Levenson ( Melora Hardin ) . Pam and Jim have an understated confrontation in the break room , which ends with Pam asking Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) to set her up with some of his friends from business school in front of a visibly shocked and seemingly upset Jim .
= = Production = =
" Ben Franklin " was the second episode of the series directed by Randall Einhorn . Einhorn had previously directed " Initiation " , as well as the summer spin @-@ off webisodes " The Accountants " . " Ben Franklin " was written by Mindy Kaling , who acts on the show as customer service representative Kelly Kapoor . The episode was the sixth of the series written by Kaling .
Jackie Debatin , who appeared in " Ben Franklin " as Elizabeth , is used to playing strippers and hookers . Debatin had previously been a stripper on Friends , a stripper on That ' 70s Show , a stripper on Two and a Half Men , a madam on Veronica Mars , and a call girl on Boston Legal . In an interview , Debatin said playing Elizabeth was " probably the best experience I have had in TV work " , because the cast and crew were " down to earth , fun , grateful to be there " . Although actor Andrew Daly , who played Gordon the Ben Franklin impersonator , had already known John Krasinski , Angela Kinsey , B. J. Novak and Kate Flannery , he said that The Office cast and crew " could not have been more welcoming to me . " Daly especially liked it when the actors " depart [ ed ] from the script and improvised a little . "
= = Reception = =
" Ben Franklin " received 5 @.@ 0 / 13 in the ages 18 – 49 demographic of the Nielsen ratings . This means that five percent of all households with an 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old living in it watched the episode , and 13 percent had their television tuned to the channel at any point . The episode was watched by an estimated audience of 10 @.@ 1 million viewers . " Ben Franklin " is one of only a handful of other episodes of The Office to reach over 10 million viewers , the others being the show 's pilot episode , " The Injury , " " Traveling Salesmen , " " The Return , " and " Stress Relief , " of which the latter reached over 20 million viewers .
" Ben Franklin " received mixed , but mostly good , reviews from critics . IGN 's Brian Zoromski wrote that " The Office was in truly excellent form this week . " Zoromski went on to credit the " great progression " in the Jim @-@ Pam @-@ Karen love triangle and Michael being " his completely inept self " as parts of the episode that made it " one of the best Office episodes this season " . Michael Sciannamea of TV Squad was less enthusiastic about the episode , writing that although it was " solid " , " not much happened here other than the Jim @-@ Karen @-@ Pam triangle . " Abby West , of Entertainment Weekly , praised the love triangle , saying " The Pam / Karen confrontation was as uncomfortable as I could possibly hope for . It 's so gratifying to see Pam 's armor cracking . " West also praised the work of the supporting cast .
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= Mother Knows Best ( song ) =
" Mother Knows Best " is a song written by composer Alan Menken and lyricist Glenn Slater for Walt Disney Pictures ' 50th animated feature film Tangled ( 2010 ) . Appearing on the film 's soundtrack Tangled : Original Soundtrack ( 2010 ) , " Mother Knows Best " is a Broadway and musical theatre @-@ inspired pop and jazz ballad recorded by American actress and singer Donna Murphy in her role as the film 's villain , Mother Gothel . Lyrically incorporating a series of passive @-@ aggressive insults , the song serves as Gothel 's attempt to frighten Rapunzel into remaining in the tower despite of her constant request to see the floating lanterns so that she may continue to exploit her hair 's regenerating abilities in order to remain youthful . The song is later reprised in a more sinister , vengeful tone by Gothel after Rapunzel openly defies her for the first time .
Menken and Slater deliberately wrote " Mother Knows Best " in the style of an old @-@ fashioned musical theatre song after the directors specifically requested one . Musically , the song is in direct contrast to the more pop @-@ oriented singer @-@ songwriter motif of Rapunzel 's music , which are performed by pop singer Mandy Moore . Meanwhile , Murphy recorded " Mother Knows Best " by imagining Gothel as someone who enjoys being in the spotlight .
Often cited as the film 's best song , " Mother Knows Best " has garnered widespread acclaim from both film and music critics alike , who identified it as a notable standout amid an otherwise unimpressive track list by complimenting its melody , humor and darkness . Murphy 's vocal performance has also been lauded , with critics voicing their preference towards it over Moore 's , while comparing it to the likes of actresses Patti LuPone and Julie Andrews . Additionally , the song has drawn comparisons to the work of Broadway composer and lyricist Stephen Sondheim , as well as songs from the musical Les Misérables and Disney 's own The Hunchback of Notre Dame ( 1996 ) , the latter of which Menken himself had also worked on as a composer .
= = Background = =
" Mother Knows Best " was written by composer Alan Menken and lyricist Glenn Slater . Menken and Slater wrote " Mother Knows Best " as a musical theater @-@ oriented song at the behest of the directors , who specifically asked the songwriters to provide the film with " a musical theatre moment " . Menken was initially concerned that the song would not be appropriate for the film 's soundtrack due to its different genre . While Menken conceived the majority of Tangled 's music in the style of a singer @-@ songwriter similar to the work of Canadian musician Joni Mitchell , the composer envisioned Gothel 's songs as " classic " Broadway . Before writing the song , Menken and Slater first researched appropriate moments in the film in which its main characters could possibly perform , observing that " Mother Knows Best " " flows directly out of the conflict between " Mother Gothel and Rapunzel .
Menken revealed that he had observed similarities between Gothel and Claude Frollo , another Disney villain for whom he had written songs while working as a composer on The Hunchback of Notre Dame ( 1996 ) . Menken described Gothel as " a scary piece of work " while " Frollo is a much more sophisticated villain , but easier to understand ... than Mother Gothel " , whose relationship with Rapunzel is more manipulative than the Frollo @-@ Quasimodo dynamic . While writing " Mother Knows Best " , Menken was briefly concerned that " there [ would ] be a rash of children trying to kill their parents after they ’ ve seen the movie . " According to directors Byron Howard and Nathan Greno , one of the song 's lines , " getting kind of chubby " , was lifted from an interview the directors had held with several female Disney employees , in which they asked them to describe their relationships with their mothers . Menken revealed that " Mother Knows Best " is a song with which he had ultimately become " very pleased . "
Primarily a Broadway actress , Donna Murphy had never voiced an animated character prior to Tangled , and decided to audition for the role spontaneously . Because the film is a musical , all potential voice actors were required to audition a song of their choice ; Murphy auditioned the song " Children Will Listen " from the musical Into the Woods . Menken said that Murphy , with whom the composer himself had previously worked on his musical Little Shop of Horrors , " brought musical theater expertise " to the song . Because of the actress ' extensive Broadway and musical theatre background , Menken and the directors were open to her ideas and suggestions about Gothel 's music , on one occasion suggesting an alternate arrangement of " Mother Knows Best " . Murphy envisioned her character as an entertainer , describing her as " somebody who envisions herself periodically being hit with a spotlight " , which ultimately influenced her performance on " Mother Knows Best " . The New York Post writer Lou Lumenick felt that , as songwriters , Menken and Slater had given the film 's " real showstopper " to Murphy . The Korea Times reported that it was only after animator Jin Kim heard " Mother Knows Best " for the first time that he conceived a " 1940s Hollywood screen siren motif " for Gothel 's appearance and personality .
= = Context , sequence and analysis = =
A " big " musical number , " Mother Knows Best " begins within the first fifteen minutes of Tangled during the film 's first act when , on the eve of her eighteenth birthday , Rapunzel finally summons enough courage to ask Gothel for permission to travel and see the floating lanterns in person . Gothel , whose eternal youth and beauty solely relies on the safety and protection of Rapunzel 's magical hair , denies this request by sarcastically reminding her that " mother knows best , " warning her ward that " the world is full of wicked people who want to steal her hair 's magic , " while explaining to her that it 's " for her own good , " claiming to only want to protect her . At one point during the scene , Gothel actually contradicts herself ; Teena Elizabeth of BookMyShow observed , " Gothel has no intentions of letting her go . Though Mother Gothel sings , ' soon , but not yet , ' but ironically later says , ' Rapunzel will never leave the tower ever . ' " Writing for the Tulsa World , Michael Smith observed that Gothel uses the song " as her lie / rationale for keeping the girl safe ( holding her hostage ) from those who might steal her for their own hair @-@ inspired profit schemes . " Amid Amidi of Cartoon Brew felt that the scene is both funny and scary , citing Gothel 's " theatrical gestures " and " claustrophobia @-@ inducing stark black backgrounds " as examples of both . " cementing [ the ] character 's ruthlessness , " Gothel ultimately orders Rapunzel to promise never to ask permission to leave the tower again . Moviefone 's William Goss cited the musical number as an example of " fear @-@ mongering , " which has been defined by Dictionary.com as " a person who creates or spreads alarming news . " Jennie Punter of The Globe and Mail penned , " Mother Knows Best hilariously convey [ s ] the fear and guilt that have kept Rapunzel in the tower of her own free will . " In her book Marvels & Tales , author Kendra Magnusson observed that , during the " Mother Knows Best " musical sequence , " the manipulation of Rapunzel 's hair leaves the heroine 's body wrenched in one moment and bound up in it the next " , depicting that , while Rapunzel 's hair can be used to defend herself , " it is simultaneously a liability " and can just as well be used to harm her .
A writer for Disney.com observed , " The creepiness of this song lies in the fact that the very untrustworthy Mother Gothel is positioning herself as a helpful figure to Rapunzel . " Brian Galindo of BuzzFeed wrote that the song , its purpose having been summarized by Curt Holman of Creative Loafing as " simply to manipulate Rapunzel into staying at home , " " perfectly disguises Mother Gothel 's true motives . " According to Simon Miraudo of Quickflix , Gothel craftily uses the song to guilt trip Rapunzel " into staying in the tower ... frightened into imagining the horrors that lay outside her door . " In her book How Fairy Tales Live Happily Ever After : ( Analyzing ) the Art of Adapting Fairy Tales , author Conny Eisfeld observed that " Mother Knows Best " emphasizes Gothel 's " status of superiority " , in spite of the fact that " her existence solely depend [ s ] on Rapunzel . " Bitch identified Gothel as an abusive mother , writing , " she is manipulative , dishonest , and dedicated to undermining her daughter 's independence . This is shown consistently through all her appearances in the film , but comes out clearly very early indeed , with the song ' Mother Knows Best ' . Critics have often identified the sequence as one of the film 's darkest and edgiest moments . Acknowledging the song 's " extremely dark undertone " , Anthony Falco of Film Class Junkies wrote , " This song rues in the fact that a child is impressionable ; Rapunzel believes that Mother Gothel has the best intentions , but obviously , the evil witch is using the princess for her own gains . Falco continued , " The audience knows what Gothel wants with Rapunzel , but the fact that we are unable to protect the naïve princess results in further hatred for the witch . " Falco also concluded that Gothel 's " sinister reprise at the end of Tangled allows for these horrifying undertones to emerge , which makes ' Mother Knows Best ' one of the most sinister villain songs in the Disney library . " Similarly , Elissa Smith of Paper Droids wrote that while the audience is fully aware of Gothel 's evil intentions , Rapunzel is denied " the outsider 's point of view . " Glen Chapman of Den of Geek wrote that the scene " strikes a balance between melodic and narrative sophistication , as well as being equal parts sweet and sinister . " Gothel later reprises the song " in indelible fashion . "
= = Music and lyrics = =
According to the song 's official sheet music , which has been published by Walt Disney Music Publishing at Musicnotes.com , " Mother Knows Best " is a " brash , " upbeat Broadway musical @-@ inspired show tune written in the key of F major at a moderate tempo of 66 beats per minute , performed " with rubato . " At a total length of three minutes and ten seconds – the second @-@ longest song on the film 's soundtrack , behind " I See the Light " – Io9 author Meredith Woerner described the ballad as a " twisted song about " a mother " sheltering her fake daughter from the real world so she can live forever . " According to Tom Charity of CNN , " Mother Knows Best " is a " grand , theatrical number " with both jazz and pop influences . Michael Smith of the Tulsa World referred to the song as " a bouncy little Freudiannightmare . " Musically , " Mother Knows Best " is an " insidious show @-@ stopper " that utilizes a " cautionary " melody , with one critic identifying it as a " drag – anthem . " Sharing similar sentiments , Variety 's Justin Chang called the song an " authoritarian anthem . " Describing " Mother Knows Best " as a " fiery number " , Andrew L. Urban of Urban Cinefile wrote that the song 's music and lyrics are " as theatrical as is [ its ] character . " According to Anthony Quinn of The Independent , " Mother Knows Best " is a " creepy @-@ funny ode to self @-@ interest . " Joe Williams of the St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch described the song as a " Broadway @-@ targeted tune " with " a mercenary undertone . " On the song 's subtle darkness , Filmtracks.com wrote that its " lovely romantic melody and instrumentation is betrayed by its absolutely evil lyrics . "
Lyrically , the song mentions all " the evils out to get Rapunzel " and is essentially about manipulating ones ' daughter . Featuring " Mommie Dearest @-@ style passive @-@ aggressive putdowns , " The song begins with Murphy speaking , " You want to go outside ? Why , Rapunzel ! " , and features the lyric " skip the drama , stay with mama , " one of the song 's most memorable , according to Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times . As Gothel , Murphy lists several things for Rapunzel to fear , such as ruffians , thugs , poison ivy , quicksand , cannibals , snakes and the plague , in an attempt to deter her from leaving . Teena Elizabeth of BookMyShow also observed that at one point the song contradicts itself , with its lyrics first implying that Rapunzel that can leave " soon , but not yet " , only to eventually conclude , " Rapunzel will never leave the tower ever . " Brian Galindo of BuzzFeed cited " don 't ever ask to leave this tower again " as the song 's " most villainous lyric . " John Roebuck of ReelGood observed that the song 's lyrics are essentially " Snide remarks on [ Gothel 's ] stolen daughter 's appearance and abilities ... disguised as a mothers concern . " Writing for Slant Magazine , Christian Blauvelt felt that the song 's lyrics were similar to those of " Out There " from Disney 's The Hunchback of Notre Dame ( 1996 ) , specifically Judge Claude Frollo 's verse . Both " Mother Knows Best " and " Out There " , in fact , were composed by Menken . Also comparing the song to Menken 's previous work , AllMusic 's James Christopher Monger wrote that " Mother Knows Best " is " cut from the same pop cloth as all of the late 20th / early 21st century Disney offerings . "
Murphy 's vocal range on the song spans roughly two octaves , from the low note of F3 to the high note of C5 . According to James Kendrick of QNetwork Entertainment Portal , the song provides the actress with an opportunity " to stretch her Broadway vocal chops . " Writing for Little White Lies , Georgie Hobbs opined that Murphy " performs ... Mother Knows Best ... with a schizophrenic frenzy " , comparing the song to the work of Broadway composer and lyricist Stephen Sondheim , while Jeff Bayer of The Scorecard Review compared it to " Master of the House " from the musical Les Misérables . Meanwhile , Dan Kois of The Village Voice compared the song to Sondheim 's musical Gypsy . Norman Wilner of Now wrote that Murphy 's " clear , " " belted @-@ out , " " powerhouse " vocal performance , which according to Marjorie Baumgarten of The Austin Chronicle " drip [ s ] with sarcasm and biting wit , " reminded him of Broadway actress and singer Patti LuPone . Meanwhile , Tim Robey of The Daily Telegraph likened Murphy 's performance to actress and singer Julie Andrews , describing it jokingly as " Julie @-@ Andrews @-@ on @-@ stimulants . " According to Bitch , the song 's reprise " features far darker harmonies and a slightly revised melody as compared to the original rendition of the song . " Additionally , the reprise serves as a " dark twist on the original performance with a much more ominous sound in both the singing and the orchestration . "
= = Reception = =
" Mother Knows Best " has garnered universal acclaim from both film and music critics , several of whom were rather unimpressed with the majority of the film 's songs but admitted to having enjoyed " Mother Knows Best " . Writing for The Blade , Kirk Baird opined that most of the songs " aren 't particularly memorable " , except for " Mother Knows Best " . Likewise , Lindsey Ward of Canoe.ca wrote , " the musical numbers aren 't the best things in Tangled -- the exception being ' Mother Knows Best ' , a brash track that scene @-@ stealing Tony @-@ winner Murphy alone turns into a giant spectacle with her voice " , describing it as " a powerful force to be reckoned with . " Acknowledging that , initially , " The songs ... don 't sound on first hearing like top @-@ drawer Menken " , Richard Corliss of Time highlighted " Mother Knows Best " , describing it as " a pot of poisoned honey . " Similarly , Anthony Quinn of The Independent wrote , " The songs are no great shakes ... apart from ' Mother Knows Best ' . " Michael Smith , writing for the Tulsa World , felt that the song 's darkness " remind [ s ] of the nasty bits of the original Grimm 's fairy tale and give [ s ] Tangled a bitter balance for the sugar and spice moments . " Mal Vincent of The Virginian @-@ Pilot described the song as " a good villain entry . " Critics have continuously cited " Mother Knows Best " as the film 's best song . The Scotsman hailed it as Tangled 's " finest song . " Similarly , Nigel Andrews of the Financial Times acknowledged " Mother Knows Best " as one of Tangled 's " best tunes , " while Georgie Hobbs of Little White Lies identified it as the film 's " standout " , deeming it " worthy of the very best of [ Stephen ] Sondheim 's crazed heroines . " Likewise , Ken Hanke of the Mountain Xpress highlighted " Mother Knows Best " as the " standout " song surrounded by " passable ones . " Calling the song one of the film 's " potential Broadway showstoppers " , Steve Persall of the Tampa Bay Times described " Mother Knows Best " as " a knockout . " Also singling out the track as the film 's " finest number " , Dan Kois of The Village Voice called it " a Mama Rose – worthy tune . " Similarly , Andrea Gronvall of the Chicago Tribune felt that " Mother Knows Best " was one of the more memorable songs of the film , calling it " show @-@ stopping " , and feeling that " Murphy channel [ ed ] all the monstrous smothering power of Mama Rose in Gypsy . "
Murphy 's " scene @-@ stealing " vocal performance has been met with largely enthusiastic reviews , which Filmtracks.com felt was " more accomplished " than Mandy Moore 's . Rolling Stone film critic Peter Travers hailed it as " comic bliss with a sting in its tail . " 7x7 's Rossiter Drake called the actress ' " vocal prowess ... a welcome revelation , " while Hannah Goodwin of Christian Broadcasting Network described it as " wonderful . " The Austin Chronicle 's Marjorie Baumgarten praised Murphy for " bring [ ing ] stage showmanship to her musical interludes as Mother Gothel . " Tom Charity of CNN complimented the actress for " seiz [ ing ] Menken 's grand , theatrical number ' Mother Knows Best ' for the showstopper it deserves to be . " Writing for CNN 's iReport , Julie Ellerton simply described her performance as " exceptional . " GamesRadar 's Jonathan Crocker wrote , " Donna Murphy 's vocal performance as the vain , villainous fake @-@ matriarch is marvellous [ sic ] " , continuing , " her belted @-@ out rendition of ' Mother Knows Best ' is easily the film 's top musical number . " Opining that " Mother Knows Best " is " belted out wonderfully by Murphy " , Linda Cook of the Quad @-@ City Times concluded that the actress " makes the purchase of the soundtrack worthwhile by itself . " Christian Blauvelt of Slant Magazine wrote , " If a couple of Menken 's songs feel less than soaring , it 's due only to the limited pop @-@ star vocals of Mandy Moore as Rapunzel " , concluding , " when Broadway vet Murphy takes to scaling Menken 's octave @-@ climbing melodies like a vocal escalator , it 's a different story . " Sandie Angulo Chen of Common Sense Media wrote that Murphy 's vocals are " on fabulous display in the amazing number ' Mother Knows Best ' . " William Goss of Moviefone said , " Mother Knows Best " is " belted out perfectly " by Murphy . In review of the film 's soundtrack , AllMusic critic James Christopher Monger observed that both Murphy and Moore " take on the lion 's share of the work , and ... deliver the goods . "
In one of the song 's rare mixed reviews , Wesley Morris of The Boston Globe enjoyed the song itself but felt that it was unnecessary and melodramatic , writing , " The movie doesn 't need [ songs ] , for one thing . For another , their archness ( Gothel sings with a forearm to her forehead ) suggests that the filmmakers want to have it both ways — to be sincere and to sneer . " James Berardinelli of ReelViews gave the song a negative review , feeling that it was equally as unmemorable as the other tracks and writing , " It 's hard to imagine someone humming ... ' Mother Knows Best ' when leaving the theater . "
Io9 ranked the song 11th on the website 's list of " The 36 Greatest Supervillain Musical Numbers of All Time . " BuzzFeed ranked " Mother Knows Best " 12th on its list of " The 12 Greatest Disney Villain Songs " . Disney.com awarded the song a score of six out of 10 , complimenting Murphy 's " amazing singing voice and showmanship . " The lyric " mother knows best " was recognized and quoted in the book The Quotable Mom : Appreciation from the Greatest Minds in History by Familius .
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= Seltaeb =
Seltaeb was a company set up in 1963 , by Nicky Byrne ( né Douglas Anthony Nicholas Byrne ) to exclusively look after merchandising interests on behalf of Brian Epstein , who managed NEMS Enterprises and The Beatles : John Lennon , Paul McCartney , George Harrison , and Ringo Starr .
Directly prior to The Beatles ' first American visit , Brian Epstein wanted someone to manage the escalating volume of merchandising requests that NEMS found itself unable to cope with , and asked his lawyer , David Jacobs , to oversee this task . Jacobs knew Nicky Byrne and asked him if he would be interested in taking over the merchandising subdivision from NEMS altogether , paying NEMS a commission . Byrne accepted the offer subject to a 90 % rate , leaving only 10 % for the Beatles and NEMS combined . Completely unaware of the potential market that existed , particularly in America , Epstein agreed to the deal , and subsequently lost The Beatles an estimated $ 100 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in possible income .
In December 1963 Byrne took over the control of Stramsact in the UK , and then set up Seltaeb ( Beatles spelt backwards ) in the USA . Epstein was able to renegotiate a more favourable commission of 49 % in August 1964 , but then became embroiled in a three @-@ year court battle with Byrne regarding payment of monies due , during which time potential sponsors lost interest . In August 1967 Epstein died , from what was ruled an accidental overdose of a prescribed drug . Jacobs was found hanged in his garage on 15 December 1968 . Byrne later retired to the Bahamas .
= = Merchandising = =
Before the Beatles achieved nationwide success in Britain , Epstein had permitted a small company ( run by his cousins , and which initially catered only to fan club members ) to produce Beatles ' sweaters for 30 shillings and badges for six pence , eventually selling 15 @,@ 000 sweaters and 50 @,@ 000 badges as the Beatles ' popularity grew . When Beatlemania stormed the UK in 1963 , Epstein was besieged by novelty goods companies wanting to use The Beatles ' name and images on plastic guitars , drums , disc racks , badges , belts and a huge variety of assorted merchandise . Epstein was adamant that the Beatles would not directly endorse any product , but through NEMS Enterprises he would grant discretionary licences to companies who were able to produce a quality product at a fair price , although many companies were already selling products without a licence .
When NEMS was swamped with offers of endorsements from America following the success of " I Want To Hold Your Hand " , Epstein , who was usually meticulous in matters involving the Beatles , decided to delegate this responsibility as he felt it was distracting him from his main task of managing his expanding roster of artists . He then asked Jacobs , his London @-@ based , Hove @-@ living celebrity lawyer ( Jacobs 's other clients included Marlene Dietrich , Diana Dors , Judy Garland , Liberace and Laurence Harvey ) to appoint someone specifically to take over the assignment and gave Jacobs power of attorney in the matter . Jacobs at first handed the daily management of this to his chief clerk , Edward Marke , but it transpired that Marke knew almost nothing about the merchandising business , and so Jacobs was forced to look elsewhere .
Jacobs knew of a Chelsea socialite , a 37 @-@ year @-@ old divorcé called Nicky Byrne , and when encountering him at a friend 's cocktail party offered him the project , saying that " Brian [ Epstein ] has made a terrible mess out of this [ merchandising ] . " Byrne , who has said he had been " sitting around doing nothing for half of 1963 " was an ex @-@ Horse Guard trooper and amateur racing driver . He had also previously been involved in music publishing , clothes design , theatre production , managing the Condor club in London , and was also known as being a part of a group of people who called themselves " The King 's Road Rats " . He had not had any previous experience of merchandising or managing a large business .
Byrne was at first reluctant but later agreed , and delivered the merchandising contract to Jacobs 's office on 4 December 1963 , leaving blank the percentages . Jacobs asked Byrne what percentage rate he should write down to which Byrne ambiguously replied : " Oh , look , just put in 10 % . " A typical percentage would have been 75 % or 80 % for NEMS , and Byrne expected Epstein would begin to negotiate . However , the contract came back initialled ( meaning Epstein had read it ) and signed by Epstein and Jacobs . Jacobs 's advice to Epstein was , " 10 % is better than nothing " . This lapse of shrewdness set the scene for what would later become a legal battleground which deprived the Beatles and Brian Epstein of such large sums of money they would have easily overshadowed any royalties they would receive in the medium term from the sale of records . Byrne later said : " They couldn 't wait to get somebody else to do this , because they were in a mess themselves . " Epstein would later realise that he had made a colossal error of judgment , as Byrne charged 10 % commission to the merchandisers for a licence ( receiving $ 10 out of every hundred ) and then giving 10 % of that to NEMS , which was $ 1 .
Byrne controlled two companies : Stramsact in the UK and Europe , and Seltaeb in the USA . He invited five friends to become partners — four of whom were unknown to either Jacobs or Epstein — with each investing around $ 1 @,@ 600 . They were : Mark Warman , Simon Miller @-@ Munday , John Fenton ( a business acquaintance of Jacobs ) Peregrine Eliot ( heir to the ninth Earl of St Germans ) and Malcolm Evans ( not to be confused with Mal Evans , the Beatles ' roadie ) .
During the first Beatles ' flight to America Epstein was offered numerous samples of products by merchandisers who required a licence to be allowed to sell them such as clocks , pens , plastic wigs , bracelets , and games . Epstein rejected all of them ; directing the merchandisers to Byrne instead , who was already in New York ensconced in The Drake Hotel on Park Avenue at 56th Street . Byrne rented expensive offices on Fifth Avenue , hiring two limousines ( on 24 @-@ hour standby ) and a helicopter to fly clients to and from the airport , insisting that only the presidents of merchandising companies were allowed to talk directly with him , or with his partner , Lord Eliot , who helped to promote the company name with use of his title . Eliot would later recall going to the Seltaeb office once or twice a week to draw $ 1 @,@ 000 from petty cash .
The Wall Street Journal predicted that American teenagers would spend $ 50 million during 1964 , on wigs , dolls , egg cups , T @-@ shirts , sweatshirts and narrow @-@ legged pants , and the New York Times wrote that the Reliance Manufacturing Company 's factories were " smoking night and day ... to meet demand " , and had already sold products valued at the retail value of $ 2 @.@ 5 million . The Reliant Shirt Corporation paid $ 100 @,@ 000 for a licence and sold over a million Beatle T @-@ shirts in three days , Remco Toys had produced 100 @,@ 000 Beatles ' dolls and had orders for another 500 @,@ 000 , and the Lowell Toy Corporation were selling Beatle wigs faster than they could produce them , at more than 35 @,@ 000 per day .
Seltaeb licensed over 150 different items internationally : Beatle dolls , scarves , mugs , bath water , wigs , T @-@ shirts , bubble gum , liquorice , empty cans of " Beatle Breath " , badges , and many more . The badges had " Seltaeb 1964 Chicago Made in USA " on one side , and " Green Duck Co . , Chicago Made in USA " on the other . ( The Green Duck metal stamping company was based at 1520 West Montana , Chicago , operating from 1906 until the late 1960s , making election badges for politicians , as well as memorial spoons ) . American businessmen saw The Beatles ' merchandising as the " biggest marketing opportunity since Walt Disney created Mickey Mouse " . The Columbia Pictures Corporation offered to buy Byrne 's share in the companies for $ 500 @,@ 000 , with the incentives that the money would be paid into a low @-@ tax offshore bank account in the Bahamas , Byrne and his partners would retain 50 % control of the companies , and Ferrari cars would be given free to every partner , but Byrne turned down the offer .
= = = Percentages and court cases = = =
Byrne passed on the first cheque for $ 9 @,@ 700 to Epstein , who was impressed , but after innocently asking how much out of the amount Byrne was owed , was told , " Nothing Brian , that 's your 10 % " . Byrne then went on to describe the massive amount of interest he was getting from companies across the USA . Epstein was horrified , realising he had made an appalling error by accepting such a small percentage , and decided he could never tell The Beatles . He immediately instructed Jacobs to re @-@ negotiate the contract with Byrne , which was finally achieved seven months later , in August 1964 , which raised the royalty to 49 % .
In The Times on 9 December 1964 , it was reported that Eliot was suing Byrne for damages of $ 1 million . Eliot accused Byrne of spending $ 150 @,@ 000 for his " personal comfort and benefit " , over some months . The suit also accused Byrne of charging hotel bills to Seltaeb , which were as much as $ 19 @,@ 000 every week for girlfriends , and also opening " charge accounts for them in Fifth Avenue shops " . Eliot also alleged that Byrne had hired a chauffeur for $ 700 a week and had withheld $ 55 @,@ 000 in royalties to NEMS , after which NEMS had said they would cancel the agreement between the two companies unless monies were forthcoming . Byrne denied all the charges , but admitted he had hired a chauffeur , as he was not familiar with the streets of New York . A supreme court judge reserved his decision .
Epstein accused Seltaeb of not accounting properly , and cancelled its power to grant licences , which started a counter @-@ lawsuit by Byrne against Epstein 's New York accountant , Walter Hofer , asking for $ 5 @,@ 168 @,@ 000 in damages . Epstein then instructed NEMS employees to deal directly with American companies , so Byrne instigated court proceedings , which took three years to settle , as it entailed 39 individual claims against NEMS . Byrne won the case , and Epstein paid the court costs and legal bills himself , although the judgement was later vacated ; meaning to cancel it , or render it null and void . Due to the legal battle , Woolworth 's , J. C. Penney , and other companies refused to finalise any merchandising agreements , cancelling orders worth $ 78 million . The court case and its effect was estimated to have lost NEMS and The Beatles approximately $ 100 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 .
= = Maximus Enterprises = =
Epstein later launched Maximus Enterprises Ltd . , to try to capitalise on the merchandising boom , but as so many companies had withdrawn their interest in the wake of the Seltaeb fiasco , and Lennon had angered America 's bible belt with his remark suggesting that The Beatles were " more popular than Jesus " , the opportunity had passed . Epstein feared that the Beatles would not renew their contracts with him — due to expire in the Autumn of 1967 — if they discovered the truth about Seltaeb . Epstein 's problems with Seltaeb would remain with him until his death on 27 August 1967 , from what was ruled an accidental overdose of a prescribed drug . Many investors had also missed out on massive profits following the cancelling of contracts , and Byrne would later claim of having received two mysterious phone calls foretelling of Epstein 's death . Jacobs was found hanged in his garage on 15 December 1968 . Days before his death Jacobs had asked for police protection , telling a private detective , " I 'm in terrible trouble , they 're all after me , " and going on to list six well @-@ known showbusiness people . Byrne retired to the Bahamas on his yacht , later moving to the Trowbridge area of Wiltshire .
= = Aftermath = =
At the time , very few managers of pop groups knew about the income music merchandising could generate , as very few artists survived long enough in the pop domain to be a viable investment . As far as Epstein was concerned it was merely good public relations , and any revenue that arose from the sale of Beatles @-@ endorsed products was regarded as merely extra money that supplemented the Beatles ' individual incomes from live performances and record sales . Epstein had not recognised an industry which had grossed $ 20 million for Elvis Presley in 1957 alone . Alistair Taylor ( Epstein 's assistant ) later admitted that financial mistakes were made : " We did our best ; some people have said it wasn 't good enough . That 's easy to say with 20 / 20 hindsight but remember that there were no rules . We were making it up as we went along . "
In America Epstein had met the well @-@ known divorce lawyer , Nat Weiss , whom Epstein later asked to take over the merchandising affairs of the Beatles and NEMS . Weiss would later state , " The reality is that the Beatles never saw a penny out of the merchandising ... Tens of millions of dollars went down the drain because of the way the whole thing was mishandled . Even after the judgement was vacated , you could smell the smoke from the ashes , that 's how badly they had been burned . " Beatles ' memorabilia , licensed by Seltaeb , is still sold at Beatles ' conventions and on the internet .
Lennon said years later : " On the business end he [ Epstein ] ripped us off on the Seltaeb thing . " McCartney also said : " He [ Epstein ] looked to his dad for business advice , and his dad knew how to run a furniture store in Liverpool . " Richard DiLello later wrote about the financial mistakes made by The Beatles themselves in The Longest Cocktail Party : An Insider 's Diary of The Beatles , Their Million @-@ dollar Apple Empire and Its Wild Rise and Fall .
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