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= Two Bad Neighbors =
" Two Bad Neighbors " is the 13th episode of The Simpsons ' seventh season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 14 , 1996 . In the episode , the Simpson family is having a garage sale . Right when the sale gets moving , George H. W. Bush , the 41st President of the United States , voiced in the episode by Harry Shearer , upstages Homer by moving in across the street , and Homer develops a grudge against George . After George gives Bart a spanking , Homer starts a prank war , which escalates into a one @-@ on @-@ one confrontation that results in the Bushes leaving Springfield .
The episode was written by Ken Keeler and directed by Wesley Archer . It was inspired by the animosity towards the show by the Bushes from earlier in the series ' run . It features cultural references to the 1959 TV Series Dennis the Menace , and Cheap Trick 's 1979 song " Dream Police " . Since airing , the episode has received positive reviews from fans and television critics , and Vanity Fair named it the fifth best episode of the show . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 9 , and was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
Evergreen Terrace is holding a street @-@ wide rummage sale in Springfield . As Homer dances on the tables selling the items ( upstaging Ned Flanders in the process ) , there is a diversion : the empty house across the street is being moved into . It is occupied by former President George H. W. Bush and his wife Barbara , and Homer takes an instant disliking toward George for getting more attention from the neighbors and hanging out with his friends . After Ned Flanders and his family came over to visit the Bushes as George takes a liking to Ned , Bart decides to visit , and Barbara takes a liking to him . However , Bart 's habit of calling adults by their first names and his overall annoying attitude irritates George . Eventually , after Bart accidentally shreds George 's newly typed memoirs , the former President takes Bart across his knee and spanks him . Upon learning this , an outraged Homer confronts George , demanding an apology for spanking Bart , but Bush refuses and instead demands Homer to apologize . Both men vow to make trouble for each other , despite that Barbara suggests to George that he should apologize to Homer .
First , Homer sends bottle rockets at George 's window , and George puts up a banner on his house saying " Two Bad Neighbors " , in reference to Bart and Homer ( but is forced to remove it when other neighbors interpret it as an act of self @-@ abnegation ) . Homer then glues a rainbow @-@ colored wig on his opponent 's head just before he is to give an important speech to a local club after he places cardboard cutouts of his sons , George Bush Jr. and Jeb Bush on his front yard to trick him . George retaliates by destroying the Simpsons ' lawn with his car . Despite Barbara and Marge urging their husbands to stop , the confrontation continues . Homer and Bart are just making their way through the sewers to release locusts ( from Edmund Scientific ) in George 's house when George spots them and climbs down . Homer demands , once again , that Bush apologize for spanking Bart , but George refuses , demanding that Bart apologize for destroying his memoirs , something that Homer becomes aware of just now but still refuses to apologize . As Homer and George begin fighting , Bart releases the locusts , which promptly attack George .
At the same time , former Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev arrives at the mansion to bring a housewarming present for the Bush family . He later finds Homer and George busting out of the sewers , fighting , until George recognizes Gorbachev . Finally having enough , Barbara forces George to apologize to Homer for spanking Bart , and he does so in front of Gorbachev ( much to his humiliation ) , leaving Homer to finally happily taunt George . Believing that the neighborhood is not worth living in , George decides to sell the house to Gerald Ford , another former President as he and Barbara leave Springfield for good . Ford invites Homer to watch a football game with beer and Nachos at his house . The two quickly get off to a good start , sharing common ground .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
The show had a feud with the Bushes that eventually led to the idea for this episode . In the October 1 , 1990 , edition of People , Barbara Bush called The Simpsons " the dumbest thing [ she ] had ever seen " which had led to the writers sending a letter to Bush where they posed as Marge Simpson . Bush immediately sent a reply in which she apologized .
On January 27 , 1992 , then @-@ current President George H. W. Bush made a speech during his re @-@ election campaign that reignited the feud between The Simpsons and the Bushes . At that point , family values were the cornerstone of Bush 's campaign platform , to which effect he gave the following speech at the National Religious Broadcasters ' convention in Washington , D.C. : " We are going to keep on trying to strengthen the American family , to make American families a lot more like the Waltons and a lot less like the Simpsons " . The next broadcast of The Simpsons was a rerun of " Stark Raving Dad " on January 30 , 1992 . It included a new opening , which was a response to Bush 's speech . The scene begins in the Simpsons ' living room . Homer , Patty and Selma sit on the couch . Bart and Lisa are sprawled on the carpet . They all stare at the television and watch Bush 's speech . After Bush 's statement , Bart replies " Hey , we 're just like the Waltons . We 're praying for an end to the Depression too . "
= = = Writing = = =
Bill Oakley , who was a writer on The Simpsons at the time , came up with the idea for " Two Bad Neighbors " two years before the production began . Oakley got the inspiration for the episode after the feud between the Bushes and the Simpson family , and two years later when he and Josh Weinstein became showrunners of The Simpsons , they assigned Ken Keeler to write it . Oakley said that Bill Clinton had been President of the United States for several years at the point when the episode went into production , so the feud had " faded off into oblivion " . The staff therefore thought it would be funny if the two parties encountered each other again .
Weinstein said that the episode is often misunderstood . Many audiences expected a political satire , while the writers made special effort to keep the parody apolitical . Oakley stresses that " it 's not a political attack , it 's a personal attack ! " , and instead of criticizing Bush for his policies , the episode instead pokes fun at his " crotchetiness " . Oakley considered the episode to lack many " zany " jokes common for the show at that time , and described the episode as a companion piece to the season eight episode " Homer 's Enemy " , in that a realistic character ( Frank Grimes in that case ) is placed in the unrealistic Simpsons universe and juxtaposed alongside Homer , creating conflict .
In an interview with the Simpsons fan site NoHomers.net , Weinstein was asked if there had been any stories that he had come up with that did not make it into the show , to which he replied : " The great thing about The Simpsons is that we pretty much were able to get away with everything , so there weren 't any episodes we really wanted to do that we couldn 't do . Even the crazy high @-@ concept ones like ' Two Bad Neighbors ' and ' Homer 's Enemy ' we managed to put on the air because honestly there were no network execs there to stop us . "
At the end of the episode , Gerald Ford moves into the house across the street after Bush leaves . When originally conceived , Richard Nixon was going to move in instead , though this was changed to Bob Dole following Nixon 's death . The writers then decided it would be funnier if it were Ford since they believed he was the politician who best represented Homer . Keeler 's first draft also included a musical number in the style of Tom Lehrer 's satirical recordings , although this ended up being cut .
The episode features the first appearance of Disco Stu , who became a recurring character in the series . Stu was originally designed as a withered , old John Travolta @-@ esque figure and was to be voiced by repeat guest star Phil Hartman . However , when the animators remodeled the character , Hartman was not available to dub the voice and so Hank Azaria took over the role .
= = = Merchandise = = =
" Two Bad Neighbors " originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 14 , 1996 . The episode was selected for release in a 2000 video collection of selected political episodes of the show , titled : The Simpsons Political Party . The episode appeared on the second volume of the collection , together with the episode " Duffless " from season four . The episode was included in The Simpsons season 7 DVD set , which was released on December 13 , 2005 . Keeler , Oakley and Weinstein participated in the DVD 's audio commentary , alongside Matt Groening and the director of the episode , Wes Archer .
= = Cultural references = =
The relationship between Bart and George is a homage to the United States television series Dennis the Menace from 1959 , with the Bushes standing in for Dennis ' elderly neighbors , the Wilsons . In response to George spanking Bart , Grandpa says : " Big deal ! When I was a pup , we got spanked by Presidents till the cows came home . Grover Cleveland spanked me on two non @-@ consecutive occasions , " referring to Grover Cleveland , the only president to have served two non @-@ consecutive terms in office . When Homer and Bart hand out fliers for the upcoming garage sale , Apu Nahasapeemapetilon is seen washing his car while singing Cheap Trick 's 1979 song " Dream Police " . Homer 's song at the rummage sale is set to the tune of the songs " Big Spender " and " Stayin ' Alive " . The threat by Bush to Homer , " I 'll ruin you like a Japanese banquet ! " refers to the George H. W. Bush vomiting incident in which Bush , reportedly sick with the 24 hour flu , threw up on the lap of , then @-@ Prime Minister of Japan , Kiichi Miyazawa , the banquet 's host , before fainting . Gerald Ford 's public image is referenced at the end of the episode when he and Homer find that they share common ground , and they then both trip while walking toward the former 's house . Ford acquired a reputation as a clumsy , likable and simple @-@ minded Everyman ( similar to Homer ) , highlighted by an incident in 1975 when he tripped while exiting the presidential jet in Austria , which was then famously and repetitively parodied on Saturday Night Live .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Two Bad Neighbors " finished 52nd in the ratings for the week of January 7 to January 14 , 1996 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 9 . The episode was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following the Post Game NFC Championship .
Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from fans and television critics . It was named by Vanity Fair 's John Ortved as the show 's fifth best episode . Ortved said , " While the Simpsons people have always claimed evenhandedness in their satire , the show is , after all , hardly right @-@ leaning , and it is hard to miss how gleefully the former President is mocked here . " Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the UK authors of I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , wrote : " Very strange , this episode takes The Simpsons into a whole new dimension of political satire . The lampooning of a single public figure is a startling move . Works much better for Americans , we 're told " .
Dave Foster of DVD Times said : " Once again showing the mischievous relationship Bart and Homer share their pranks and the inevitable confrontations with George Bush Senior are as hilarious as they are implausible and frequent , but there is much to love about this episode in which the writers think out loud and paint The Simpsons and its characters as Bush once did . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson enjoyed the episode and said that it " offers the kind of episode that only The Simpsons could pull off well . The idea of bringing a president to live in Springfield is high @-@ concept to say the least , and it could – and probably should – have bombed . However , the silliness works well and turns this into a great show . " John Thorpe of Central Michigan Life named it the second best episode of the show , and Rich Weir of AskMen.com named it the ninth best episode .
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= Falling Down ( Selena Gomez & the Scene song ) =
" Falling Down " is a song recorded by American pop @-@ rock band Selena Gomez & the Scene for their debut studio album , Kiss & Tell ( 2009 ) . It was released on August 25 , 2009 through Hollywood Records as the lead single from the album . The song was written by Ted Bruner and Trey Vittetoe , both of whom produced the track ; Gina Schock of The Go @-@ Go 's also receives writing credit . Musically , " Falling Down " is an uptempo track that features elements of pop , rock , and electro rock music , and contains heavy usage of synths . Its lyrics see Gomez ridiculing life in Hollywood and fame , though can also be interpreted to speak of a romantic relationship . The song was released in select territories , receiving no official release in European territories .
Upon its release , " Falling Down " received mixed to positive reviews from critics , receiving praise for being " catchy " and for Gomez 's " sassy " vocal delivery . The song became the band 's first chart entry on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , where it peaked at number 82 . It became a top twenty hit in Japan , becoming the group 's highest charting effort to date in the country . " Falling Down " went on to sell over 500 @,@ 000 copies in the United States alone . The accompanying music video premiered on August 28 , 2009 through Disney Channel . The video featured Gomez and her band performing the song on a round black stage , and features various shots of Gomez in a photo shoot and singing the song without the band .
" Falling Down " was promoted through a number of live performances , including the ninth season of Dancing with the Stars . The performance received a mixed reaction , with Gomez receiving criticism for her vocal ability . It was featured on the set list of all three of the band 's tours , including Selena Gomez & the Scene : Live in Concert ( 2009 @-@ 10 ) , the A Year Without Rain Tour ( 2010 @-@ 11 ) , and the We Own the Night Tour ( 2011 @-@ 12 ) . It appears on Gomez 's solo compilation album , For You ( 2014 ) , along with other songs performed by the band .
= = Background = =
Following a string of soundtrack appearances and original recordings for the Disney Channel , Selena Gomez signed a five album contract with Hollywood Records on her sixteenth birthday . Inspired by acts such as Paramore and Forever the Sickest Kids , Gomez opted to form a band rather than release music as a solo artist . Work on the album began in 2008 , with Gomez reportedly considering up to one @-@ hundred songs for the album . Having previously worked with Hollywood Records artist Miley Cyrus , Ted Bruner was enlisted to work on the project . Gina Schock , who rose to fame as a member of The Go @-@ Go 's , served as an inspiration for Gomez , and worked on numerous songs for the record . Bruner and Schock , alongside Trey Vittetoe , co @-@ wrote " Falling Down " for Gomez and her band . Bruner and Vittetoe produced the song together . Gomez personally confirmed on August 13 via her official Twitter account that the lyrics to " Falling Down " would premiere through Radio Disney on August 21 , 2009 . The single was released for digital download in the United States and Canada on August 25 , 2009 . It received a digital release in Australia on September 25 , 2009 . The song received no official release in European territories .
= = Composition and critical reception = =
" Falling Down " is a rock song which derives into the electro rock genre that features " aggressive " guitar and drum lines powered by " bloopy " synths . Bill Lamb of About.com noted that the song seemed to be influenced by Avril Lavigne . Robert Copsey of Digital Spy said the song sounded " suspiciously similar to Pink 's ' U + Ur Hand ' . " The song is set in common time , and has a tempo of 140 beats per minute . It is written in the key of D minor , and Gomez 's vocals span from the low note of A3 to high note of D5 . It follows the chord progression Dm – C – Dm @-@ C. Bill Lamb of About.com gave the single 4 out of 5 stars , calling the song " catchy " and commending Gomez 's " sassy " vocals and its lyrics . Lamb also noted that " The mix leaves in Gomez ' [ sic ] occasional breathless delivery that only conveys more immediacy for the song . " A CBBC reviewer complimented the song 's " catchy lyrics " , stating " you will have them in your head for days ! " Rob Perez of NocheLatina called the track one of the best on the album . Robert Copsey of Digital Spy said the song and its lyrics sounded " uninspired . "
Lyrically , " Falling Down " is said to be in regards to accusations of wrongdoing and has a sense of longing for a non @-@ benefiting relationship . However in an interview , Gomez stated , during an interview that the song ultimately is a ridicule of the Hollywood life and fame , that was the meaning behind " Smile for the camera , ' cause they 're all about to trash ya . " Gomez further elaborated on the concept of the song on an interview with Just Jared Jr . , saying ,
It 's basically about Hollywood and what people think about it and essentially how plastic it is sometimes . It 's fun and I think girls can relate to it somewhat , for me it was because of Hollywood but it can really relate to a mean girl , an ex @-@ boyfriend , to whoever .
= = Chart performance = =
The song debuted on the 12 September 2009 edition of the US Billboard Hot 100 at number 93 . It later peaked at number 82 . It became the band 's first charting single in the United States . In the same week , " Falling Down " also appeared on the Canadian Hot 100 , debuting at number 69 . It spent two weeks on the chart , falling to 82 in its second week . It re @-@ entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 92 for the week ending 9 January 2010 . The song managed to peak at number 11 on the Australian Hitseekers Singles Chart . On the Japan Hot 100 " Falling Down " debuted at number 24 on the week dated 6 March 2010 . A week later , it peaked at 15 on the chart . As of July 2015 , the song has sold 576 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
= = Music video = =
The music video to " Falling Down " , directed by Chris Dooley , was first seen on Disney Channel , succeeding Wizards of Waverly Place : The Movie on 28 August 2009 . It became available for purchase on iTunes the next day .
The music video commences with shots of Gomez singing the first lines , " whoa , whoa " , and bright lights shining upon her ; she is wearing a gray shirt , black tights and boots and has long brown hair . Then , the rest of the band , composed of four male members , is seen as Gomez dances and nods her head . The background in the music video is a large projection of patterned geometrical figures that constantly alter to divergent colors . Gomez is then seen in a " photo shoot @-@ like " set wearing a white shirt and a zebra @-@ patterned skirt . As the video progresses Gomez and the rest of the band are seen singing , dancing , playing instruments and using props . Gomez holds a mirror and plastic roses , which she then throws away , in conjunction to the song 's lines . The video ends with Gomez taking a quick bow while still holding her microphone .
= = Live performances = =
Gomez & the Scene first performed the song live on the ninth season of Dancing with the Stars . During the performance , professional dancers Derek Hough and Karina Smirnoff danced to the song . Tamara Brooks of Zap2it commented " The song 's catchy but Selena doesn 't look entirely comfortable on stage to me . It 's very ... rehearsed . But the dancing was faboo . " Additionally , they performed the song at numerous concerts in 2009 and 2010 , including their House of Blues Tour , the Kiss & Tell Tour and their Fairs & Festivals tour .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Falling Down " — 3 : 05
= = Credits and personnel = =
Lead vocals : Selena Gomez
Songwriters : Ted Bruner , Trey Vittetoe , Gina Schock
Production : Ted Bruner , Trey Vittetoe
Mixing : Clif Norrell
Source
= = Charts = =
= = = Sales = = =
= = Release history = =
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= Caspar David Friedrich =
Caspar David Friedrich ( 5 September 1774 – 7 May 1840 ) was a 19th @-@ century German Romantic landscape painter , generally considered the most important German artist of his generation . He is best known for his mid @-@ period allegorical landscapes which typically feature contemplative figures silhouetted against night skies , morning mists , barren trees or Gothic ruins . His primary interest as an artist was the contemplation of nature , and his often symbolic and anti @-@ classical work seeks to convey a subjective , emotional response to the natural world . Friedrich 's paintings characteristically set a human presence in diminished perspective amid expansive landscapes , reducing the figures to a scale that , according to the art historian Christopher John Murray , directs " the viewer 's gaze towards their metaphysical dimension " .
Friedrich was born in the Pomeranian town of Greifswald at the Baltic Sea , where he began his studies in art as a young man . He studied in Copenhagen until 1798 , before settling in Dresden . He came of age during a period when , across Europe , a growing disillusionment with materialistic society was giving rise to a new appreciation of spirituality . This shift in ideals was often expressed through a reevaluation of the natural world , as artists such as Friedrich , J. M. W. Turner ( 1775 – 1851 ) and John Constable ( 1776 – 1837 ) sought to depict nature as a " divine creation , to be set against the artifice of human civilization " .
Friedrich 's work brought him renown early in his career , and contemporaries such as the French sculptor David d 'Angers ( 1788 – 1856 ) spoke of him as a man who had discovered " the tragedy of landscape " . Nevertheless , his work fell from favour during his later years , and he died in obscurity , and in the words of the art historian Philip Miller , " half mad " . As Germany moved towards modernisation in the late 19th century , a new sense of urgency characterised its art , and Friedrich 's contemplative depictions of stillness came to be seen as the products of a bygone age . The early 20th century brought a renewed appreciation of his work , beginning in 1906 with an exhibition of thirty @-@ two of his paintings and sculptures in Berlin . By the 1920s his paintings had been discovered by the Expressionists , and in the 1930s and early 1940s Surrealists and Existentialists frequently drew ideas from his work . The rise of Nazism in the early 1930s again saw a resurgence in Friedrich 's popularity , but this was followed by a sharp decline as his paintings were , by association with the Nazi movement , interpreted as having a nationalistic aspect . It was not until the late 1970s that Friedrich regained his reputation as an icon of the German Romantic movement and a painter of international importance .
= = Life = =
= = = Early years and family = = =
Caspar David Friedrich was born on 5 September 1774 , in Greifswald , Swedish Pomerania , on the Baltic coast of Germany . The sixth of ten children , he was brought up in the strict Lutheran creed of his father Adolf Gottlieb Friedrich , a candle @-@ maker and soap boiler . Records of the family 's financial circumstances are contradictory ; while some sources indicate the children were privately tutored , others record that they were raised in relative poverty . Caspar David was familiar with death from an early age . His mother , Sophie Dorothea Bechly , died in 1781 when he was just seven . A year later , his sister Elisabeth died , while a second sister , Maria , succumbed to typhus in 1791 . Arguably the greatest tragedy of his childhood was the 1787 death of his brother Johann Christoffer : at the age of thirteen , Caspar David witnessed his younger brother fall through the ice of a frozen lake and drown . Some accounts suggest that Johann Christoffer perished while trying to rescue Caspar David , who was also in danger on the ice .
Friedrich began his formal study of art in 1790 as a private student of artist Johann Gottfried Quistorp at the University of Greifswald in his home city , at which the art department is now named Caspar @-@ David @-@ Friedrich @-@ Institut in his honour . Quistorp took his students on outdoor drawing excursions ; as a result , Friedrich was encouraged to sketch from life at an early age . Through Quistorp , Friedrich met and was subsequently influenced by the theologian Ludwig Gotthard Kosegarten , who taught that nature was a revelation of God . Quistorp introduced Friedrich to the work of the German 17th @-@ century artist Adam Elsheimer , whose works often included religious subjects dominated by landscape , and nocturnal subjects . During this period he also studied literature and aesthetics with Swedish professor Thomas Thorild . Four years later Friedrich entered the prestigious Academy of Copenhagen , where he began his education by making copies of casts from antique sculptures before proceeding to drawing from life . Living in Copenhagen afforded the young painter access to the Royal Picture Gallery 's collection of 17th @-@ century Dutch landscape painting . At the Academy he studied under teachers such as Christian August Lorentzen and the landscape painter Jens Juel . These artists were inspired by the Sturm und Drang movement and represented a midpoint between the dramatic intensity and expressive manner of the budding Romantic aesthetic and the waning neo @-@ classical ideal . Mood was paramount , and influence was drawn from such sources as the Icelandic legend of Edda , the poems of Ossian and Norse mythology .
Friedrich settled permanently in Dresden in 1798 . During this early period , he experimented in printmaking with etchings and designs for woodcuts which his furniture @-@ maker brother cut . By 1804 he had produced 18 etchings and four woodcuts ; they were apparently made in small numbers and only distributed to friends . Despite these forays into other media , he gravitated toward working primarily with ink , watercolour and sepias . With the exception of a few early pieces , such as Landscape with Temple in Ruins ( 1797 ) , he did not work extensively with oils until his reputation was more established . Landscapes were his preferred subject , inspired by frequent trips , beginning in 1801 , to the Baltic coast , Bohemia , the Krkonoše and the Harz Mountains . Mostly based on the landscapes of northern Germany , his paintings depict woods , hills , harbors , morning mists and other light effects based on a close observation of nature . These works were modeled on sketches and studies of scenic spots , such as the cliffs on Rügen , the surroundings of Dresden and the river Elbe . He executed his studies almost exclusively in pencil , even providing topographical information , yet the subtle atmospheric effects characteristic of Friedrich 's mid @-@ period paintings were rendered from memory . These effects took their strength from the depiction of light , and of the illumination of sun and moon on clouds and water : optical phenomena peculiar to the Baltic coast that had never before been painted with such an emphasis .
= = = Move to Dresden = = =
Friedrich established his reputation as an artist when he won a prize in 1805 at the Weimar competition organised by the writer , poet , and dramatist Johann Wolfgang von Goethe . At the time , the Weimar competition tended to draw mediocre and now long @-@ forgotten artists presenting derivative mixtures of neo @-@ classical and pseudo @-@ Greek styles . The poor quality of the entries began to prove damaging to Goethe 's reputation , so when Friedrich entered two sepia drawings — Procession at Dawn and Fisher @-@ Folk by the Sea — the poet responded enthusiastically and wrote , " We must praise the artist 's resourcefulness in this picture fairly . The drawing is well done , the procession is ingenious and appropriate ... his treatment combines a great deal of firmness , diligence and neatness ... the ingenious watercolour ... is also worthy of praise . "
Friedrich completed the first of his major paintings in 1807 , at the age of 34 . The Cross in the Mountains , today known as the Tetschen Altar ( Galerie Neue Meister , Dresden ) , is an altarpiece panel commissioned by the Countess of Thun for her family 's chapel in Tetschen , Bohemia . It was to be one of the few commissions the artist received . The altar panel depicts a Gipfelkreuz , or a gilded cross , in profile at the top of a mountain , alone , and surrounded by German and Austrian pine trees . The cross reaches the highest point in the pictorial plane but is presented from an oblique and a distant viewpoint . Nature dominates the scene and for the first time in Christian art , an altarpiece showcases a landscape . According to the art historian Linda Siegel , the design of the altarpiece is the " logical climax of many earlier drawings of his which depicted a cross in nature 's world . "
The work was first exhibited on Christmas Day , 1808 . Although it was generally coldly received , it was nevertheless Friedrich 's first painting to receive wide publicity . The artist 's friends publicly defended the work , while art critic Basilius von Ramdohr published a lengthy article rejecting Friedrich 's use of landscape in such a context ; he wrote that it would be " a veritable presumption , if landscape painting were to sneak into the church and creep onto the altar " . Ramdohr fundamentally challenged the concept that pure landscape painting could convey explicit meaning . Friedrich responded with a programme describing his intentions . In his 1809 commentary on the painting , he compared the rays of the evening sun to the light of the Holy Father . The sinking of the sun suggests that the era when God revealed himself directly to man has passed . This statement marked the only time Friedrich recorded a detailed interpretation of his own work .
Friedrich was elected a member of the Berlin Academy in 1810 following the purchase of two of his paintings by the Prussian Crown Prince . Yet in 1816 , he sought to distance himself from Prussian authority , and that June applied for Saxon citizenship . The move was unexpected by his friends , as the Saxon government of the time was pro @-@ French , while Friedrich 's paintings to date were seen as generally patriotic and distinctly anti @-@ French . Nevertheless , with the aid of his Dresden @-@ based friend Graf Vitzthum von Eckstädt , Friedrich attained not only citizenship , but in 1818 , a place in the Saxon Academy as a member with a yearly dividend of 150 thalers . Although he hoped to receive a full Professorship , it was never awarded him as , according to the German Library of Information , " it was felt that his painting was too personal , his point of view too individual to serve as a fruitful example to students . " Politics too may have played a role in the stalling of his career : Friedrich 's decidedly Germanic choice of subject and costuming frequently clashed with the prevailing pro @-@ French attitudes of the time .
= = = Marriage = = =
On 21 January 1818 , Friedrich married Caroline Bommer , the twenty @-@ five @-@ year @-@ old daughter of a dyer from Dresden . The couple had three children , with their first , Emma , arriving in 1820 . Physiologist and painter Carl Gustav Carus notes in his biographical essays that marriage did not impact significantly on either Friedrich 's life or personality , yet his canvasses from this period , including Chalk Cliffs on Rügen — painted after his honeymoon — display a new sense of levity , while his palette is brighter and less austere . Human figures appear with increasing frequency in the paintings of this period , which Siegel interprets as a reflection that " the importance of human life , particularly his family , now occupies his thoughts more and more , and his friends , his wife , and his townspeople appear as frequent subjects in his art . "
Around this time , the artist found support from two sources in Russia . In 1820 , Grand Duke Nikolai Pavlovich , at the behest of his wife Alexandra Feodorovna , visited Friedrich 's studio and returned to Saint Petersburg with a number of his paintings . The exchange marked the beginning of a patronage that continued for many years . Not long thereafter , the poet Vasily Zhukovsky , tutor to Alexander II , met Friedrich in 1821 and found in him a kindred spirit . For decades Zhukovsky helped Friedrich both by purchasing his work himself and by recommending his art to the royal family ; his assistance toward the end of Friedrich 's career proved invaluable to the ailing and impoverished artist . Zhukovsky remarked that his friend 's paintings " please us by their precision , each of them awakening a memory in our mind . "
Friedrich was acquainted with Philipp Otto Runge ( 1777 – 1810 ) , another leading German painter of the Romantic period . He was also a friend of Georg Friedrich Kersting ( 1785 – 1847 ) , who painted him at work in his unadorned studio , and of the Norwegian painter Johan Christian Clausen Dahl ( 1788 – 1857 ) . Dahl was close to Friedrich during the artist 's final years , and he expressed dismay that to the art @-@ buying public , Friedrich 's pictures were only " curiosities " . While the poet Zhukovsky appreciated Friedrich 's psychological themes , Dahl praised the descriptive quality of Friedrich 's landscapes , commenting that " artists and connoisseurs saw in Friedrich 's art only a kind of mystic , because they themselves were only looking out for the mystic ... They did not see Friedrich 's faithful and conscientious study of nature in everything he represented " .
During this period Friedrich frequently sketched memorial monuments and sculptures for mausoleums , reflecting his obsession with death and the afterlife ; he even created designs for some of the funerary art in Dresden 's cemeteries . Some of these works were lost in the fire that destroyed Munich 's Glass Palace ( 1931 ) and later in the 1945 bombing of Dresden .
= = = Later life and death = = =
Friedrich 's reputation steadily declined over the final fifteen years of his life . As the ideals of early Romanticism passed from fashion , he came to be viewed as an eccentric and melancholy character , out of touch with the times . Gradually his patrons fell away . By 1820 , he was living as a recluse and was described by friends as the " most solitary of the solitary " . Towards the end of his life he lived in relative poverty and was increasingly dependent on the charity of friends . He became isolated and spent long periods of the day and night walking alone through woods and fields , often beginning his strolls before sunrise .
In June 1835 , Friedrich suffered his first stroke , which left him with minor limb paralysis and greatly reduced his ability to paint . As a result , he was unable to work in oil ; instead he was limited to watercolour , sepia and reworking older compositions .
Although his vision remained strong , he had lost the full strength of his hand . Yet he was able to produce a final ' black painting ' , Seashore by Moonlight ( 1835 – 36 ) , described by Vaughan as the " darkest of all his shorelines , in which richness of tonality compensates for the lack of his former finesse " .
Symbols of death appeared in his other work from this period . Soon after his stroke , the Russian royal family purchased a number of his earlier works , and the proceeds allowed him to travel to Teplitz — in today 's Czech Republic — to recover .
During the mid @-@ 1830s , Friedrich began a series of portraits and he returned to observing himself in nature . As the art historian William Vaughan has observed , however , " He can see himself as a man greatly changed . He is no longer the upright , supportive figure that appeared in Two Men Contemplating the Moon in 1819 . He is old and stiff ... he moves with a stoop " .
By 1838 , he was capable only of working in a small format . He and his family were living in poverty and grew increasingly dependent for support on the charity of friends .
Friedrich died in Dresden on 7 May 1840 , and was buried in Dresden 's Trinitatis @-@ Friedhof ( Trinity Cemetery ) east of the city centre ( the entrance to which he had painted some 15 years earlier ) . The simple flat gravestone lies north @-@ west of the central roundel within the main avenue .
By the time of his death , his reputation and fame were waning , and his passing was little noticed within the artistic community . His artwork had certainly been acknowledged during his lifetime , but not widely . While the close study of landscape and an emphasis on the spiritual elements of nature were commonplace in contemporary art , his work was too original and personal to be well understood . By 1838 , his work no longer sold or received attention from critics ; the Romantic movement had been moving away from the early idealism that the artist had helped found .
After his death , Carl Gustav Carus wrote a series of articles which paid tribute to Friedrich 's transformation of the conventions of landscape painting . However , Carus ' articles placed Friedrich firmly in his time , and did not place the artist within a continuing tradition . Only one of his paintings had been reproduced as a print , and that was produced in very few copies .
= = Themes = =
= = = Landscape and the sublime = = =
The visualisation and portrayal of landscape in an entirely new manner was Friedrich 's key innovation . He sought not just to explore the blissful enjoyment of a beautiful view , as in the classic conception , but rather to examine an instant of sublimity , a reunion with the spiritual self through the contemplation of nature . Friedrich was instrumental in transforming landscape in art from a backdrop subordinated to human drama to a self @-@ contained emotive subject . Friedrich 's paintings commonly employed the Rückenfigur — a person seen from behind , contemplating the view . The viewer is encouraged to place himself in the position of the Rückenfigur , by which means he experiences the sublime potential of nature , understanding that the scene is as perceived and idealised by a human . Friedrich created the notion of a landscape full of romantic feeling — die romantische Stimmungslandschaft . His art details a wide range of geographical features , such as rock coasts , forests , and mountain scenes . He often used the landscape to express religious themes . During his time , most of the best @-@ known paintings were viewed as expressions of a religious mysticism .
Friedrich said , " The artist should paint not only what he sees before him , but also what he sees within him . If , however , he sees nothing within him , then he should also refrain from painting that which he sees before him . Otherwise , his pictures will be like those folding screens behind which one expects to find only the sick or the dead . " Expansive skies , storms , mist , forests , ruins and crosses bearing witness to the presence of God are frequent elements in Friedrich 's landscapes . Though death finds symbolic expression in boats that move away from shore — a Charon @-@ like motif — and in the poplar tree , it is referenced more directly in paintings like The Abbey in the Oakwood ( 1808 – 10 ) , in which monks carry a coffin past an open grave , toward a cross , and through the portal of a church in ruins .
He was one of the first artists to portray winter landscapes in which the land is rendered as stark and dead . Friedrich 's winter scenes are solemn and still — according to the art historian Hermann Beenken , Friedrich painted winter scenes in which " no man has yet set his foot . The theme of nearly all the older winter pictures had been less winter itself than life in winter . In the 16th and 17th centuries , it was thought impossible to leave out such motifs as the crowd of skaters , the wanderer ... It was Friedrich who first felt the wholly detached and distinctive features of a natural life . Instead of many tones , he sought the one ; and so , in his landscape , he subordinated the composite chord into one single basic note " .
Bare oak trees and tree stumps , such as those in Raven Tree ( c . 1822 ) , Man and Woman Contemplating the Moon ( c . 1833 ) , and Willow Bush under a Setting Sun ( c . 1835 ) , are recurring elements of Friedrich 's paintings , symbolizing death . Countering the sense of despair are Friedrich 's symbols for redemption : the cross and the clearing sky promise eternal life , and the slender moon suggests hope and the growing closeness of Christ . In his paintings of the sea , anchors often appear on the shore , also indicating a spiritual hope . German literature scholar Alice Kuzniar finds in Friedrich 's painting a temporality — an evocation of the passage of time — that is rarely highlighted in the visual arts . For example , in The Abbey in the Oakwood , the movement of the monks away from the open grave and toward the cross and the horizon imparts Friedrich 's message that the final destination of man 's life lies beyond the grave .
With dawn and dusk constituting prominent themes of his landscapes , Friedrich 's own later years were characterized by a growing pessimism . His work becomes darker , revealing a fearsome monumentality . The Wreck of the Hope — also known as The Polar Sea or The Sea of Ice ( 1823 – 24 ) — perhaps best summarizes Friedrich 's ideas and aims at this point , though in such a radical way that the painting was not well received . Completed in 1824 , it depicted a grim subject , a shipwreck in the Arctic Ocean ; " the image he produced , with its grinding slabs of travertine @-@ colored floe ice chewing up a wooden ship , goes beyond documentary into allegory : the frail bark of human aspiration crushed by the world 's immense and glacial indifference . "
Friedrich 's written commentary on aesthetics was limited to a collection of aphorisms set down in 1830 , in which he explained the need for the artist to match natural observation with an introspective scrutiny of his own personality . His best @-@ known remark advises the artist to " close your bodily eye so that you may see your picture first with the spiritual eye . Then bring to the light of day that which you have seen in the darkness so that it may react upon others from the outside inwards . " He rejected the overreaching portrayals of nature in its " totality " , as found in the work of contemporary painters like Adrian Ludwig Richter ( 1803 – 84 ) and Joseph Anton Koch ( 1768 – 1839 ) .
= = = Loneliness and death = = =
Both Friedrich 's life and art have at times been perceived by some to have been marked with an overwhelming sense of loneliness . Art historians and some of his contemporaries attribute such interpretations to the losses suffered during his youth to the bleak outlook of his adulthood , while Friedrich 's pale and withdrawn appearance helped reinforce the popular notion of the " taciturn man from the North " .
Friedrich suffered depressive episodes in 1799 , 1803 – 1805 , c.1813 , in 1816 and between 1824 and 1826 . There are noticeable thematic shifts in the works he produced during these episodes , which see the emergence of such motifs and symbols as vultures , owls , graveyards and ruins . From 1826 these motifs became a permanent feature of his output , while his use of color became more dark and muted . Carus wrote in 1929 that Friedrich " is surrounded by a thick , gloomy cloud of spiritual uncertainty " , though the noted art historian and curator Hubertus Gassner disagrees with such notions , seeing in Friedrich 's work a positive and life @-@ affirming subtext inspired by Freemasonry and religion .
= = = Germanic folklore = = =
Reflecting Friedrich 's patriotism and resentment during the 1813 French occupation of the dominion of Pomerania , motifs from German folklore became increasingly prominent in his work . An anti @-@ French German nationalist , Friedrich used motifs from his native landscape to celebrate Germanic culture , customs and mythology . He was impressed by the anti @-@ Napoleonic poetry of Ernst Moritz Arndt and Theodor Körner , and the patriotic literature of Adam Müller and Heinrich von Kleist . Moved by the deaths of three friends killed in battle against France , as well as by Kleist 's 1808 drama Die Hermannsschlacht , Friedrich undertook a number of paintings in which he intended to convey political symbols solely by means of the landscape — a first in the history of art .
In Old Heroes ' Graves ( 1812 ) , a dilapidated monument inscribed " Arminius " invokes the Germanic chieftain , a symbol of nationalism , while the four tombs of fallen heroes are slightly ajar , freeing their spirits for eternity . Two French soldiers appear as small figures before a cave , lower and deep in a grotto surrounded by rock , as if farther from heaven . A second political painting , Fir Forest with the French Dragoon and the Raven ( c . 1813 ) , depicts a lost French soldier dwarfed by a dense forest , while on a tree stump a raven is perched — a prophet of doom , symbolizing the anticipated defeat of France .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Influence = = =
Alongside other Romantic painters , Friedrich helped position landscape painting as a major genre within Western art . Of his contemporaries , Friedrich 's style most influenced the painting of Johan Christian Dahl ( 1788 – 1857 ) . Among later generations , Arnold Böcklin ( 1827 – 1901 ) was strongly influenced by his work , and the substantial presence of Friedrich 's works in Russian collections influenced many Russian painters , in particular Arkhip Kuindzhi ( c . 1842 – 1910 ) and Ivan Shishkin ( 1832 – 98 ) . Friedrich 's spirituality anticipated American painters such as Albert Pinkham Ryder ( 1847 – 1917 ) , Ralph Blakelock ( 1847 – 1919 ) , the painters of the Hudson River School and the New England Luminists .
At the turn of the 20th century , Friedrich was rediscovered by the Norwegian art historian Andreas Aubert ( 1851 – 1913 ) , whose writing initiated modern Friedrich scholarship , and by the Symbolist painters , who valued his visionary and allegorical landscapes . The Norwegian Symbolist Edvard Munch ( 1863 – 1944 ) would have seen Friedrich 's work during a visit to Berlin in the 1880s . Munch 's 1899 print The Lonely Ones echoes Friedrich 's Rückenfigur ( back figure ) , although in Munch 's work the focus has shifted away from the broad landscape and toward the sense of dislocation between the two melancholy figures in the foreground .
Friedrich 's landscapes exercised a strong influence on the work of German artist Max Ernst ( 1891 – 1976 ) , and as a result other Surrealists came to view Friedrich as a precursor to their movement . In 1934 , the Belgian painter René Magritte ( 1898 – 1967 ) paid tribute in his work The Human Condition , which directly echoes motifs from Friedrich 's art in its questioning of perception and the role of the viewer . A few years later , the Surrealist journal Minotaure featured Friedrich in a 1939 article by critic Marie Landsberger , thereby exposing his work to a far wider circle of artists . The influence of The Wreck of Hope ( or The Sea of Ice ) is evident in the 1940 – 41 painting Totes Meer by Paul Nash ( 1889 – 1946 ) , a fervent admirer of Ernst . Friedrich 's work has been cited as an inspiration by other major 20th @-@ century artists , including Mark Rothko ( 1903 – 70 ) , Gerhard Richter ( b . 1932 ) , Gotthard Graubner and Anselm Kiefer ( b . 1945 ) . Friedrich 's Romantic paintings have also been singled out by writer Samuel Beckett ( 1906 – 89 ) , who , standing before Man and Woman Contemplating the Moon , said " This was the source of Waiting for Godot , you know . "
In his 1961 article " The Abstract Sublime " , originally published in ARTnews , the art historian Robert Rosenblum drew comparisons between the Romantic landscape paintings of both Friedrich and Turner with the Abstract Expressionist paintings of Mark Rothko . Rosenblum specifically describes Friedrich 's 1809 painting The Monk by the Sea , Turner 's The Evening Star and Rothko 's 1954 Light , Earth and Blue as revealing affinities of vision and feeling . According to Rosenblum , " Rothko , like Friedrich and Turner , places us on the threshold of those shapeless infinities discussed by the aestheticians of the Sublime . The tiny monk in the Friedrich and the fisher in the Turner establish a poignant contrast between the infinite vastness of a pantheistic God and the infinite smallness of His creatures . In the abstract language of Rothko , such literal detail — a bridge of empathy between the real spectator and the presentation of a transcendental landscape — is no longer necessary ; we ourselves are the monk before the sea , standing silently and contemplatively before these huge and soundless pictures as if we were looking at a sunset or a moonlit night . "
= = = Critical opinion = = =
Until 1890 , and especially after his friends had died , Friedrich 's work lay in near @-@ oblivion for decades . Yet , by 1890 , the symbolism in his work began to ring true with the artistic mood of the day , especially in central Europe . However , despite a renewed interest and an acknowledgment of his originality , his lack of regard for " painterly effect " and thinly rendered surfaces jarred with the theories of the time .
During the 1930s , Friedrich 's work was used in the promotion of Nazi ideology , which attempted to fit the Romantic artist within the nationalistic Blut und Boden . It took decades for Friedrich 's reputation to recover from this association with Nazism . His reliance on symbolism and the fact that his work fell outside the narrow definitions of modernism contributed to his fall from favour . In 1949 , art historian Kenneth Clark wrote that Friedrich " worked in the frigid technique of his time , which could hardly inspire a school of modern painting " , and suggested that the artist was trying to express in painting what is best left to poetry . Clark 's dismissal of Friedrich reflected the damage the artist 's reputation sustained during the late 1930s .
Friedrich 's reputation suffered further damage when his imagery was adopted by a number of Hollywood directors , such as Walt Disney , built on the work of such German cinema masters as Fritz Lang and F. W. Murnau , within the horror and fantasy genres . His rehabilitation was slow , but enhanced through the writings of such critics and scholars as Werner Hofmann , Helmut Börsch @-@ Supan and Sigrid Hinz , who successfully rejected and rebutted the political associations ascribed to his work , and placed it within a purely art @-@ historical context . By the 1970s , he was again being exhibited in major galleries across the world , as he found favour with a new generation of critics and art historians .
Today , his international reputation is well established . He is a national icon in his native Germany , and highly regarded by art historians and art connoisseurs across the Western World . He is generally viewed as a figure of great psychological complexity , and according to Vaughan , " a believer who struggled with doubt , a celebrator of beauty haunted by darkness . In the end , he transcends interpretation , reaching across cultures through the compelling appeal of his imagery . He has truly emerged as a butterfly — hopefully one that will never again disappear from our sight " .
= = Work = =
Friedrich was a prolific artist who produced more than 500 attributed works . In line with the Romantic ideals of his time , he intended his paintings to function as pure aesthetic statements , so he was cautious that the titles given to his work were not overly descriptive or evocative . It is likely that some of today 's more literal titles , such as The Stages of Life , were not given by the artist himself , but were instead adopted during one of the revivals of interest in Friedrich . Complications arise when dating Friedrich 's work , in part because he often did not directly name or date his canvases . He kept a carefully detailed notebook on his output , however , which has been used by scholars to tie paintings to their completion dates .
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= Northover Projector =
The Projector , 2 @.@ 5 inch — more commonly known as the Northover Projector — was an ad hoc anti @-@ tank weapon used by the British Army and Home Guard during the Second World War . With a German invasion of Great Britain seeming likely after the defeat in the Battle of France , most available weaponry was diverted to the regular British Army , leaving the Home Guard short on supplies , particularly anti @-@ tank weaponry . The Northover Projector was designed by a Home Guard officer named Robert Harry Northover to act as a makeshift anti @-@ tank weapon , and was put into production in 1940 following a demonstration to the Prime Minister , Winston Churchill .
The weapon consisted of a hollow metal tube attached to a tripod , with a rudimentary breech at one end . Rounds were fired with the use of black powder ignited by a standard musket percussion cap , and it had an effective range of between 100 and 150 yards . Although it was cheap and easy to manufacture , it did have several problems ; it was difficult to move and the No. 76 Special Incendiary Grenades it used as one type of ammunition had a tendency to break inside the breech , damaging the weapon and injuring the crew . Production began in late 1940 , and by the beginning of 1943 nearly 19 @,@ 000 were in service . Like many obsolete Home Guard weapons , it was eventually replaced by other weapons , such as the 2 @-@ pounder anti @-@ tank gun .
= = Development = =
With the end of the Battle of France and the evacuation of the British Expeditionary Force from the port of Dunkirk between 26 May and 4 June 1940 , a German invasion of Great Britain seemed likely . However , the British Army was not well @-@ equipped to defend the country in such an event ; in the weeks after the Dunkirk evacuation it could only field twenty @-@ seven divisions . The Army was particularly short of anti @-@ tank guns , 840 of which had been left behind in France , leaving only 167 available in Britain ; ammunition was so scarce for the remaining guns that regulations forbade even a single round being used for training purposes .
Given these shortcomings , any modern weapons that were available were allocated to the British Army , and the Home Guard was forced to supplement the meagre amount of outdated weapons and ammunition they had with ad hoc weapons . One such weapon was the Northover Projector , the invention of Major Robert Harry Northover . Northover , an officer in the Home Guard , designed it to be an easily manufactured and cheap anti @-@ tank weapon , costing just under £ 10 to produce , excluding the required tripod . The Major wrote directly to the Prime Minister , Winston Churchill , with his design and arranged for Churchill to attend a demonstration of the Northover Projector . The Prime Minister approved of the weapon and gave it his personal endorsement , ordering in October 1940 that the weapon be mass @-@ produced on a scale of one for every Home Guard platoon .
= = Design = =
The Northover Projector — which was officially labelled the " Projector , 2 @.@ 5 inch " by the War Office — was formed of a hollow metal tube , resembling a drain pipe , mounted on top of a cast @-@ iron tripod . It weighed approximately 27 @.@ 2 kilograms . A simple breech was attached to one end of the tube , and rounds were fired from the Projector with a small quantity of black powder ignited by a " top hat " copper cap as used in muzzle loading rifles < Curtis ( HBSA ) 2014 > ; any recoil from the weapon was absorbed by the legs of the tripod , which were also hollow . It had a maximum range of approximately 300 yards but was accurate only to between 100 and 150 yards Home Guard units often added their own modifications to the weapon , which included mounting it on carriages or even the sidecars of motorcycles . It was served by a crew of three . Ammunition for the weapon consisted of the No. 76 Special Incendiary Grenade , a glass bottle " containing a phosphorus mixture which burst into livid flames , giving off quantities of suffocating smoke upon exposure to the air " , as well as normal hand and rifle grenades .
The Projector had a number of defects . It was difficult to move , the tripod had the tendency to damage itself if it was dropped , and its discharge pressure has been described as " feeble . " The phosphorus grenades exhibited a number of faults when used in the Projector ; they could often explode inside the weapon if too much black powder were added , or fall short if too little were used , or even fail to explode . They could also break inside the barrel when fired which often led to the weapon being damaged and its crew injured . Even when fired properly , the Projector gave off a large cloud of smoke which could take up to a minute to clear and revealed the weapon 's position . Bishop argues that its anti @-@ tank abilities would have been ' doubtful ' when it fired hand and rifle grenades , although he considers that the phosphorus grenades might have been more successful . To make handling easier , a lighter version of the weapon , the Northover Projector Mk 2 was developed in 1941 , but few were produced .
= = Operational history = =
The Northover Projector was issued to both Home Guard and regular British Army units , and by August , 1941 over 8 @,@ 000 Northover Projectors were in service . This number had increased to 18 @,@ 919 by the beginning of 1943 . Initial reactions to the Northover Projector were varied , with a number of Home Guard volunteers uncertain about the weapon 's unusual design , and some officers never accepted that it could be useful . However , most Home Guard units came to accept the weapon and have confidence in it , aided by large amounts of what Mackenzie terms " War Office propaganda " which cited the positive qualities of the weapon , such as its simplicity of use , ease of manufacture and low maintenance requirements . It was , as one Home Guard volunteer put it , " something to be accepted gratefully until something better arrived . " Like many of the obsolete weapons designed for the Home Guard , the Northover Projector was only taken out of service when it could be replaced with " marginally less ineffective " weapons provided by the Army , such as the 2 @-@ pounder anti @-@ tank gun .
= = = Official documents = = =
The Northover Projector . Tank Hunting and Destruction , Military Training Manual No 42 , Amendment No. 1 , Appendix F. War Office . December 1940 .
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= Aries ( constellation ) =
Aries is one of the constellations of the zodiac . It is located in the northern celestial hemisphere between Pisces to the west and Taurus to the east . The name Aries is Latin for ram , and its symbol is ( Unicode ♈ ) , representing a ram 's horns . It is one of the 48 constellations described by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy , and remains one of the 88 modern constellations . It is a mid @-@ sized constellation , ranking 39th overall size , with an area of 441 square degrees ( 1 @.@ 1 % of the celestial sphere ) .
Although Aries came to represent specifically the ram whose fleece became the Golden Fleece of Ancient Greek mythology , it has represented a ram since late Babylonian times . Before that , the stars of Aries formed a farmhand . Different cultures have incorporated the stars of Aries into different constellations including twin inspectors in China and a porpoise in the Marshall Islands . Aries is a relatively dim constellation , possessing only four bright stars : Hamal ( Alpha Arietis , second magnitude ) , Sheratan ( Beta Arietis , third magnitude ) , Mesarthim ( Gamma Arietis , fourth magnitude ) , and 41 Arietis ( also fourth magnitude ) . The few deep @-@ sky objects within the constellation are quite faint and include several pairs of interacting galaxies . Several meteor showers appear to radiate from Aries , including the Daytime Arietids and the Epsilon Arietids .
= = History and mythology = =
Aries is now recognized as an official constellation , albeit as a specific region of the sky , by the International Astronomical Union . It was originally defined in ancient texts as a specific pattern of stars , and has remained a constellation since ancient times ; it now includes the ancient pattern as well as the surrounding stars . In the description of the Babylonian zodiac given in the clay tablets known as the MUL.APIN , the constellation now known as Aries was the final station along the ecliptic . The MUL.APIN was a comprehensive table of the risings and settings of stars , which likely served as an agricultural calendar . Modern @-@ day Aries was known as MULLÚ.ḪUN.GÁ , " The Agrarian Worker " or " The Hired Man " . Although likely compiled in the 12th or 11th century BC , the MUL.APIN reflects a tradition which marks the Pleiades as the vernal equinox , which was the case with some precision at the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age . The earliest identifiable reference to Aries as a distinct constellation comes from the boundary stones that date from 1350 to 1000 BC . On several boundary stones , a zodiacal ram figure is distinct from the other characters present . The shift in identification from the constellation as the Agrarian Worker to the Ram likely occurred in later Babylonian tradition because of its growing association with Dumuzi the Shepherd . By the time the MUL.APIN was created — by 1000 BC — modern Aries was identified with both Dumuzi 's ram and a hired laborer . The exact timing of this shift is difficult to determine due to the lack of images of Aries or other ram figures .
In ancient Egyptian astronomy , Aries was associated with the god Amon @-@ Ra , who was depicted as a man with a ram 's head and represented fertility and creativity . Because it was the location of the vernal equinox , it was called the " Indicator of the Reborn Sun " . During the times of the year when Aries was prominent , priests would process statues of Amon @-@ Ra to temples , a practice that was modified by Persian astronomers centuries later . Aries acquired the title of " Lord of the Head " in Egypt , referring to its symbolic and mythological importance .
Aries was not fully accepted as a constellation until classical times . In Hellenistic astrology , the constellation of Aries is associated with the golden ram of Greek mythology that rescued Phrixos and Helle on orders from Hermes , taking him to the land of Colchis . Phrixos and Helle were the son and daughter of King Athamas and his first wife Nephele . The king 's second wife , Ino , was jealous and wished to kill his children . To accomplish this , she induced a famine in Boeotia , then falsified a message from the Oracle of Delphi that said Phrixos must be sacrificed to end the famine . Athamas was about to sacrifice his son atop Mount Laphystium when Aries , sent by Nephele , arrived . Helle fell off of Aries 's back in flight and drowned in the Dardanelles , also called the Hellespont in her honor . After arriving , Phrixos sacrificed the ram to Zeus and gave the Fleece to Aeëtes of Colchis , who rewarded him with an engagement to his daughter Chalciope . Aeëtes hung its skin in a sacred place where it became known as the Golden Fleece and was guarded by a dragon . In a later myth , this Golden Fleece was stolen by Jason and the Argonauts .
Historically , Aries has been depicted as a crouched , wingless ram with its head turned towards Taurus . Ptolemy asserted in his Almagest that Hipparchus depicted Alpha Arietis as the ram 's muzzle , though Ptolemy did not include it in his constellation figure . Instead , it was listed as an " unformed star " , and denoted as " the star over the head " . John Flamsteed , in his Atlas Coelestis , followed Ptolemy 's description by mapping it above the figure 's head . Flamsteed followed the general convention of maps by depicting Aries lying down . Astrologically , Aries has been associated with the head and its humors . It was strongly associated with Mars , both the planet and the god . It was considered to govern Western Europe and Syria , and to indicate a strong temper in a person .
The First Point of Aries , the location of the vernal equinox , is named for the constellation . This is because the Sun crossed the celestial equator from south to north in Aries more than two millennia ago . Hipparchus defined it in 130 BC. as a point south of Gamma Arietis . Because of the precession of the equinoxes , the First Point of Aries has since moved into Pisces and will move into Aquarius by around 2600 AD . The Sun now appears in Aries from late April through mid May , though the constellation is still associated with the beginning of spring .
Medieval Muslim astronomers depicted Aries in various ways . Astronomers like al @-@ Sufi saw the constellation as a ram , modeled on the precedent of Ptolemy . However , some Islamic celestial globes depicted Aries as a nondescript four @-@ legged animal with what may be antlers instead of horns . Some early Bedouin observers saw a ram elsewhere in the sky ; this constellation featured the Pleiades as the ram 's tail . The generally accepted Arabic formation of Aries consisted of thirteen stars in a figure along with five " unformed " stars , four of which were over the animal 's hindquarters and one of which was the disputed star over Aries 's head . Al @-@ Sufi 's depiction differed from both other Arab astronomers ' and Flamsteed 's , in that his Aries was running and looking behind itself .
The obsolete constellations introduced in Aries ( Musca Borealis , Lilium , Vespa , and Apes ) have all been composed of the northern stars . Musca Borealis was created from the stars 33 Arietis , 35 Arietis , 39 Arietis , and 41 Arietis . In 1612 , Petrus Plancius introduced Apes , a constellation representing a bee . In 1624 , the same stars were used by Jakob Bartsch to create a constellation called Vespa , representing a wasp . In 1679 Augustin Royer used these stars for his constellation Lilium , representing the fleur @-@ de @-@ lis . None of these constellation became widely accepted . Johann Hevelius renamed the constellation " Musca " in 1690 in his Firmamentum Sobiescianum . To differentiate it from Musca , the southern fly , it was later renamed Musca Borealis but it did not gain acceptance and its stars were ultimately officially reabsorbed into Aries .
In 1922 , the International Astronomical Union defined its recommended three @-@ letter abbreviation , " Ari " . The official boundaries of Aries were defined in 1930 by Eugène Delporte as a polygon of 12 segments . Its right ascension is between 1h 46.4m and 3h 29.4m and its declination is between 10 @.@ 36 ° and 31 @.@ 22 ° in the equatorial coordinate system .
= = = In non @-@ Western astronomy = = =
In traditional Chinese astronomy , stars from Aries were used in several constellations . The brightest stars — Alpha , Beta , and Gamma Arietis — formed a constellation called Lou , variously translated as " bond " , " lasso " , and " sickle " , which was associated with the ritual sacrifice of cattle . This name was shared by the 16th lunar mansion , the location of the full moon closest to the autumnal equinox . The lunar mansion represented the area where animals were gathered before sacrifice around that time . This constellation has also been associated with harvest @-@ time as it could represent a woman carrying a basket of food on her head . 35 , 39 , and 41 Arietis were part of a constellation called Wei , which represented a fat abdomen and was the namesake of the 17th lunar mansion , which represented granaries . Delta and Zeta Arietis were a part of the constellation Tianyin , thought to represent the Emperor 's hunting partner . Zuogeng ( Tso @-@ kang ) , a constellation depicting a marsh and pond inspector , was composed of Mu , Nu , Omicron , Pi , and Sigma Arietis . He was accompanied by Yeou @-@ kang , a constellation depicting an official in charge of pasture distribution .
In a similar system to the Chinese , the first lunar mansion in Hindu astronomy was called " Aswini " , after the traditional names for Beta and Gamma Arietis , the Aswins . Because the Hindu new year began with the vernal equinox , the Rig Veda contains over 50 new @-@ year 's related hymns to the twins , making them some of the most prominent characters in the work . Aries itself was known as " Aja " and " Mesha " . In Hebrew astronomy Aries was named " Teli " ; it signified either Simeon or Gad , and generally symbolizes the " Lamb of the World " . The neighboring Syrians named the constellation " Amru " , and the bordering Turks named it " Kuzi " . Half a world away , in the Marshall Islands , several stars from Aries were incorporated into a constellation depicting a porpoise , along with stars from Cassiopeia , Andromeda , and Triangulum . Alpha , Beta , and Gamma Arietis formed the head of the porpoise , while stars from Andromeda formed the body and the bright stars of Cassiopeia formed the tail . Other Polynesian peoples recognized Aries as a constellation . The Marquesas islanders called it Na @-@ pai @-@ ka ; the Māori constellation Pipiri may correspond to modern Aries as well . In indigenous Peruvian astronomy , a constellation with most of the same stars as Aries existed . It was called the " Market Moon " and the " Kneeling Terrace " , as a reminder for when to hold the annual harvest festival , Ayri Huay .
= = Notable features = =
= = = Stars = = =
Aries has three prominent stars forming an asterism , designated Alpha , Beta , and Gamma Arietis by Johann Bayer . All three are commonly used for navigation . There is also one other star above the fourth magnitude , 41 Arietis. α Arietis , called Hamal , is the brightest star in Aries . Its traditional name is derived from the Arabic word for " lamb " or " head of the ram " ( ras al @-@ hamal ) , which references Aries 's mythological background . With a spectral class of K2 and a luminosity class of III , it is an orange giant with an apparent visual magnitude of 2 @.@ 00 , which lies 66 light @-@ years from Earth . Hamal has a luminosity of 96 L ☉ and its absolute magnitude is − 0 @.@ 1 .
β Arietis , also known as Sheratan , is a blue @-@ white star with an apparent visual magnitude of 2 @.@ 64 . Its traditional name is derived from " sharatayn " , the Arabic word for " the two signs " , referring to both Beta and Gamma Arietis in their position as heralds of the vernal equinox . The two stars were known to the Bedouin as " qarna al @-@ hamal " , " horns of the ram " . It is 59 light @-@ years from Earth . It has a luminosity of 11 L ☉ and its absolute magnitude is 2 @.@ 1 . It is a spectroscopic binary star , one in which the companion star is only known through analysis of the spectra . The spectral class of the primary is A5 . Hermann Carl Vogel determined that Sheratan was a spectroscopic binary in 1903 ; its orbit was determined by Hans Ludendorff in 1907 . It has since been studied for its eccentric orbit .
γ Arietis , with a common name of Mesarthim , is a binary star with two white @-@ hued components , located in a rich field of magnitude 8 – 12 stars . Its traditional name has conflicting derivations . It may be derived from a corruption of " al @-@ sharatan " , the Arabic word meaning " pair " or a word for " fat ram " . However , it may also come from the Sanskrit for " first star of Aries " or the Hebrew for " ministerial servants " , both of which are unusual languages of origin for star names . Along with Beta Arietis , it was known to the Bedouin as " qarna al @-@ hamal " . The primary is of magnitude 4 @.@ 59 and the secondary is of magnitude 4 @.@ 68 . The system is 164 light @-@ years from Earth . The two components are separated by 7 @.@ 8 arcseconds , and the system as a whole has an apparent magnitude of 3 @.@ 9 . The primary has a luminosity of 60 L ☉ and the secondary has a luminosity of 56 L ☉ ; the primary is an A @-@ type star with an absolute magnitude of 0 @.@ 2 and the secondary is a B9 @-@ type star with an absolute magnitude of 0 @.@ 4 . The angle between the two components is 1 ° . Mesarthim was discovered to be a double star by Robert Hooke in 1664 , one of the earliest such telescopic discoveries . The primary , γ1 Arietis , is an Alpha ² Canum Venaticorum variable star that has a range of 0 @.@ 02 magnitudes and a period of 2 @.@ 607 days . It is unusual because of its strong silicon emission lines .
The constellation is home to several double stars , including Epsilon , Lambda , and Pi Arietis. ε Arietis is a binary star with two white components . The primary is of magnitude 5 @.@ 2 and the secondary is of magnitude 5 @.@ 5 . The system is 290 light @-@ years from Earth . Its overall magnitude is 4 @.@ 63 , and the primary has an absolute magnitude of 1 @.@ 4 . Its spectral class is A2 . The two components are separated by 1 @.@ 5 arcseconds. λ Arietis is a wide double star with a white @-@ hued primary and a yellow @-@ hued secondary . The primary is of magnitude 4 @.@ 8 and the secondary is of magnitude 7 @.@ 3 . The primary is 129 light @-@ years from Earth . It has an absolute magnitude of 1 @.@ 7 and a spectral class of F0 . The two components are separated by 36 arcseconds at an angle of 50 ° ; the two stars are located 0 @.@ 5 ° east of 7 Arietis. π Arietis is a close binary star with a blue @-@ white primary and a white secondary . The primary is of magnitude 5 @.@ 3 and the secondary is of magnitude 8 @.@ 5 . The primary is 776 light @-@ years from Earth . The primary itself is a wide double star with a separation of 25 @.@ 2 arcseconds ; the tertiary has a magnitude of 10 @.@ 8 . The primary and secondary are separated by 3 @.@ 2 arcseconds .
Most of the other stars in Aries visible to the naked eye have magnitudes between 3 and 5 @.@ δ Ari , called Boteïn , is a star of magnitude 4 @.@ 35 , 170 light @-@ years away . It has an absolute magnitude of − 0 @.@ 1 and a spectral class of K2. ζ Arietis is a star of magnitude 4 @.@ 89 , 263 light @-@ years away . Its spectral class is A0 and its absolute magnitude is 0 @.@ 0 . 14 Arietis is a star of magnitude 4 @.@ 98 , 288 light @-@ years away . Its spectral class is F2 and its absolute magnitude is 0 @.@ 6 . 39 Arietis is a similar star of magnitude 4 @.@ 51 , 172 light @-@ years away . Its spectral class is K1 and its absolute magnitude is 0 @.@ 0 . 35 Arietis is a dim star of magnitude 4 @.@ 55 , 343 light @-@ years away . Its spectral class is B3 and its absolute magnitude is − 1 @.@ 7 . 41 Arietis , known both as c Arietis and Nair al Butain , is a brighter star of magnitude 3 @.@ 63 , 165 light @-@ years away . Its spectral class is B8 and it has a luminosity of 105 L ☉ . Its absolute magnitude is − 0 @.@ 2 . 53 Arietis is a runaway star of magnitude 6 @.@ 09 , 815 light @-@ years away . Its spectral class is B2 . It was likely ejected from the Orion Nebula approximately five million years ago , possibly due to supernovae . Finally , Teegarden 's Star is the closest star to Earth in Aries . It is a brown dwarf of magnitude 15 @.@ 14 and spectral class M6.5V. With a proper motion of 5 @.@ 1 arcseconds per year , it is the 24th closest star to Earth overall .
Aries has its share of variable stars , including R and U Arietis , Mira @-@ type variable stars , and T Arietis , a semi @-@ regular variable star . R Arietis is a Mira variable star that ranges in magnitude from a minimum of 13 @.@ 7 to a maximum of 7 @.@ 4 with a period of 186 @.@ 8 days . It is 4 @,@ 080 light @-@ years away . U Arietis is another Mira variable star that ranges in magnitude from a minimum of 15 @.@ 2 to a maximum of 7 @.@ 2 with a period of 371 @.@ 1 days . T Arietis is a semiregular variable star that ranges in magnitude from a minimum of 11 @.@ 3 to a maximum of 7 @.@ 5 with a period of 317 days . It is 1 @,@ 630 light @-@ years away . One particularly interesting variable in Aries is SX Arietis , a rotating variable star considered to be the prototype of its class , helium variable stars . SX Arietis stars have very prominent emission lines of Helium I and Silicon III . They are normally main @-@ sequence B0p — B9p stars , and their variations are not usually visible to the naked eye . Therefore , they are observed photometrically , usually having periods that fit in the course of one night . Similar to Alpha ² Canum Venaticorum variables , SX Arietis stars have periodic changes in their light and magnetic field , which correspond to the periodic rotation ; they differ from the Alpha ² Canum Venaticorum variables in their higher temperature . There are between 39 and 49 SX Arietis variable stars currently known ; ten are noted as being " uncertain " in the General Catalog of Variable Stars .
= = = Deep @-@ sky objects = = =
The few deep @-@ sky objects in Aries are very dim . Nevertheless , several scientifically interesting galaxies lie within its borders ; it has spiral , elliptical , and interacting galaxies .
NGC 772 is a spiral galaxy with an integrated magnitude of 10 @.@ 3 , located southeast of β Arietis and 15 arcminutes west of 15 Arietis . It is a relatively bright galaxy and shows obvious nebulosity and ellipticity in an amateur telescope . It is 7 @.@ 2 by 4 @.@ 2 arcminutes , meaning that its surface brightness , magnitude 13 @.@ 6 , is significantly lower than its integrated magnitude . NGC 772 is a class SA ( s ) b galaxy , which means that it is an unbarred spiral galaxy without a ring that possesses a somewhat prominent bulge and spiral arms that are wound somewhat tightly . The main arm , on the northwest side of the galaxy , is home to many star forming regions ; this is due to previous gravitational interactions with other galaxies . NGC 772 has a small companion galaxy , NGC 770 , that is about 113 @,@ 000 light @-@ years away from the larger galaxy . The two galaxies together are also classified as Arp 78 in the Arp peculiar galaxy catalog . NGC 772 has a diameter of 240 @,@ 000 light @-@ years and the system is 114 million light @-@ years from Earth . Another spiral galaxy in Aries is NGC 673 , a face @-@ on class SAB ( s ) c galaxy . It is a weakly barred spiral galaxy with loosely wound arms . It has no ring and a faint bulge and is 2 @.@ 5 by 1 @.@ 9 arcminutes . It has two primary arms with fragments located farther from the core . 171 @,@ 000 light @-@ years in diameter , NGC 673 is 235 million light @-@ years from Earth .
NGC 678 and NGC 680 are a pair of galaxies in Aries that are only about 200 @,@ 000 light @-@ years apart . Part of the NGC 691 group of galaxies , both are at a distance of approximately 130 million light @-@ years . NGC 678 is an edge @-@ on spiral galaxy that is 4 @.@ 5 by 0 @.@ 8 arcminutes . NGC 680 , an elliptical galaxy with an asymmetrical boundary , is the brighter of the two at magnitude 12 @.@ 9 ; NGC 678 has a magnitude of 13 @.@ 35 . Both galaxies have bright cores , but NGC 678 is the larger galaxy at a diameter of 171 @,@ 000 light @-@ years ; NGC 680 has a diameter of 72 @,@ 000 light @-@ years . NGC 678 is further distinguished by its prominent dust lane . NGC 691 itself is a spiral galaxy slightly inclined to our line of sight . It has multiple spiral arms and a bright core . Because it is so diffuse , it has a low surface brightness . It has a diameter of 126 @,@ 000 light @-@ years and is 124 million light @-@ years away . NGC 877 is the brightest member of an 8 @-@ galaxy group that also includes NGC 870 , NGC 871 , and NGC 876 , with a magnitude of 12 @.@ 53 . It is 2 @.@ 4 by 1 @.@ 8 arcminutes and is 178 million light @-@ years away with a diameter of 124 @,@ 000 light @-@ years . Its companion is NGC 876 , which is about 103 @,@ 000 light @-@ years from the core of NGC 877 . They are interacting gravitationally , as they are connected by a faint stream of gas and dust . Arp 276 is a different pair of interacting galaxies in Aries , consisting of NGC 935 and IC 1801 .
NGC 821 is an E6 elliptical galaxy . It is unusual because it has hints of an early spiral structure , which is normally only found in lenticular and spiral galaxies . NGC 821 is 2 @.@ 6 by 2 @.@ 0 arcminutes and has a visual magnitude of 11 @.@ 3 . Its diameter is 61 @,@ 000 light @-@ years and it is 80 million light @-@ years away . Another unusual galaxy in Aries is Segue 2 . Segue 2 is a dwarf galaxy that is a satellite galaxy of the Milky Way , recently discovered to be a potential relic of the epoch of reionization .
= = = Meteor showers = = =
Aries is home to several meteor showers . The Daytime Arietid meteor shower is one of the strongest meteor showers that occurs during the day , lasting from 22 May to 2 July . It is an annual shower associated with the Marsden group of comets that peaks on 7 June with a maximum zenithal hourly rate of 54 meteors . Its parent body may be the asteroid Icarus . The meteors are sometimes visible before dawn , because the radiant is 32 degrees away from the Sun . They usually appear at a rate of 1 – 2 per hour as " earthgrazers " , meteors that last several seconds and often begin at the horizon . Because most of the Daytime Arietids are not visible to the naked eye , they are observed in the radio spectrum . This is possible because of the ionized gas they leave in their wake . Other meteor showers radiate from Aries during the day ; these include the Daytime Epsilon Arietids and the Northern and Southern Daytime May Arietids . The Jodrell Bank Observatory discovered the Daytime Arietids in 1947 when James Hey and G. S. Stewart adapted the World War II @-@ era radar systems for meteor observations .
The Delta Arietids are another meteor shower radiating from Aries . Peaking on 9 December with a low peak rate , the shower lasts from 8 December to 14 January , with the highest rates visible from 8 to 14 December . The average Delta Aquarid meteor is very slow , with an average velocity of 13 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 2 mi ) per second . However , this shower sometimes produces bright fireballs . This meteor shower has northern and southern components , both of which are likely associated with 1990 HA , a near @-@ Earth asteroid .
The Autumn Arietids also radiate from Aries . The shower lasts from 7 September to 27 October and peaks on 9 October . Its peak rate is low . The Epsilon Arietids appear from 12 to 23 October . Other meteor showers radiating from Aries include the October Delta Arietids , Daytime Epsilon Arietids , Daytime May Arietids , Sigma Arietids , Nu Arietids , and Beta Arietids . The Sigma Arietids , a class IV meteor shower , are visible from 12 to 19 October , with a maximum zenithal hourly rate of less than two meteors per hour on 19 October .
= = = Planetary systems = = =
Aries contains several stars with extrasolar planets . HIP 14810 , a G5 type star , is orbited by three giant planets ( those more than ten times the mass of Earth ) . HD 12661 , like HIP 14810 , is a G @-@ type main sequence star , slightly larger than the Sun , with two orbiting planets . One planet is 2 @.@ 3 times the mass of Jupiter , and the other is 1 @.@ 57 times the mass of Jupiter . HD 20367 is a G0 type star , approximately the size of the Sun , with one orbiting planet . The planet , discovered in 2002 , has a mass 1 @.@ 07 times that of Jupiter and orbits every 500 days .
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= Phases and Stages =
Phases and Stages is a 1974 album by Willie Nelson , which followed the moderate success of his first Atlantic Records release , Shotgun Willie . Nelson met producer Jerry Wexler at a party where Nelson sang songs from an unreleased album he had recorded in 1972 . The single " Phases and Stages " was originally recorded the same year . Nelson re @-@ recorded the album at Muscle Shoals Sound Studios in two days and Wexler produced it .
The album narrates the story of a divorce . Side one tells the woman 's story and side two the man 's . Released on March 1974 , the album peaked at number 34 on Billboard 's Top Country Albums and the single " Bloody Mary Morning " reached number 17 on Billboard 's Country singles . Despite the chart positions attained by the album , and its singles , Atlantic Records closed their Country music division in September 1974 .
= = Background and Recording = =
In 1972 , Nelson signed a recording contract with the Country Music division of Atlantic Records and Jerry Wexler , who gave him greater creative control than his previous contract . Nelson met Wexler at a party in Harlan Howard 's house , where he sang the songs he wrote for an album . Nelson recorded his first album for Atlantic Records , Shotgun Willie , in 1972 . Shotgun Willie , produced by Arif Mardin and Wexler , marked a change of style in Nelson 's music . Nelson stated that recording the album had " ... cleared his throat " .
The single " Phases and Stages " was first released in 1972 . Nelson had previously recorded the album Phases and Stages in Nashville , Tennessee . In 1973 , Nelson re @-@ recorded the songs in two days at Muscle Shoals Sound Studio for Atlantic Records with musicians Fred Carter , Jr . , David Hood , Barry Beckett , Jimmy Johnson , Pete Carr and Roger Hawkins . Atlantic Records ' executives criticized Wexler 's decision to record in Muscle Shoals instead of Nashville , Tennessee . Wexler later stated : " They said Muscle Shoals was too R & B for Willie . I said Willie was too R & B for Nashville . "
= = Concept = =
The album became one of the first concept albums in country music . The theme of the songs centers in divorce , narrated from both viewpoints . The one of the woman is narrated on side one ; while the man 's on side two . The recurrent song " Phases and Stages " is repeated throughout the album , introducing several other songs .
The album begins with " Phases and Stages / Washing the Dishes " , with the woman tired of caring for her unfaithful husband , emphasizing her domestic chores . This is followed by " Phases and Stages / Walkin ' " where , after consideration , she leaves her husband at night , saying " Walkin ' is better than runnin ' away , and crawlin ' ain 't no good at all " . In " Pretend I Never Happened " , she advises him to forget her and continue with his life . In " Sister 's Coming Home / Down at the Corner Beer Joint " , her younger sister describes the woman moving back home and sleeping late . Eventually , she overcomes her grief and begins a social life at the corner beer joint , representing her liberation with the lyrics " ( she 's ) dancin ' on a hardwood floor , her jeans fit a little bit tighter than they did before " . The final song of side one depicts the woman falling in love again but reluctant to admit it because she fears that her story will be repeated .
The second side of the album begins with " Bloody Mary Morning " , with the male narrator ordering drinks on a flight from Los Angeles , California to Houston , Texas after his wife unexpectedly left him , with " the smog and haze reminding me of how I feel " . In " Phases and Stages / No Love Around " he recalls dragging in at sunrise after another night of carousing : " I come home last Saturday morning , I come home and found you gone . " In the sad " I Still Can 't Believe You 're Gone " , the man realizes the vast impact on his life of her leaving . " It 's Not Supposed to Be That Way " reflects his inability to accept the situation and his grief , but still in a self @-@ centered way . In " Heaven and Hell " , the man expresses his ambivalence about living without his wife , with the lyric : " Sometimes it 's heaven , sometimes it 's hell , and sometimes I don 't even know . " The final track is " Phases and Stages / Pick Up the Tempo / Phases and Stages " , in which the man reveals his inability to change his character , and accepts his nature and its consequences .
= = Release and reception = =
The album was released in March 1974 . It peaked at number 34 in Billboard 's Top Country Albums and number 187 in Billboard 's Top LPs & Tapes . The single " Bloody Mary Morning " peaked at number 17 , and its follow @-@ up , " I Still Can 't Believe You 're Gone " , peaked at number 51 in Billboard 's Country singles . Despite the moderate success of Nelson 's singles , Atlantic Records ' executives were unhappy with Nelson 's style , and closed their Country Music division in September 1974 . Wexler protested to Ahmet and Nesuhi Ertegun , arguing that Atlantic had Willie Nelson . The Ertegun brothers replied " Willie Who ? Go ahead and close it . " Following the division 's closure , Wexler resigned . The album sold 400 @,@ 000 copies , and Nelson was released from his Atlantic contract , prompting Columbia Records ' executives to offer Nelson a contract giving him complete creative control of his works . Wexler later described Phases and Stages and Shotgun Willie as " ... generally viewed as having set Willie on a new path ... it was the coalescing of his audience , where the rednecks and the hippies came together . And to this day , that 's Willie 's audience . "
Rolling Stone wrote : " ( Nelson ) seems to understand an unloved woman better than any dozen articles from Ms. ( magazine ) . The fact that Nelson can fashion a believable scenario with such sparseness is a tribute to his ability to turn experience into good music . Phases And Stages , his best work to date , now seems to call out for the filmmaker who can turn good music into good cinema " . Texas Monthly described the album as : " ... a compassionate account of dissolution of marriage , which gave extremely sensitive male and female viewpoints " .
Billboard wrote : " Nelson 's unfettered voice honestly portrays his songs of love and lament " . Critic Robert Christgau wrote : " Nelson 's combination of soft @-@ spoken off @-@ key and battered honky @-@ tonk matches the bare , responsive country music Jerry Wexler has gotten out of the Muscle Shoals regulars . " Newsweek wrote : " In Phases and stages ( Nelson ) looked far beyond country music 's traditional shore of self pity toward a clear vision of real life country divorce " .
Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote for Allmusic : " ... the deceptively relaxed arrangements , including the occasional strings , not only highlight Nelson 's clever eclecticism , but they also heighten the emotional impact of the album . [ ... ] As a result , this is not just one of Willie Nelson 's best records , but one of the great concept albums overall " .
= = LP track listing = =
All songs written by Willie Nelson .
= = Personnel = =
The musicians and recording personnel included :
= = Chart positions = =
= = = Album = = =
= = = Singles = = =
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= Jim Moran =
James Patrick Moran Jr . ( born May 16 , 1945 ) , known as Jim Moran , is a former U.S. Representative for Virginia 's 8th congressional district in Northern Virginia , including the cities of Falls Church and Alexandria , all of Arlington County , and a portion of Fairfax County . Congressman Moran served from 1991 to 2015 , and is a member of the Democratic Party .
Moran was the mayor of Alexandria , Virginia from 1985 to 1990 , when he resigned to run for Congress . He defeated Republican incumbent Stanford Parris in the general election on November 6 , 1990 , and was sworn in the following January . He is of Irish descent , and is the son of professional football player James Patrick Moran Sr. and the brother of former Democratic Party of Virginia Chairman Brian Moran .
Moran announced on January 15 , 2014 , that he would retire from Congress at the end of his term . Moran is currently a professor of practice in the School of Public and International Affairs in the College of Architecture and Urban Studies at Virginia Tech .
= = Early life , education , and business career = =
Moran , the eldest of seven children , was born in Buffalo , New York , and grew up in Natick , Massachusetts , a suburb of Boston . His parents were Dorothy ( née Dwyer ) and James Moran Sr. , a professional football player for the Boston Redskins in 1935 and 1936 ; outside of football he worked as a probation officer . Both his father and mother were Roosevelt Democrats and supporters of the New Deal . Moran attended Marian High School in Framingham , Massachusetts .
Moran played college football on an athletic scholarship at the College of the Holy Cross , where his father had been a football star in the early 1930s . Moran was awarded a B.A. in economics in 1967 . In 1970 he received a Master of Public Administration from the University of Pittsburgh . After college , Moran followed his father 's footstep to become an amateur boxer , and during a campaign in 1992 , he admitted that he had used marijuana during his early twenties . After a brief career as a stockbroker and graduate school attendance , Moran moved to Washington , D.C.
= = Early political career = =
He worked for five years at the Department of Health , Education , and Welfare , as a budget officer , then became a senior specialist for budgetary and fiscal policy at the Library of Congress . His final position , from 1976 to 1979 , was on the staff of U.S. Senate Committee on Appropriations .
In 1979 , Moran was elected to the Alexandria , Virginia , City Council . He was deputy mayor from 1982 until his resignation in 1984 as part of a nolo contendere plea bargain to a misdemeanor conflict of interest charge , which courts later erased . The incident stemmed from charges that Moran had used money from a political action committee to rent a tuxedo and buy Christmas cards ; both of which were later judged by the Commonwealth Attorney to " fit the definition of constituent services " , and were dismissed .
In 1985 , Moran was elected Mayor of Alexandria . He was reelected in 1988 , and resigned after he was elected to Congress in November 1990 .
= = U.S. House of Representatives = =
= = = Elections = = =
In 1990 , Moran first won election to the United States House of Representatives , defeating five @-@ term Republican incumbent Stan Parris . During the campaign , Parris , referring to the issue of the Gulf War , said , " The only three people I know who support Saddam Hussein 's position are Moammar Gadhafi , Yasser Arafat , and Jim Moran . " Moran angrily responded by saying that Parris was " a deceitful , fatuous jerk " , and that he wanted " to break his nose " . Moran 's well @-@ financed campaign also focused on Parris ' opposition to abortion . Moran upset Parris , winning by 7 @.@ 1 percent . He was sworn into office in January 1991 .
In the next two elections , Moran faced Republican lawyer Kyle McSlarrow . During the 1992 campaign , McSlarrow accused Moran of " lying to the public " . Moran responded by portraying McSlarrow as a drug abuser , referring to the candidate 's admitted use of cocaine and marijuana while at the University of Virginia . Moran compared McSlarrow to Parris , saying that Parris had " [ t ] en times more integrity than McSlarrow . He didn 't create lies . " Moran defeated McSlarrow with 56 percent of the vote .
In 1994 , Moran 's daughter Dorothy was suffering from an inoperable brain tumor . During the campaign , neither Moran or McSlarrow used the negative tactics of two years earlier . On his campaign strategy that election , McSlarrow said " It would not be a community service to shut down this campaign , but I probably will not talk much about Moran . " Moran was reelected with 59 percent of the vote .
In 1998 and 2000 , Moran faced Republican and flat tax advocate Demaris H. Miller . In the 1998 campaign Miller accused Moran of flip @-@ flopping in his support of President Bill Clinton , after Moran , who had been a vocal supporter of the Clinton White House , voted in favor of opening an impeachment inquiry following the Monica Lewinsky scandal .
In 2002 , Moran defeated Republican S. C. Tate and Independent R. V. Crickenberger .
In June 2004 , Moran , for the first time since his election in 1990 , had a Democratic opponent in a primary . Moran defeated Alexandria attorney Andrew M. Rosenberg , 59 % to 41 % . In November , he defeated Republican Lisa Marie Cheney .
In 2006 , Moran defeated Republican challenger T. M. Odonoghue and Independent J. T. Hurysz .
In 2008 , Moran again had a primary challenger ; he won with 86 % of the vote . In the general election , Moran faced Republican Mark Ellmore and Independent Green Ron Fisher . He won with 68 percent of the vote to Elmore 's 30 percent .
In November 2009 Ellmore announced he would again challenge Moran , but dropped out of the race four months later . In the June 2010 Republican primary , attorney Matthew Berry narrowly lost to retired U.S. Army Colonel J. Patrick Murray , after a last @-@ minute mailing attacking Berry 's homosexuality . Fisher again was on the ballot . During the campaign , Moran was criticized by military advocacy groups and conservatives for saying , at a local Democratic committee meeting , that Murray had not " served or performed any kind of public service " . Moran responded by commending Murray 's military service , while saying that he used the phrase in relation to Murray not having engaged in " local civic engagement " and not having served in local office . In November 2010 , Moran was re @-@ elected to an eleventh term with 61 % of the vote .
In 2012 , Moran faced another primary challenger from Navy veteran Bruce Shuttleworth . A controversy erupted when the Democratic Party of Virginia disqualified Shuttleworth , saying he had fallen 17 signatures short of the 1 @,@ 000 threshold required . Shuttleworth cried foul and filed a federal lawsuit ; the party then allowed Shuttleworth on the ballot . Moran went on to win by a sizable margin . In November , Moran defeated Republican J. Patrick Murray , Independent Jason J. Howell , and Independent Green Janet Murphy , winning 64 % of the vote .
= = = Tenure = = =
Moran represented Virginia 's 8th congressional district , an area in Northern Virginia that is just across the Potomac River from Washington , D.C. ; the district includes Arlington county , and the cities of Alexandria , Falls Church and parts of Fairfax . The redistricting that followed the 2000 census also gave Moran a portion of Reston , Virginia . His district is located in the Dulles Technology Corridor and is the home of many federal defense contractors as well as a significant number of those who work in the information technology industry . Many federal employees also reside within the district , mostly due to its proximity to Washington and because the United States Department of Defense and various other agencies are headquartered there .
During the mid nineties , Moran co @-@ founded and later co @-@ chaired the New Democrat Coalition , a coalition of Democratic lawmakers who consider themselves to be moderates with regard to commerce , budgeting , and economic legislation , but vote as liberals on social issues . Moran was also a member of the Congressional Progressive Caucus ( CPC ) , the largest caucus operating within the Democratic caucus , which works to advance progressive issues and opinions . He joined the caucus prior to the 111th Congress .
= = = = 1990s = = = =
In 1995 , Moran and California Republican Duke Cunningham had to be restrained by the Capitol Police after a shoving match on the house floor over President Bill Clinton 's decision to send U.S. troops to Bosnia . " I thought he had been bullying too many people for too long , and I told him so , " Moran recalled . " He said he didn 't mean to be so accusatory ... After that , he would bring me candy from California . " Moran said that after the encounter he found Cunningham crying in the cloakroom .
During the final years of the Clinton administration , Moran was critical of the President : In 1998 , during the Monica Lewinsky scandal , Moran was one of only 31 House Democrats to support launching a formal impeachment inquiry into President Bill Clinton . He told Time magazine that " This whole sordid mess is just too tawdry and tedious and embarrassing ... It 's like a novel that just became too full of juicy parts and bizarre , sleazy characters . " Moran is also reported to have told First Lady Hillary Clinton that if she had been his sister , he would have punched her husband in the nose . Moran eventually decided not to vote for impeachment , explaining that Clinton had not compromised the country 's security , and that he still respected him for what he had accomplished as President . Moran proposed a resolution demanding that Clinton confess to a pattern of " dishonest and illegal conduct " surrounding his sexual involvement with Monica Lewinsky .
= = = = 2000s = = = =
Moran was voted High Technology Legislator of the Year by the Information Technology Industry Council and was voted into the American Electronics Association Hall of Fame for his work on avoiding the Year 2000 crisis and his support of the IT Industry and defense contractors in Northern Virginia . He cosponsored failed bills in 2005 to provide the District of Columbia with a House seat and to prohibit slaughter of horses .
On April 28 , 2006 , Moran , along with four other members of Congress ( the now @-@ deceased Rep. Tom Lantos of California , Sheila Jackson Lee of Texas , and James McGovern and John Olver of Massachusetts ) , and six other activists , were arrested for disorderly conduct in front of the Sudanese embassy in Washington , D.C. , and spent 45 minutes in a jail cell before being released . They were protesting the alleged role of Sudan 's government in ethnic cleansing in Darfur . According to the San Francisco Chronicle , " Their protest and civil disobedience was designed to embarrass the military dictatorship 's ongoing genocide of its non @-@ Arab citizens . "
The day after the Virginia Tech Massacre in 2007 , Moran told a local radio station that the Federal Assault Weapons Ban should be reinstated and blamed the National Rifle Association , which he accused of getting a " free ride " , and President George W. Bush for blocking gun control legislation . He further warned that if gun control legislation was not passed , then shootings such as the one at Virginia Tech will happen " time and time again . " He later dismissed charges that he was politicizing the shooting , telling Politico that " as a legislator , your immediate reaction is to think something could be done to avoid this . I don 't know why the idea of figuring out how to avoid it is a political partisan issue . "
Shortly before the June 2008 Virginia Democratic primary , Moran endorsed Senator Barack Obama of Illinois for the presidency over New York Senator and former First Lady Hillary Clinton . Explaining his endorsement , he told a local newspaper that the long @-@ term goal of closing Alexandria 's coal @-@ fired power plant would be more attainable under Obama than under Clinton . Obama won the Virginia primary , and carried the state when he won the general election in November .
In May 2009 , Moran introduced a bill that would restrict broadcast advertisements for erectile dysfunction or male enhancement medication . He said that such ads were indecent and should be prohibited on radio and television between the hours of 6 am and 10 pm , in accordance with Federal Communications Commission policy . Later that year , Moran and former presidential candidate and former Governor of Vermont Howard Dean held a town hall meeting on the issue of health care at South Lakes High School in Reston , Virginia . The meeting was interrupted several times by protesters , most notably pro @-@ life activist Randall Terry , who , along with about half a dozen supporters , caused such a commotion that he had to be escorted out by police . The incident was replayed several times over the next few weeks on television as an example of the tension at town halls that fall .
In February 2010 , on the House floor , Moran called for the repeal of Don 't Ask , Don 't Tell , the military policy of discharging soldiers on active duty who are openly homosexual . He spoke about a letter penned by a gay soldier who was then serving in the Afghanistan War , who had " learned that a fellow soldier was also gay , only after he was killed by an IED in Iraq . The partner of the deceased soldier wrote the unit to say how much the victim had loved the military ; how they were the only family he had ever known ... This immutable human trait , sexual orientation , like the color of one 's skin , does not affect one ’ s integrity , their honor , our commitment to their country . Soldiers serving their country in combat should not have their sacrifices compounded by having to struggle with an antiquated Don ’ t ask , don ’ t tell policy . Let 's do the right and honorable thing and repeal this policy . "
As a member of the House Appropriations Committee , Moran worked to allocate federal funding to projects in Northern Virginia , usually in the technology and defense industries . He also assisted in authorizing the replacement of the Woodrow Wilson Memorial Bridge , a bridge between Alexandria , Virginia , and Prince George 's County , Maryland , which had gained a reputation over the years among Northern Virginia residents as the site of numerous rush @-@ hour traffic jams .
On March 9 , 2010 , Moran was named to succeed Norm Dicks of Washington as the chairman of the House Interior and Environment Appropriations Subcommittee . The chairmanship gave Moran authority over appropriations to the Department of the Interior , the Bureau of Indian Affairs , and the National Endowment for the Arts ; among other things . Moran said he was excited to be able to play a role in protecting the environment and conserving natural resources .
= = = = 2010s = = = =
Moran became the ranking member of the subcommittee after the Democratic Party lost control of the House of Representatives following the November 2010 elections .
After President Obama 's 2011 State of the Union Address , Moran was interviewed by Alhurra , an Arab television network . During the interview , he said , " a lot of people in [ the United States of America ] ... don 't want to be governed by an African @-@ American " and that the Democrats lost seats in the 2010 election for " the same reason the Civil War happened in the United States ... the Southern states , particularly the slaveholding states , didn 't want to see a president who was opposed to slavery . " The remarks received national media attention . The Washington Post 's Jennifer Rubin said the remarks were " beyond uncivil " and " obnoxious " .
On March 16 , 2012 , Moran was arrested outside the Sudanese embassy in Washington , DC , at a protest against human rights abuses perpetrated by the Sudanese government , specifically bombings in the Nuba Mountains and refusal to allow humanitarian aid organizations access to refugees . He was charged with disorderly conduct and released , along with George Clooney and several others .
On March 27 , 2012 , Moran introduced the AUTISM Educators Act that would implement a five @-@ year pilot program allowing public schools to partner with colleges , universities , and non @-@ profit organizations to promote teaching skills for educators working with high functioning students with autism . “ This legislation is the product of a grassroots effort by parents , instructors , school officials and caring communities , ” he said . “ Autism Spectrum Disorders are being diagnosed at an exploding rate . We have a responsibility to do everything in our power to provide the best education for our children . ”
In 2012 , Moran was recognized as a " Problem Solver " by the bipartisan grassroots organization No Labels for " continued willingness to work across the aisle and find common ground with members of the opposite party on important issues . His attitude is what Congress needs more of .
Moran joined Virginia Reps. Gerry Connolly and Bobby Scott in asking Attorney General Eric Holder for a Department of Justice investigation into allegations of voter fraud in Virginia following charges that a contractor to the Republican Party of Virginia was caught discarding completed voter registration forms in a Harrisonburg , Virginia dumpster . Shortly thereafter , conservative activist James O 'Keefe released a video alleging involvement by Moran 's son in a voting fraud discussion ; see # Voter fraud allegations below .
Moran occasionally appeared on MSNBC , usually on Hardball with Chris Matthews and The Ed Show .
= = = Committee assignments = = =
Committee on Appropriations
Subcommittee on Defense
Subcommittee on Interior , Environment , and Related Agencies ( Ranking Member )
= = = Caucus memberships = = =
LGBT Equality Caucus
Congressional Progressive Caucus
New Democrat Coalition ( co @-@ founder )
Animal Protection Caucus ( co @-@ Chair )
Sudan Caucus
Sportsmen 's Caucus
International Conservation Caucus
Congressional Arts Caucus
Congressional Bike Caucus
Safe Climate Caucus
Crohn 's and Colitis Caucus ( co @-@ Chair )
= = Political positions = =
= = = Social issues = = =
Moran voted against the Defense of Marriage Act , the Federal Marriage Amendment , and was in favor of repealing the military 's Don 't Ask , Don 't Tell policy . He also supported gun control , voting for the Brady Bill and supporting a reinstatement of the Federal Assault Weapons Ban . At different times he voted to ban flag @-@ burning and partial @-@ birth abortions , though he reversed his positions on both issues . On education , he expressed support for the public education system , universal pre @-@ kindergarten , and full funding for the No Child Left Behind program . Moran was given a 100 % rating by the NARAL and 0 % by the National Right to Life Committee , indicating a pro @-@ choice voting record . He also voted to expand research of embryonic stem cells and to allow minors to go across state lines to receive abortions .
On immigration , Moran supported a pathway to citizenship for illegal immigrants and did not support decreasing the number of legal immigrants allowed into the country or the enforcement of federal immigration laws by state and local police . He was a cosponsor of the Comprehensive Immigration Reform ASAP Act of 2009 ( H.R.4321 ) , which the House did not pass . He was given an overall immigration reduction grade of D by NumbersUSA . The American Immigration Lawyers Association scored him as having voted 31 times for the organization 's position and 7 times against the organization 's position .
In September 2009 , Moran was one of 75 members of the House of Representatives to vote no on a bill to eliminate any federal funds going to community organizer ACORN .
= = = Federal employees = = =
Moran introduced and supported legislation to increase benefits and pay for federal workers , in part due to the Federal Government ’ s large presence within the 8th District – 114 @,@ 000 federal employees work within its bounds . He introduced a bill signed into law that allows FERS employees to buy back credit from a lapse in federal service toward annuity payments , with the goal of attracting individuals from the private sector back to public service . Moran also authored a law that allows a federal worker ’ s unused sick leave to count toward their annuity . In the 112th Congress , he also spoke against attempts by Republicans to cut back the size of the federal workforce .
= = = Environment = = =
Moran listed the environment as one of his top issues , citing his high marks from the League of Conservation Voters and the Sierra Club . He used his positions as a member of the Appropriations Committee and as chairman of the Interior Appropriations Subcommittee to allocate federal funding for hiking trails and wildlife reserves in his district .
He also voted to ban logging on federal lands . He criticized the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) for inaction on climate change , saying that " EPA had a historic opportunity to tackle head @-@ on one of the greatest threats to our existence — global warming . Instead they balked under pressure from the administration , concluding the problem is so complex and controversial that it cannot be resolved . " He also endorsed and voted for the Clean Air Act and said that global warming is an important issue to him . In 2010 , Moran also expressed discontent with President Barack Obama 's decision to allow oil drilling off the coast of the United States .
= = = Economy , budget , and taxes = = =
Moran often broke with his party on economic issues . For example , he supported Dominican Republic @-@ Central America Free Trade Agreement ( CAFTA ) and other free trade agreements , harsher bankruptcy laws , and increased restrictions on the right to bring class action suits .
He voted for the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 and the Troubled Asset Relief Program ( TARP ) Reform and Accountability Act . He supported pay @-@ as @-@ you @-@ go budgeting and believed " that the American government needs to strive to build up a surplus when possible , so that there are funds to support and sustain our country during tough financial times . " Moran called former President George W. Bush " Fiscally irresponsible . "
Moran said he supported the redistribution of wealth , saying in November 2008 that " We have been guided by a Republican administration who believes in this simplistic notion that people who have wealth are entitled to keep it and they have an antipathy towards the means of redistributing wealth . " He also said on his website that the recession was largely " a result of the imbalance in the distribution of wealth over the last eight years and an absence of oversight and accountability . "
= = = Social programs = = =
Moran called Social Security " a safe , stable , and dependable source of financial assistance for retirees and their families , " and strongly opposes privatizing Social Security , saying that it would " cripple the system " . It was his position that any changes to the current system must " promote its long @-@ term solvency without disrupting the core principles on which the program was founded . "
Moran expressed support for Universal Healthcare and more specifically the public health insurance option , saying at a town hall meeting in Reston , Virginia , in August 2009 that " It could do the most to bring down long @-@ term medical costs and to adequately insure every American . " Moran ultimately voted for the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act , which passed and was signed into law in March 2010 .
= = = Defense = = =
Moran voted against authorizing the Iraq War in 2002 and did not support the troop increase for the Afghanistan War proposed by President Barack Obama in 2009 , saying first that he appreciated Obama 's " careful consideration regarding the U.S. ' s engagement in Afghanistan " , but later defining the issues on which he and the President disagreed :
" Our security concern is Al @-@ Qaeda , not the Taliban . Eight years ago we went into Afghanistan to eliminate al @-@ Qaeda and the “ safe haven ” that Afghanistan ’ s Taliban were providing the terrorist group responsible for the 9 / 11 attacks . Al @-@ Qaeda has no significant presence today in all of Afghanistan .... Instead of increasing our troop presence , the U.S. should limit its mission in Afghanistan to securing strategic Afghan population centers with the troops currently on the ground . "
= = = = Comments prior to the invasion of Iraq = = = =
Prior to the 2003 invasion of Iraq , Moran told an anti @-@ war audience in Reston , Virginia , that if " it were not for the strong support of the Jewish community for this war with Iraq , we would not be doing this . The leaders of the Jewish community are influential enough that they could change the direction of where this is going , and I think they should " . This brought criticism from many of his own party , including , among others , Senate Democratic Leader Tom Daschle and Senator Joe Lieberman . Nancy Pelosi , who was House Minority Leader at the time , remarked that " Moran 's comments have no place in the Democratic Party . "
Moran apologized for the remarks , saying that " I should not have singled out the Jewish community and regret giving any impression that its members are somehow responsible for the course of action being pursued by the administration , or are somehow behind an impending war ... What I was trying to say is that if more organizations in this country , including religious groups , were more outspoken against war , then I do not think we would be pursuing war as an option . "
= = = BRAC = = =
Moran voted against BRAC 2005 which would move over 20 @,@ 000 workers to Ft . Belvoir . The Army later decided to relocate approximately 6 @,@ 400 Department of Defense workers to the Mark Center building in Alexandria . Moran opposed the selection of the Mark Center saying “ I 'm very disappointed ... It belonged at the Springfield site . " Moran blocked federal funding for an HOV ramp directly to the Mark Center citing the impact upon Winkler Preserve .
At Moran ’ s request , DoD ultimately delayed moving all workers to the Mark Center by one year . To help prevent gridlock , Moran got $ 20 million in short- and mid @-@ term road improvements and a parking limit at the Mark Center of approximately 2 @,@ 000 cars Moran also got $ 180 million to widen route 1 for the new Ft . Belvoir Hospital , an effort Sen. Webb called “ a tribute to Congressman Moran 's persistence . ”
= = = Animal rights = = =
Moran was in favor of stronger prohibitions against animal fighting . He sponsored legislation to penalize those who " knowingly attend animal fights and allow minors to attend . " He sponsored legislation limiting federal funding for horse slaughter inspection plants , effectively preventing the practice . In the past he promoted reinstating a five @-@ year ban on slaughtering horses for food , noting that " horses hold an important place in our nation 's history and culture ... they deserve to be cared for , not killed for foreign consumption . " Moran in the past promoted safer keeping and treatment of exotic animals used in circus performances . In October 2014 , Moran received the Lord Houghton Award from Cruelty Free International for his service and contribution to animal welfare .
= = = Other = = =
Moran does not support granting statehood to the District of Columbia . However , he voted to allow Washington , D.C. , to send a voting representative to the United States Congress .
= = Controversies = =
= = = MBNA loan = = =
Moran 's support for harsher bankruptcy law provisions and sponsorship of stricter bankruptcy legislation brought allegations in 2002 that his support came in return for financial favors by financial institutions which could benefit from such laws . In January 1998 , one month before he introduced the legislation , credit card bank MBNA advocated that it would restrict the ability of consumer debtors to declare bankruptcy . Moran received a $ 447 @,@ 000 debt consolidation loan at over 10 % interest rate .
The Lieutenant Governor of Virginia at the time , Tim Kaine , joined Republican lawmakers in calling for a House Ethics Committee investigation into the loan , saying that Moran had made " an error in judgment " by accepting it . In his own defense , Moran said that the timing of the legislation 's introduction was coincidental and had nothing to do with the loan . MBNA spokesman Brian Dalphon said that the bank had offered the mortgage package not knowing that Moran was a member of Congress , and that the loan " made good business sense " because with the mortgage loan , " we improved our position by getting security for an unsecured loan .... He had credit cards with us , he was having financial difficulties ; this put him in a better position to be able to pay us back from a cash @-@ flow standpoint . "
= = = PMA group = = =
The House Ethics Committee investigated several members of the House Defense Appropriations Subcommittee , including Moran , Peter J. Visclosky , Norm Dicks , Marcy Kaptur and the late John Murtha , who was the chairman at the time , for a conflict of interest in the allocation of the government contracts to clients of the PMA Group , which donated nearly a million dollars to Moran 's political action committee , as well as a significant amount of money to the gubernatorial campaign of Moran 's younger brother , Brian . Moran said that he was unaware of " who made donations " , and " how much they gave " , and therefore was not affected by the donations when allocating the funding .
In February 2010 , the panel cleared Moran and the others , saying that they violated no laws . The panel concluded , as part of its 305 @-@ page report , that " simply because a member sponsors an earmark for an entity that also happens to be a campaign contributor ... does not support a claim that a member 's actions are being influenced by campaign contributions " . After PMA 's founder , Paul Magliocchetti , plead guilty in September 2010 to six years of campaign finance fraud , Moran said that he would not return the $ 177 @,@ 700 in PMA Group @-@ related donations that he received from 1990 to 2010 .
= = = Insider trading = = =
In November 2011 , author Peter Schweizer published a book , Throw Them All Out , which included an allegation that Moran used information he got from a September 16 , 2008 briefing , in which Treasury Secretary Henry Paulson and Federal Reserve Chairman Ben Bernanke warned of an impending financial crisis , for his stock market activity :
" September 17 , 2008 , was by far Moran ’ s most active trading day of the year . He dumped shares in Goldman Sachs , General Dynamics , Franklin Resources , Flowserve Corporation , Ecolabs , Edison International , Electronic Arts , DirecTV , Conoco , Procter & Gamble , AT & T , Apple , CVS , Cisco , Chubb , and a dozen more companies . "
Schweizer alleged that Moran made more than 90 trades that day . Moran defended himself by citing that the trades were made in the midst of the Great Recession and that all one had to do was turn on the television to see that stock prices were dropping fast .
= = = Voter fraud allegations = = =
On October 24 , 2012 a video was released showing Patrick B. Moran , the Congressman 's son and a field director with his father 's campaign , discussing a plan to cast fraudulent ballots proposed to him by someone who posed as a fervent supporter of the campaign . In response to the person 's suggestion about trying to cast votes in the names of 100 inactive voters , Patrick Moran attempted to discourage the scheme , but also discussed the practical difficulties of forging documentation such as utility bills . The person he was speaking with was actually a conservative activist with James O 'Keefe 's Project Veritas , and was secretly recording the conversation . Patrick Moran resigned from the campaign , saying he didn 't want to be a distraction during the election , and stating , " at no point have I , or will I ever endorse any sort of illegal or unethical behavior . At no point did I take this person seriously . He struck me as being unstable and joking , and for only that reason did I humor him . In hindsight , I should have immediately walked away , making it clear that there is no place in the electoral process for even the suggestion of illegal behavior , joking or not . "
The following day , the Arlington County Police Department opened a criminal probe into the matter . Two days after the video was released , the Virginia State Board of Elections asked Attorney General of Virginia Ken Cuccinelli to investigate Moran 's campaign for voter fraud . On January 31 , 2013 , Arlington County announced that the investigation , by its police department in collaboration with the Offices of the Virginia Attorney General and the Arlington County Commonwealth ’ s Attorney , had concluded and that no charges would be brought . The County stated : " Patrick Moran and the Jim Moran for Congress campaign provided full cooperation throughout the investigation . Despite repeated attempts to involve the party responsible for producing the video , they failed to provide any assistance . "
= = Later career = =
In February 2015 , Moran joined McDermmott , Will , and Emery law firm in Washington , DC as a Senior Legislative Advisor .
Virginia Tech announced in April 2016 that Moran had joined the School of Public and International Affairs as professor of practice .
= = Electoral history = =
= = Personal life = =
Moran has been married at least twice . His second wife , Mary Howard Moran , filed for divorce in 1999 , one day after an argument at the couple 's Alexandria home which resulted in a visit by the police . The Congressman provided his own divorce papers a few months later , and in 2003 the couple officially separated . He remarried in 2004 to real estate developer LuAnn Bennett . In December 2010 , Moran and Bennett announced they were separating .
Moran is the father of four children . One of his children is Patrick B. Moran , who once worked as a field director for his campaign , who resigned when allegations of voter fraud surfaced . Moran 's son , Patrick , later in 2012 , pleaded guilty to simple assault after being arrested after an incident with his girlfriend in front of a Columbia Heights bar on December 1 . He was sentenced to probation . Another one of his children is Dorothy , who was diagnosed with an inoperable brain tumor during her father 's campaign for reelection against Kyle McSlarrow in 1994 . It was said at the time that she had only a twenty percent chance of living to age five , but after almost two years of chemotherapy and herbal therapies she was designated cancer free .
His brother , Brian Moran , is a former member of the Virginia House of Delegates , and the head of the Virginia Democratic Party between early 2011 and December 2012 . He was an unsuccessful primary candidate for Governor of Virginia in the 2009 election .
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= Maryland Route 68 =
Maryland Route 68 ( MD 68 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . The state highway runs 18 @.@ 50 miles ( 29 @.@ 77 km ) from U.S. Route 40 ( US 40 ) in Clear Spring east to US 40 Alternate in Boonsboro . MD 68 crosses central Washington County to the south of Hagerstown , connecting Clear Spring and Boonsboro with Williamsport , where the highway runs concurrently with MD 63 . A small segment of MD 68 west of Boonsboro was constructed around 1920 , using as part of the route two early 19th @-@ century stone bridges . The remainder of the highway between Boonsboro and Williamsport was constructed in the second half of the 1920s . MD 68 was extended west from Williamsport to Clear Spring in the mid @-@ 1950s . The state highway was relocated south of Williamsport for the construction of Interstate 81 ( I @-@ 81 ) in the mid @-@ 1960s . Since the early 1990s , I @-@ 68 has also existed in Washington County ; signs on I @-@ 70 aim to avoid confusion between I @-@ 68 and MD 68 .
= = Route description = =
MD 68 begins at an intersection with US 40 ( Cumberland Street ) in the town of Clear Spring . The state highway heads south as Mill Street through a commercial area . MD 68 's name changes to Clear Spring Road after leaving the town limits . The state highway meets I @-@ 70 ( Eisenhower Memorial Highway ) at a diamond interchange , then heads southeast through farmland , where the highway crosses Little Conococheague Creek . MD 68 intersects the eastern end of MD 56 ( Big Pool Road ) shortly before passing through the village of Pinesburg . The state highway intersects CSX 's Lurgan Subdivision rail line and passes between industrial properties , then crosses Conococheague Creek and enters the town of Williamsport . MD 68 is municipally maintained within the town , where the highway follows Conococheague Street south through an intersection with US 11 ( Potomac Street ) . At this intersection , MD 63 joins MD 68 in a concurrency to continue through the Williamsport Historic District . The two highways leave the town limits at their diamond interchange with I @-@ 81 ( Maryland Veterans Memorial Highway ) , through which the roadway temporarily expands to a four @-@ lane divided highway .
MD 68 's name changes to Lappans Road south of Williamsport . MD 63 ( Spielman Road ) splits south from MD 68 at the same intersection as Governor Lane Boulevard , which serves an industrial park . MD 68 crosses over the Winchester and Western Railroad and curves to the east , then resumes heading southeast after intersecting the eastern end of Kendle Road . The state highway heads southeast through farmland and intersects MD 632 ( Downsville Pike ) . The road intersects Norfolk Southern Railway 's Hagerstown District at @-@ grade and crosses St. James Run in the hamlet of St. James . MD 68 intersects MD 65 ( Sharpsburg Pike ) in the hamlet of Lappans , where the highway passes St. Mark 's Episcopal Church . The state highway passes through the hamlet of Brethedsville and passes Devils Backbone County Park as the highway follows Antietam Creek for a short distance . MD 68 crosses over the creek on a narrow stone bridge , then makes a sharp turn to the south to continue following the forested valley of the creek . The state highway crosses over Beaver Creek on a one @-@ lane stone bridge before leaving the creek valley . MD 68 continues southeast through farmland and the hamlet of Millpoint before reaching its eastern terminus at US 40 Alternate ( Main Street ) on the northern edge of the town of Boonsboro .
= = History = =
The first section of MD 68 , from Lappans to Millpoint near Boonsboro , was constructed in 1920 . This segment made use of a pair of stone arch bridges over Antietam Creek and Beaver Creek constructed in 1833 and 1824 , respectively . These bridges remain open to traffic as part of MD 68 . MD 68 was extended east from Millpoint to Boonsboro in 1925 . Construction of MD 68 from Williamsport to Lappans began in 1926 , with a section complete from Williamsport to the Cumberland Valley Railroad ( now Winchester and Western Railroad ) by 1927 . The last section of the Williamsport – Lappans Road was completed in 1930 . The state highway 's western terminus was originally US 11 in Williamsport , within which MD 68 followed Artizan Street south to Sunset Avenue at the southern town limit . Artizan Street continued south as MD 63 and MD 68 followed Sunset Avenue southeast toward Lappans . Clear Spring Road remained a county highway until MD 68 was extended west to Clear Spring in 1956 .
MD 68 was relocated south of Williamsport , replacing Sunset Avenue and what is now Kendle Road , in 1965 . The state highway was relocated for a grade separation of the Cumberland Valley Railroad and to tie into an interchange with I @-@ 81 and the south end of Conococheague Street . MD 63 joined MD 68 in a concurrency along Conococheague Street north to US 11 . The new alignment of MD 68 and MD 63 was built as a four @-@ lane divided highway around the interchange with I @-@ 81 , which originally only contained ramps to and from the direction of West Virginia when the interchange opened with the completion of I @-@ 81 in 1966 . That interchange was completed with ramps to and from Hagerstown between 1981 and 1989 . Since the completion of I @-@ 68 in 1991 , the Interstate and state @-@ numbered highways with the same number have co @-@ existed separated by 17 miles ( 27 km ) on I @-@ 70 . Multiple signs on westbound I @-@ 70 in advance of the Interstate 's interchange with MD 68 advise motorists that I @-@ 68 and MD 68 are not the same highway and remind them to remain on I @-@ 70 to access I @-@ 68 .
= = Junction list = =
The entire route is in Washington County .
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= Mr. Bean =
Mr. Bean is a British sitcom created by Rowan Atkinson and Richard Curtis , and starring Atkinson in the title role . Atkinson co @-@ wrote all fifteen episodes with either Curtis , Robin Driscoll , or both , with Ben Elton co @-@ writing the pilot . Thirteen of the episodes were broadcast on ITV , from the pilot on 1 January 1990 , until " Goodnight Mr. Bean " on 31 October 1995 . A clip show , " The Best Bits of Mr. Bean " , was broadcast on 15 December 1995 , and one episode , " Hair by Mr. Bean of London " , was not broadcast until 2006 on Nickelodeon .
Based on a character originally developed by Atkinson while he was studying for his master 's degree at Oxford University , the series follows the exploits of Mr. Bean , described by Atkinson as " a child in a grown man 's body " , in solving various problems presented by everyday tasks and often causing disruption in the process . Bean rarely speaks , and the largely physical humour of the series is derived from his interactions with other people and his unusual solutions to situations . The series was influenced by physical performers such as Jacques Tati and comic actors from silent films .
During its five @-@ year run , the series gained large UK audience figures , including 18 @.@ 74 million for the 1991 episode " The Trouble with Mr. Bean " . The series has received a number of international awards , including the Rose d 'Or . The show has been sold in 245 territories worldwide and has inspired an animated cartoon spin @-@ off , two feature films , and an appearance at the London 2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony .
= = Background and influences = =
The character of Mr. Bean was developed while Atkinson was studying for his master 's degree in electrical engineering at Queen 's College , Oxford . A sketch featuring the character was performed at the Edinburgh Fringe in the early 1980s . A similar character called Robert Box , played by Atkinson , appeared in the one @-@ off 1979 ITV sitcom Canned Laughter , which also featured routines used in the film Bean ( 1997 ) .
One of Bean 's earliest appearances occurred at the " Just for Laughs " comedy festival in Montreal , Quebec , Canada , in 1987 . When programme co @-@ ordinators were scheduling Atkinson into the festival programme , Atkinson insisted that he perform on the French @-@ speaking bill rather than the English @-@ speaking programme . Having no French dialogue in his act at all , programme co @-@ ordinators could not understand why Atkinson wanted to perform on the French bill . As it turned out , Atkinson 's act at the festival was a test platform for the Mr. Bean character , and Atkinson wanted to see how the silent character 's physical comedy would fare on an international stage with a non @-@ English speaking audience .
The character 's name was not decided until after the first programme had been produced ; a number of other vegetable @-@ influenced names , such as " Mr. Cauliflower " , were explored . Atkinson cited the earlier comedy character Monsieur Hulot , created by French comedian and director Jacques Tati , as an influence on the character . Stylistically , Mr. Bean is also very similar to early silent films , relying purely upon physical comedy , with Mr. Bean speaking very little dialogue ( although like other live @-@ action TV series of the time , it features a laugh track ) . This has allowed the series to be sold worldwide without any significant changes to dialogue . In November 2012 , Atkinson told The Daily Telegraph of his intentions to retire the character , stating that " someone in their 50s being childlike becomes a little sad . "
= = Characters and recurring props = =
= = = Mr. Bean = = =
The title character , played by Rowan Atkinson , is a childish buffoon who brings various unusual schemes and contrivances to everyday tasks . He lives alone at the address of Flat 2 , 12 Arbour Road , Highbury , and is almost always seen in his trademark tweed jacket and a skinny red tie . He also usually wears a digital calculator watch . Mr. Bean rarely speaks , and when he does , it is generally only a few mumbled words which are in a comically low @-@ pitched voice . His first name ( he names himself " Bean " to others ) and profession , if any , are never mentioned . In the first film adaptation , " Mr. " appears on his passport in the " first name " field , and he is shown employed as a guard at London 's National Gallery . In Mr. Bean 's Holiday , however , his name is listed on his passport as " Rowan " , the actor 's first name .
Mr. Bean often seems unaware of basic aspects of the way the world works , and the programme usually features his attempts at what would normally be considered simple tasks , such as going swimming , using a television set , redecorating , or going to church . The humour largely comes from his original ( and often absurd ) solutions to problems and his total disregard for others when solving them , his pettiness , and occasional malevolence .
At the beginning of episode two onwards , Mr. Bean falls from the sky in a beam of light , accompanied by a choir singing Ecce homo qui est faba ( " Behold the man who is a bean " ) , recorded by Southwark Cathedral Choir in 1990 . These opening sequences were initially in black and white in episodes two and three , and were intended by the producers to show his status as an " ordinary man cast into the spotlight " . However , later episodes showed Mr. Bean dropping from the night sky in a deserted London street against the backdrop of St Paul 's Cathedral . At the end of episodes three and six he is also shown being sucked right back up into the sky in the respective background scenes ( black scene in episode 3 and street scene in episode 6 ) . Atkinson has acknowledged that Bean " has a slightly alien aspect to him " . In the animated series ( episode , " Double Trouble " ) he is taken inside a spacecraft with " aliens " who look exactly like him and even have their own plushy toys . In an obvious homage , the aliens send him back home in a beam of light and music similar to the opening of the original Mr. Bean series . Whether Bean is an extraterrestrial is not clear .
= = = Irma Gobb = = =
Mr. Bean 's girlfriend , Irma Gobb ( played by Matilda Ziegler ) , appears in three episodes . In " The Curse of Mr. Bean " and " Mr. Bean Goes to Town " , the character is simply credited as " the girlfriend " . She is treated relatively inconsiderately by Bean , who appears to regard her more as a friend and companion than as a love interest . However , he does become jealous when she dances with another man at a disco in " Mr. Bean Goes to Town " , and she certainly expects him to propose to her on Christmas Day in " Merry Christmas , Mr. Bean " ; his failure to do so results in her leaving him for good . The character does not appear in any subsequent episodes ; however , she later appears in the animated series . The spin @-@ off book Mr. Bean 's Diary ( 1993 ) states that Mr. Bean met Irma Gobb at a local library . Ziegler has also played a waitress , a mother and a policewoman .
In the Comic Relief extra " Torvill and Bean " , Bean is accompanied by a female companion portrayed by Sophie Thompson , whose overall appearance resembles Gobb 's .
= = = Teddy = = =
Teddy is Mr. Bean 's teddy bear and perhaps Mr. Bean 's best friend . The little brown bear is a knitted oddity with button eyes and sausage @-@ shaped limbs , which invariably end up broken in half or in various other states of destruction and disfiguration . Although Teddy is inanimate , Mr. Bean often pretends it is alive . For example , when Mr. Bean hypnotises Teddy , he snaps his fingers and the bear 's head falls backwards as if it had fallen asleep instantly ( Bean used his finger to prop Teddy 's head up ) . Mr. Bean behaves as if the bear is real , buying it a Christmas present or trying not to wake it in the mornings . The bear is often privy to Mr. Bean 's various schemes and doubles as a tool or other items in emergencies ; it has been decapitated ( " Mr. Bean in Room 426 " ) , used as his paint brush ( " Do @-@ It @-@ Yourself Mr. Bean " ) , and shrunk in the wash ( " Tee Off , Mr. Bean " ) . Teddy is also Mr. Bean 's " pet " in " Hair by Mr. Bean of London " and is used to win a pet show .
The Teddy used in filming sits in the windscreen of the replica of Mr. Bean 's mini that is on display at the National Motor Museum . Over the years , Teddy has undergone several changes . When it debuted on " The Trouble with Mr. Bean " , it had a smaller head . Two episodes later , its head reached its current size , but its " eyes " were not present until Bean placed gold thumb tacks on its face . The " eyes " have since been replaced with two small white buttons sewn over Teddy 's face , giving it a distinct image .
= = = Mr Bean 's car = = =
Mr. Bean 's car , a 1976 British Leyland Mini 1000 , developed its own character of sorts over the series and was central to several antics , such as Mr. Bean 's getting dressed in it , driving while sitting in an armchair strapped to the roof , starting it with a number of locks and keys , or attempting to avoid a car park fee by driving out through the entrance .
At first , it was an orange 1969 BMC Mini MK II ( registration RNT 996H ) , but this was destroyed in an off @-@ screen crash at the end of the first episode . From then on , the car was a 1976 model ( registration SLW 287R ) , Austin Citron Green in colour with a matte black bonnet .
The Mini also had a number of innovative security measures . For example , Bean uses a bolt @-@ latch and padlock , rather than the lock fitted to the car , and removes the steering wheel instead of the key . These formed a running joke in several episodes , and at one point deterred a car thief . However , after changing parking spaces with an identical mini ( registration ACW 497V ) in " Back to School Mr. Bean " , his car is crushed by a tank . Fortunately for Bean , his padlock survives , and he hurries off to " carjack " another automobile with the same colour scheme .
The Mini re @-@ appeared as a character in the animated Mr. Bean cartoons ( registration STE 952R ) and in the film Mr. Bean 's Holiday , with the registration YGL 572T . Also seen is a left hand drive version of his Mini , owned by the character Sabine . For the feature film Bean ( 1997 ) , a sequence involving the Mini driving through Harrod 's Department Store was shot , but this was not included in the final cut .
After filming ended , one of the original Minis was sold to Kariker Kars to be hired for various events . It was then temporarily displayed as a major attraction at the Rover Group 's museum . In 1997 , it was purchased by the Cars of the Stars Motor Museum and was on display for a while , but is no longer there , having been sold , it went to America . BMW Germany has built a replica , and another replica — the one used to promote the animated series — is on display at National Motor Museum , Beaulieu .
= = = = The Reliant = = = =
Starting with the first episode , Mr. Bean has a long @-@ running feud with the unseen driver of a light blue Reliant Regal Supervan III ( registration GRA 26K ) , which will usually get turned over , crashed out of its parking space , and so forth by Mr. Bean in his Mini , who is usually oblivious to the results . These mishaps became a running joke throughout the series . In " Tee Off , Mr. Bean " , Bean is hitchhiking and the Reliant pulls over for him , but Bean , who recognises the car , pretends to not see it , until it leaves .
The Reliant reappears in the animated series , again victimised by Mr Bean in his Mini . In the animated series episode , " Young Bean " , the identity of the Reliant driver is revealed for the first time ( albeit shown in a flashback as a child ) .
= = = Other characters = = =
Although Mr. Bean is the only significant character in the programme , others appear , usually as foils for his various antics . Other than his girlfriend there are more characters in each episode . However , several notable British actors and comedians appear alongside Atkinson in sketches as various one @-@ off supporting characters , including Owen Brenman , Richard Briers , Angus Deayton , Stephen Frost , Nick Hancock , Christopher Ryan , Paul Bown , Caroline Quentin , Danny La Rue , Roger Lloyd @-@ Pack , David Schneider and Richard Wilson .
= = Episodes = =
All 14 episodes of Mr. Bean were produced by Tiger Aspect Productions . Additionally , the character has been used in one @-@ off sketches , guest appearances and television commercials in the United Kingdom .
= = Music = =
Mr. Bean features a choral theme tune in the key of C major written by Howard Goodall and performed by the Choir of Southwark Cathedral ( later Christ Church Cathedral , Oxford ) . The words sung during the title sequences are in Latin :
Ecce homo qui est faba – " Behold the man who is a bean " ( sung at beginning )
Finis parte ille – " End of part one " ( sung before the advertisement break )
Pars secunda – " Part two " ( sung after the advertisement break )
Vale homo qui est faba – " Farewell , man who is a bean " ( sung at end )
The theme was later released on Goodall 's album Choral Works . Goodall also wrote an accompanying music track for many episodes . The first episode of Mr. Bean did not feature the choral theme tune , but instead an up @-@ beat instrumental piece , also composed by Howard Goodall , which was more an incidental tune than a theme . It was used while Bean drove between locations intimidating the blue Reliant , and as such , was sometimes heard in later episodes whenever Bean 's nemesis is seen . The instrumental of the theme tune was used in animated Mr. Bean in the series finale " Double Trouble " .
In the episode " Tee Off , Mr. Bean " , Howard Goodall 's choral theme tune for another Richard Curtis comedy , The Vicar of Dibley , is heard playing on a car stereo . In Merry Christmas , Mr. Bean , while playing with Queen 's Royal Guards figurines and the nativity set , he hums " The British Grenadiers " , which was quoted in the theme to Blackadder Goes Forth .
Mr. Bean appears in a music video made for the 1991 Comic Relief fund raising single by Hale and Pace called The Stonk . Mr. Bean also appeared in the music video for Boyzone 's single Picture of You in 1997 . The song was featured on the soundtrack to the first Bean movie .
Mr. Bean also made a Comic Relief record in 1992 . This was ( I Want To Be ) Elected and was credited to " Mr. Bean and Smear Campaign featuring Bruce Dickinson " . This was a cover of an Alice Cooper song and reached number 9 in the UK singles chart .
= = Awards = =
The first episode won the Golden Rose , as well as two other major prizes at the 1991 Rose d 'Or Light Entertainment Festival in Montreux . In the UK , the episode " The Curse of Mr. Bean " was nominated for a number of BAFTA awards ; " Best Light Entertainment Programme " in 1991 , " Best Comedy " ( Programme or Series ) in 1991 , and Atkinson was nominated three times for " Best Light Entertainment Performance " in 1991 and 1994 .
= = Spin @-@ offs = =
= = = The animated series = = =
Bean was revived in a 2002 – 04 animated cartoon series , again featuring little dialogue , with most being either little soundbites or mumbling . The series , which consist of 63 episodes ( with 2 segments each ) , expanded the number of additional characters , featuring Bean 's unpleasant landlady , Mrs. Wicket , and her evil one @-@ eyed cat , Scrapper .
Atkinson reprised his role as Bean , and all animated Bean actions are taken from Atkinson himself . Other characters ' voices are provided by Jon Glover , Rupert Degas , Gary Martin and Lorelei King . In October 2000 , it was reported that Mr. Bean would become animated , which was initially to be targeted at adults . In February 2001 , the series was officially announced , with it premièring shortly afterwards .
Mr. Bean 's Wacky World , a video game based on the animated series , was released on 14 December 2007 and was a third @-@ person platformer . The games were released on PAL only for Playstation 2 , Nintendo DS , and Nintendo Wii .
Several official Mr Bean games have been released , including Mr Bean - Around the World and Mr Bean - Flying Teddy . Both are available on the Apple App Store , Google Play and Amazon Marketplace .
= = = Film adaptations = = =
Two films featuring Bean have been released . The first , Bean : The Ultimate Disaster Movie , was directed by Mel Smith and released in 1997 , with Atkinson reprising his title role . This broke from the program 's tradition by using a subplot with more developed characters — instead of being the sole centre of attention , Bean here interacted with a suburban Californian family he stayed with while overseeing the transfer of Whistler 's Mother to a Los Angeles art gallery . The film grossed over US $ 250 million globally ( $ 45 million in the USA ) on a budget estimated at $ 22 million .
In February 2001 , an unproduced script outline for a Mr. Bean movie set in Australia was rumoured to have been developed by screenwriter Richard Curtis .
In March 2005 , news broke out that a second Bean film , Mr. Bean 's Holiday , was in development , with Atkinson reprising his title role . The film had been through several changes of name during its development , including Bean 2 and French Bean . Filming began on 15 May 2006 and began post @-@ production in October 2006 . It was released in the United Kingdom on 30 March 2007 .
On 17 July 2007 , the North American premiere was held in Montreal , Quebec , Canada , at the Just for Laughs festival ; the launching pad for the Mr. Bean character 20 years earlier . The film was then released nationwide in North America on 24 August 2007 . The film follows Bean on an eventful journey across France for a holiday in the French Riviera , which after a number of misfortunes culminates in an unscheduled screening of his video diary at the Cannes Film Festival .
The film was at some stage considered for being to be the last live @-@ action appearance of the character , however Rowan Atkinson later played Mr. Bean in the London 2012 Olympic Opening Ceremony , and in 2016 stated that he would never retire the character .
It was directed by Steve Bendelack and grossed nearly US $ 230 million globally ( $ 33 million in the United States ) .
= = = The London 2012 Olympic opening ceremony = = =
The character ( as represented by Atkinson ) plays a single note on a synthesiser in the performance of " Chariots of Fire " , during the 2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony . Instead of his usual brown tweed sports jacket , he wears white tie and tails like the other musicians around him .
During his performance , he becomes bored with playing the same note repeatedly on the synthesiser and gets jealous of the more interesting part being played on the grand piano . Still bored , he takes out his mobile phone and takes a picture of himself , looking chuffed . He then sneezes in a comical fashion and tries to retrieve his handkerchief from his bag behind him . He finds that he cannot reach it and has to keep playing the note with his umbrella to retrieve it . When he finally blows his nose , he throws his handkerchief into the grand piano . He then falls asleep continuing to play the note .
A dream sequence of the opening scene of the film Chariots of Fire , shows the characters running across a beach , except Mr. Bean is running with them . He begins to fall behind , until he hails a car to overtake all the others . Bean is now running in front , and another runner tries to overtake Bean but is tripped by him . Bean crosses the line with elation , and then he wakes up .
The rest of the orchestra had stopped playing while he continued his one recurring note . Realising this , and with encouragement from conductor Simon Rattle , he plays an extended flourish and lastly touches a note that makes a flatulent sound , then stops .
= = = Books = = =
Two books were released related to the original series : Mr. Bean 's Diary in 1992 and Mr. Bean 's Pocket Diary in 1994 . The two books have identical content and differ only in the format in which they are printed . The content of both is a template diary with handwritten content scrawled in by Mr. Bean . They provide some additional information on the setting : for example , they establish that Mr. Bean lives in Highbury and rents his flat from a landlady named Mrs. Wicket .
They confirm the name of Mr. Bean 's girlfriend as " Irma Gobb " , and also give the name of the other man she actually dances with in Mr. Bean Goes to Town ( Giles Gummer ) . An additional book called Mr. Bean 's Diary was released in 2002 to accompany the animated series ; this book was also graded as a children 's reader .
= = Other appearances = =
Rowan Atkinson has appeared in character as Bean in many normally factual television broadcasts , sometimes as a publicity stunt to promote a new episode , DVD or film .
= = = Music videos = = =
= = = Commercials = = =
= = Home media = =
The series was available on a number of Thames Television VHS compilations . In the United Kingdom ( Region 2 ) , episodes of Mr. Bean were released on a yearly basis by Universal Pictures UK from 2004 . The complete collection is now available , including the two feature films and other extras . The episodes were released on VHS by A & E Home Video in the United States in the 1990s . In the United States ( Region 1 ) , the complete series has been available since 2003 on A & E Home Video as " The Whole Bean " . The documentary " The Story of Mr. Bean " is edited on both the UK and USA DVD sets : It was originally 52 minutes when broadcast on TV . However , it is 48 minutes on the UK DVD while only 40 on the American DVD . Most notably , in the UK version , the section detailing " The Tall Guy " has humorous clips from the film removed . The American DVD features the same edits as the British DVD but is also missing comments by Burt Reynolds on the set of Bean , comments by Jeff Goldblum , some clips from the show Mr. Bean and many others .
The record @-@ selling UK videos were withdrawn shortly before the release of Bean , and DVDs were released on an annual basis as of 2004 .
In August 2009 an official YouTube channel was launched featuring content from the live action and animated series .
The series was re @-@ released by Shout Factory in North America on 24 March 2015 on DVD , to coincide with its 25th anniversary . This set contains digitally remastered episodes ( similar to the 2010 British release ) , the 40 minute " The Story of Mr. Bean " , additional scenes : " Turkey Weight , " " Armchair Sale , " " Marching " & " Playing With Matches " , " Bus Stop " and " Library " sketches , a trailer for " Mr. Bean : The Animated Series " , and " The Best Bits of Mr. Bean " , a 72 @-@ minute clip show .
= = = VHS format = = =
= = = DVD format = = =
Volumes
Best of Mr. Bean
= = = DVD re @-@ release = = =
Mr. Bean : The Whole Bean was re @-@ released on 24 March 2015 on DVD digitally re @-@ mastered to coincide with the series ' 25th anniversary .
= = Popular culture = =
The sale of Mr Bean worldwide has enabled his character to secure a place in the popular culture of several countries . Notably , a number of public figures have been compared to the character , usually as an insult . Tony Blair , then @-@ Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , was identified by Homer Simpson as " Mr. Bean " when his cartoon form greeted the Simpsons to the United Kingdom in an episode of the eponymous programme , allegedly demonstrating the stereotypical view of the British by Americans .
Arthur Batchelor , one of the Royal Navy captives held by Iran during the 2007 Iranian seizure of Royal Navy personnel , has stated that some of his captors had mocked him calling him " Mr. Bean " .
NRL Referee Sean Hampstead is regularly nicknamed " Mr. Bean " in nationally broadcast commentary by Australian television / radio personality Ray Warren as a result of his similar appearance .
In 2007 , Vincent Cable , the acting leader of the Liberal Democrats , described the recent decline in Prime Minister Gordon Brown 's fortunes as his " remarkable transformation in the last few weeks from Stalin to Mr. Bean " .
The former Spanish Prime Minister José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero is often mocked in his own country for his facial resemblance to Mr. Bean , and a computer hacker broke into Spain 's official website for its presidency of the European Union , inserting the character on the front page of the website . Satirists have also compared Zapatero to Mr. Bean when discussing government policies that are deemed to have been unsuccessful .
Several of the visual jokes in the series have been used as experiments on the Discovery Channel 's MythBusters series . In episode 52 – " Mind Control " , the idea of painting a room with a stick of explosives ( Firework , or other ) placed in a paint can , as in the episode " Do @-@ It @-@ Yourself Mr. Bean " , was tested and deemed impossible , as adequate coverage was not achieved .
An image of Mr. Bean has also been used as an internet meme usually accompanied by the statement , " if you know what I mean . "
Though Rowan Atkinson is not typecast to characters like Mr. Bean , he has played similar characters in other works , such as Enrico in the 2001 film Rat Race .
In Tetsuo Hara and Buronson 's manga Souten no Ken , a parody of Mr. Bean can be found in a minor character appearing in chapter 45 , contained in vol . 5 . In it , a barman identical to Mr. Bean tends the main character Kenshiro Kasumi , for comic relief .
In the video game Resident Evil 2 , during the opening sequence in the streets of Raccoon City , Mr. Bean 's British Leyland Mini 1000 can be seen parked against a barricade .
Mr. Bean has also been influential on later series , such as The World of Lee Evans .
Private Eye magazine features a cartoon strip , The Adventures of Mr Milibean , in which British Labour party leader Ed Miliband is drawn as Bean .
Rowan Atkinson performed as this character at the Opening Ceremony of the 2012 Olympics during " Chariots of Fire " with the London Symphony Orchestra .
The image of Mr. Bean is employed on the cybercrime website " Mr. Bin . "
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= Lord Hugh Seymour =
Vice @-@ Admiral Lord Hugh Seymour ( 29 April 1759 – 11 September 1801 ) was a senior British Royal Navy officer of the late 18th century who was the fifth son of Francis Seymour @-@ Conway , 1st Marquess of Hertford and became known for being both a prominent society figure and a highly competent naval officer . He served during the American Revolutionary and French Revolutionary Wars and later in his career performed a period of shore duty on the Admiralty board .
Seymour maintained a reputation as a courageous and innovative officer : he was awarded a commemorative medal for his actions at the battle of the Glorious First of June and is credited with introducing epaulettes to Royal Navy uniforms as a method of indicating rank to non @-@ English speaking allies . In his youth he formed close personal friendships with fellow officer John Willett Payne and George , Prince of Wales , through association with whom he gained a reputation as a rake . His marriage in 1785 , made at the insistence of his family as an antidote to his dissolution , was brought about through royal connections and proved very successful . During his lifetime he also held several seats as a member of parliament in the Parliament of Great Britain , although he did not pursue an active political career .
= = Early career = =
Hugh Seymour was born in 1759 into one of the wealthiest families in England , as the fifth son of Francis Seymour @-@ Conway , 1st Marquess of Hertford , and his wife Isabella Fitzroy ( Hugh retained the surname " Seymour @-@ Conway " until his father 's death in 1794 , at which point he shortened it to Seymour ) . He was initially educated at Bracken 's Academy in Greenwich , where he met lifelong friend John Willett Payne , before joining the Navy at age 11 at his own insistence . Seymour became a captain 's servant on the yacht William & Mary , and two years later moved to HMS Pearl under his relation Captain John Leveson @-@ Gower , stationed off Newfoundland . After several short commissions , including service in the West Indies under George Rodney , Seymour was attached to HMS Alarm as a midshipman in the Mediterranean . Apart from a brief spell in HMS Trident , Seymour remained on her for several years , becoming a lieutenant in 1776 . By 1776 the American Revolutionary War was underway , and Seymour continued in Alarm until he was made a commander in 1778 , taking command of the xebec HMS Minorca .
In 1779 , Seymour was promoted once more , making post captain in HMS Porcupine and serving in command of HMS Diana , HMS Ambuscade and HMS Latona , all in the Channel Fleet . The only major operation in which he participated during the period was the conclusion of the Great Siege of Gibraltar , when Latona was attached to Lord Howe 's fleet that relieved the fortress . During this service , Seymour was repeatedly engaged in scouting the Franco @-@ Spanish fleet in Algeciras , a task made difficult by bad weather and the erratic movements of the enemy . During much of the operation , Captain Roger Curtis was stationed aboard Latona to facilitate communicate between Howe and the Governor of Gibraltar . The effort to relieve and resupply the fortress was a complete success and Latona was sent back to Britain with dispatches , although Seymour remained in Gibraltar .
Following the Peace of Paris in 1783 , Seymour took a house in London with his brother Lord George Seymour and John Willett Payne . The three men became notorious socialites , joining the Prince of Wales on many of his drinking exploits across London : Seymour remained close friends with Prince George for the rest of his life . Seymour , already known for his good looks , good manners , height and martial bearing , rapidly gained a reputation for dissolution . In 1785 however , Seymour married Lady Anne Horatia Waldegrave , daughter of Earl Waldegrave and Maria Walpole ( later Duchess of Gloucester ) at the insistence of his family in a successful attempt to curtail his social activities . It was at this time that Seymour made his first foray into politics , becoming MP for Newport on the Isle of Wight before relinquishing the post two years later . In 1788 he became MP for Tregony , but in 1790 he switched to become MP for Wendover . Seymour remained in this position until 1796 when he changed his seat to Portsmouth , in which he remained until his death . He did not serve as an active politician in any of these positions , preferring his navy career to his political one .
= = French Revolutionary Wars = =
In the Spanish armament of 1790 , Seymour was called to service in command of the ship of the line HMS Canada , opening his commission with a cruise off the Isle of Wight . Passing through shallow water , Seymour ordered the use of a lead line to measure the depth ahead , but was accidentally struck in the head by the lead weight while soundings were being taken . Although little immediate damage seemed to have been caused , during the firing of a salute several days later Seymour suddenly suffered a severely adverse reaction and had to be taken ashore for emergency medical treatment . The head injury rendered him unable to endure any loud noises or bright lights and for the next three years he lived as an invalid at his country estate in Hambleton . By 1793 he was sufficiently recovered to return to service , and escorted Lord Hood to the Mediterranean in HMS Leviathan . There Hood led the occupation , defence and ultimate withdrawal from Toulon during the Republican siege of the city . Following the collapse of the city 's defences , Seymour was sent back to England with dispatches but returned shortly afterward to convoy Leviathan back to Britain .
Transferred to the Channel Fleet , Leviathan was attached to service under Lord Howe and served with him during the Atlantic campaign of May 1794 alongside John Willett Payne , captain of HMS Russell . The campaign culminated in the Glorious First of June , when a French fleet was defeated by Howe 's innovative tactics , but was ultimately successful in protecting a large grain convoy from the United States . Seymour 's command of Leviathan was vitally important in the victory , the ship fighting at the initial engagement of the 28 May and seeing extensive action during the battle itself . Seymour was one of only a few of Howe 's commanders to successfully close with the French line , although he was unable to break through it . Leviathan then engaged closely with America , which she reduced to a battered wreck in a duel that lasted two hours . Leviathan was also badly damaged , having taken fire from Éole and Trajan during the fighting . At Howe 's order , Seymour then left America ( which was later captured ) and joined the reformed fleet that held off a French counter @-@ attack in the latter stages of the battle . In the aftermath of the action , Seymour was one of the captains marked out for praise , being presented with a medal commemorating his service during the engagement . Leviathan had suffered 11 killed and 32 wounded in the engagement .
In 1795 , Seymour moved to the recently captured HMS Sans Pareil and soon became a rear @-@ admiral , engaging the French at the Battle of Groix . During the action , Seymour managed to bring his ship to the head of the British line pursuing the French fleet and engaged the Formidable and Tigre . Both ships were captured in heavy fighting , and Sans Pareil suffered ten killed and two wounded during the exchange . In 1796 , Seymour was employed in the search for the French fleet which attempted and failed to invade Ireland , but Sans Pareil was badly damaged in a collision with HMS Prince during the campaign and had to be decommissioned for extensive repairs . In April 1797 , Seymour returned to sea with a small squadron of six ships searching the Eastern Atlantic for a Spanish treasure convoy . Although the convoy was eventually seized by a force sent by Lord St. Vincent , Seymour had covered over 5 @,@ 000 miles in his fruitless search .
= = Admiralty service and death = =
Seymour had joined the Admiralty in 1795 , becoming a Lord of the Admiralty and participating in much of the work the Admiralty board performed between 1795 and 1798 , interposing his periods on land with brief sea commissions . In 1799 , Seymour became a vice @-@ admiral and joined the squadron blockading Brest for the next year , being involved in a minor operation against Basque Roads .
In 1799 Seymour was sent to the West Indies as commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Jamaica Station . In August he led the naval squadron in the capture of Suriname in his flagship Prince of Wales .
However , in 1800 he fell ill , contracting Yellow Fever . He was sent to sea by his doctors in an attempt to regain his health but died aboard HMS Tisiphone in September 1801 .
Seymour 's body was returned to Britain aboard HMS Pickle and joined that of his wife , who had died in Bristol a few days before her husband 's death . His extensive estates were dispersed amongst his seven children , of whom six survived him :
Adm. of the Flt . Sir George Seymour ( 1787 – 1870 )
Lt @-@ Col. Hugh Henry John Seymour ( 1790 – 1821 )
Col. Sir Horace Beauchamp Seymour ( 1791 – 1851 )
William John Richard Seymour ( 1793 – 1801 )
Frederick Charles William Seymour ( 1 February 1797 – 7 December 1856 ) , married Lady Mary Gordon ( d . 13 June 1825 ) , daughter of George Gordon , 9th Marquess of Huntly on 15 April 1822 , and Lady Augusta Hervey ( d . 17 March 1880 ) , daughter of Frederick Hervey , 1st Marquess of Bristol on 18 September 1832
Horatia Maria Frances Seymour ( d . 26 August 1853 ) , married John Philip Morier in 1814
Mary Georgiana Seymour ( d . 30 October 1848 ) , married George Dawson @-@ Damer in 1825
Seymour 's death was widely mourned among his contemporaries , Lord St. Vincent once describing him as " an excellent officer " . His service had been energetic and characterised by innovation and invention : he developed a new system of fitting topmasts and was also credited with making epaulettes standard among Royal Navy officers , following his difficulties in convincing French Royalists at the Siege of Toulon that he was a British officer , due to his unimpressive uniform .
= = Namesakes = =
The Royal Navy has named two ships after Seymour . The first HMS Seymour was a destroyer leader launched in 1916 and sold in 1930 which saw service during World War I. The second , HMS Seymour ( K563 ) , was a frigate in commission from 1943 to 1946 that served during World War II .
Baltra Island , or Isla Baltra , is a small island of the Galápagos Islands . Also known as South Seymour ( named after Lord Hugh Seymour )
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= Rhythm game =
Rhythm game or rhythm action is a genre of music @-@ themed action video game that challenges a player 's sense of rhythm . Games in the genre typically focus on dance or the simulated performance of musical instruments , and require players to press buttons in a sequence dictated on the screen . Doing so causes the game 's protagonist or avatar to dance or to play their instrument correctly , which increases the player 's score . Many rhythm games include multiplayer modes in which players compete for the highest score or cooperate as a simulated musical ensemble . While conventional control pads may be used as input devices , rhythm games often feature novel game controllers that emulate musical instruments . Certain dance @-@ based games require the player to physically dance on a mat , with pressure @-@ sensitive pads acting as the input device .
The 1996 title PaRappa the Rapper has been deemed the first influential rhythm game , whose basic template formed the core of subsequent games in the genre . In 1997 , Konami 's Beatmania sparked an emergent market for rhythm games in Japan . The company 's music division , Bemani , released a series of music @-@ based games over the next several years . The most successful of these was the 1998 dance mat game Dance Dance Revolution , which was the only Bemani title to achieve large @-@ scale success outside Japan , and would see numerous imitations of the game from other publishers .
Other Japanese games , particularly Guitar Freaks , led to development of Guitar Hero and Rock Band series that used instrument @-@ shaped controllers to mimic the playing of actual instruments . Spurred by the inclusion of popular rock music , the two series revitalized the rhythm genre in the Western Market , significantly expanded the console video game market and its demographics . The games provided a new source of revenue for the artists whose music appeared on the soundtracks . The later release of Rock Band 3 as well as the even later Rocksmith would allow players to play the songs using a real electric guitar . By 2008 , rhythm games were considered to be one of the most popular video game genres , behind other action games . However , by 2009 , the market was saturated by spin @-@ offs from the core titles , which led to a nearly 50 % drop in revenue for music game publishers ; within a few years , both series announced they would be taking a hiatus from future titles .
Despite these setbacks , the rhythm game market continues to expand , introducing a number of danced @-@ based games like Just Dance and Dance Central that incorporate the use of motion controllers and camera @-@ based controls like the Kinect . Existing games also continue to thrive on new business models , such as the reliance on downloadable content to provide songs to players . The introduction of the new generation of console hardware has also spurred return of Guitar Hero and Rock Band titles in late 2015 .
= = Definition and game design = =
Rhythm game , or rhythm action , is a subgenre of action game that challenges a player 's sense of rhythm . The genre includes dance games such as Dance Dance Revolution and music @-@ based games such as Donkey Konga and Guitar Hero . Games in the genre challenge the player to press buttons at precise times : the screen shows which button the player is required to press , and the game awards points both for accuracy and for synchronization with the beat . The genre also includes games that measure rhythm and pitch , in order to test a player 's singing ability , and games that challenge the player to control their volume by measuring how hard they press each button . While songs can be sight read , players usually practice to master more difficult songs and settings . Certain rhythm games offer a challenge similar to that of Simon says , in that the player must watch , remember , and repeat complex sequences of button @-@ presses . Rhythm @-@ action can take a minigame format with some games blending rhythm with other genres or entirely comprising minigame collections .
In some rhythm games , the screen displays an avatar who performs in reaction to the player 's controller inputs . However , these graphical responses are usually in the background , and the avatar is more important to spectators than it is to the player . In single @-@ player modes , the player 's avatar competes against a computer @-@ controlled opponent , while multiplayer modes allow two player @-@ controlled avatars to compete head @-@ to @-@ head . The popularity of rhythm games has created a market for speciality input devices . These include controllers that emulate musical instruments , such as guitars , drums , or maracas . A dance mat , for use in dancing games , requires the player to step on pressure @-@ sensitive pads . However , most rhythm games also support more conventional input devices , such as control pads .
= = History = =
= = = Origins and popularity in Japan ( 1970s – 2000 ) = = =
The rhythm game genre has roots in the electronic game Simon , invented in 1978 by Ralph Baer ( who created the Magnavox Odyssey ) and Howard Morrison . The game originated the " call and response " mechanic used by later rhythm video games , in which players take turns repeating increasingly complicated sequences of button presses . Human Entertainment 's Dance Aerobics was released in 1987 , and allows players to create music by stepping on Nintendo 's Power Pad peripheral for the NES video game console . The 1996 title PaRappa the Rapper has been credited as the first true rhythm game , and as one of the first music @-@ based games in general . It requires players to press buttons in the order that they appear on the screen , a basic mechanic that formed the core of future rhythm games . The success of PaRappa the Rapper sparked the popularity of the music game genre . In 1997 , Konami released the DJ @-@ themed rhythm game Beatmania in Japanese arcades . Its arcade cabinet features buttons similar to those of a musical keyboard , and a rubber pad that emulates a vinyl record . Beatmania was a surprise hit , inspiring Konami 's Games and Music Division to change its name to Bemani in honor of the game , and to begin experimenting with other rhythm game concepts . Its successes include GuitarFreaks , which features a guitar @-@ shaped controller , and 1998 's Pop 'n Music , a game similar to Beatmania in which multiple colorful buttons must be pressed . While the GuitarFreaks franchise continues to receive new arcade releases in Japan , it was never strongly marketed outside of the country . This allowed Red Octane and Harmonix to capitalize on the formula in 2005 with the Western @-@ targeted Guitar Hero . In general , few Japanese arcade rhythm games were exported abroad because of the cost of producing the peripherals and the resulting increases in retail prices . The 1999 Bemani title DrumMania featured a drum kit controller , and could be linked with GuitarFreaks for simulated jam sessions . Similarly , this concept was later appropriated by Harmonix for their game Rock Band .
Dance Dance Revolution , released in 1998 , is a rhythm game in which players dance on pressure @-@ sensitive pads in an order dictated by on @-@ screen instructions . The game was highly successful both in and outside Japan , unlike games such as GuitarFreaks , DrumMania and Beatmania , though the latter had some success in Europe . Released the same year , Enix 's Bust a Groove features a similar focus on dancing but employs a more conventional input method . The game contains competitive one @-@ on @-@ one battles , and grants the player more freedom than typical rhythm games .
NanaOn @-@ Sha , the creators of PaRappa the Rapper , released Vib @-@ Ribbon in 1999 . It eschews instrument @-@ shaped controllers ; instead , players maneuver the protagonist through an obstacle course by pressing buttons at correct times . The game 's levels are generated by the background music , which players may change by inserting audio CDs . While it was praised for its unique style and artistry , Vib @-@ Ribbon 's simple vector graphics proved difficult to market , and the game was never released in North America . Sega 's Samba de Amigo , released in arcades in 1999 and on the Dreamcast in 2000 , features maraca @-@ shaped , motion sensitive controllers . The game allows for two @-@ player gameplay , provides a spectacle for onlookers and allows players to socialise while gaming . In 2000 , Taiko no Tatsujin combined traditional Japanese drums with contemporary pop music , and became highly successful in Japanese arcades . The game was later released on consoles in the West as Taiko Drum Master , and the franchise continues to receive new installments in Japan . Gitaroo Man featured a guitar @-@ playing protagonist four years before the release of Guitar Hero , though the game employed a conventional rather than guitar @-@ shaped controller . Gitaroo Man 's creator , Keiichi Yano , later created Osu ! Tatakae ! Ouendan , a rhythm game for the Nintendo DS that utilizes the handheld 's touchscreen features . It became a highly demanded import title , which led to the release of an altered version of the game in the West — Elite Beat Agents — and a sequel in Japan .
= = = Popularity in the West ( 2001 – 2004 ) = = =
Harmonix was formed in 1995 from a computer music group at MIT . Beginning in 1998 , the company developed music games inspired by PaRappa the Rapper . In 2001 , the company released Frequency , which puts the player in control of multiple instrument tracks . Ryan Davis of GameSpot wrote that the game provides a greater sense of creative freedom than earlier rhythm titles . Frequency was critically acclaimed ; however , marketing was made difficult by the game 's abstract style , which removed the player 's ability to perform for onlookers . In 2003 , Harmonix followed up Frequency with the similar Amplitude . The company later released more socially driven , karaoke @-@ themed music games in Karaoke Revolution and SingStar ( 2003 and 2004 , respectively ) . Donkey Konga , a GameCube title developed by Namco and released in 2003 , achieved widespread success by leveraging Nintendo 's Donkey Kong brand .
= = = Peripheral @-@ based games ( 2005 – 2013 ) = = =
In 2005 , Harmonix and the small publisher RedOctane released Guitar Hero , a game inspired by Bemani 's GuitarFreaks . However , instead of the Japanese pop that comprises the earlier title 's soundtrack , Guitar Hero features Western rock music . The game reinvigorated the rhythm genre , which had stagnated because of a flood of Dance Dance Revolution sequels and imitations . Guitar Hero spawned several sequels , and the franchise overall earned more than $ 1 billion , with the third installment ranking as the best selling game in North America in 2007 . Harmonix followed Guitar Hero with the Rock Band franchise , which also earned over $ 1 billion . Rock Band titles support multiple instrument controllers and cooperative multiplayer , allowing players to play as a full band . The Guitar Hero franchise followed suit with the band @-@ oriented , Neversoft @-@ developed Guitar Hero World Tour . Guitar Hero installments based on specific bands , such as Metallica and Aerosmith , were also published . Additional songs for Guitar Hero and Rock Band were made available for purchase via the Internet , which generated further revenue . Artists whose work is featured in the games receive royalties , and the increased publicity in turn generates further sales of their music . The success of the Guitar Hero and Rock Band franchises widened the console video game market and its demographics , and the popularity of the genre drove increased sales of consoles . In 2008 , it was reported that music games had become the second most popular video game genre ( behind action ) in the United States , with 53 % of players being female . At its height in 2008 , music games represented about 18 % of the video game market .
Video game industry analysts considered 2009 to be a critical year for rhythm games , and they believed that it would allow them to gauge the future success of the genre . Both the Guitar Hero and Rock Band franchises were expanded , and they received entries for handheld gaming devices and mobile phones . Specialized titles that targeted specific genres and demographics , such as Band Hero for pop music and Lego Rock Band for younger players , were released . Sales of music games were down in the first half of the year . This decline was attributed to fewer purchases of instrument controllers ; it was assumed that players had already bought such controllers and were reusing them . While analysts had expected that United States sales of Guitar Hero 5 and The Beatles : Rock Band would be high — close to or exceeding one million units each in the first month of their release — sales only reached roughly half of those projections . The failure to meet sales projections was partly attributed to the impact of the late @-@ 2000s recession on the video game industry ; Harmonix 's CEO Alex Rigopolis considered that at the time , both Guitar Hero and Rock Band were the most expensive video games on the market . Analysts also considered it to be a sign of market saturation . Further contributing to the decline was genre stagnation ; the franchises retained the same basic gameplay over several iterations , giving consumers less incentive to buy additional titles . Harmonix CEO Alex Rigopulos felt that the aggressive competition between the Rock Band and Guitar Hero brands on the belief that the market could only support one franchise also contributed to the decline of these games . As a result , analysts lowered their expectations for future music games ; for example , projections of first quarter U.S. sales of DJ Hero , a Guitar Hero " spin @-@ off " , were reduced from 1 @.@ 6 million units to only 600 @,@ 000 . Sales of rhythm games , which totalled $ 1 @.@ 47 billion in 2008 , reached only $ 700 million in 2009 . Analysts predicted that the market would settle at the same " healthy " $ 500 – 600 million level of the Call of Duty series . Wedbush Securities analyst Michael Pachter concluded that the saturation of the rhythm game market accounted for one @-@ third of the industry 's 12 % sales decline in 2009 .
The fallout of the weakening rhythm game market affected game developers , publishers and distributors . Companies in the latter two categories believed that most consumers would own at least one set of instrument controllers by 2010 , which would increase the importance of software and downloadable content sales . Activision scaled back its 2010 Guitar Hero release schedule to just two games , reducing the number of SKUs from 25 in 2009 to 10 in 2010 . The company closed several in @-@ house developers , including RedOctane , Neversoft 's Guitar Hero division , and Underground Development . Viacom , which had paid Harmonix $ 150 million following the success of Rock Band in 2007 , began seeking a " substantial " refund on that investment after weak sales in 2009 . Viacom also sought to negotiate new deals with music publishers to reduce the costs of the Rock Band series ' licensed music . Ultimately , the company began to seek a buyer for Harmonix during the third quarter of 2010 .
In 2010 , rhythm game developers included new features in their products . For example , Rock Band 3 and Power Gig : Rise of the SixString support guitar controllers with strings , and both contain modes that teach players accurate fingering . Despite this new content , sales of music games faltered in 2010 . Guitar Hero : Warriors of Rock and DJ Hero 2 sold only 86 @,@ 000 and 59 @,@ 000 copies , respectively , in North America during their first week on the market . This was in sharp contrast to Guitar Hero III , which had sold nearly 1 @.@ 4 million units in its first week in 2008 . Through October 2010 , music games achieved net sales of around $ 200 million , one @-@ fifth of the genre 's revenue during the same period in 2008 . Analysts believed that the market likely would not break $ 400 million in revenue by the end of the year . End year sales were less than $ 300 million .
By the end of 2010 , the rhythm market was considered " well past its prime " , and developers shifted their focus to downloadable content and potential integration with motion control systems . In late 2010 , Viacom sold Harmonix to an investment @-@ backed group and allowed it to continue developing Rock Band and Dance Central . Citing the downturn in rhythm games , Activision shuttered their Guitar Hero division in February 2011 . Analysts suggested that the market for peripheral @-@ based rhythm games may remain stagnant for three to five years , after which sales could resurge because of digital distribution models or the release of new video game consoles . However , by 2013 , the era of peripheral @-@ based music games was considered at an end , as Harmonix announced that it would cease regular updates of Rock Band downloadable content on April 2 , 2013 as the company shifts to newer games .
= = = Future directions ( 2010 – present ) = = =
With the introduction of motion controllers for the Xbox 360 ( Kinect ) and the PlayStation 3 ( PlayStation Move ) in 2010 and 2011 , some analysts stated that the rhythm market would resurge thanks to dance- and band @-@ based games that use platform @-@ agnostic controllers . Dance games such as Just Dance , Dance Central and Michael Jackson : The Game were based on the new motion sensing technology . Industry pundits believe that , because sales of peripheral @-@ based music games are lagging and the popularity of pop music is surging , dance @-@ based games will continue to thrive . Dance games such as Just Dance and Dance Central boosted the rhythm genre 's late @-@ 2010 sales ; the latter was the top @-@ selling game for the Kinect in North America in November 2010 . Both games helped the genre increase its sales by 38 % over November 2009 , according to NPD . Harmonix is expected to post more than $ 100 million in profit for 2011 buoyed by sales of Dance Central and downloadable content for the game , according to Bloomberg . Just Dance overcame a poor critical reception to topple Call of Duty : Modern Warfare 2 's best @-@ seller status , while Just Dance 2 ( 2010 ) became the best selling non @-@ Nintendo game for the Wii . The Just Dance series competed with top action franchises for sales . Tap Tap Revenge , the first installment of the iPhone rhythm series Tap Tap , was the platform 's most downloaded game in 2008 . The Tap Tap franchise ultimately generated 15 million downloads and received a Guinness World Record as the " most popular iPhone game series " .
Over the course of 2014 , the phenomenon of indie games produced several variations of the genre . The game Jungle Rumble uses a mechanic where players drum on a touch screen to control the game . Different rhythms correspond with different verbs to control entities in an RTS like environment . The game Crypt of the NecroDancer uses a mechanic where the player controls the main character in sync with the soundtrack 's beat .
Harmonix returned to its core rhythm games in 2014 . In 2014 , it successfully funded a Kickstarter to produce a remake of the PS2 title , Amplitude for the PlayStation 3 and 4 , with release expected in 2015 . Further , in March 2015 , the company announced Rock Band 4 to be released later in the same year , with plans to keep the game as a platform with continued free and paid updates and downloadable content , while refocusing on the core social and music enjoyment of the game . Activision also announced Guitar Hero Live , slated for late 2015 , which rebuilds the game from the ground up , keeping the core mechanics but using a 3 @-@ button with dual position controller , and using recorded footage of a rock concert taken from the lead guitarist 's perspective to increase immersion .
= = Health and education = =
Rhythm games have been used for health purposes . For example , research has found that dancing games dramatically increase energy expenditure over that of traditional video games , and that they burn more calories than walking on a treadmill . Scientists have further suggested that , due to the large amount of time children spend playing video games and watching television , games that involve physical activity could be used to combat obesity . Studies have found that playing Dance Dance Revolution can provide an aerobic workout , in terms of a sufficiently intense heart rate , but not the minimum levels of VO2 max . Based on successful preliminary studies , West Virginia , which has one of the highest rates of obesity and its attendant diseases in the US , introduced Dance Dance Revolution into its schools ' physical education classes . According to The New York Times , more than " several hundred schools in at least 10 states " have used Dance Dance Revolution ( along with In the Groove ) in their curricula . Plans have been made to increase the number into the thousands in an effort to mitigate the country 's obesity epidemic . Arnold Schwarzenegger , former Governor of California , was a noted proponent of the game 's use in schools . In Japan , celebrities reported losing weight after playing Dance Dance Revolution , which drove sales of the game 's home console version . Bemani 's testers also found themselves losing weight while working on the game . There is further anecdotal evidence that these games aid weight loss , though the University of Michigan Health System has cautioned that dance games and other exergames should only be a starting point towards traditional sports , which are more effective . Dance games have also been used in rehabilitation and fall @-@ prevention programs for elderly patients , using customised , slower versions of existing games and mats . Researchers have further experimented with prototypes of games allowing wider and more realistic stepping than the tapping actions found in commercial dance games .
Guitar Hero games have been used alongside physical therapy to help recovering stroke patients , because of the multiple limb coordination that the titles require . Blondie drummer Clem Burke has worked with researchers at the University of Chichester and the University of Gloucestershire to determine how games like Guitar Hero can address issues of " child and adult obesity , autism , stroke patients and health and mental well @-@ being in the workplace " . Researchers at Johns Hopkins University have used Guitar Hero III and its controller to help amputee patients , and to develop new prosthetic limbs for these patients . Researchers at University of Nevada , Reno modified a haptic feedback glove to work with the Guitar Hero freeware clone Frets on Fire , resulting in Blind Hero , a music game for visually impaired players that is played with only touch and audio . MIT students collaborated with the government of Singapore and a professor at the National University of Singapore to create AudiOdyssey , a game which allows both blind and sighted gamers to play together . Guitar Hero was used as part of a Trent University youth sleep study , which showed that , in general , players who played a song were better at it twelve hours later if that period included normal sleep .
Guitar Hero and Rock Band have introduced people to rock music and inspired them to learn how to play the guitar . A study by Youth Music found that 2 @.@ 5 million out of 12 million children in the United Kingdom have begun learning how to play real instruments after playing music video games such as Guitar Hero . The group believes that these video games can be incorporated into music educational programs . Guitar teachers in the US have reported an increase in students who cite Guitar Hero as their inspiration to start learning . On the other hand , industry professionals , such the inventor of the Fretlight practice tool , have expressed scepticism over the game 's educational value . There is anecdotal evidence that Guitar Hero aids rhythm and general hand @-@ coordination , but also that it creates a false preconception of the difficulty of learning guitar , which can lead students to discontinue their studies . Guitar Center conducted a survey which found that a majority of instrument @-@ based rhythm gamers intended to take up a real instrument in the future while a majority of those who were already musicians had been inspired to play their instruments more . Despite such popularity the guitar remains less popular than it was in the 1960s . Some musicians have been critical of Guitar Hero 's impact on music education . Jack White of The White Stripes stated that he was disappointed to learn that video games are the most likely venue where younger audiences will be exposed to new works , while Jimmy Page of Led Zeppelin does not believe that people can learn how to play real instruments from their video game counterparts . Similarly , Prince has turned down opportunities to have his music in the Guitar Hero series , stating that he felt that it was " more important that kids learn how to actually play the guitar " . Other commentators have pointed to drum controllers ( including the expanded , lifelike Drum Rocker kit ) used in such games as potentially useful in learning and creating music with real drums .
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= Citygarden =
Citygarden is an urban park and sculpture garden in St. Louis , Missouri owned by the City of St. Louis but maintained by the Gateway Foundation . It is located between Eighth , Tenth , Market , and Chestnut streets , in the city 's " Gateway Mall " area . Before being converted to a garden and park , the site comprised two empty blocks of grass . Citygarden was dedicated on June 30 , 2009 , and opened one day later , on July 1 , 2009 .
Citygarden is 2 @.@ 9 acres ( 1 @.@ 2 ha ) in size — occupying two square city blocks — and cost US $ 30 million to develop . St. Louis ' Gateway Foundation , a not @-@ for @-@ profit organization supporting public art , funded the design and construction of the garden . While the city owns the land on which Citygarden was developed , the foundation owns the statues and covers all park maintenance costs except water and electricity . The Gateway Foundation is also in charge of providing additional security for the garden .
There is no admission fee for visitors of Citygarden , which is located close to St. Louis ' Gateway Arch and Busch Stadium . The park is open year @-@ round and complies with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 .
= = History = =
Public art is not new to the Gateway Mall . In 1940 , a large Carl Milles work was installed outside St. Louis Union Station . This later became one end of the mall when it was created in the 1960s , with the Gateway Arch on the other end . In 1982 , Richard Serra 's Twain — a sculpture comprising eight large plates of weathering steel — was installed on the 1 @.@ 14 acres ( 0 @.@ 46 ha ) block immediately west of Citygarden , creating Serra Sculpture Park .
In the late 1990s , a group of St. Louis residents drew up a plan for a revitalized downtown , which included a sculpture garden at the same two blocks where Citygarden is located . That plan was not immediately realized , but in 2006 , the City of St. Louis asked the Gateway Foundation to prepare a master plan for the entire Gateway Mall strip . In early 2007 , the foundation sponsored a competition , soliciting designs for the planned project ; Nelson Byrd Woltz Landscape Architects , a Charlottesville , Virginia landscape architecture firm , was the winner . The partnership to develop Citygarden was announced in June 2007 . The project was initially proposed to the St. Louis Preservation Board in October 2007 , while development of the land began in April 2008 . Over 250 @,@ 000 people visited Citygarden before Christmas , 2009 , a figure that has since risen to an estimated one million or more . However , because Citygarden has no gates , there is no official visitor count .
At the dedication of Citygarden , Mayor of St. Louis Francis G. Slay praised the project , saying , " This new garden is immediately taking its place among the great cultural attractions of St. Louis for residents and visitors alike . It 's dazzling , and its complete openness in the heart of downtown makes it unique in the country . " In front of local and state officials , as well as the media , Slay told workers at the park 's control center to turn on the fountains and tear down the construction fence . On the opening day of Citygarden , city officials asked an ice cream truck to park near the garden to attract tourists , but many visitors arrived at the park regardless .
A celebration for Citygarden 's one @-@ year anniversary was held on July 10 , 2010 . The festivities included a flamingo parade — meant to " express the irreverent and whimsical spirit of the garden , " said park spokesperson Paul Wagman .
= = = Impact = = =
According to one city development leader , Citygarden has prompted many people to visit downtown St. Louis . The executive of a local community improvement organization said the garden has also contributed to the city 's economy . In addition , the popularity of Citygarden has led to renewed interest in renovating the 16 @-@ block Gateway Mall . Slay said , " By setting the bar so high , it gives us reason to hope that the entire Gateway Mall will eventually fulfill the dreams that civic planners have had for it for the better part of a century . The Mall can be a wonderful , multi @-@ faceted cultural and recreational space for our City and the region . "
Rocco Landesman , chairperson of the National Endowment for the Arts , has used Citygarden as an example of a successful foundation @-@ funded art venture . Landesman — a former resident of St. Louis — said that such projects can help urban areas economically , but they cannot be funded solely by the federal government , thus requiring assistance from both the private sector and foundations . Michael Van Valkenburgh , principal of a Brooklyn landscape architecture firm , said he was drawn to St. Louis partly because of Citygarden 's design and success . Van Valkenburgh was selected in 2010 to renovate the grounds of the Gateway Arch .
= = Sculptures = =
The park was designed so larger works of art rest on wide lawns , while smaller spaces are reserved for more private areas . It is home to 24 sculptures , some of which were created by Fernand Léger , Keith Haring , Aristide Maillol , Laura Ford , Tony Smith , Jim Dine , Kan Yasuda , Bernar Venet , Mark di Suvero , Niki de Saint Phalle , Tom Otterness , Tom Claassen , Jack Youngerman , Ju Ming , Jean @-@ Michel Folon , Mimmo Paladino , Jonathan Clarke , Donald Baechler , and Martin Puryear . One statue , by Igor Mitoraj , features a large bronze head lying on its side , while works by Julian Opie comprise digital screens displaying walking people . Park visitors are allowed to touch the sculptures and even walk inside them . This means , however , that some of the works require more frequent maintenance , such as re @-@ waxing . The sculptures range in medium from various metals — bronze , stainless steel , and cast aluminum — fiberglass and even polyester . On September 20 , 2011 , a 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) aluminum sculpture of a bodiless pink suit , by Erwin Wurm and titled Big Suit , was installed in the garden .
The Gateway Foundation already owned two of the two dozen pieces prior to Citygarden 's creation , and it purchased the remaining number between 2006 and 2009 . The organization has not revealed the cost of acquiring the sculptures , an amount not included in the $ 30 million ; however , it is estimated that the collection is worth around $ 12 million , if not more . The garden has received criticism from those who think that 24 sculptures is too many in such a small space .
= = = Selected works = = =
2 Arcs x 4 and 230 @.@ 5 Degree Arc x 5 ( 1999 ) comprise a series of three steel sculptures by Bernar Venet . One sculpture consists of five steel beams bent into a 230 @.@ 5 @-@ degree arc , another arc is 232 @.@ 5 degrees , and the last is 235 @.@ 5 degrees .
Big White Gloves , Big Four Wheels ( 2009 ) is a statue of Pinocchio by Jim Dine .
Eros Bendato ( " Eros Bound " ; 1999 ) is a large bronze head by sculptor Igor Mitoraj . Located on the corner of Eighth and Market streets , the statue lays sideways on a slanted granite circle , which is covered by a steady stream of water .
Femmes au perroquet ( " Women with parrot " ; 1952 ) is a bronze relief situated on the wall of the restaurant building . Created by the Cubist artist Fernand Léger , this work features a group of women with a parakeet .
Four Rectangles Oblique IV ( 1979 ) is a kinetic sculpture by George Rickey .
La Rivière ( " The River " ; 1938 – 1943 ) , by Aristide Maillol , depicts a nude woman washing her hair . It is located in the basin outside the restaurant building . Another version of this sculpture can be found at New York City 's Museum of Modern Art .
This is Bruce and Sarah Walking ( 2007 ) is an LED panel that displays two people walking . The work , created by Julian Opie , is located next to Tenth Street . Another version of the installation , depicting walkers " Julian " and " Kiera , " is located in another part of Citygarden .
Untitled ( Two Rabbits ) ( 2004 ) , by Tom Claassen , consists of two rabbits cast in bronze and then painted white .
Voyage ( 1999 ) , by Jean @-@ Michel Folon , depicts a boat sitting amid a pool of water . The boat has two passengers : a man with a hat — the everyman — on one end , and a sleeping cat on the other end .
Zenit ( 1999 ) is a bronze horse sculpted by Mimmo Paladino . Instead of a rider , the horse carries a small stellated dodecahedron on its back .
= = Features = =
Citygarden is not enclosed from the street and can be entered from any direction . The park includes six rain gardens , a 102 @-@ fountain " spray plaza " in which children can play , as well as a 180 feet ( 55 m ) -long pool with a 6 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) -tall waterfall . The fountain 's water is recycled , and filtered rainwater is also used . A low , winding , 1 @,@ 110 @-@ foot ( 340 m ) -long , granite @-@ topped " meander wall " runs through the park 's southern half and acts as seating for visitors . In the northern half , a 550 @-@ foot ( 170 m ) -long curved wall of yellow Missouri limestone stretches across the property . A 16 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) LED video screen is on the wall ; it displays movies and artworks , as well as some baseball games — including the 2009 Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game . In October 2009 , two films — " The Way Things Go " by Peter Fischli & David Weiss , and Gordon Matta @-@ Clark 's " Conical Intersect " — were featured on the video wall , running a total of 50 minutes . Previously , the video wall had displayed a series of nine short films focused on humor and the absurdity of life . The Contemporary Art Museum St. Louis , Mildred Lane Kemper Art Museum at Washington University in St. Louis , Pulitzer Foundation for the Arts , and Saint Louis Art Museum take turns updating the shows at each quarter .
Visitors to Citygarden can listen to an audio tour by dialing a special number on their mobile phones . The tour is narrated by prominent St. Louis residents , including former St. Louis Cardinals player Ozzie Smith and St. Louis Symphony Orchestra director David Robertson , as well as Jackie Joyner @-@ Kersee , John Ashcroft , Jenna Fischer , and Kurt Warner , with over twenty narrators in all .
= = = Design = = =
The garden also includes Ginkgo biloba trees , native plants , and spacious sidewalks , features that Warren Byrd of Nelson Byrd Woltz said could be adapted by other sections of the Gateway Mall . Originally , the Citygarden site had an elevation of 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) , but architects increased it to 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) in certain areas , placing the restaurant and maintenance shed on the higher ground .
The park is divided into three horizontal sections , and architects considered the rivers and other natural characteristics of the St. Louis area when designing the park . The northern limestone wall represents the Mississippi River bluffs , while the southern snaking meander wall stands is inspired by the region 's waterways . Between the two zones are the rain gardens , larger trees , and larger sculptures , an area that meant to represent a floodplain . The main paths of the park were plotted to match the locations of alleyways that park designers saw in a 1916 Sanborn map .
Citygarden 's plants , including various grasses and wildflowers , were selected by the Missouri Botanical Garden . Large shade plants were chosen to provide relief in warm and humid weather . At the time of its opening , Citygarden comprised a total of 240 trees , 1 @,@ 100 shrubs , 4 @,@ 000 perennials , 8 @,@ 000 bulbs , and 13 @,@ 000 groundcovers . A garden spokesperson later said that hungry rabbits have forced workers to alter some of the plant choices .
= = Recognition = =
On October 8 , 2009 , the chairman of the board of the Gateway Foundation was given the St. Louis Award for his part in Citygarden 's development . Upon receiving the award , Peter Fischer — whose parents launched the foundation in 1986 — called for more public spaces similar to Citygarden . " If Citygarden 's design really is world class , then it has set the standard for the development of the rest of the [ Gateway Mall ] . We want great and brilliant design for our public places , " he said . The St. Louis Award recognizes a " resident of metropolitan St. Louis who , during the preceding year , has contributed the most outstanding service for its development . "
In early 2011 , Citygarden was named one of five finalists for the Urban Land Institute Amanda Burden Urban Open Space Award . The award , named after its creator , is given to a public open space that has contributed to its surrounding community . Citygarden competed for the $ 10 @,@ 000 prize against Portland , Oregon 's Director Park and Jamison Square , as well as Discovery Green and the Raymond and Susan Brochstein Pavilion of Houston , Texas . The institute said that Citygarden " draws on St. Louis ' chief natural feature — its rivers ... has attracted diverse users , catalyzed nearby development , and changed perceptions of downtown . Situated on two blocks of the underutilized Gateway Mall , the active sculpture garden has drawn an estimated one million visitors since its opening . " On May 19 , 2011 , the Urban Land Institute announced Citygarden as the winner of the award at a ceremony in Phoenix , Arizona . In a statement , Slay said , " This is a really wonderful honor for the City of St. Louis and for the Gateway Foundation . ULI chose Citygarden from among 48 applicants across the country . The decision will bring flattering and well @-@ deserved national attention both to the garden and to the City of St. Louis . " The award was accepted in Phoenix by Rodney Crim , director of the St. Louis Development Corporation , on behalf of the city and the Gateway Foundation .
In September 2011 , the American Society of Landscape Architects ( ASLA ) announced the results of its 2011 Professional Awards . Citygarden was named as one of eight recipients of an Honor Award in the ASLA 's " General Design " category .
= = Dining = =
= = = Terrace View = = =
The Terrace View was a restaurant and café located in Citygarden . Operated by local restaurateur Jim Fiala , the Terrace View opened on August 19 , 2009 with Chris Bork as chef . At the time of its opening , Fiala estimated the eatery would produce between $ 600 @,@ 000 and $ 800 @,@ 000 in revenue each year . The Terrace View employed about 30 workers .
The 3 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 280 m2 ) Terrace View building was designed by Philip Durham of Studio Durham Architects . It has three glass walls that face the garden and is located near the intersection of Eighth and Chestnut streets . Durham called his design a " Miesian glass box , " similar to the style of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe . The building 's roof — as well as the roof of maintenance building — is covered with Sedum species , meant to decrease energy costs . Inside , Niki de Saint Phalle 's sculpture Adam and Eve sat in the middle of the dining floor .
The restaurant served breakfast , lunch , and dinner . With both indoor and outdoor seating , the Terrace View accommodated up to 120 patrons and focused on dishes created locally — within 150 miles ( 240 km ) of its location — as well as Italian and French cuisine . In December 2010 , Terrace View chef Nick Cox narrowed the original Mediterranean @-@ themed menu , focusing more on Northern Italian cuisine . Called " Acero on the Terrace " after Fiala 's Acero restaurant in Maplewood , Missouri , the menu retained dishes made from locally grown produce , including the " 50 @-@ Mile Salad " — composed of ingredients from within 50 miles ( 80 km ) of the Terrace View .
Fiala had been referred to the Gateway Foundation by the president of a local catering company , and the foundation later asked him to run the Terrace View . A foundation spokesperson said that the " Gateway Foundation board sorted through a lot of different candidates , and they were thrilled to find one who was perfect . " Fiala had wanted to open the Terrace View before the 2009 All @-@ Star Game , but was forced to delay in order to settle contracts and have a liquor license approved . The establishment was originally scheduled to open on July 1 , the same day as Citygarden 's opening and two weeks before the game .
In September 2011 , Fiala announced he would not renew the Terrace View 's lease on the building in Citygarden . After switching to a weekday @-@ lunch @-@ only schedule for the remainder of 2011 , the restaurant closed at the end of the year . Fiala attributed the closure to low profitability due to a lack of dinner customers , though he said lunch business was " fine . " The restaurant 's departure sparked speculation on a possible replacement , including the possibility of St. Louis @-@ born restaurateur Danny Meyer opening a Shake Shack store in Citygarden , but the building remained unoccupied at the beginning of 2012 .
= = = Death in the Afternoon = = =
Death in the Afternoon opened in the vacated by Joe 's Chili Bowl space . According to restaurant 's website " Death in the Afternoon is a concept built around St. Louis and eating well no matter what time of day . Locally sourced ingredients are assembled by talented chefs to make your brunch , lunch or dinner something unique and fun . " http : / / www.deathintheafternoonstl.com /
Two roughly square lots are shown on map with a light grey background . Buildings are colored brown ; plantings , green ; water features , blue ; and walking paths , off @-@ white . | In this map of Citygarden , the arcing golden limestone wall divides the park 's northern zone , while the dark meander wall snakes through the southern zone . Ninth Street separates the two blocks on which the garden is located
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= Battle of Dien Bien Phu =
The Battle of Dien Bien Phu ( French : Bataille de Diên Biên Phu ; Vietnamese : Chiến dịch Điện Biên Phủ , " Campaign of Dien Bien Phu " ) was the climactic confrontation of the First Indochina War between the French Union 's French Far East Expeditionary Corps and Viet Minh communist @-@ nationalist revolutionaries . It was , from the French view before the event , a set piece battle to draw out the Vietnamese and destroy them with superior firepower . The battle occurred between March and May 1954 and culminated in a comprehensive French defeat that influenced negotiations over the future of Indochina at Geneva .
As a result of blunders in French decision @-@ making , the French began an operation to insert then support the soldiers at Điện Biên Phủ , deep in the hills of northwestern Vietnam . Its purpose was to cut off Viet Minh supply lines into the neighboring Kingdom of Laos , a French ally , and tactically draw the Viet Minh into a major confrontation that would cripple them . The Viet Minh , however , under General Võ Nguyên Giáp , surrounded and besieged the French , who knew of the weapons but were unaware of the vast amounts of the Viet Minh 's heavy artillery being brought in ( including anti @-@ aircraft guns ) and their ability to move these weapons through difficult terrain up the rear slopes of the mountains surrounding the French positions , dig tunnels through the mountain , and place the artillery pieces overlooking the French encampment . This positioning of the artillery made it nearly impervious to counter @-@ battery fire .
The Viet Minh opened fire with a massive bombardment from the artillery in March . After several days the French artillery commander , Charles Piroth , unable to structure any sort of counter @-@ battery fire , committed suicide . The Viet Minh proceeded to occupy the highlands around Điện Biên Phủ and bombard the French positions . Tenacious fighting on the ground ensued , reminiscent of the trench warfare of World War I. The French repeatedly repulsed Viet Minh assaults on their positions . Supplies and reinforcements were delivered by air , though as the key French positions were overrun the French perimeter contracted and air resupply on which the French had placed their hopes became impossible , and as the anti @-@ aircraft fire took its toll , fewer and fewer of those supplies reached them . The garrison was overrun after a two @-@ month siege and most French forces surrendered . A few escaped to Laos . The French government resigned and the new Prime Minister , the left @-@ of @-@ centre Pierre Mendès France , supported French withdrawal from Indochina .
The war ended shortly after the Battle of Dien Bien Phu and the signing of the 1954 Geneva Accords . France agreed to withdraw its forces from all its colonies in French Indochina , while stipulating that Vietnam would be temporarily divided at the 17th parallel , with control of the north given to the Viet Minh as the Democratic Republic of Vietnam under Ho Chi Minh , and the south becoming the State of Vietnam nominally under Emperor Bảo Đại , preventing Ho Chi Minh from gaining control of the entire country . The refusal of Ngô Đình Diệm to allow elections in 1956 , as had been stipulated by the Geneva Conference , eventually led to the first phase of the Second Indochina War , better known as the Vietnam War ( see War in Vietnam ( 1959 – 63 ) ) .
= = Background = =
= = = Military situation = = =
By 1953 , the First Indochina War was not going well for France . A succession of commanders — Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque , Jean Étienne Valluy , Roger Blaizot , Marcel Carpentier , Jean de Lattre de Tassigny , and Raoul Salan — had proven incapable of suppressing the Viet Minh insurrection . During their 1952 – 53 campaign , the Viet Minh had overrun vast swathes of Laos , a French ally and Vietnam 's western neighbor , advancing as far as Luang Prabang and the Plain of Jars . The French were unable to slow the Viet Minh advance , and the Viet Minh fell back only after outrunning their always @-@ tenuous supply lines . In 1953 , the French had begun to strengthen their defenses in the Hanoi delta region to prepare for a series of offensives against Viet Minh staging areas in northwest Vietnam . They had set up fortified towns and outposts in the area , including Lai Châu near the Chinese border to the north , Nà Sản to the west of Hanoi , and the Plain of Jars in northern Laos .
In May 1953 , French Premier René Mayer appointed Henri Navarre , a trusted colleague , to take command of French Union Forces in Indochina . Mayer had given Navarre a single order — to create military conditions that would lead to an " honorable political solution " . According to military scholar Phillip Davidson ,
On arrival , Navarre was shocked by what he found . There had been no long @-@ range plan since de Lattre 's departure . Everything was conducted on a day @-@ to @-@ day , reactive basis . Combat operations were undertaken only in response to enemy moves or threats . There was no comprehensive plan to develop the organization and build up the equipment of the Expeditionary force . Finally , Navarre , the intellectual , the cold and professional soldier , was shocked by the " school 's out " attitude of Salan and his senior commanders and staff officers . They were going home , not as victors or heroes , but then , not as clear losers either . To them the important thing was that they were getting out of Indochina with their reputations frayed , but intact . They gave little thought to , or concern for , the problems of their successors .
= = = Nà Sản and the hedgehog concept = = =
Simultaneously , Navarre had been searching for a way to stop the Viet Minh threat to Laos . Colonel Louis Berteil , commander of Mobile Group 7 and Navarre 's main planner , formulated the hérisson ( " hedgehog " ) concept . The French army would establish a fortified airhead by air @-@ lifting soldiers adjacent to a key Viet Minh supply line to Laos . This would effectively cut off Viet Minh soldiers fighting in Laos and force them to withdraw . " It was an attempt to interdict the enemy 's rear area , to stop the flow of supplies and reinforcements , to establish a redoubt in the enemy 's rear and disrupt his lines " .
The hedgehog concept was based on French experiences at the Battle of Nà Sản . In late November and early December 1952 , Giáp attacked the French outpost at Nà Sản , which was essentially an " air @-@ land base " , a fortified camp supplied only by air . Giáp 's forces were beaten back repeatedly with very heavy losses . The French hoped that by repeating the strategy on a much larger scale , they would be able to lure Giáp into committing the bulk of his forces in a massed assault . This would enable superior French artillery , armor , and air support to decimate the exposed Viet Minh forces . The experience at Nà Sản convinced Navarre of the viability of the fortified airhead concept .
French staff officers disastrously failed to treat seriously several crucial differences between Điện Biên Phủ and Nà Sản : Firstly , at Nà Sản , the French commanded most of the high ground with overwhelming artillery support . At Điện Biên Phủ , however , the Viet Minh controlled much of the high ground around the valley , their artillery far exceeded French expectations and they outnumbered the French four @-@ to @-@ one . Giáp compared Điện Biên Phủ to a " rice bowl " , where his troops occupied the edge and the French the bottom . Secondly , Giáp made a mistake in Nà Sản by committing his forces to reckless frontal attacks before being fully prepared . At Điện Biên Phủ , Giáp spent months meticulously stockpiling ammunition and emplacing heavy artillery and anti @-@ aircraft guns before making his move . Teams of Viet Minh volunteers were sent into the French camp to scout the disposition of the French artillery . Wooden artillery pieces were built as decoys and the real guns were rotated every few salvos to confuse French counterbattery fire . As a result , when the battle finally began , the Viet Minh knew exactly where the French artillery pieces were , while the French were not even aware of how many guns Giáp possessed . Thirdly , the aerial resupply lines at Nà Sản were never severed , despite Viet Minh anti @-@ aircraft fire . At Điện Biên Phủ , Giáp amassed anti @-@ aircraft batteries that quickly shut down the runway and made it extremely difficult and costly for the French to bring in reinforcements .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Lead up to Castor = = =
In June , Major General René Cogny , commander of the Tonkin Delta , proposed Điện Biên Phủ , which had an old airstrip built by the Japanese during World War II , as a " mooring point " . In another misunderstanding , Cogny had envisioned a lightly defended point from which to launch raids ; however , to Navarre , this meant a heavily fortified base capable of withstanding a siege . Navarre selected Điện Biên Phủ for the location of Berteil 's " hedgehog " operation . When presented with the plan , every major subordinate officer protested : Colonel Jean @-@ Louis Nicot ( commander of the French Air transport fleet ) , Cogny , and generals Jean Gilles and Jean Dechaux ( the ground and air commanders for Operation Castor , the initial airborne assault on Điện Biên Phủ ) . Cogny pointed out , presciently , that " we are running the risk of a new Nà Sản under worse conditions " . Navarre rejected the criticisms of his proposal and concluded a November 17 conference by declaring that the operation would commence three days later , on 20 November 1953 .
Navarre decided to go ahead with the operation , despite operational difficulties , which later became painfully obvious ( but at the time may have been less apparent ) because he had been repeatedly assured by his intelligence officers that the operation had very little risk of involvement by a strong enemy force . Navarre had previously considered three other ways to defend Laos : mobile warfare , which was impossible given the terrain in Vietnam ; a static defense line stretching to Laos , which was not feasible given the number of troops at Navarre 's disposal ; or placing troops in the Laotian provincial capitals and supplying them by air , which was unworkable due to the distance from Hanoi to Luang Prabang and Vientiane . Thus , the only option left to Navarre was the hedgehog , which he characterized as " a mediocre solution " . In a twist of fate , the French National Defense Committee ultimately agreed that Navarre 's responsibility did not include defending Laos . However , their decision ( which was drawn up on 13 November ) was not delivered to him until 4 December , two weeks after the Điện Biên Phủ operation began .
= = = Establishment of air operations = = =
Operations at Điện Biên Phủ began at 10 : 35 on the morning of 20 November 1953 . In Operation Castor , the French dropped or flew 9 @,@ 000 troops into the area over three days , including a bulldozer to prepare the airstrip . They were landed at three drop zones : " Natasha " ( northwest ) , " Octavie " ( southwest ) , and " Simone " ( southeast ) of Điện Biên Phủ . The Viet Minh elite 148th Independent Infantry Regiment , headquartered at Điện Biên Phủ , reacted " instantly and effectively " . Three of their four battalions , however , were absent that day . Initial operations proceeded well for the French . By the end of November , six parachute battalions had been landed and the French were consolidating their positions .
It was at this time that Giáp began his counter @-@ moves . He had expected an attack , but could not foresee when or where it would occur . Giáp realized that , if pressed , the French would abandon Lai Châu Province and fight a pitched battle at Điện Biên Phủ . On 24 November , Giáp ordered the 148th Infantry Regiment and the 316th Division to attack Lai Chau , while the 308th , 312th , and 351st divisions assault Điện Biên Phủ from Việt Bắc .
Starting in December , the French , under the command of Colonel Christian de Castries , began transforming their anchoring point into a fortress by setting up seven satellite positions , each allegedly named after a former mistress of de Castries , although the allegation is probably unfounded , as the eight names begin with letters from the first nine of the alphabet ( all but F ) . The fortified headquarters was centrally located , with positions " Huguette " to the west , " Claudine " to the south , and " Dominique " to the northeast . Other positions were " Anne @-@ Marie " to the northwest , " Beatrice " to the northeast , " Gabrielle " to the north and " Isabelle " 6 km ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) to the south , covering the reserve airstrip .
The choice of de Castries as the on @-@ scene commander at Điện Biên Phủ was , in retrospect , a bad one . Navarre had picked de Castries , a cavalryman in the 18th century tradition , because Navarre envisioned Điện Biên Phủ as a mobile battle . In reality , Điện Biên Phủ required someone adept at World War I @-@ style trench warfare , something for which de Castries was not suited .
The arrival of the 316th Viet Minh Division prompted Cogny to order the evacuation of the Lai Chau garrison to Điện Biên Phủ , exactly as Giáp had anticipated . En route , they were virtually annihilated by the Viet Minh . " Of the 2 @,@ 100 men who left Lai Chau on 9 December , only 185 made it to Điện Biên Phủ on 22 December . The rest had been killed , captured or deserted " . The Viet Minh troops now converged on Điện Biên Phủ .
The French had committed 10 @,@ 800 troops , with more reinforcements totaling nearly 16 @,@ 000 men , to the defense of a monsoon @-@ affected valley surrounded by heavily wooded hills that had not been secured . Artillery as well as ten M24 Chaffee light tanks and numerous aircraft were committed to the garrison . The garrison included French regular troops ( notably elite paratroop units plus artillery ) , Foreign Legionnaires , Algerian and Moroccan tirailleurs , and locally recruited Indochinese infantry . All told , the Viet Minh had moved 50 @,@ 000 regular troops into the hills surrounding the valley , totaling five divisions including the 351st Heavy Division , which was made up entirely of heavy artillery . Artillery and AA ( anti @-@ aircraft ) guns , which outnumbered the French artillery by about four to one , were moved into positions overlooking the valley . The French came under direct and sporadic Viet Minh artillery fire for the first time on 31 January 1954 , and patrols encountered the Viet Minh in all directions . The French were now surrounded .
= = Battle = =
= = = Beatrice = = =
The Viet Minh assault began in earnest on 13 March 1954 with an attack on outpost " Beatrice " . Viet Minh artillery opened a fierce bombardment of the fortification and French command was disrupted at 18 : 15 when a shell hit the French command post , killing Legionnaire commander Major Paul Pegot and his entire staff . A few minutes later , Colonel Jules Gaucher , commander of the entire northern sector , was killed by Viet Minh artillery . The Viet Minh 312th Division then launched a massive infantry assault , using sappers to defeat French obstacles . French resistance at Beatrice collapsed shortly after midnight following a fierce battle . Roughly 500 French legionnaires were killed . The French estimated that Viet Minh losses totalled 600 dead and 1 @,@ 200 wounded . The French launched a counter @-@ attack against " Beatrice " the following morning , but it was quickly beaten back by Viet Minh artillery . The victory at " Beatrice " " galvanized the morale " of the Viet Minh troops .
Much to French disbelief , the Viet Minh had employed direct artillery fire , in which each gun crew does its own artillery spotting ( as opposed to indirect fire , in which guns are massed farther away from the target , out of direct line of sight , and rely on a forward artillery spotter ) . Indirect artillery , generally held as being far superior to direct fire , requires experienced , well @-@ trained crews and good communications , which the Viet Minh lacked . Navarre wrote that , " Under the influence of Chinese advisers , the Viet Minh commanders had used processes quite different from the classic methods . The artillery had been dug in by single pieces ... They were installed in shell @-@ proof dugouts , and fire point @-@ blank from portholes ... This way of using artillery and AA guns was possible only with the expansive ant holes at the disposal of the Vietminh and was to make shambles of all the estimates of our own artillerymen . " Two days later , the French artillery commander , Colonel Charles Piroth , distraught at his inability to bring counterfire on the well @-@ camouflaged Viet Minh batteries , went into his dugout and committed suicide with a hand grenade . He was buried there in secret to prevent loss of morale among the French troops .
= = = Gabrielle = = =
Following a five @-@ hour cease fire on the morning of 14 March , Viet Minh artillery resumed pounding French positions . The air strip , already closed since 16 : 00 the day before due to a light bombardment , was now put permanently out of commission . Any further French supplies would have to be delivered by parachute . That night , the Viet Minh launched an attack on " Gabrielle " , held by an elite Algerian battalion . The attack began with a concentrated artillery barrage at 17 : 00 . This was very effective and stunned the defenders . Two regiments from the crack 308th Division attacked starting at 20 : 00 . At 04 : 00 the following morning , an artillery shell hit the battalion headquarters , severely wounding the battalion commander and most of his staff .
De Castries ordered a counterattack to relieve " Gabrielle " . However , Colonel Pierre Langlais , in forming the counterattack , chose to rely on the 5th Vietnamese Parachute Battalion , which had jumped in the day before and was exhausted . Although some elements of the counterattack reached " Gabrielle " , most were paralyzed by Viet Minh artillery and took heavy losses . At 08 : 00 the next day , the Algerian battalion fell back , abandoning " Gabrielle " to the Viet Minh . The French lost around 1 @,@ 000 men defending Gabrielle , and the Viet Minh between 1 @,@ 000 and 2 @,@ 000 attacking the strongpoint . The loss of the outpost " Beatrice " and now " Gabrielle " , allowed almost pin point artillery to be rained down for the rest of the battle and cut off any air resupply using the airstrip , and this dictated the resulting events .
= = = Anne @-@ Marie = = =
" Anne @-@ Marie " was defended by Tai troops , members of a Vietnamese ethnic minority loyal to the French . For weeks , Giáp had distributed subversive propaganda leaflets , telling the Tais that this was not their fight . The fall of " Beatrice " and " Gabrielle " had severely demoralized them . On the morning of 17 March , under the cover of fog , the bulk of the Tais left or defected . The French and the few remaining Tais on " Anne @-@ Marie " were then forced to withdraw .
= = = Lull = = =
17 March through 30 March saw a lull in fighting . The Viet Minh further tightened the noose around the French central area ( formed by the strongpoints " Huguette " , " Dominique " , " Claudine " , and " Eliane " ) , effectively cutting off Isabelle and its 1 @,@ 809 personnel . During this lull , the French suffered from a serious crisis of command . " It had become painfully evident to the senior officers within the encircled garrison — and even to Cogny at Hanoi — that de Castries was incompetent to conduct the defense of Dien Bien Phu . Even more critical , after the fall of the northern outposts , he isolated himself in his bunker so that he had , in effect , relinquished his command authority " . On 17 March , Cogny attempted to fly into Điện Biên Phủ to take command , but his plane was driven off by anti @-@ aircraft fire . Cogny considered parachuting into the encircled garrison , but his staff talked him out of it .
De Castries ' seclusion in his bunker , combined with his superiors ' inability to replace him , created a leadership vacuum within the French command . On 24 March , an event took place which later became a matter of historical debate . Historian Bernard Fall records , based on Langlais ' memoirs , that Colonel Langlais and his fellow paratroop commanders , all fully armed , confronted de Castries in his bunker on 24 March . They told him he would retain the appearance of command , but that Langlais would exercise it . De Castries is said by Fall to have accepted the arrangement without protest , although he did exercise some command functions thereafter . Phillip Davidson stated that the " truth would seem to be that Langlais did take over effective command of Dien Bien Phu , and that Castries became ' commander emeritus ' who transmitted messages to Hanoi and offered advice about matters in Dien Bien Phu " . Jules Roy , however , makes no mention of this event , and Martin Windrow argues that the " paratrooper putsch " is unlikely to have happened . Both historians record that Langlais and Marcel Bigeard were known to be on good terms with their commanding officer .
The French aerial resupply took heavy losses from Viet Minh machine guns near the landing strip . On 27 March , Hanoi air transport commander Nicot ordered that all supply deliveries be made from 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) or higher ; losses were expected to remain heavy . De Castries ordered an attack against the Viet Minh machine guns 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) west of Điện Biên Phủ . Remarkably , the attack was a complete success , with 350 Viet Minh soldiers killed and seventeen AA machine guns destroyed ( French estimate ) , while the French lost 20 killed and 97 wounded .
= = = 30 March – 5 April assaults = = =
The next phase of the battle saw more massed Viet Minh assaults against French positions in the central Điện Biên Phủ — at " Eliane " and " Dominique " in particular . Those two areas were held by five understrength battalions , composed of Frenchmen , Legionnaires , Vietnamese , North Africans , and Tais . Giáp planned to use the tactics from the " Beatrice " and " Gabrielle " skirmishes .
At 19 : 00 on 30 March , the Viet Minh 312th Division captured " Dominique 1 and 2 " , making " Dominique 3 " the final outpost between the Viet Minh and the French general headquarters , as well as outflanking all positions east of the river . At this point , the French 4th Colonial Artillery Regiment entered the fight , setting its 105 mm howitzers to zero elevation and firing directly on the Viet Minh attackers , blasting huge holes in their ranks . Another group of French , near the airfield , opened fire on the Viet Minh with anti @-@ aircraft machine guns , forcing the Viet Minh to retreat .
The Viet Minh were more successful in their simultaneous attacks elsewhere . The 316th Division captured " Eliane 1 " from its Moroccan defenders , and half of " Eliane 2 " by midnight . On the other side of Điện Biên Phủ , the 308th attacked " Huguette 7 " , and nearly succeeded in breaking through , but a French sergeant took charge of the defenders and sealed the breach .
Just after midnight on 31 March , the French launched a counterattack against " Eliane 2 " , and recaptured half of it . Langlais ordered another counterattack the following afternoon against " Dominique 2 " and " Eliane 1 " , using virtually " everybody left in the garrison who could be trusted to fight " . The counterattacks allowed the French to retake " Dominique 2 " and Eliane 1 , but the Viet Minh launched their own renewed assault . The French , who were exhausted and without reserves , fell back from both positions late in the afternoon . Reinforcements were sent north from " Isabelle " , but were attacked en route and fell back to " Isabelle " .
Shortly after dark on 31 March , Langlais told Major Marcel Bigeard , who was leading the defense at " Eliane " , to fall back across the river . Bigeard refused , saying " As long as I have one man alive I won 't let go of ' Eliane 4 ' . Otherwise , Dien Bien Phu is done for . " The night of the 31st , the 316th Division attacked " Eliane 2 " . Just as it appeared the French were about to be overrun , a few French tanks arrived , and helped push the Viet Minh back . Smaller attacks on " Eliane 4 " were also pushed back . The Viet Minh briefly captured " Huguette 7 " , only to be pushed back by a French counterattack at dawn on 1 April .
Fighting continued in this manner over the next several nights . The Viet Minh repeatedly attacked " Eliane 2 " , only to be beaten back . Repeated attempts to reinforce the French garrison by parachute drops were made , but had to be carried out by lone planes at irregular times to avoid excessive casualties from Viet Minh anti @-@ aircraft fire . Some reinforcements did arrive , but not enough to replace French casualties .
= = = Trench warfare = = =
On 5 April , after a long night of battle , French fighter @-@ bombers and artillery inflicted particularly devastating losses on one Viet Minh regiment , which was caught on open ground . At that point , Giáp decided to change tactics . Although Giáp still had the same objective — to overrun French defenses east of the river — he decided to employ entrenchment and sapping to try to achieve it .
On 10 April , the French attempted to retake " Eliane 1 " , which had been lost eleven days earlier . The loss posed a significant threat to " Eliane 4 " , and the French wanted to eliminate that threat . The dawn attack , which Bigeard devised , was preceded by a short , massive artillery barrage , followed by small unit infiltration attacks , followed by mopping @-@ up operations . " Eliane 1 " changed hands several times that day , but by the next morning the French had control of the strongpoint . The Viet Minh attempted to retake it on the evening of 12 April , but were pushed back .
At this point , the morale of the Viet Minh soldiers was greatly lowered due to the massive casualties they had received . During a period of stalemate from 15 April to 1 May , the French intercepted enemy radio messages which told of whole units refusing orders to attack , and communist prisoners said that they were told to advance or be shot by the officers and non @-@ commissioned officers behind them . Worse still , the Viet Minh lacked advanced medical care , with one stating that " Nothing strikes at combat morale like the knowledge that if wounded , the soldier will go uncared for " . To avert the crisis of mutiny , Giáp called in fresh reinforcements from Laos .
During the fighting at " Eliane 1 " , on the other side of camp , the Viet Minh entrenchments had almost entirely surrounded " Huguette 1 and 6 " . On 11 April , the garrison of " Huguette 1 " attacked , and was joined by artillery from the garrison of " Claudine " . The goal was to resupply " Huguette 6 " with water and ammunition . The attacks were repeated on the nights of the 14 @-@ 15 and 16 – 17 April . While they did succeed in getting some supplies through , the French suffered heavy casualties , which convinced Langlais to abandon " Huguette 6 " . Following a failed attempt to link up , on 18 April , the defenders at " Huguette 6 " made a daring break out , but only a few managed to make it to French lines . The Viet Minh repeated the isolation and probing attacks against Huguette 1 , and overran the fort on the morning of 22 April . With the fall of " Huguette 1 " , the Viet Minh took control of more than 90 percent of the airfield , making accurate parachute drops impossible . This caused the landing zone to become perilously small , and effectively choked off much needed supplies . A French attack against " Huguette 1 " later that day was repulsed .
= = = Isabelle = = =
" Isabelle " saw only light action until 30 March , when the Viet Minh succeeded in isolating it and beating back the attempt to send reinforcements north . Following a massive artillery barrage on 30 March , the Viet Minh began employing the same trench warfare tactics that they were using against the central camp . By the end of April , " Isabelle " had exhausted its water supply and was nearly out of ammunition .
= = = Final attacks = = =
The Viet Minh launched a massed assault against the exhausted defenders on the night of 1 May , overrunning " Eliane 1 " , " Dominique 3 " , and " Huguette 5 " , although the French managed to beat back attacks on " Eliane 2 " . On 6 May , the Viet Minh launched another massed attack against " Eliane 2 " . The attack included , for the first time , Katyusha rockets . The French artillery fired a " TOT " ( Time On Target ) attack , so artillery rounds fired from different positions would strike on target at the same time . This barrage defeated the first assault wave . A few hours later that night , the Viet Minh detonated a mine shaft , blowing " Eliane 2 " up . The Viet Minh attacked again , and within a few hours had overrun the defenders .
On 7 May , Giáp ordered an all @-@ out attack against the remaining French units with over 25 @,@ 000 Viet Minh against fewer than 3 @,@ 000 garrison troops . At 17 : 00 , de Castries radioed French headquarters in Hanoi and talked with Cogny .
De Castries : " The Viets are everywhere . The situation is very grave . The combat is confused and goes on all about . I feel the end is approaching , but we will fight to the finish . "
Cogny : " Of course you will fight to the end . It is out of the question to run up the white flag after your heroic resistance . "
By nightfall , all French central positions had been captured . The last radio transmission from the French headquarters reported that enemy troops were directly outside the headquarters bunker and that all the positions had been overrun . The radio operator in his last words stated : " The enemy has overrun us . We are blowing up everything . Vive la France ! " That night the garrison made a breakout attempt , in the Camarón tradition . While some of the main body managed to break out , none succeeded in escaping the valley . However at " Isabelle " , a similar attempt later the same night saw about 70 troops , out of 1 @,@ 700 men in the garrison , escape to Laos .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Prisoners = = =
On 8 May , the Viet Minh counted 11 @,@ 721 prisoners , of whom 4 @,@ 436 were wounded . This was the greatest number the Viet Minh had ever captured : one @-@ third of the total captured during the entire war . The prisoners were divided into groups . Able @-@ bodied soldiers were force @-@ marched over 600 km ( 370 mi ) to prison camps to the north and east , where they were intermingled with Viet Minh soldiers to discourage French bombing runs . Hundreds died of disease along the way . The wounded were given basic first aid until the Red Cross arrived , removed 858 , and provided better aid to the remainder . Those wounded who were not evacuated by the Red Cross were sent into detention .
One of their gaolers was Georges Boudarel , a French academic and Communist militant . He was accused of torturing French prisoners for the Viet Minh during the First Indochina War .
Of 10 @,@ 863 survivors held as prisoners , only 3 @,@ 290 were officially repatriated four months later ; however , the losses figure may include the 3 @,@ 013 prisoners of Vietnamese origin whose eventual fate is unknown .
= = = Political ramifications = = =
The garrison constituted roughly a tenth of the total French Union manpower in Indochina . The defeat seriously weakened the position and prestige of the French as previously planned negotiations over the future of Indochina began .
The Geneva Conference opened on 8 May 1954 , the day after the surrender of the garrison . Ho Chi Minh entered the conference on the opening day with the news of his troops ' victory in the headlines . The resulting agreement temporarily partitioned Vietnam into two zones : the North was administered by the communist Democratic Republic of Vietnam while the South was administered by the French @-@ supported State of Vietnam . The last units of the French Union forces withdrew from Indochina in 1956 . This partition was supposed to be temporary , and the two zones were meant to be reunited through national elections in 1956 . After the French withdrawal , the United States supported the southern government , under Emperor Bao Dai and Prime Minister Ngo Dinh Diem , which opposed the Geneva agreement , and which claimed that Ho Chi Minh 's forces from the North had been killing Northern loyalists and terrorizing people both north and south . The North was supported by both the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) and the Soviet Union ( USSR ) . This arrangement proved tenuous and escalated into the Vietnam War ( Second Indochina War ) , eventually bringing 500 @,@ 000 American troops into South Vietnam .
France 's defeat in Indochina , coupled with the German destruction of her armies just 14 years earlier , seriously damaged its prestige elsewhere in its colonial empire , as well as with its NATO allies , most importantly , the United States . Within her empire , the defeat in Indochina served to spur independence movements in other colonies , notably the North African territories from which many of the troops who fought at Điện Biên Phủ had been recruited . In 1954 , six months after the battle at Điện Biên Phủ ended , the Algerian War started , and by 1956 both the Moroccan and Tunisian protectorates had gained independence . A French board of inquiry , the Catroux Commission , later investigated the defeat .
= = = American participation = = =
According to the Mutual Defense Assistance Act , the United States provided the French with material aid during the battle – aircraft ( supplied by the USS Saipan ) , weapons , mechanics , 24 CIA / CAT pilots , and U.S. Air Force maintenance crews . The United States , however , intentionally avoided overt direct intervention . In February 1954 , following the French occupation of Điện Biên Phủ but prior to the battle , Democratic senator Michael Mansfield asked United States Defense Secretary Charles Erwin Wilson whether the United States would send naval or air units if the French were subjected to greater pressure there , but Wilson replied that " for the moment there is no justification for raising United States aid above its present level " . President Dwight D. Eisenhower also stated , " Nobody is more opposed to intervention than I am " . On 31 March , following the fall of " Beatrice " , " Gabrielle " , and " Anne @-@ Marie " , a panel of U.S. Senators and House Representatives questioned the American Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , Admiral Arthur W. Radford , about the possibility of American involvement . Radford concluded it was too late for the U.S. Air Force to save the French garrison . A proposal for direct intervention was unanimously voted down by the panel , which " concluded that intervention was a positive act of war " .
The United States did covertly participate in the battle . Following a request for help from Henri Navarre , Radford provided two squadrons of B @-@ 26 Invader bomber aircraft to support the French . Subsequently , 37 American transport pilots flew 682 sorties over the course of the battle . Earlier , in order to succeed the pre @-@ Điện Biên Phủ Operation Castor of November 1953 , General Chester McCarty made available 12 additional C @-@ 119 Flying Boxcars flown by French crews .
Two of the American pilots , James McGovern , Jr. and Wallace Buford , were killed in action during the siege of Điện Biên Phủ . On 25 February 2005 , the seven still living American pilots were awarded the French Legion of Honor by Jean @-@ David Levitte , the French ambassador to the United States . The role that the American pilots played in this battle had remained little known until 2004 . The American historian Erik Kirsinger researched the case for more than a year to establish the facts . French author Jules Roy suggests that Admiral Radford discussed with the French the possibility of using nuclear weapons in support of the French garrison . Moreover , John Foster Dulles reportedly mentioned the possibility of lending atomic bombs to the French for use at Điện Biên Phủ , and a similar source claims that the British Foreign Secretary Sir Anthony Eden was aware of the possibility of the use of nuclear weapons in that region .
= = = Khe Sanh = = =
In January 1968 , during the Vietnam War , the North Vietnamese Army ( still under Giáp 's command ) initiated a siege and artillery bombardment on the U.S. Marine Corps infantry and artillery base at Khe Sanh , South Vietnam . Historians are divided on whether this was a genuine attempt to repeat their success at Điện Biên Phủ by forcing the surrender of the Marine base , or else a diversion from the rest of the Tết Offensive , or an example of the North Vietnamese Army keeping its options open . At Khe Sanh , a number of factors were significantly different from Điện Biên Phủ . Khe Sanh was much closer to an American supply base ( 45 km or 28 mi ) compared to a French one at Điện Biên Phủ ( 200 km or 120 mi ) .
At Khe Sanh , the U.S. Marines held the high ground , and their artillery forced the North Vietnamese to use their own artillery from a much greater distance . By contrast , at Điện Biên Phủ , the French artillery ( six 105 mm batteries and one battery of four 155 mm howitzers and mortars ) were only sporadically effective ; Khe Sanh received 18 @,@ 000 tons of aerial resupplies during the 77 @-@ day battle , whereas during the 167 days that the French forces at Điện Biên Phủ held out , they received only 4 @,@ 000 tons . And lastly , the US Air Force dropped 114 @,@ 810 tons of bombs on the Vietnamese at Khe Sanh – roughly as much as on Japan in 1945 during World War II .
= = Women at Điện Biên Phủ = =
Many of the flights operated by the French Air force to evacuate casualties had female flight nurses on board . A total of 15 women served on flights to Điện Biên Phủ . One , Geneviève de Galard , was stranded there when her plane was destroyed by shellfire while being repaired on the airfield . She remained on the ground providing medical services in the field hospital until the surrender . She was later referred to as the " Angel of Điện Biên Phủ " . However , historians disagree regarding this moniker , with Martin Windrow maintaining that de Galard was referred to by this name by the garrison itself , but Michael Kenney and Bernard Fall maintaining it was added by outside press agencies .
The French forces came to Điện Biên Phủ accompanied by two bordels mobiles de campagne , ( " mobile field brothels " ) , served by Algerian and Vietnamese women . When the siege ended , the Viet Minh sent the surviving Vietnamese women for " re @-@ education " .
= = In popular culture = =
The battle was depicted in two films .
Jump into Hell ( 1955 ) was an American film directed by David Butler that was shot in the US and released by Warner Bros.
Dien Bien Phu , was a 1992 docudrama film — with several autobiographical parts — in conjunction with the Vietnamese army by Điện Biên Phủ veteran and French director Pierre Schoendoerffer .
Dien Bien Phu Falls is mentioned in 1989 song " We Didn 't Start the Fire " by Billy Joel .
= = = Media links = = =
Newsreels ( video )
( English ) The News Magazine of the Screen ( May 1954 )
( English ) U.S. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles on the fall of Dien Bien Phu ( May 7th , 1954 )
( English ) Dien Bien Phu Episode From Ten Thousand Day War Documentary on YouTube
Retrospectives ( video )
( English ) English subtitled ( Closed Captions ) scene from the " Dien Bien Phu " docudrama by Schoendoerffer ( 1992 )
( English ) Archive footages of Colonel Sassi and his 2 @,@ 000 strong Hmong partisans en route to Dien Bien Phu for a rescue mission in April 1954 ( 2000 ) on YouTube
( French ) Archive radio calls between General Cogny & Colonel de Castries ( 1954 ) + 2 commented scenes from Schoendoerffer 's docudrama ( 1992 )
( French ) Testimonial of General Giáp , 50 years after the battle ( May 7th , 2004 )
( French ) Testimonial of General Bigeard , 50 years after the battle ( May 3rd , 2004 )
( French ) Testimonial of Corporal Schoendoerffer , 50 years after the battle ( May 5th , 2004 )
War reports ( Picture galleries and captions )
( French ) The battle of Dien Bien Phu
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= Tanks in the Spanish Army =
Tanks in the Spanish Army have over 90 years of history , from the French Renault FTs first delivered in 1919 to the Leopard 2 and B1 Centauro models of the early 21st century . The FT took part in combat during the Rif War and participated in the first amphibious landing with tanks in history , at Alhucemas . In 1925 , the Spanish Army began to undertake a program to develop and produce a Spanish tank , heavily based on the Renault FT , called the Trubia A4 . Although the prototype performed well during testing , the tank was never put into mass production . Spain also experimented with the Italian Fiat 3000 , acquiring one tank in 1925 , and with another indigenous tank program called the Landesa . However , none of these evolved into a major armor program , and as a result the FT remained the most important tank , in numbers , in the Spanish Army until the beginning of the Spanish Civil War .
Between July 1936 and April 1939 , during the Spanish Civil War , the two opposing armies received large quantities of tanks from foreign powers . Spain 's Second Republic received tanks from the Soviet Union , many of which were captured by the Nationalists and pressed into service against their former masters , while the Nationalists were aided by the Germans and Italians . The Spanish Civil War , although the testing grounds for the nations which would ultimately take part in World War II , proved inconclusive with regard to the proof of mechanized warfare . Despite attempts by Soviet , German and Italian advisers and soldiers to use newly devised mechanized theories , the lack of quality crews and the tanks , and the insufficient amount of tanks provided bad impressions on the usefulness of tanks on their own .
The Spanish Army ended the Spanish Civil War with a fleet of light tanks . Looking to field more modern and capable tanks , the Spanish government and army approved a venture to design and manufacture a better light tank , known as the Verdeja . Although the tank proved extremely capable , a lack of raw materials and incentives doomed the program to failure . Furthermore , the army 's requirements were temporarily satisfied by the procurement of Panzer IVs in late 1943 . However , the failure to acquire more Panzer IVs led Spain to field a largely antiquated collection of light tanks and an insufficient amount of medium tanks . In 1953 , the United States and Spain signed a military aid program agreement which led to the supply of M47 Patton and M48 Patton tanks . The American decision to not allow Spain to deploy the new equipment during the war with Morocco caused Spain to look elsewhere for a supplement to their fleet of Patton tanks , ending with the procurement of the AMX @-@ 30E , based on the French AMX @-@ 30 .
Almost immediately after , the Spanish Army and the Spanish Ministry of Defense began to look for a future Spanish tank . This turned into the Lince tank program . Despite numerous bids the Lince program failed , both for financial reasons and because of the decision to instead modernize the existing fleet of AMX @-@ 30Es , and to procure a large number of American M60 Patton tanks to replace the fleet of older Patton tanks . Over half of the AMX @-@ 30Es were upgraded to a standard known as the AMX @-@ 30EM2 , while the rest suffered a more finite modification known as the AMX @-@ 30EM1 . However , the M60s and modernized AMX @-@ 30Es did not provide Spain with a sufficiently modern tank for the next century . In 1994 , the Spanish Ministry of Defense began to negotiate with the German government over the purchase of the Leopard 2 . Ultimately , 108 Leopard 2A4s were procured and integrated into the Spanish Army , while 219 Leopard 2Es were built in Spain , based on the German Leopard 2A6 . The Leopard 2E and Leopard 2A4 replaced the fleet of M60 Patton tanks , while Spain 's AMX @-@ 30EM2s were replaced by Italian B1 Centauro anti @-@ tank cavalry vehicles . Presently , the Spanish Army possesses 108 Leopard 2A4s and 219 Leopard 2Es .
= = Birth of the Spanish tank force : 1919 – 1926 = =
= = = Background = = =
Before First World War Spanish Army bought a Schneider @-@ Brillié in 1909 to be used in Melilla , where armed conflict with local tribes was going on . This was a French bus platform that was fitted with an armoured body , to be used as troop transport . Although it was big , slow and its performance was not good Spanish Army learnt the value of armored vehicles and bought a second one . Spanish Army officers appreciated the advantages of using advanced weapons technology in Colonial War in Spanish Morocco and followed First World War advances .
= = = First purchases = = =
The Spanish army 's interest in the tank began near the end of World War I , when a formal petition for one Renault FT light tank was made to the French government on 28 October 1918 . This purchase , however , was not processed until 15 January 1919 . Spain 's Comisión de Experiencias , Proyectos y Comprobación del Material de Guerra ( Experiences , Projects and Confirmation Commission ) issued a formal order for an FT , armed with a 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) cannon , and days later extended the order to include another three cannon armed tanks , and another FT armed with a machine gun . On 5 March the order was authorized and then extended further to include two more FTs , armed with the 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) cannon . On 20 March the French government declared that they could not process the sale , and on 12 April the process to acquire these vehicles began anew .
In May 1919 , the French acceded to the sale of a single FT light tank to the Spanish Army , delivered the next month . This particular FT was armed with an 8 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) Hotchkiss machine gun , and was later re @-@ armed with a Spanish 7 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 28 in ) machine gun . Upon inspection by the Spanish government , it was decided to procure another ten — including eight armed with machine guns and two armed with cannons . The French government declared that there were no vehicles available for sale , and later added that under no circumstances would they allow Spain to rearm these vehicles with the Spanish 7 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 28 in ) machine gun , and consequently denied the sale . As a result , Spain began to approach other governments , including Great Britain and the United States , but with no success .
= = = Rif War = = =
Following Spain 's colonial defeat at the Battle of Annual , on 22 July 1921 , another military envoy was sent to France to petition for more tanks . This time , the French government consented and agreed to the sale of ten machine gun armed FTs and a single command tank . The command tank was an FT chassis , with the turret replaced by a superstructure , carrying a single communications radio . These were presented to the third section of the Escuela Central de Tiro , or the Central Shooting School , on 12 January 1922 , and organized into a company of twelve light tanks . In September 1921 , the Spanish government also procured six Schneider CA1 tanks and deployed these to Morocco as early as 28 February 1922 . On 13 March 1922 , six FTs were unloaded at Melilla , as well .
On 18 March 1922 , the company of FT light tanks took part in its first combat operation , during the Rif War . Ordered to operate with the Spanish Legion , the force was to capture the town of Tunguntz , in Northern Morocco . Surprising the defenders with their appearance , the armored company advanced , and the legionnaires behind , and captured the town of Anvar . Advancing towards Tunguntz , the tanks began to come under heavy fire , as their advance had isolated them from the legionnaires due to the speed . As a result , the tanks were forced to withdraw to Anvar to fall back on the protection of the infantry . Two FTs were abandoned by their crew because of mechanical problems and were later destroyed by the Moroccan defenders with dynamite . A post @-@ action analysis of the action decided that the poor performance of the tanks company was a direct result of poor cooperation with the infantry , the lack of reliability of the tanks ' machine guns and the lack of prior training before being rushed to the front . Thereafter , Spain 's armored company was used almost continuously in small @-@ scale operations between late 1922 and September 1925 . On 8 September 1925 , Spain 's armor would take part in the first amphibious landing with tanks in history .
After being refitted with brand new FTs to replace losses incurred during the three years of operations in Morocco , the tank company was transferred to Ceuta to prepare for the amphibious operations planned to place in and around Al Hoceima Bay . In the days previous to the Alhucemas landing , the armored company took part in a number of training exercises , with four K @-@ type landing craft , specially modified to allow them to carry three tanks each . However , on the day of the landings the landing craft hit a shoal 50 meters ( 55 yd ) from the beach ; as a result , the armored company was not able to land until the next day , on 9 September 1925 . Upon landing , the vehicles were used to support the left flank of the Spanish attack and aided in the capture of the heights surrounding the beaches and controlling the exit points towards the inland .
The Rif War came to an end in May 1926 , and the armored company was relocated to the Spanish mainland in July of that year .
= = Early indigenous tank development programs : 1925 – 1935 = =
With their experiences in Morocco , the Spanish Army decided to fund a development program for a new Spanish light tank . The new vehicle was to be based on the Renault FT , which was the most numerous armored vehicle in service with the Spanish Army at the time and one of the most widely used by foreign armies . The program was spearheaded by Captain of the Artillery Carlos Ruiz de Toledo , who had first commanded the battery of Schneider CA1 assault tanks in Morocco ; Toledo felt that the tank would become an extremely important asset in future conflicts and felt that the Spanish Army required a Spanish @-@ built model . As a result , he toured a number of European states in an effort to collect information on new trends in tank design and attempt to integrate these into the Spanish tank program . The resulting tank was known as the Carro de Combate Trubia serie A , or the " Series A Trubia Tank " .
= = = Trubia light tank = = =
The first prototype development began in 1925 . Produced in the Trubia Artillery Factory ( Fábrica de Artillería Trubia ) , in Asturias , the tank was powered by a four @-@ cylinder Hispano @-@ Suiza 40 / 50 engine , the same engine the Spanish Army 's military trucks had been equipped with since 1915 . Given the Spanish Army 's opinion that the FT was limited in firepower , the Trubia tank featured a special turret . The turret was designed in two articulated halves , which could traverse independently , each armed with a machine gun . Theoretically , if one of the machine guns jammed , the tank would still have another one to defend itself with . Furthermore , the vehicle 's hull was provided with firing ports , to allow the crew to fire from within the tank . This prototype was put through a series of tests , and its success brought about the decision to continue development on a Spanish tank , leading to an improved Trubia tank design , known as the Modelo Trubia 75HP , tipo rápido , serie A ( Model Trubia 75 hp , fast tank , series A ) .
While touring Europe for a second time , in an attempt to integrate foreign design trends into the new Trubia , Captain Ruiz de Toledo found a new type of track system in Germany . Designed to avoid having problems with the tracks coming off the vehicle , the new design substituted the traditional tracks with a system which was held together by a lateral metal wall , with the roadwheels suspended from the chassis . The track system was the most innovative and unique part of the new Trubia light tank . Apart from the new tracks , the Trubia was to have a greater velocity ( at least 30 kilometers per hour ( 19 mph ) ) and greater road range than the FT . While a new machine gun was installed on the glacis plate , the tank 's crew was increased from two to three , which caused the hull to be enlarged ; this also allowed the engine to be maintained from inside the vehicle , allowing the crew to fix small breakdowns in the field . To refrigerate the engine and the crew , a compressed air dispenser was installed inside the chassis . This solved problems dealing with the crew 's claustrophobia and the intake of gasses originating from the engine found in the FT , and made crewing the tank much more ergonomic . The original 50 horsepower ( 37 kW ) was replaced with a more powerful 75 horsepower ( 56 kW ) Daimler four cylinder engine . The transmission had four forward gears and four reverse gears . The new tank proved satisfactory — and even bettered the FT in some aspects — and the Spanish Army ordered the construction of four prototypes .
The first prototype was manufactured in 1926 . A total of four prototypes were ordered , but production was slow and by 1928 only one of the tanks had been completed , while the other three prototypes were not armed . The completed vehicle , called the Trubia A4 , was sent to the Firing School where it was put through a series of tests . In 1931 , a second prototype was completed , while the final two were completed in 1934 . The original prototype was returned to the factory in 1935 , to integrate a number of modernizations and to repair any damage which was done to the vehicle during the testing process . The other three tanks were issued to the Milan Infantry Regiment , in Oviedo , where they continued testing .
= = = Other tank programs = = =
While the Trubia was being developed , the Spanish Army acquired an Italian Fiat 3000A . Ordered in October 1924 , it was received in January 1925 , and assigned to the Central Firing School . There , it went through a series of experiments and tests . The tank was originally developed as a near copy of the Renault FT , of which Italy had previously attempted to procure one hundred units . It had a smaller chassis and was powered through a 50 horsepower ( 37 kW ) engine . The FIAT 3000A had a turret with two 6 @.@ 5 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 26 in ) machine guns ; this was later improved with a 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) cannon and designated the FIAT 3000B .
In 1928 , the Trubia Factory , under Major of the Artillery Victor Landesa Domenech , designed and began production of a prototype of a new armored tractor ; these were named after him , as the Landesa . The unarmed tractor finished production in 1930 and went through a series of tests . Between 1931 and 1932 the vehicle went through a series of upgrades in the factory and was later sent to Madrid for further testing , where it passed satisfactorily in April 1932 . Landesa , who had at this time been promoted to Lieutenant Colonel , began a preseries of three vehicles , motored by the L @-@ 2000 55 horsepower ( 41 kW ) engine , designed by Daimler @-@ Benz . Ultimately , two were produced and set for testing with the Spanish Republican Army , and another nine were ordered with the idea of using them to tow Škoda 76 @.@ 5 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 01 in ) anti @-@ aircraft cannons . All the while , the Trubia Factory began to plan an armored and armed version of the vehicle for the Spanish Army . Two were produced by 1934 , although the Trubia Factory experienced troubles in producing the L @-@ 2000 engines ; as a result , they were not powered by the beginning of the Spanish Civil War in 1936 . They were armed with a single 7 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 28 in ) machine gun .
= = Tanks during the Spanish Civil War : 1936 – 1939 = =
At the start of the Spanish Civil War , the Spanish Army counted on a total of ten Renault FTs in working condition distributed equally amongst two light tank regiments ; one in Madrid and the other in Sevilla . The former ( 1st Light Tank Regiment ) fell under the control of the Second Spanish Republic 's army , while the 2nd Light Tank Regiment ( in Zaragoza ) was integrated into the Nationalist army . The lone Fiat 3000A is thought to have been in service at this time , but was cannibalized for parts . Spain 's six Schneider CA1 assault tanks were put into service with the Republican Army , and saw combat around Madrid before and during the Siege of Madrid , and during the Siege of the Alcázar in Toledo . They were destroyed during the Siege of Madrid . The three Trubia A4 prototypes issued to the Milan Infantry Regiment were turned over to the Nationalist uprising , while the fourth prototype located in the Trubia Factory was taken by the factory 's workers and quickly repaired so that it could be pressed into service in the Republican Army .
= = = Armor of the Popular Front ( Spanish Republic Government ) = = =
Spain 's Republican Forces fabricated a number of different armored vehicles throughout the war . Although serving little military purpose , due to the poor quality of their design and construction , they were important factors in lifting the Popular Front 's military 's morale . Factories in the northern areas of Spain produced a fair number of armored tractors and trucks ; for example , sixteen armored vehicles , denominated Naval @-@ Somua , were manufactured based on the chassis of the French Somua bus . The Trubia Factory , at this time working for the Republic , manufactured between 15 and 20 light tanks known as the Trubia @-@ Naval , which were heavily influenced by the Landesa and the Trubia A4 . However , most construction revolved around the armoring of trucks , known as Tiznaos for the grey color of their steel armor . Due to the weight of the armor and the low power output of their engines , many were not able to move more than 20 meters ( 22 yd ) without breaking down . These were mostly constructed in the heavily industrialized regions in northern Spain and in Catalonia . The factories of Levante fabricated , under Soviet guidance , what was considered to be one of the best armored trucks of the war — the UNL @-@ 35 . These vehicles were based on the Soviet ZiS @-@ 5 truck , and were fabricated between early 1937 and March 1939 at a rate of no more than five per month . Also , based on other chassis , such as Ford 's model 817T , around 120 UNL @-@ 35s were manufactured .
On 15 October 1936 , the first shipment of 50 Soviet T @-@ 26 light tanks arrived at Cartagena . These were put into combat as early as 26 October , under the leadership of Soviet Lieutenant Colonel Semyon Krivoshein , south of Madrid . The first combat operation in Spain for the T @-@ 26 was near the town of Seseña , when a Republican tank company counterattacked against the spearhead of the Nationalist 's drive towards Madrid . The counterattack , although partially successful , did not hinder the Nationalist advance . By the beginning of the operation , the tanks had separated themselves from the infantry , following them . However , the Republican armor successfully surprised a company of Nationalist infantrymen , who had mistaken then for Italian allies , and routed them . The tank company then continued towards the town of Esquivias , to the West , where they were counterattacked by cavalry from the Moroccan Legion and finally forced to withdraw . Lacking infantry support , a number of T @-@ 26s were knocked out by Nationalist infantrymen using wine bottles as bomblets . The tank company returned through Seseña , which had been reoccupied by Nationalist infantry , and came under heavy fire . Despite the withdrawal , the counterattack was heavily publicized in Madrid , by the Republic , as a victory . The lack of success is attributed to the lack of coordination between Republican tanks , infantry and artillery . Although it 's commonly mentioned that Spain received 312 T @-@ 26s , this number includes 16 FTs , delivered by Poland , and 15 T @-@ 26s which never actually made it to Spain . Ultimately , 281 T @-@ 26s were delivered to Spain during the Spanish Civil War .
The Soviet Union also supplied Spain with 50 BT @-@ 5 tanks . Although slightly heavier than the T @-@ 26 , the BT @-@ 5 was faster ; it was capable of reaching velocities of 65 kilometers per hour ( 40 mph ) with tracks , on road , and 90 kilometers per hour ( 56 mph ) with wheels . However , given the non @-@ ideal nature of Spanish terrain , the BT @-@ 5 was rarely capable of taking advantage of its speed . The loss of many of the Republic 's BT @-@ 5s during the Battle of the Ebro caused them to retire the tank to their reserves . The BT @-@ 5 was a product improvement of J. Walter Christie 's fast tank concept , using Christie suspension , and was armed with a 45 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) tank gun .
It must be taken into account that Soviet T @-@ 26 was one the most modern tanks of the world when it arrived to Spain , and Soviet Army tank doctrine was really advanced . Unfortunately for the Spanish Government during these years Stalin decided to eliminate all those generals that supported modern tank warfare and sent to Spain the officers that he liked . This meant Soviet tanks potential was never exploited in Spain as it could .
= = = Organization of Popular Front armored forces = = =
The first 50 T @-@ 26 tanks which arrived in Spain , under the command of Krivoshein , were crewed by Soviet personnel . Nevertheless , the Soviet lieutenant colonel opened a training school in the town of Archena , near Cartagena , recruiting mainly truck and bus drivers from cities such as Madrid and Barcelona . The next month , he opened a second school in Alcalá de Henares , north of Madrid . However , only Communist soldiers were allowed to crew Soviet tanks , and as a result the pool of soldiers to recruit from was narrow and often less adept drivers were picked over better ones , due to their political ideologies . For example , in one instance a tank commander broke contact with the enemy because he had not learned how to fire his main gun . Furthermore , at first , the Soviet trainers did not have interpreters to communicate with their Spanish students .
With training underway , and the tanks quickly put into combat , the first 50 vehicles were organized into the Popular Army 's first tank battalion . The battalion was equipped with three tank companies ( each company containing ten tanks ) and a headquarters company ; each company had three platoons , with three tanks a piece , and a command tank . By mid @-@ November a second battalion was organized . Later that month , Krivoshein and his deputy ( Major Greisser ) were recalled to the Soviet Union and replaced by General Dmitry Pavlov . In December 1936 , General Pavlov organized new Soviet armored vehicles into an armored brigade , made up of four tank battalions and a reconnaissance company . This brigade , known as Brigada de Carros de Combate ( Tank Brigade ) , was composed of 56 tanks and 68 other armored vehicles , and immediately saw combat around Madrid , including in the battles of Jarama and Guadalajara . However , the brigade was used to support Republican infantry forces and not as a mobile armored group , and as a result its strategic role during the war was limited by its misuse . In July 1937 , the brigade took part in the Battle of Brunete , the largest tank battle to that date in the war , with some 150 Republican tanks taking part . The battle was also one of the few examples during the Spanish Civil War of the use of tanks to exploit a penetration along the front . However , the battle cost the Popular Army around 159 armored fighting vehicles .
After the Battle of Brunete , the brigade was reorganized into a new Spanish division , known as the División de Ingenios Blindados ( Armored Vehicles Division ) . This was composed of a tank brigade and an armored brigade ; the latter was made up of lighter armored fighting vehicles , such as the BA @-@ 6 . It was put under the command of Spanish Colonel Sánchez Paredes . By this time , most of the Soviet tankers had returned to the Soviet Union to provide information on mechanized warfare in Spain . The only Soviet unit left was the heavy tank regiment , armed with brand new BT @-@ 5s which had not been used in combat yet . This regiment was crewed by both Soviet and veteran Spanish tankers , and was put under the command of Soviet Colonel Kondriatev . Finally , the division also disposed of an infantry brigade and an anti @-@ tank artillery company . However , by this time the Republican military command had relegated the tank to the role of merely infantry support , dissuaded by the poor performance of Republican armor to that date . The last major battle Republican armor would take part in was the Battle of the Ebro , in 1938 .
The Soviets deduced that although tank formations in Spain were not large enough to perform an ideal mechanized penetration of an enemy 's lines , too large tank formations were also not ideal due to uneven terrain preventing their use en masse . As a result , armored commanders like Pavlov considered the tank 's best role to be infantry support . The Republican use of armor during the Spanish Civil War was not a good demonstration of deep mechanized battle .
= = = Armor of the Nationalists ( Spanish Putschist Army ) = = =
During the Spanish Civil War , the Nationalist Army only developed a single tank , the Carro de Infanteria modelo 1937 ( Infantry Tank model 1937 ) . Taking advantage of the capture of the Trubia Factory in the north , in 1937 , the Nationalists @-@ based it on the Republican Trubia @-@ Naval , the German Panzer I , the T @-@ 26 and the Italian CV @-@ 33 . It was designed to unite the best of all three major light tanks used by the Nationalist Army during the war . However , it did not perform as well as expected , and it was not put into mass production . The Nationalist Army did manufacture a small number of armored trucks and tractors , as well as beginning the development of the Verdeja light tank , but none of these contributed with distinction to the Nationalist effort against the Popular Army .
The first foreign tanks to enter service with the Nationalists were five Italian CV @-@ 33s , which arrived at the city of Vigo on 26 August 1936 . These arrived with ten crewman , whom would serve as instructors . The tanks were armed with two 8 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine guns and had a maximum of 15 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) of steel armor . On 10 December 1936 , Italian dictator Benito Mussolini decided to send combat troops to Spain , in a bid to end the war as early as possible . These men were organized into the Corpo Truppe Volontarie ( CTV ; Volunteer Corps ) , and by the end of the year their ranks had swelled to an estimated 47 @,@ 000 men ; 20 @,@ 000 of which came from the Italian Army , and 27 @,@ 000 of which originated from the Blackshirts . The corps was put under the command of Italian General Mario Roatta . The first major battle for the CTV came in March 1938 , when it decided to engage Republican forces during the Battle of Guadalajara . A force of some 35 @,@ 000 men , including 81 tanks , attacked on 8 March 1937 . Failing to take into account the meteorological conditions of the battlefield , by the following day the Italian troops found themselves attacking over ground that had turned into mud due to the heavy rains . The slow speed of the advance allowed the Republican Air Force to persistently raid advancing Italian forces , dispersing entire columns off the main roads and forcing them to stall in the mud . A Republican counterattack on 18 March , led by Pavlov 's armored brigade , forced the Italians to withdraw . Nationalist air support failed to provide close air support for Italian troops because runways had become water @-@ logged , while Italian armor proved no match against the heavier and faster T @-@ 26 and BT @-@ 5 tanks . Officially , the Italians lost an estimated 2 @,@ 700 soldiers during the campaigning around Guadalajara ; the Republican Army lost an estimated 4 @,@ 000 . According to other sources , the CTV lost an estimated 5 @,@ 000 casualties during the battle . However , armor losses were relatively low , as the Republicans lost 7 T @-@ 26s and the Italians lost 19 CV @-@ 33s . Despite this initial setback , the Italian government continued the supply of personnel and equipment to the CTV in Spain , and by late 1938 the Italian volunteer 's corps was equipped with three tank battalions . By the end of the war , a total of 155 CV @-@ 33s were delivered to Spain .
The Germans delivered a total of 122 Panzer I light tanks to the Spanish Army over the course of the war . The first shipment arrived in October 1936 , consisting of 41 tanks . These tanks would see combat as early as 30 October , around Madrid , when they engaged a column of Republican armored cars , which were able to knock out the German tanks at ranges of 500 meters ( 550 yd ) , with their larger guns . Although the use of armor penetrating ammunition fired from the Panzer I 's 7 @.@ 92 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 312 in ) machine guns could penetrate the armor of the T @-@ 26 at ranges of up to 150 meters ( 160 yd ) , Republican tankers simply began to engage from ranges of up to 1 @,@ 000 meters ( 1 @,@ 100 yd ) , using their heavier 45 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) tank guns . Furthermore , the sights on the T @-@ 26 were calibrated for ranges far longer than those calibrated on German equipment . This disadvantage in firepower led the Nationalist Army to experiment with the adoption of the Italian 20 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) Breda anti @-@ aircraft gun for its fleet of Panzer Is . Firing a 140 @-@ gram ( 4 @.@ 9 oz ) perforating projectile , this cannon could penetrate up to 40 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) of steel armor at a range of 250 meters ( 270 yd ) . The installation of the gun required the top of the tank 's turret to be cut off and extended upwards , increasing the vehicle 's profile and decreasing the visibility of the crew . Furthermore , the new gun 's sights were located within an open crease to the front of the new turret extension , forcing the gunner to aim and fire from a relatively unsafe position . Although originally the Nationalists were aiming to equip at least one Panzer I in each platoon of each battalion with the larger gun , only four prototypes were completed . The capture of Republican T @-@ 26s and their return to service with the Nationalist Army made the modification of the Panzer I unnecessary , while later attempts to up @-@ gun the German light tank failed because of the lack of available 20 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) Breda guns . There were also attempts to mount a 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) anti @-@ tank gun and a 45 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) tank gun , taken from a captured Soviet vehicle , but these failed before any prototypes were completed .
The Nationalist 's tank disparity with Republican forces caused Nationalist commanders to offer Spanish soldiers up to 500 pesetas for each captured T @-@ 26 . Due to the number of T @-@ 26s captured and put back into service against their previous masters , the Soviet Union also inadvertently became the largest provider of armored fighting vehicles of the Nationalist Army . An estimated total of 178 T @-@ 26s were captured during the Spanish Civil War , including 98 put back into service , 30 irreparable vehicles used for spare parts , and 50 T @-@ 26s not pressed into service with the Nationalist Army . In May 1939 , France turned over 10 T @-@ 26s , which had been interned after they had retreated across the border , to Nationalist Spain . The number of captured BT @-@ 5s amounted to much less . By May 1938 , the Nationalist tank force had only put into service 4 BT @-@ 5s , as opposed to 39 T @-@ 26s . The first Nationalist tank company outfitted with T @-@ 26s entered combat during the Battle of Brunete , between 18 – 23 July 1937 . Ultimately , the amount of captured equipment caused the Nationalists to organize a recuperation unit , designed to recuperate Soviet armor off the field and repair them so that they could return to combat .
= = Post @-@ war era : 1939 – 1953 = =
At the end of the Spanish Civil War , the Spanish Army could count on 144 Panzer Is and CV @-@ 33s , and 139 T @-@ 26s . Panzer Is and CV @-@ 33s were organized as " light tanks " , denominated Type Is , while the T @-@ 26s were considered " medium " tanks and categorized as Type IIs . These were organized into four armored regiments , including the 1st Tank Regiment ( based in Madrid ) , the 2nd Tank Regiment ( in Sevilla ) and the 3rd and 4th Tank Regiments . The 3rd 's organization was based upon that used by Nationalist forces during the Spanish Civil War , while the 4th 's was based on that used by the Italian CTV . In 1941 , a fifth regiment was created in North Africa .
= = = Verdeja tank program = = =
Between late 1937 and 1938 , Captain Félix Verdeja Bardales began to privately develop the concept for a new light tank . The new tank would take into consideration all the qualities and problems with existing tanks in service with the Nationalist Army , including the Panzer I and T @-@ 26 , and combine a number of characteristics which would make it the best light tank in service at the time . His ideal light tank included a 45 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) tank gun , with 360 @-@ degree traverse and an elevation of 72 degrees . At the same time , the vehicle was to have the lowest possible silhouette , and no less than 15 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) of all @-@ around armor , and 30 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) on the front . Furthermore , the armor was to be sloped to maximize its efficiency and chance of an incoming projectile ricocheting . With a maximum velocity of 70 kilometers per hour ( 43 mph ) , the light tank was to be powered by a 120 horsepower ( 89 kW ) engine . Furthermore , the vehicle 's mechanical reliability was to improve upon that of the existing tanks in service with the Nationalist Army . Despite initial obstacles , including opposition to an indigenous Spanish tank program from German General Wilhelm Ritter von Thoma , the first prototype was delivered in late 1938 ; this prototype was built from spare parts taken from a number of different tanks . The prototype performed well in testing and a new prototype was ordered .
The new prototype was much closer to what Captain Verdeja had originally planned . The chassis was enlarged , and the engine was moved to the left side of the front compartment of the hull . The volume of the fuel tanks and the thickness of the armor was also increased , while the height of the turret was decreased by sloping the turret 's sides . One of the most unusual — at the time — developments for the tank were the tracks , designed to eliminate the possibility of having them slide off when the tank was moving . The tank had a sprocket to the front of the hull , on each side , and a tensioner to the rear . The tracks were guided by four return rollers and four roadwheels . The tracks had previously been tested on the original prototype ; they were designed to fit around the roadwheel , and consequently lock themselves into place , avoiding the possibility of slipping off . The construction of the prototype was postponed until May 1940 , due to a shortage of funds , and the tank was finally delivered to the proving grounds of Carabanchel for testing . The prototype was denominated the Verdeja 1 , and competed against a T @-@ 26B in a number of different tests . Ultimately , the Verdeja scored a total of 243 points , as compared to 205 scored by the T @-@ 26 . The testing resulted in a number of modifications , including higher suspension to allow climbing over taller obstacles , the increase in armor thickness , increase of the body width and the creation of an empty space at the rear , to allow for the future installation of a communications radio . After two months work , the Verdeja 1 was returned for testing and this time scored a total of 261 @.@ 98 points . Although the success of this prototype persuaded the Spanish government to issue an order for the construction of 1 @,@ 000 tanks , ultimately lack of incentives to develop the relevant industrial infrastructure ; the poor economic situation after the Spanish Civil War and absence of foreign clients , soon caused the production program to collapse .
As the Verdeja 1 program dissolved , Captain Verdeja began to design a successor , taking into consideration the lessons learned during the opening campaigns of the Second World War . The new design featured a reorganized engine bay at the rear of the chassis , which meant moving the drive sprocket to the rear as well . The movement of the engine 's location allowed for better cooling of the vehicle 's motor and the fighting compartment , as well as allowing the turret to be moved forward . The vehicle 's armor was also increased substantially . This new tank was not approved for production or further development , due to continued postponement of the production of the Verdeja 1 for reasons which included offers by the German government to supply the Panzer IV 's engine for the Verdeja 1 . Although production of the new vehicle finally began in 1942 , it was not until August 1944 that the Verdeja 2 prototype was delivered . The decision to purchase a number of German armored vehicles delayed the decision to begin production of the Verdeja 2 ; ultimately the vehicle was left untouched until 1950 , when there was a failed attempt to mount a new engine .
Beginning in 1945 , the now @-@ Major Verdeja was ordered to begin designing an artillery piece using a rapid @-@ firing 75 millimeter L / 40 howitzer designed by Sociedad Española de Construcción Naval , based on the Verdeja 1 chassis . The chassis ' roof and rear wall were eliminated , and instead a gun shield placed over the front . A mechanical brake was installed next to the idler wheel , stopping rearwards movement of the artillery piece during the firing process . The availability of the required parts and the lack of complicated changes meant that the vehicle was quickly prepared and tested extensively . The fate of the self @-@ propelled piece was much the same as that of the Verdeja 2 , and the vehicle was left untouched at the proving grounds in Carabanchel until 1973 , when it was moved to the Spanish base Alfonso XIII , housing the then Mechanized Infantry Regiment Wad Rass nº 55 . It was soon moved to another base , and finally delivered to the base of El Goloso , outside of Madrid , as a part of an armored vehicles museum .
= = = German armor in service with the Spanish Army = = =
In 1943 , the Spanish Army and government decided to replace much of its armor , after studying war in Europe and North Africa . Tanks such as the Panzer I and T @-@ 26 were obsolete , as compared to newer tanks such as the Soviet T @-@ 34 and German Panther tank . As a result , on 15 March 1943 Spain began to negotiate with the Wehrmacht over the acquisition of modern materiel . The petition asked for 250 Panzer IIIs and 100 Panzer IVs . In return , the Germans instead offered a sale of 20 Panzer IVs and 10 Sturmgeschütz IIIs . On 29 April , Spain accepted Germany 's offer . The Panzer IVs sold were of the Ausf . H variant , and arrived in Spain on 6 December 1943 . The Panzer IV Ausf . H included the longer 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) tank gun , and the homogeneous 80 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) steel plate on the glacis .
As early as January 1944 , Spain again began to negotiate with Germany for more equipment . The new program revolved around the sale of 33 Panzer IVs , three of which would be of the command variant . Another offer was made for 67 more Panzer IVs at a later date ; a result , the two programs together summed up to a potential procurement of 100 Panzer IVs . Spain also suggested the purchase of a number of Tiger tanks , although this offer never amounted to anything serious . Regardless , the program to acquire another 100 Panzer IVs never materialized . The 20 Panzer IVs received in late 1943 were organized into two companies , distributed among two battalions in the armored regiment of the Brunete Armored Division .
At the end of World War II , the Spanish Army counted on a tank force composed of 20 Panzer IVs , 10 StuG IIIs , 116 T @-@ 26s , 93 Panzer Is ( including command vehicles ) , 60 CV @-@ 33s and 80 armored cars . In 1949 the armored regiment was reorganized into two battalions of 60 T @-@ 26s , with two command Panzer Is , six combat versions of the Panzer I and two CV @-@ 33 , which were used for reconnaissance , each . A third battalion was composed of the 20 Panzer IVs , plus six Panzer Is . The regiment numbered an estimated 1 @,@ 500 personnel and 100 tanks .
= = American military aid : 1954 – 1970 = =
By the mid @-@ 1950s , the state of the Spanish Army 's tanks was deteriorating . Spain 's armored force composition remained the same until February 1954 , when the United States delivered the first twelve M47 Patton tanks to the Spanish Army . These were a product of a military aid program the United States had signed with Spain in 1953 . By 1957 , the Spanish Army had received a total of 29 M47 tanks . Over the course of the 1950s , Spain received a total of 389 M47 Patton tanks . Throughout the 1960s , Spain received 65 M48 Patton tanks and 66 M48A1s . The M47 and M48 tanks were an important modernization of Spain 's armored firepower . For example , while the T @-@ 26 was armed with a 45 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) cannon , the American tanks were armed with the much more powerful 90 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) tank gun . While a Panzer IV 's ( Ausf . G ) 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) L / 43 tank gun could penetrate 77 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) of steel armor at 1 @,@ 800 meters ( 2 @,@ 000 yd ) ( using the Panzergranate 39 ) , the M47 ( using the M348 HEAT warhead ) could penetrate 190 millimeters ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) from its 90 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) tank gun . Furthermore , the M47 's armor was 110 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) thick on the glacis plate , and 178 millimeters ( 7 @.@ 0 in ) thick on the turret front . Spain also received a number of M41 Walker Bulldog light tanks . These were organized into the Villaviciosa Light Armored Cavalry Regiment , while four were also organized into the Alcázar de Toledo Armored Infantry Regiment as reconnaissance tanks .
Between 1953 and 1968 , the Spanish Army received a total of 446 medium battle tanks ( M47s and M48s ) , 123 light tanks ( M24s and M41s ) , as well as 30 armored recovery vehicles ( the M74 ) . In 1970 , the United States agreed to extend the military aid program by another five years , giving Spain another 66 M48A2 tanks and 17 M41A3s .
The vehicles received were organized based on a reorganization of the Brunete Armored Division in 1965 . This included the General Staff , based at El Pardo , and the Nucleo de Tropas Divisionario ( Divisionary Troop Nucleus ) . The latter was formed by the Villaviciosa Light Armored Cavalry Regiment , the Campaign Artillery Regiment , the 1st Anti @-@ Air Artillery Group , the 1st Engineering Regiment and the Divisionary Logistics Group . Also in the division was the XI Mechanized Infantry Brigade , which included the 6th Saboya Motorized Infantry Regiment , the 55th Uad Ras Mechanized Infantry Regiment , the XI Self @-@ Propelled Artillery Group , the XI Engineering Battalion and the XI Logistics Group . Finally , the division also made use of the XII Armored Brigade , which was formed by the 61st Alcázar de Toledo Armored Infantry Regiment , the 31st Asturias Mechanized Infantry Regiment , the XII Self @-@ Propelled Artillery Group , the XII Engineering Battalion and the XII Logistics Group . The majority of the division 's armor was located in the Alcázar de Toledo Armored Infantry Regiment , which contained two regiments of 48 M48s and 54 M47s , respectively .
= = Late Cold War : 1970 – 1991 = =
= = = Western Sahara crisis and Purchase of French tanks = = =
The United States ' ban on the usage of American ordnance supplied as military aid to Spain during the 1957 – 58 Ifni War pushed Spain to look for alternative equipment which could be freely employed in the Spanish Sahara . Throughout the 1960s , the Spanish government had approached the governments of France and West Germany , hoping to procure either the AMX @-@ 30 or the Leopard 1 , respectively . Ultimately , the Germans were unable to sell the Leopard tank on account of the gun system being British ; at the time , the British Labour Party had decided not to sell to the government of Francisco Franco in Spain . As a result , in May 1970 Spain and France agreed to the sale of 19 AMX @-@ 30 main battle tanks . The first six AMX @-@ 30s were delivered in November 1970 , and these were immediately issued to a new armoured company of the Spanish Legion , stationed in Spanish Sahara . All 19 AMX @-@ 30s purchased from France in 1970 were delivered to the Spanish Legion , in the Spanish Sahara . Beginning in 1974 , Spain began to manufacture the AMX @-@ 30 ( now denominated the AMX @-@ 30E ) , with production of the first batch of 180 tanks ending on 25 June 1979 . The second batch , this time of 100 AMX @-@ 30Es , were produced between 1979 and 1983 . This gave the Spanish Army a total of 299 AMX @-@ 30Es .
The AMX @-@ 30E was armed with the 105 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) modele F1 tank gun , and was powered by the HS @-@ 110 680 horsepower ( 510 kW ) diesel engine . With a fuel tank of 970 liters ( 210 imp gal ) , the tank had a road range of 600 kilometers ( 370 mi ) and the fuel was , on average , sufficient for 18 hours of travel . The tracks had a life of at least 5 @,@ 000 kilometers ( 3 @,@ 100 mi ) . However , Spain 's new tanks began to suffer a number of mechanical problems , dealing with the reliability of the original engine and transmission . Therefore , the Spanish Army and Santa Bárbara Sistemas ( the vehicle 's manufacturer in Spain ) began to look into a series of modifications to improve the AMX @-@ 30 . By this time , the Spanish Army had already begun upgrading its M47 and M48 Patton tanks to the M47E and M48E models , which made them equivalent to the M60 Patton tank in capabilities .
= = = Lince Programme ( Lynx ) = = =
While the army was studying a possible modernisation of its brand @-@ new AMX @-@ 30E fleet , the Spanish Ministry of Defense had set aside 120 billion pesetas ( 1 @.@ 1 billion dollars ) for a future tank programme and attracted interest from five foreign companies . A bid by Krauss @-@ Maffei 's , known as the Lince , provided the clearest technical designs . The tank would be 49 metric tons ( 54 short tons ) and equipped with a 120 @-@ millimeter main gun . It could fire this gun on the move and aim at targets with effectiveness in day and night operations . Fitted with a 1 @,@ 200 horsepower ( 894 @.@ 84 kW ) engine , the Lince could travel as fast as 70 kilometers per hour ( 43 @.@ 50 mph ) on the roads . Although heavily based on the Leopard 2A4 , the Lince was smaller and lighter , trading protection for mobility . Specifically , the Lince prioritised enhanced mobility over the irregular Spanish terrain . Furthermore , size restrictions were imposed due to the existing capabilities of Spain 's railroad and highway network . Although the reduced armor conflicted with the problems that the Spanish had with AMX @-@ 30E 's thin armour , the Lince used a multi @-@ layer armor similar to that of the German Leopard 2A4 , providing greater protection than standard armour for a similar weight . The protection was further enhanced by the low profile turret , again similar to that of the Leopard 2A4 . Despite the offer and ongoing collaboration with the Italians , Spanish investment in the German @-@ Spanish Lince programme grew up to 200 billion pesetas ( 1 @.@ 8 billion dollars ) . However , the Spanish government did not announce any winner for the contract . This indecision led Krauss @-@ Maffei to freeze their bid for the Lince . Krauss @-@ Maffei also cited the loss of millions of dollars due to failures on part of Santa Bárbara Sistemas , who would manufacture the Lince . In 1987 , the Lince program was pushed aside and postponed by the Spanish Ministry of Defense 's decision to instead go on with the modernisation of the Spanish Army 's AMX @-@ 30E fleet . Ultimately , the purchase of a number of M60 Patton tanks , the modernisation of the AMX @-@ 30E and the continued fiscal problems finally caused the Spanish Ministry of Defense to cancel the Lince programme in 1989 .
= = = 1990s modernization = = =
Between 1989 and 1993 , 150 AMX @-@ 30Es were modernised to what would become known as the AMX @-@ 30EM2 . The modernisation entailed the introduction of a new armour piercing discarding sabot round , the modification of the turret hatch to allow the installation of a larger anti @-@ aircraft machine gun , and a brand new fire control system . Besides these modernisations of the tank 's firepower , the mobility of the tank was improved through the exchange of the old engine and transmission for the more reliable MTU 833 Ka @-@ 501 diesel engine , producing 850 horsepower ( 630 kW ) , coupled with the German German ZF LSG @-@ 3000 . A new smoke machine , linked to the tank 's new engine , was also installed . The other 149 AMX @-@ 30Es went through a less expensive and extensive modification , known as the AMX @-@ 30EM1 . These received the American Allison CD @-@ 850 @-@ 6A three speed transmission ( two forward and one reverse ) ; however , the new transmission caused extensive overheating in the engine compartment . These 149 AMX @-@ 30EM1s would eventually be replaced by US surplus M60A3 Patton tanks , purchased from the United States , in the early 1990s .
= = Modern Spanish armor : 1992 – present = =
In the early 1990s , the Spanish Army received 244 M60 tanks to replace its aging fleet of M47Es and M48Es , and its troublesome AMX @-@ 30EM1s . However , these did not represent a great improvement over the existing fleet , and as a result as early as 1994 the Spanish government had already begun to negotiate for a future Spanish tank , which would replace the M60 . Although the Germans offered Spain surplus Leopard 1 tanks and Soviet equipment incorporated into the German Army after the reunification of Germany , the Spanish government declined these offers and pressed for the Leopard 2 . In March 1994 , the Spanish Ministry of Defense created Programa Coraza 2000 ( Programme Armour 2000 ) , which focused on the procurement and integration of new armament for the Spanish Army 's modernisation . The program included the procurement and integration of a Spanish derivative of the German Leopard 2 , known as the Leopard 2E into the Spanish Army . The programme 's scope extended to the integration of 108 Leopard 2A4s , which were leased to Spain in late 1995 . Apart from procurement , Programa Coraza was meant to prepare the Spanish Army logistically for the introduction of new matériel .
A memorandum of understanding was signed on 9 June 1995 between the German and Spanish governments , setting the foundations for an acquisition of up to 308 brand @-@ new Leopard 2Es . These were to be assembled in Spain by Santa Bárbara Sistemas , with 60 – 70 percent of the components manufactured by Spanish companies , and production taking place between 1998 and 2003 . Furthermore , the German government agreed to lend the Spanish Army 108 Leopard 2A4s for training purposes for a period of five years . These vehicles were delivered between November 1995 and June 1996 . In 1998 , Spain agreed to procure the ceded Leopard 2A4s and reduce production of the brand @-@ new Leopard 2E to 219 vehicles . In 2005 it was declared that the 108 Leopard 2A4s were to cost Spain 16 @.@ 9 million euros , to be paid by 2016 . The Leopard 2Es , based on the German Leopard 2A6 , were produced between 2003 and 2008 .
While the M60s were replaced by the Leopard 2s , the AMX @-@ 30EM2s were replaced by the Italian B1 Centauro anti @-@ tank vehicle in the early years of the 2000s ( decade ) .
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= Coeur Alaska , Inc. v. Southeast Alaska Conservation Council =
Coeur Alaska , Inc. v. Southeast Alaska Conservation Council , 557 U.S. 261 ( 2009 ) , is a United States Supreme Court case that was decided in favor of Coeur Alaska 's permit to dump mine waste in a lake . The case addressed tailings from the Kensington mine , an underground mine located in Alaska . The gold mine had not operated since 1928 , and Coeur Alaska obtained a permit in 2005 from the United States Army Corps of Engineers ( USACE ) to dispose of up to 4 @.@ 5 million tons of tailings in Lower Slate Lake , which is located in a National Forest .
The suit was filed by three environmental non @-@ governmental organizations and brought before the United States District Court for the District of Alaska who found in favor of Coeur Alaska . The District Court 's decision was overturned by the U.S. 9th Circuit Court of Appeals before being brought before the Supreme Court , who also found in favor of Coeur Alaska .
The ruling was praised by the National Mining Association for the economic benefit it provided . Environmental groups criticised the decision for the impact it would have on Lower Slate Lake , and the opportunity for its use as a precedent in the future . In March 2009 proposed legislation , the Clean Water Protection Act , was introduced in Congress to remove mining waste from the definition of " fill material . "
= = Background = =
In 2005 Coeur Alaska Inc . , a subsidiary of Coeur d 'Alene Mines , successfully applied for a tailings disposal permit from the USACE . The permit allowed Coeur Alaska to dispose of 4 @.@ 5 million tons of tailings from the Kensington gold mine , 45 mi ( 72 km ) north of Juneau , into Lower Slate Lake . The mine operated in the early 20th century , but had been inactive since 1928 . The lake is 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) from the mine , within the Tongass National Forest .
The discharge of material into waters of the United States is regulated under the Clean Water Act by either the USACE or the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , depending on what the material is . Discharge of " fill material " falls under the jurisdiction of the USACE ; discharge of other pollutants falls under the jurisdiction of the EPA . In 2005 Coeur was granted a permit to dispose of tailings into Lower Slate Lake by the USACE under section 404 of the Clean Water Act . The decision was based on the definition of " fill material " which had been revised in 2002 under the administration of George W. Bush . This new definition allowed some contaminants to be included in mine waste and still be classified as fill . The permit allowed Coeur to dump 4 @.@ 5 million tons of a combination of waste rock and tailings into Lower Slate Lake over a period of ten years , causing the floor elevation of the lake to rise by 50 ft ( 15 m ) .
After the USACE issued the permit , the Southeast Alaska Conservation Council , the Sierra Club , and Lynn Canal Conservation Inc. filed suit . The suit claimed that the permit was issued in violation of sections 301 ( a ) , 301 ( e ) , and 306 ( e ) of the Clean Water Act . The United States District Court for the District of Alaska found that the USACE was correct in its application of section 404 of the act , because the permit was for " fill material " , and therefore not covered under or in violation of sections 301 ( e ) and 306 ( e ) .
In May 2007 the District Court 's 2006 decision was overturned by the U.S. 9th Circuit Court of Appeals . The Circuit Court found in favor of the non @-@ governmental organizations , ruling that discharge of tailings was not permitted under the EPA 's New Source Performance Standard .
= = Opinion of the Court = =
The Supreme Court found in favor of Coeur Alaska by a vote of 6 @-@ 3 , agreeing that the USACE is indeed the appropriate body to issue a permit to discharge mine waste into Lower Slate Lake . In her dissent , Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg stated that currently discharging pollutants into a lake is permitted provided there is enough material to raise the lake 's floor elevation , thereby turning it into a waste disposal site . Ginsburg voiced concern about the potential for pollution regulation to not apply to several industries ( mining included ) on the basis of this loophole .
= = Subsequent developments = =
The decision was praised by the National Mining Association , which stated that it would " provide employment and greater economic certainty for all those involved in the project " . Alaska Governor Sarah Palin also welcomed the ruling , calling it a " green light for responsible resource development " . The environmental groups that originally filed suit against Coeur Alaska were unhappy with the decision . Environmental groups stated that the proposed material includes aluminum , lead , and mercury ( among other metals ) , and that discharging into Lower Slate Lake will have a detrimental effect on the lake and surrounding waters . A representative from Earthjustice warned of the ruling being used as a precedent , allowing other companies to discharge pollutants into other rivers and lakes . Following the court 's decision share prices of Coeur d 'Alene Mines rose over 5 % .
In March 2009 a bill , the Clean Water Protection Act , was introduced in Congress by Frank Pallone and Dave Reichert . The Clean Water Protection Act would have changed the definition of " fill material " in the Clean Water Act . Under the new definition " fill material " would have excluded mine waste .
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= Loves of a Blonde =
Loves of a Blonde ( Czech : Lásky jedné plavovlásky ) is a 1965 Czechoslovakian feature film directed by Miloš Forman . It is also known under the alternate title of A Blonde in Love .
The fiction film tells the story of a young woman who has a routine job in a shoe factory in provincial Czechoslovakia . When the army holds maneuvers near her home town , the factory supervisor organizes a mixer for the largely female workforce and the all @-@ male soldiers . This dance proves a mixed success , with many of the soldiers , who are middle @-@ aged reservists , and many of the factory workers , who are inexperienced young women with idealized views of romance , being confused by and disappointed with their potential dancing partners . The film 's protagonist , though , does meet an attractive young man who plays in the dance band and has a one @-@ night fling with him . When she travels to the capital city where he lives in order to resume their romance , she meets his parents and comes to the realization that there is no future in this relationship .
Forman based his story on a real @-@ world incident from his past and the filmmakers focused much of their attention on trying to create a real @-@ life look and feel by filming on location in a small Czech town with a shoe factory of its own , utilizing a largely non @-@ professional cast , relying on a considerable amount of dialogue improvisation , and employing documentary @-@ style cinematographic techniques .
Upon its release , Loves of a Blonde was a popular success in its home country and was shown at some major film festivals , where it was well @-@ received , garnering a number of nominations and awards . Critical response was largely positive , although some reviewers were less enthusiastic than others . The film is now considered one of the most significant examples of a film movement called the Czech New Wave , which took advantage of a temporary relaxation of totalitarian control over creative artists to use cinema as a means to explore new narrative strategies while making pointed critiques of social and political conditions behind the iron curtain .
= = Plot = =
Andula is a working @-@ class young woman living in a fading Czech factory town , where , due to an oversight in central state planning , women outnumber men 16 @-@ 1 . The film opens with an intimate scene between Andula and her fellow shoe @-@ factory @-@ worker friend as they lie in bed in their dormitory discussing the ring given to Andula by her boyfriend Tonda and gossiping about her mildly flirtatious encounter with a forest ranger , which is shown in flashback .
The factory supervisor belatedly realizes that the gender disparity is impairing morale and productivity , so he arranges for an army officer to organize military maneuvers near the town in order for the factory to sponsor a big dance , at which the workers can find male companionship among the soldiery . “ They need what we needed when we were young , ” he explains to a sympathetic officer . Anticipation runs high on both sides , with the girls expecting to meet the young men of their dreams , while the recruits , many of whom are actually middle @-@ aged reservists , out @-@ of @-@ shape and already married , look forward to a night of revelry and seduction . The night of the party is a disappointment for some members of both groups ; Andula and her friends are repulsed by the unappealing soldiers , whom they call " old buffers " , and a trio of reservists are so nonplussed by the situation that they commit a series of comic faux pas , like sending a bottle of wine to the wrong table and dropping a wedding ring that one of them is trying to hide , only to watch it roll across the floor and land at the feet of the young women who are the objects of their lust . For these people , the mixer is a huge flop , with the girls retiring to the lavatory to devise a way to escape their pursuers and the aging reservists arguing with each other over expenses ( one points out that " you can only get it [ sex ] free at home " ) and speculating on the necessity of going to the woods in order to consummate their romantic plans ( " Imagine , in this weather ! " ) . For others , however , the dance is a success : the factory supervisor looks on in smug satisfaction as couples throng the crowded dance floor , one girl holds her hands together in a gesture showing her delight and gratitude when she is asked to dance , while an obese , balding soldier capers with a mismatched tall , thin brunette , both clearly having the time of their lives .
Andula strikes up a flirtation with Milda , the big @-@ city pianist of the band providing the music . He reads her palm and instructs her in how to rebuff unwanted advances with a kick in the shins . After the party she goes to bed with Milda , although the comic frustrations continue , with Milda fighting a battle with a window shade that won 't close , before he feels secure in making love . Afterward , as they lie in bed together , Andula asks what Milda meant when he said she was " angular " . He replies that a woman is shaped like a guitar : " And you , you look like a guitar too , " he tells her , " but one painted by Picasso . " Before they part , he offhandedly invites her to come to Prague and pay him a visit sometime .
Although she hears nothing from Milda after their night together , she still expects to reunite with her dream man shortly , so she breaks off with Tonda , who storms the dormitory demanding his ring back . After listening to a speech by the housemother on the virtues of fidelity and commitment , she packs up her suitcase and arrives on MIlda 's doorstep in the big city , ready to resume their romance . Milda is not home , and she meets his parents , who have never heard of her and don 't know what they should do with her . Milda comes home very late , and after an evening of comically painful tension and uncertainty , his parents decide it 's only decent to put the girl up for the night on the sofa , requiring Milda to climb into bed with them in order to avoid any appearance of impropriety . Forman has described this famous scene : " It ’ s a tight fit . The old man wants to sleep ; the son would like to get thrown out so he can join the girl on the couch , but the mother runs the show and won ’ t tolerate any such filthy ideas under her roof . “ Andula , kneeling outside the door of their bedroom , overhears the family squabbling , and when it becomes clear to her that she is not valued in the least , she breaks down in tears and , the next morning , returns to her home . She tells her friends about her " wonderful " trip to the capital and how nice Milda 's parents were to her , especially his father , and then she returns to work at the factory .
= = Cast = =
Hana Brejchová as Andula
Vladimír Pucholt as Milda
Vladimír Menšík as Vacovský
Ivan Kheil as Maňas
Jiří Hrubý as Burda
Milada Ježková as Milda 's Mother
Josef Šebánek as Milda 's Father
Josef Kolb as Pokorný
Marie Salačová as Marie
Jana Nováková as Jana
Tána Zelinková as Girl
Zdena Lorencová as Zdena
Jan Vostrcil as Colonel
Antonín Blazejovský as Tonda
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
Miloš Forman 's first feature film Cerný Petr ( Black Peter ) was released in 1964 and was not viewed favorably by Czech governmental authorities until it was selected for competition at that year 's Locarno Film Festival , where it won the top prize , thereby gaining the approval of Czechoslovakia 's communist bureaucracy and making it possible for Forman to pursue further projects with relative freedom . Unsure of what the next project should be , Forman recalled an experience he 'd had driving around Prague late one evening when he 'd encountered a young woman struggling to cross a bridge while carrying a heavy suitcase . He gave her a lift and learned her story : she had come to the big city from Varnsdorf , where she had been seduced by a young engineer , who had given her a phony address in Žižkov and promised to take her away from her dreary life . After confirming that she had been duped , Forman interviewed the girl for much of the rest of the night , before putting her on a train back to her home town . Commentators have noted that Forman was particularly sensitized to such situations because when he was 10 , his mother had been taken away by the Gestapo , never to be seen again , which led to years of Forman traveling around searching for security with nothing but a suitcase . In Forman 's words : " I guess I 'll always be moved by the sight of a young person with a suitcase seeking a connection in a strange city " .
Forman recounted this memory to fellow film enthusiasts and colleagues Ivan Passer and Jaroslav Papousek and asked them if it might be the basis for a good film . " Maybe , " replied Passer , " but it still needs one more thing -- a billiards table " . The trio had a passion for billiards and felt that they could make a success of even the weakest idea if they had ready access to a pool table . Having found a good one at Dobříš Castle , the three , along with Václav Sasek , wrote a screenplay that fleshed out Forman 's encounter with the young woman from Varnsdorf .
When the finished script was submitted to the Sebor @-@ Bor production company , it was approved at first , only to have the chief of the script department pronounce it the dullest thing he 'd read in years and urge Forman not to proceed with the project , since it would spoil the good reputation the director had established with Black Peter . In Forman 's words : " It wasn 't arty enough , but , on the other hand , it didn 't have enough commercial appeal either . It would offend and irritate the public , he told me , because it made fun of the common man , who would be disgusted by it " . Despite this objection , Vlastimil Harnach , the head of the studio , approved proceeding with the film in part because , due to the political and cultural thaw in Czechoslovakia at the time , decision makers were anxious to avoid the appearance of overt administrative interference in the creative process .
= = = Casting = = =
Forman and his colleagues were committed to the strategy of casting non @-@ professionals and utilizing dialogue improvisation whenever possible . Most of the actors were chosen from among relatives , friends and acquaintances of Forman and his crew , to the point where Forman was later to liken the atmosphere to making a " home movie " . For the title role , Forman selected his 18 @-@ year @-@ old ex @-@ sister @-@ in @-@ law , Hana Brejchová , not because , as was rumored at the time , he wanted revenge on his ex @-@ wife , movie @-@ star Jana Brejchová , but because he had known Hana a long time , trusted her , and had great respect for her natural talents : " She had an amazing ability of free expression , but with the risk that she didn ’ t recognize the extent . However , Vlada Pucholt [ who played Milda ] held her firmly in the rhythm of the scene , in a professional position . ” The character of Milda 's father was played by the uncle of Forman 's cameraman , and Milda 's mother was played by a factory lathe operator whom Passer and Papoušek had met on a streetcar , and who struck them as someone who " seemed so interested in things around her , no matter how silly " . The factory supervisor was played by the actual public relations manager of the factory at Zruč nad Sázavou , where location shooting took place . For the main trio of reservists , Forman wanted to use non @-@ professionals , including the writer Josef Škvorecký , but found that , while the three men did well improvising together whenever they appeared in pairs , they lost their rhythm when all three were included in the same shot . So Forman went to Škvorecký and told the writer that he looked too intelligent to play his role and replaced him with the professional actor Vladimir Mensik . In Škvorecký 's words : " To tell someone that he is too intelligent to be an actor is a very nice way of letting him know that he should stay with screen @-@ play writing . Milos is a very considerate person . The fact that he so gently threw me out made possible the greatest scene of Loves of a Blonde " . Forman was later to justify his decision to add a professional : " While nonactors keep the actors honest and real , the actors give the scene the rhythm and shape that the nonactors don 't feel . A nonactor inhabits the situation so completely that he or she isn 't able to view it from the outside , to perceive it as a rhythmic whole with its punctuation and its larger dramatic purpose . Nonactors are perfectly content to repeat themselves and ramble on , so an actor can pull them through the dramatic arch of the scene and draw out the emotional contours of the situation . " .
Ironically , the least self @-@ confident performer in the film was one of the few professional actors : Vladimir Pucholt , who played the pianist . According to Forman : " This great actor , who had tremendous artistic intuition , completely mistrusted his talent . I think this was because he had a very rationalist disposition and could never see , much less measure , the result of his acting . ' Was it good , Mr. Forman ? ” he asked me after every perfect shot . ' It was excellent ! ' ' Really ? ' ' Really . ' He never believed me and all of us loved him . ”
= = = Filming = = =
Since he was working with a largely non @-@ professional cast , Forman 's operating procedure was never to share the script with any of the performers , because if he had given them the screenplay , " they ’ ll take it home to read , and their wives will end up directing your movie " . Instead , he chose to explain each scene in great detail just before starting to shoot takes , reciting the dialog from memory only one time , so that when the camera was rolling the actors had to try to remember as much as they could of what he had told them and then improvise to the best of their ability what they had forgotten or only half @-@ understood . His cameraman was later to say that , as a result , all the performers were playing Miloš Forman playing their roles .
The cinematographer for Loves of a Blonde was Miroslav Ondříček , like Forman a graduate of the national Czech film school . Ondříček and Forman had met at Czechoslovakia 's Barrandov Studios in the early 1960s when Ondříček was just learning to shoot feature films and Forman was struggling to create his own early projects . Ondříček was in full accord with Forman 's reliance on non @-@ professional actors , adopting a cinéma @-@ vérité style compatible with orthodox socialist realism . Ondříček was schooled in documentary filmmaking and , as a result , he insisted on performing all photographic tasks , like focus , lighting and composing , personally. while refusing access to the set by all film editors , saying : " The editor can only edit what I am filming . He can 't use a master shot if he doesn 't have it . He can 't make a close @-@ up if he doesn 't have it . This is our [ his and Forman 's ] job . " Critics have often admired Ondříček 's success in sustaining low @-@ contrast lighting throughout the film , rendering " a sweetly mysterious softness , as if a principle of compassion existed in the world alongside its cruelty " .
The big dance was the film 's most sustained and elaborate sequence , so two cameras were used , with frequent recourse to hand @-@ holding and telephoto zooming in order both to sustain the documentary @-@ style look and feel and to take pressure off the performers , who were not always sure whether they were being included in the shots .
During filming , the set was visited by British director Lindsay Anderson , whose film This Sporting Life was greatly admired by Forman . Anderson was so impressed by Ondříček 's work , that he brought the cameraman to England to film The White Bus and if .... , announcing that he had found a person with a new sensibility , “ a new pair of eyes ” .
Ironically , the storyline of the film was replayed in real life . One of the nonprofessional actresses , a blonde factory worker , had a torrid affair with a technician who was part of the film crew . Although the man neglected to tell her that he was married with a child , he promised to send for her when he got back to Prague and set her up in an apartment in the capital city . After waiting for a long time to hear from him , and telling all her friends that she would shortly be summoned to her love nest , she packed up her belongings and traveled to Prague , only to be spurned in no uncertain terms . The consequence of this situation was grimmer than the denouement of the film ; the girl was embarrassed to return home , became a prostitute , went to jail , attempted suicide and finally emigrated to Australia , where there was a shortage of women , especially among Czech emigres .
= = = Editing = = =
Once principal photography was finished , Forman found himself with miles of raw material , so he and his editor , Miroslav Hájek , spent many long hours organizing the footage into a series of situations , like the " big dance " situation and the " meeting the parents " situation . In turn , each of these situations are constructed out of sequences of gags in which the characters improvise , in the words of commentator Constantin Parvulescu , " like various instruments of a band " : " Many of these situations can be broken down into gags . There are several such gags reminiscent of early comedy in Loves of a Blonde : the soldiers @-@ getting @-@ off @-@ the @-@ train gag ; the wine @-@ bottle gag ; the wedding @-@ ring gag ; the palm @-@ reading gag ; the roll @-@ up @-@ blinds gag ; and the three @-@ guys @-@ in @-@ two @-@ beds gag . " Interspersed with these gags are extended character improvisations , such as Milda 's discussion of Picasso , his mother 's rants at the dining table , and the factory supervisor 's appeal for the army 's support .
= = = Additional scenes = = =
Once the film had been released in Czechoslovakia , Forman sought an international distributor , who informed him that the film was too short for American audiences and that it didn 't have enough nudity in it ; so Forman was coerced into shooting some additional scenes that were never shown for domestic consumption . One of these scenes , which was included in the US version , involved a slapstick sequence in which Milda , the pianist , tries to pick up a buxom girl on the streets of Prague , only to have her trick him into entering the wrong bedroom of the four @-@ story building in which she lives , disturbing the sleeping residents .
= = Themes = =
Film scholar Peter Hames has summarized three themes of Loves of a Blonde that have been discussed repeatedly in critical writings on the film , themes that have been something of a constant throughout Forman 's career : " the impermanence of young love , the confusion and despair of middle age , and the gulf between the generations " . Another theme that is often identified involves the awkwardness and confusion surrounding sex in a repressed society . Most critics have also commented on the confluence of comedy and sadness in the film 's depiction of everyday life in a totalitarian state , although while some consider Loves of a Blonde Forman 's most pointed critique of Czech society under communism , others point out that the grim conditions are not solely due to misguided public policy , but that individuals create their own isolation as well .
= = Reception = =
When Loves of a Blonde was first released , there was a sense of betrayal on the part of the Zruč nad Sázavou shoe factory that had hosted the filmmakers on location and considerable consternation among authorities at the Ministry of Light Industry , with both organizations feeling that the comically unlovely depiction of social conditions in Czech factory towns would make it even harder to recruit workers than it already was . To everyone 's surprise , though , the movie functioned as a " great big classified ad " , in that hundreds of Czech boys traveled to Zruč nad Sázavou and camped out in the woods in hopes of hooking up with the female factory workers , who responded appropriately by sneaking out of their dorms at night for assignations with the campers .
Loves of a Blonde sold out in theaters throughout Czechoslovakia , and its extraordinary success has been attributed , at least in part , to its being one of the first eastern European films to include an extended sex scene that involved nude performers . The film was the recipient of the Order of Klement Gottwald , an award that recognized exemplary works " for building of socialist homeland " . Forman was later to say : " The award from the first communist president of the land and a legendary boozer was more of an embarrassment than anything else . The only good thing about it was the fat envelope that came with the ribbon . It contained 20 000 CZK ( 800 EUR ) , nearly a year ’ s salary " .
Loves of a Blonde was submitted to a number of the major film festivals of the day : it was the opening film of the 1966 New York Film Festival , was an invited entry in that year 's London Film Festival and was nominated for the highest prize at the Venice Film Festival . Shortly after it was completed , it was purchased by a Czech distribution company called Filmexport , only to be re @-@ sold as part of a multi @-@ picture package to a firm called CBK , which proceeded to air it on television through a number of 24 @-@ hour movie channels .
The film was nominated for the Golden Globe for Best Foreign Film and the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film in 1967 . It was ranked # 89 in Empire magazine 's " The 100 Best Films Of World Cinema " in 2010 .
= = = Critical response = = =
Critical reaction within Czechoslovakia tended to focus on the film 's perceived negativity with regards to social and political conditions in the country , and , for that reason , it was not distributed at all within the Soviet Union .
On the whole , international critics of the time praised Loves of a Blonde , with positive reviews published by Saturday Review , The New Yorker , America , Sight and Sound , Harper 's , and the New York Times . One of the film 's most influential champions was Jean Collet , writing in Cahiers du cinéma that , by capturing the momentary indiscretions of his characters on the screen , Forman forces the audience into a voyeuristic situation that induces embarrassment and laughter . There were dissenting voices , however : Phillip J. Hartung , writing in Commonweal , compared the film unfavorably with Ivan Passer 's contemporaneous Intimate Lighting , while Robert Hatch , in The Nation , felt that Loves of a Blonde was an " endearing but artless " film , with its long central section of the big dance having little to do with the main plot . In a lengthy article in Film Comment , Kirk Bond compared the " ordinariness " of Loves of a Blonde unfavorably with other Czech films of the period that he believed displayed greater mastery of narrative technique .
More recent retrospective reviews of the film have been equally mixed , with some critics , like Dennis Schwartz , writing that , " its simple but meaningful story has captured the emotions of its subject in a timeless and real fashion " , while others , like David Nusair , find fault : " Presumably , the film 's supposed to be a quirky and revealing slice of life - but since the central character is never developed beyond the superficial , it 's impossible to care about her " .
It holds a 93 % rating on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes from 15 reviewers who , on average , scored it 8 @.@ 1 on a scale of 10 .
= = Legacy = =
Loves of a Blonde has often been identified as one of the most significant and ambitious productions of the Czech New Wave , a movement in which a group of young filmmakers , many of whom were educated by the national film academy in Prague , including Forman , Ján Kadár , Věra Chytilová and Jiří Menzel , among others , took significant political risks by using cinema to protest the hypocrisy and absurdity of the Communist state . This movement has been attributed to a period of cultural and political reform , starting in 1962 , during which filmmakers were given state support but were also allowed a certain amount of relative artistic freedom , enabling them to create movies with the stated objective of making " the Czech people collectively aware that they were participants in a system of oppression and incompetence which had brutalized them all . "
In particular , Forman , Ivan Passer and Jaroslav Papoušek have collectively become known as the " Forman school " of filmmaking , which combines an interest in documentary realism , including consistent focus on the quotidian , with a surrealistic tendency to " uncover the hidden side of reality , its comical or monstrous quality which lies just beneath everyday mishaps , stutters and waverings " . Diane Sippl has noted that , once Forman came to America and created his high @-@ profile Hollywood productions , such as One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest , Hair and Amadeus , he was able to introduce into commercial cinema the same qualities that characterized his early films like Loves of a Blonde : " An acute observation of the ironic details of mundane life ; an intimate understanding of emotions , both projected and silenced ; a keen sensitivity to the moment when solemnity melts into farce , "
English director Ken Loach has stated that the mixture of professional and non @-@ professional actors in Loves of a Blonde had a significant influence on him and other international filmmakers , by creating an atmosphere in which non @-@ professionals who live in the milieu depicted by the film bring an expertise and authenticity which serves as " a touchstone for everyone else in the film " , while professionals bring knowledge of film craft , which can be helpful to their inexperienced colleagues . Although some performers who , at the time , were not professional later became so , one of the professional actors , Vladimír Pucholt , who played a major role , Milda the pianist , soon gave up acting , relocated to Canada and became a dentist .
= = Home media = =
Loves of a Blonde was released in VHS video format in 1987 by RCA / Columbia Pictures and re @-@ released in that format in 2000 by Janus Films , Home Vision Cinema . In 2002 , it was released as a DVD by Criterion Collection , in a new digital transfer , with restored image and sound , a video interview with director Milos Forman , a deleted scene and new & improved English subtitle translation . Since 2010 , a version has been available as part of Criterion 's " Essential art house " series .
= = Awards and nominations = =
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= Mahan @-@ class destroyer =
The Mahan @-@ class destroyers of the United States Navy were a series of 18 destroyers of which the first 16 were laid down in 1934 . The last two of the 18 , Dunlap and Fanning ( this pair laid down in 1935 ) , are sometimes considered as a separate ship class . All 18 were commissioned in 1936 and 1937 . Mahan was the lead ship , named for Rear Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan , an influential historian and theorist on sea power .
The Mahans featured improvements over previous destroyers , with 12 torpedo tubes , superimposed gun shelters , and generators for emergency use . Standard displacement increased from 1 @,@ 365 tons to 1 @,@ 500 tons . The class introduced a new steam propulsion system that combined increases in pressure and temperature with a new type of lightweight steam turbine , proving simpler and more efficient than the Mahans ' predecessors — so much so that it was used on many subsequent wartime US destroyers .
All 18 ships saw action in World War II , entirely in the Pacific Theater , including during the Guadalcanal Campaign , and the battles of the Santa Cruz Islands , Leyte Gulf , and Iwo Jima . Their participation in major and secondary campaigns included the bombardment of beachheads , amphibious landings , task force screening , convoy and patrol duty , and anti @-@ aircraft and submarine warfare . Six ships were lost in combat and two were expended in the postwar Operation Crossroads nuclear tests . The remainder were decommissioned , sold , or scrapped after the war ; none remain today . Collectively , the ships received 111 battle stars for their World War II service .
= = Design = =
The Mahan @-@ class destroyers emerged as improved versions of the Farragut class , incorporating the most up @-@ to @-@ date machinery available . The Navy 's General Board had been wrestling with proposed design changes , first considering 12 torpedo tubes with one fewer 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) / 38 caliber gun , and then proposing to retain all five guns with the twelve torpedo tubes , but configuring those guns only for surface targets , not air targets . The Chief of Naval Operations objected , recommending against " subordinating the gun to the torpedo " , and a compromise was struck that included a new engineering plant and a new battery arrangement for the Mahan class and others . In the final design , No. 3 gun was moved to the aft deckhouse ( just ahead of No. 4 ) to make room for the third quadruple torpedo tube ; the two middle torpedo tubes were moved to the sides , releasing the centerline space for extension of the aft deckhouse . All five 5 in / 38s were kept and remained dual purpose guns , able to target aircraft as well as ships , but only No. 1 and No. 2 had gun shields . The traditional destroyer machinery was replaced with a new generation of land @-@ based machinery . This change ushered in a new steam propulsion system that combined increases in pressure and temperature with a new type of lightweight steam turbine , which proved simpler and more efficient to operate . Double reduction gearing also reduced the size of the faster @-@ turning turbines and allowed cruising turbines to be added . These changes led to a ten percent increase in displacement over the Farraguts .
The Mahans typically had a tripod foremast with a pole mainmast . To improve the anti @-@ aircraft field of fire , their tripod foremast was constructed without nautical rigging . In silhouette , they were similar to the larger Porter @-@ class destroyers that immediately preceded them . The Mahans were fitted with the first emergency generators , replacing the storage batteries of earlier classes . Gun crew shelters were built for the superimposed weapons , one shelter before the bridge and one atop the shelter deck aft .
The Mahans displaced 1 @,@ 500 long tons ( 1 @,@ 524 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 725 long tons ( 1 @,@ 753 t ) at deep load . The overall length of the class was 341 feet 3 inches ( 104 @.@ 0 m ) , the beam was 35 feet 6 inches ( 10 @.@ 8 m ) , and the draft 10 feet 7 inches ( 3 @.@ 2 m ) . They were powered by General Electric geared steam turbines , driving two shafts that developed a total of 46 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 34 @,@ 000 kW ) for a maximum speed of 37 knots ( 69 km / h ; 43 mph ) . Four Babcock & Wilcox or four Foster Wheeler water @-@ tube boilers generated the superheated steam needed for the turbines . The Mahans carried a maximum of 523 long tons ( 531 t ) of fuel oil , with a range of 6 @,@ 940 nautical miles ( 12 @,@ 850 km ; 7 @,@ 990 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . Their peacetime complement was 158 officers and enlisted men . The wartime complement increased to approximately 250 officers and enlisted men .
= = = Engineering = = =
The Mahans ' propulsion plant was considerably improved over that of the Farraguts . Steam pressure was raised from 400 psi ( 2 @,@ 800 kPa ) to 465 psi ( 3 @,@ 210 kPa ) in some ships , and superheated steam temperature was raised from 648 ° F ( 342 ° C ) to 700 ° F ( 371 ° C ) in all ships . Double reduction gearing replaced single reduction gearing , allowing smaller , faster @-@ turning turbines to be used ; this saved enough space and weight to allow cruising turbines to be fitted , which greatly improved fuel economy at moderate speeds . Boiler economizers , as in previous ships , further improved fuel economy . The ships ' range was extended to 6 @,@ 940 nmi ( 12 @,@ 850 km ; 7 @,@ 990 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) , 1 @,@ 000 nmi ( 1 @,@ 900 km ; 1 @,@ 200 mi ) farther than the Farraguts . Design shaft horsepower was increased from 42 @,@ 800 shp ( 31 @,@ 900 kW ) to 48 @,@ 000 shp ( 36 @,@ 000 kW ) in the same space and weight as in the Farraguts . The relatively compact power plant contributed to the Mahans ' ability to carry 12 torpedo tubes instead of eight with only 150 tons extra displacement . The main turbines were manufactured by General Electric and were impulse @-@ type , also called Curtis turbines . Each main turbine was divided into a high @-@ pressure ( HP ) and a low @-@ pressure ( LP ) turbine feeding into a common reduction gear to drive a shaft , in a similar manner to the machinery illustrated at the following reference . Steam from the boilers was supplied to the HP turbine , which exhausted to the LP turbine , which exhausted to a condenser . The cruising turbines were geared to the HP turbines and could be engaged or disengaged as needed ; at low speeds they were operated in series with the HP turbines to improve the efficiency of the overall turbine arrangement , thus improving fuel economy . This general arrangement with double reduction gearing became standard for most subsequent steam @-@ powered surface ships of the US Navy , although not all of these had cruising turbines .
= = = Armament = = =
The main battery of the Mahan class consisted of five dual purpose 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) / 38 caliber guns , equipped with the Mark 33 gun fire @-@ control system . The anti @-@ aircraft battery had four water @-@ cooled .50 caliber machine guns ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) . The class was fitted with three quadruple torpedo tube mounts for twelve 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes , guided by the Mark 27 torpedo fire control system . The class was initially equipped with the Mark 11 torpedo or Mark 12 torpedo , which were replaced by the Mark 15 torpedo beginning in 1938 . Depth charge roll @-@ off racks were rigged on the stern .
In early 1942 , the Mahan @-@ class destroyers began a wartime armament refitting process , but most of the class was not fully refitted until 1944 . The notable refits to the Mahan class included the removal of one 5 @-@ inch / 38 gun , typically replaced with two twin Bofors 40 mm guns ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) and between four and six 20 mm Oerlikon ( 0 @.@ 9 in ) guns to increase the ships ' light anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) armament .
In January 1945 , removal of two quadruple torpedo tubes was authorized to permit substitution of two 40 mm quad mounts . In June , removal of the third centerline tube was authorized to make way for two 40 mm twin mounts abreast of the aft stack . All ships receiving these AA modifications were to have directors installed with their new 40 mm mounts ; these Mark 51s were to be replaced by new blind @-@ firing GFFC Mark 63 installations with radar .
= = Dunlap class = =
The Dunlap class was a two @-@ ship destroyer class based on the Mahan design , listed as a separate class in some sources . The ships were USS Dunlap ( DD @-@ 384 ) and USS Fanning ( DD @-@ 385 ) , the last two Mahans . Unlike the Mahans , the Dunlaps had the new Mark 25 enclosed mounts for the two forward 5 @-@ inch / 38 caliber guns , with base rings housing projectile hoists that rotated with each of the guns ; their ammunition was fed from a handling room below each mount . Dunlap and Fanning were the first US destroyers to use enclosed forward gun mounts rather than shields ; their light pole foremast and lack of a mainmast visibly distinguished them from the Mahans .
= = Construction = =
The building of the first sixteen vessels was all authorised under the NIRA Executive Order on 16 June 1933 ; the last two were authorised under the Vinson @-@ Trammell Act on 27 March 1934 ( as part of a batch of 95 destroyers authorised on that date - covering DD @-@ 380 to DD @-@ 436 and DD @-@ 445 to DD @-@ 482 ) . Contracts for the first six Mahans were awarded to three shipbuilders , but none of the builders had what the US Navy judged as an acceptable in @-@ house design structure . On the strength of their reputation , the New York firm of Gibbs & Cox was named as the design agent . The firm had no experience in the design of warships , but had successfully designed passenger @-@ cargo liners with better propulsion systems than any available to the US Navy . The decision was made to design the Mahan class and future classes around a new generation of machinery , including a cheaper , faster and more efficient propulsion system that combined increases in steam pressure and temperature with a new type of lightweight , fast @-@ running turbine and double reduction gears .
= = Ships in class = =
= = Service history = =
= = = Mahan = = =
USS Mahan was commissioned on the east coast in September 1936 and served in the Atlantic area until July 1937 . She sailed to the Southern California coast for fleet training before moving on to Pearl Harbor . At sea when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 , Mahan participated in the initial post @-@ attack efforts in search of the strike force . The ship joined Task Force 17 in February 1942 , which conducted raids on several atolls in the Marshall and Gilbert Islands . Late in March , she returned to Pearl Harbor and proceeded to the west coast for overhaul . By August 1942 , Mahan was back operating out of Pearl Harbor .
In October 1942 , Mahan was assigned to Task Force 61 and took part in the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands . The engagement cost the Navy 74 aircraft , the aircraft carrier Hornet , and one destroyer . While en route to Nouméa , New Caledonia , Mahan and the battleship South Dakota collided , causing severe damage to both ships . Temporary repairs were made to Mahan and she steamed to Pearl Harbor for a new bow . She pulled out of Pearl Harbor in January 1943 . In the months to follow , Mahan escorted convoys between New Hebrides and the Fiji Islands , performed patrol assignments off New Caledonia and engaged in operations in Australian waters . Assigned to the amphibious force of Rear Admiral Daniel E. Barbey , Mahan participated in a succession of wide @-@ ranging amphibious campaigns in New Guinea and New Britain . In February and March 1944 , she saw action with the 7th Fleet in the Admiralty Islands . After that the ship was ordered back to the west coast for an overhaul , leaving the yard in July 1944 for Pearl Harbor .
Returning to New Guinea , Mahan began to escort convoys between Hollandia , in Indonesia and Leyte , in the Philippine Islands . By November 1944 , she was doing anti @-@ submarine patrols off Leyte . On 7 December 1944 while patrolling the channel between Leyte and Ponson Island , a group of Japanese suicide aircraft overwhelmed Mahan at Ormoc Bay . She was disabled by the attack , then abandoned and sunk by a US destroyer . Mahan received five battle stars for her World War II service .
= = = Cummings = = =
USS Cummings served in the Pacific Fleet in the late 1930s , participating in numerous individual and fleet training exercises . In 1940 , she served on security patrols off the west coast . Cummings went on a goodwill visit to several ports in the South Pacific , including Auckland , New Zealand , and Tahiti . The destroyer was hit by fragments while docked in Pearl Harbor during the Japanese attack , and suffered a few casualties . She escorted convoys between Pearl Harbor and the west coast for the first six months of World War II . In June 1942 , she was transferred to convoy escort duties in the South Pacific until August , when she had an overhaul in San Francisco , and then returned to her role as a convoy escort in the South Pacific .
In January 1944 , Cummings joined the screen for the Fast Carrier Strike Force while it raided Japanese positions in the Central Pacific . In March , Cummings sailed for Trincomalee , Ceylon , where she rendezvoused with British ships for exercises . In April , the ship joined a British force to screen during air strikes on Sabang , Indonesia . She returned to Ceylon in May and then moved on to Exmouth Gulf , Australia . With a British force , Cummings sortied for air strikes on Soerabaja , Java , before leaving for Pearl Harbor .
By July she was back in San Francisco to escort the heavy cruiser Baltimore , the ship that carried President Franklin D. Roosevelt to Pearl Harbor . Cummings joined the US 3rd Fleet for the Battle of Leyte Gulf in October 1944 . The next month , she bombarded Iwo Jima in preparation for the amphibious assault on the island . The ship operated off Okinawa during its invasion . After the war , Cummings returned to the United States and was decommissioned in December 1945 and sold for scrap in July 1947 . She received seven battle stars for her World War II service .
= = = Drayton = = =
USS Drayton made her shakedown cruise to Europe late in 1936 , and finished her final trials in the United States . She left Norfolk , Virginia , in June 1937 for San Diego , California , to join the Scouting Force . In July , Drayton participated in the search for the lost American pilot , Amelia Earhart . For the next two years , she exercised along the west coast , the Hawaiian Islands , and the Caribbean . When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor , Drayton was at sea but able to participate in the post @-@ attack efforts in search of the enemy force . During the succeeding three months , she escorted a convoy to Christmas Island ( Kiritimati ) , screened a carrier in an airstrike on Bougainville Island , and screened a tanker to Suva Harbor , Fiji Islands . In late November 1942 Drayton became part of Task Force 67 , which intercepted a Japanese naval force guarding transports en route to resupply Guadalcanal . The Battle of Tassafaronga followed .
Throughout June , July and August 1943 , Drayton escorted Australian troop carriers from Townsville , Australia , to Milne Bay , New Guinea . In early September , the ship supported the amphibious landing at Lae , New Guinea . Later in September , she participated in the amphibious landing at Finschhafen , New Guinea . After escorting troops to Arawe , New Britain , in December 1943 , Drayton participated in the landings there and at Borgen Bay , near Cape Gloucester , New Britain . The destroyer took part in the invasion of Los Negros Island in the Admiralty Islands during February 1944 . She reported to the 7th Fleet in October and performed patrol and escort duty in Leyte Gulf . In December 1944 , while screening a convoy to San Pedro Bay in the Philippines , a Japanese bomber attacked the ship , killing two men and wounding seven . The next day , she fought off enemy fighters ; one crashed into a 5 " / 38 caliber gun mount , killing six men and wounding twelve . By August 1945 she was on her way to New York , arriving in September . Drayton was decommissioned in October 1945 and sold for scrap in December 1946 . She received 11 battle stars for her World War II service .
= = = Lamson = = =
USS Lamson shipped out of Norfolk , Virginia , in June 1937 for San Diego , California , less than a year after her naval service began . She engaged in exercises and tactical training until sailing for Pearl Harbor in October 1939 . For the next two years , Lamson continued training from her base in Hawaii . Following the attack on Pearl Harbor , she joined the post @-@ attack efforts to search for the Japanese strike force . In February 1942 she became part of the newly formed ANZAC Squadron , consisting of Australian , New Zealand , and American warships in Suva , Fiji Islands . In March , she operated with the squadron as a cover group southeast of Papua New Guinea . In late November 1942 , Lamson was assigned to Task Force 67 and took part in the Battle of Tassafaronga .
For the next eight months , Lamson screened convoys en route to Guadalcanal . By August 1943 , she had moved on to Milne Bay , New Guinea , and participated in the September amphibious landings at Lae and Finschhafen . In December , the ship engaged in the pre @-@ invasion bombardment of Arawe and landings at Cape Gloucester , New Britain . After an overhaul and training at Pearl Harbor , Lamson joined the 7th Fleet in October 1944 . In early December 1944 , she took part in the amphibious landing at Ormoc Bay , Leyte , Philippine Islands . There she was struck by a kamikaze that set fire to the ship , killing 21 men and injuring 50 . The fires were extinguished by a rescue tug and Lamson was saved . After extensive repairs in the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard , she returned to the Pacific and operated off Iwo Jima , then sailed to the United States in November 1945 . In May 1946 , she participated in the Able nuclear test of Operation Crossroads ; she was sunk in the Baker test in July 1946 . Lamson received five battle stars for her World War II service .
= = = Flusser = = =
USS Flusser steamed her way to San Diego , California , in July 1937 , after spending the first months of her naval service in the Atlantic and Mediterranean . She was based in San Diego until 1939 , then reassigned to Pearl Harbor . Flusser was at sea when the Japanese struck Pearl Harbor , but took part in the post @-@ attack search . For the next six months , she carried out convoy duty between Pearl Harbor and the west coast , and engaged in escort and patrol duty out of southwest Pacific ports . From July 1942 to February 1943 , Flusser was in overhaul status at Pearl Harbor . She returned to escort and training operations in the Solomon Islands and was later based at Milne Bay , New Guinea . During September , Flusser was part of the amphibious landing forces at Lae and Finschhafen , New Guinea . In December 1943 , the destroyer participated in the bombardment and landings at Arawe and Cape Gloucester , New Britain . While attached to the 7th Fleet in February , she supported the landing of troops at Los Negros Island in the Admiralty Islands . Between April and June 1944 , the ship was in the Mare Island Naval Shipyard for overhaul .
After her overhaul , Flusser returned to Pearl Harbor . In August , she escorted a convoy to Eniwetok and moved on to Majuro in the Marshall Islands , where she patrolled bypassed Japanese @-@ held atolls . On a patrol off Wotje Atoll , the ship was fired on by a shore battery that left nine of her crew members wounded . In October , she sailed north to San Pedro Bay for duty in the Leyte Gulf and Surigao Strait . By early December 1944 , Flusser had escorted convoys from Hollandia Jayapura to Leyte and taken part in the amphibious landing at Ormoc Bay . In March 1945 , Flusser provided escort support for the landing near Cebu in the Philippines . During July she participated in the Balikpapan campaign in Borneo , escorting ships and covering the landing . After occupation duty in Okinawa during September and October , she sailed to San Diego , California , arriving in November 1945 . During 1946 , Flusser took part in the atomic weapons tests in the Marshall Islands . From there , she steamed to Pearl Harbor , then to Norfolk , Virginia . The destroyer was decommissioned there in December 1946 and sold in January 1948 . Flusser received eight battle stars for her World War II service .
= = = Reid = = =
USS Reid came into naval service in November 1936 . From 1937 until 1941 , she participated in training and fleet maneuvers in the Atlantic and Pacific . Reid was berthed at Pearl Harbor when the Japanese attacked , but escaped without damage while her gunners fired at the enemy attackers . After the attack , Reid did patrol duty in the Hawaiian waters , and later escorted convoys to San Francisco , California . Late in May 1942 , Reid steamed north from Pearl Harbor to bombard the Japanese positions in Kiska and supported landings at Adak , Alaska . While conducting an anti @-@ submarine patrol in August , she brought a Japanese submarine to the surface with a heavy depth charge barrage , and opened fire on it until it capsized and sank . Five of the submarine 's crew survived and were rescued by Reid . By October , she was patrolling the waters near New Caledonia , Samoa , and the Fiji Islands . In January 1943 , the ship bombarded several Japanese locations on Guadalcanal .
During September 1943 , Reid provided support for the landings at Lae and Finschhafen , New Guinea . In December , Reid escorted troop transports for the landings at Arawe , New Britain , and participated in the landings at Cape Gloucester , New Britain . In the following months she supported landings at Los Negros Island in the Admiralty Islands , Hollandia Jayapura , Wakde Island , Biak , and Noemfoor , New Guinea . Reid supported air strikes against Wake Island , and in November 1944 did patrol duty off Leyte in the Philippines .
On 11 December 1944 , Reid was operating with a convoy bound for Ormoc Bay , Leyte , to resupply land forces . Late that afternoon , a group of Japanese planes descended on the convoy and penetrated the defenses , taking aim at Reid and another destroyer . The destroyers put up an anti @-@ aircraft barrage that splashed some of the planes and damaged others , but Reid was hit by five suicide planes , causing powerful explosions . Within minutes , she went to the bottom , and over a hundred men perished . Reid received seven battle stars for her World War II service .
= = = Case = = =
USS Case began active duty in September 1936 and was assigned to the Pacific Fleet . In April 1940 , Pearl Harbor became her home base . The following year , she participated in fleet exercises to Midway Island , Johnston Island , Palmyra Atoll , Samoa , and Auckland . Case was berthed at Pearl Harbor when the Japanese struck , but sustained no damage . After the attack , she escorted convoys between the west coast and Pearl Harbor until late May 1942 . Case went north to support the pre @-@ invasion bombardment of Kiska and do patrol duty off Adak , Alaska . In October , the ship escorted a convoy to Pearl Harbor and then headed to the states for repair , returning to Pearl Harbor in November . In January 1943 , she sailed to Espiritu Santo for training and remained there until September . After overhaul in San Francisco , California , Case returned to Pearl Harbor in December 1943 . She proceeded to the Marshall Islands , taking part in attacks on Wotje Atoll and Maloelap Atoll in late January and Eniwetok in early February 1944 .
In April 1944 , Case took part in air raids on Hollandia , Truk ( Chuuk Lagoon ) , Satawan , and Ponape Island . Her next assignment was with Task Group 58 @.@ 4 , participating in strikes on Japanese airfields in the Bonin Islands . During June 1944 , Case engaged in raids on the Mariana Islands and Vulcan Islands . Following repair work at Eniwetok , the ship resumed operations with the task group , screening for air strikes in July and for attacks on the Bonin Islands in August and September . She took part in the bombardment of Marcus Island before joining Task Group 38 @.@ 1 for strikes on Luzon . While screening US cruisers bound for Saipan , Case rammed and sank a Japanese midget submarine . Undamaged , she sailed to Saipan for offshore patrol duty until early December 1944 . Afterward , Case became involved in a raid on Iwo Jima airfields and helped sink two Japanese ships . Following repairs at Saipan , she patrolled between there and Iwo Jima until the end of the war . She then left Iwo Jima for Norfolk , Virginia , where she was decommissioned in December 1945 and sold in December 1947 . Case received seven battle stars for her World War II service .
= = = Conyngham = = =
USS Conyngham made her maiden voyage to northern Europe in early 1937 , shortly after being commissioned . Following an overhaul in Boston , she sailed to San Diego , California . From October 1937 until April 1940 , Conyngham operated along the west coast , the Hawaiian Islands and the Caribbean , then made her way to Pearl Harbor . In March 1941 , Conyngham left Pearl Harbor on a goodwill tour to Samoa , Sydney and Brisbane in Australia , and Suva in Fiji , returning in April 1941 . Undamaged by the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , she put to sea on patrol duty that continued through December . After a brief overhaul at the Mare Island Naval Shipyard , Conyngham performed escort duty between the west coast and New Hebrides . Her escort assignment was interrupted to screen carriers in the Battle of Midway Island in June 1942 .
During October 1942 , Conyngham participated in the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands and supported the attack at the Matanikau River , Guadalcanal . In June 1943 she joined an amphibious force that later carried out landings at Lae and Finschhafen , New Guinea . In December , she took part in the landings at Arawe and Cape Gloucester , New Britain . The next month , Conyngham participated in the landing at Saidor , New Guinea , and sailed to San Francisco for overhaul . Returning to duty in May 1944 , she screened battleships in the Mariana Islands and remained there until August . Conyngham then joined a convoy screening ships to the Philippines Islands , arriving at Leyte Gulf in early November 1944 . There , a floatplane ( a type of seaplane ) strafed her , wounding 17 men yet causing slight damage to the ship . By early December , she had covered landings at Ormoc Bay and helped with reinforcements . Conygnham left the Philippines late in December for Manus Island , New Guinea , to replenish supplies . Later on , she helped screen a convoy to Leyte for the landings at Lingayen Gulf . The ship participated in bombardments at Lingayen Gulf and remained on patrol there after the landings in January 1945 . Conygham sailed to Subic Bay for overhaul in late July 1945 , and remained there until the end of the war . Decommissioned in December 1946 , Conyngham was used in the atomic weapons test at Bikini in 1946 , and was scuttled in July 1948 . She received 14 battle stars for her World War II service .
= = = Cassin = = =
USS Cassin began naval service in August 1936 , but alterations kept her from sea duty until March 1937 . The next year , she joined the forces at Pearl Harbor for annual fleet exercises . In April 1940 , Cassin was assigned to a Hawaiian unit . When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor , Cassin was in dry @-@ dock with the battleship Pennsylvania and the destroyer Downes . Both destroyers were at the southern end of the dock when an incendiary bomb struck Downes , starting unstoppable fires on both destroyers . Cassin slipped off her blocks and rolled over onto the burning Downes . She was salvaged and towed to the Mare Island Navy Yard and decommissioned .
Cassin was rebuilt and commissioned again in February 1944 . She reported to Pearl Harbor in April and pulled escort duty until August . In October , the ship took part in the shelling of Marcus Island to destroy enemy installations . After participating in the bombardment of Iwo Jima in November 1944 and January 1945 , she escorted an ammunition ship to the newly invaded Iwo Jima . There , Cassin did radar picket and air @-@ sea rescue duty .
With the war over , she took part in guarding the air evacuation of released prisoners of war from Japan . In November 1945 , the ship deployed to Norfolk , Virginia , and decommissioned there in December 1945 . She was sold for scrap in November 1947 . Cassin received six battle stars for her World War II service .
= = = Shaw = = =
USS Shaw crossed the Atlantic on her shakedown cruise in April 1937 , and returned to the Philadelphia Navy Yard in June . There , she began a year of yard work before completing acceptance trials . For the remainder of the year , the ship conducted training exercises in the Atlantic . Sailing to the west coast , she was at the Mare Island Navy Yard from January to April 1939 . By April 1940 , Shaw moved on to Hawaiian waters , then back to the west coast in November for overhaul . She returned to Hawaii in February 1941 , and later entered the Pearl Harbor Navy Yard for repairs . Shaw was still in dry dock when the Japanese attacked , with most of the ship 's crew ashore . She was hit by three bombs and severely damaged when her forward magazine exploded . Temporary repairs were made at Pearl Harbor , and in February 1942 the ship sailed to the west coast to complete them .
With repairs completed , Shaw returned to Pearl Harbor in August 1942 . She was then assigned to Task Force 61 , and took part in the Battle of Santa Cruz Islands in mid @-@ October . Reassigned to a unit of the 7th Amphibious Force , Shaw escorted reinforcements to Lae and Finschhafen , New Guinea , for the remainder of October and part of November . In late December , she escorted units engaged in the assault on Cape Gloucester , New Britain , and sustained casualties and damage . Thirty @-@ six men were injured ; three later died of their wounds . Temporary repairs were made at Milne Bay , New Guinea , and permanent repairs were completed at San Francisco in May 1944 . Shaw then returned to Pearl Harbor .
With Task Force 52 , she participated in the offensive to gain possession of the Japanese @-@ held Mariana Islands . In January 1945 , with the San Fabian Attack Force , Shaw saw action at Manila Bay in the Philippine Islands . She returned to the United States in April , stopping first at San Francisco for repairs , then routed to New York via Philadelphia for deactivation . The ship was decommissioned in October 1945 and sold for scrap in July 1946 . Shaw received 11 battle stars for her World War II service .
= = = Tucker = = =
USS Tucker was commissioned in July 1936 . After her shakedown cruise , she joined the destroyer forces attached to the US Battle Fleet based in San Diego , California . In February 1939 the ship took part in a naval exercise in the Caribbean , personally observed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt from the cruiser Houston . After exercises in Hawaiian waters in early 1940 , Tucker operated between the west coast and Hawaii until the end of the year . By February 1941 , she was back in Pearl Harbor . Tucker went on a goodwill tour that included Auckland , during March , before returning to Pearl Harbor . There , she participated in exercises at sea before sailing on to San Diego . By November 1941 , Tucker was once again in Pearl Harbor . When the Japanese attacked , the ship was berthed at East Loch undergoing tender overhaul . She was undamaged , and returned fire on the Japanese forces .
After the hostilities , Tucker patrolled off Pearl Harbor , then spent the next five months escorting convoys between the west coast and Hawaii . She later escorted the tender Wright to Tutuila in American Samoa , Suva in the Fiji Islands , and Nouméa in New Caledonia . The ship then escorted Wright back to Suva , arriving there in June 1942 . From Suva , she escorted the cargo ship Nira Luckenbach to Espiritu Santo , New Hebrides , in August . The ship entered the harbor by the western entrance and struck at least one mine . The crew abandoned ship and was rescued by nearby vessels . Efforts to save her were in vain ; she eventually jack @-@ knifed and went to the bottom . Tucker had steamed into a minefield placed by US forces , but she was never informed of its existence . Three men were killed and three more were listed as missing . She was removed from the Navy list in December 1944 . Tucker received one battle star for her World War II service .
= = = Downes = = =
USS Downes entered service in January 1937 . The following November , she sailed from Norfolk , Virginia , to San Diego , California . While based there , Downes participated in exercises along the west coast , in the Caribbean and in Hawaiian waters until April 1940 . Pearl Harbor then became her homeport . In early 1941 , Downes joined a cruise to Samoa , the Fiji Islands , and Australia , then visited the west coast later in the year . When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor , Downes was in dry @-@ dock with the battleship Pennsylvania and the destroyer Cassin . Both destroyers were at the southern end of the dock when an incendiary bomb struck Downes , setting unstoppable fires on both ships . Cassin slipped her blocks and rolled over onto the burning Downes , and Downes was later decommissioned .
Downes was rebuilt and recommissioned in November 1943 . During March of 1944 , she escorted a convoy to Pearl Harbor and on to Majuro in the Marshall Islands . By July , Downes began escort duty from Eniwetok to Saipan in support of the invasion of the Mariana Islands . Then she patrolled off Tinian during its invasion , and gave fire support during mop @-@ up operations there . Afterward , Downes took part in the bombardment of Marcus Island to create a diversion and destroy Japanese installations , an action that Admiral Halsey later commended . During the Battle of Leyte Gulf , the ship screened the Fast Carrier Task Force during the air strikes on Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa 's Northern Force . Downes served in Iwo Jima from June 1944 until the end of the war , when the ship was ordered to return to the United States , arriving at Norfolk in November 1945 . She was decommissioned in December 1945 and sold in November 1947 . Downes received four battle stars for her World War II service .
= = = Cushing = = =
USS Cushing reported to the Pacific Fleet in August 1936 , soon after her Navy service began . She joined the unsuccessful search for the missing Earhart during the month of July 1937 . She moved on to San Diego for training exercises , continuing to operate along the west coast for the next several years . Cushing was under overhaul at the Mare Island Navy Yard when the Japanese struck Pearl Harbor . Following the attack , she did convoy duty between the west coast and Pearl Harbor , and later operated off Midway Island on anti @-@ submarine patrol . In August 1942 , Cushing sailed to Pearl Harbor for training exercises and later joined operations around Guadalcanal .
With Task Force 61 , Cushing took part in the bitterly contested Battle of Santa Cruz in October 1942 . Outnumbered , the force stalled the Japanese from their advance toward Guadalcanal . At the Battle of Guadalcanal , Cushing was perhaps the first US ship to strike the enemy on that November day in 1942 . In the fighting that followed , she sustained several hits amidships and slowly began to lose power , but was able to fire six torpedoes by local control at the Japanese battleship Hiei . In his book , Destroyer Operations in World War II ( 1953 ) , Theodore Roscoe said , “ Three of the “ fish ” seemed to hit the bulls @-@ eye ; if they did , it was with tack @-@ hammer thumps . They may have exploded prematurely . But Hiei 's lookouts must have seen them coming , for the big ship swung her bow to the left and lumbered westward , disappearing into the smoke @-@ haze . ” By this time , Cushing was dead in the water , an easy target for repeated enemy shelling . The results were disastrous and the order was given to abandon ship . Six officers and 53 men were lost . Of the survivors rescued , 56 had been wounded and ten of them suffered fatal injuries . The abandoned ship remained afloat until her magazines blew up . Cushing received three battle stars for her World War II service .
= = = Perkins = = =
USS Perkins was commissioned in September 1936 and San Diego , California , became her homeport . She operated in the eastern Pacific prior to World War II , and was at the Mare Island Navy Yard when the Japanese struck Pearl Harbor . In mid @-@ December , she escorted a convoy to Pearl Harbor , returned to Mare Island for new radar gear , and sailed back to Pearl Harbor the latter part of January 1942 . The following month , Perkins departed Pearl Harbor and joined Australian , New Zealand , and other US ships in the ANZAC Squadron , charged with protecting the eastern approaches to Australia and New Zealand . She continued operations with ANZAC until April . In May 1942 , Perkins participated in the Battle of the Coral Sea . After that , propeller problems took her to New Zealand and to Pearl Harbor , where repairs were completed . While at Pearl Harbor , additional radar gear and 40 mm guns were installed .
By November 1942 Perkins was with Task Force 67 , led by Rear Admiral Carleton H. Wright . In the nighttime Battle of Tassafaronga , the force intercepted the Japanese to stop them from supplying Guadalcanal . Undamaged in the encounter , Perkins headed for Tulagi where she bombarded the Guadalcanal coast and served on escort assignments until January 1943 . She joined Task Force 76 , an amphibious group , in March . In September 1943 , Perkins bombarded Lae , New Guinea , and supported the landings there . She took part in the successful landings at Finschhafen , New Guinea . Late in November , the ship was bound from Milne Bay to Buna , steaming independently , when Duntroon , an Australian troopship , accidentally collided with her . Perkins broke in two and quickly sank ; nine of the crew went down with her . Perkins received four battle stars for her World War II service .
= = = Smith = = =
USS Smith began her US naval service in September 1936 , and operated along the west coast of the United States for the next five years . From the start of World War II until April 1942 , she was based in San Francisco , California , attached to a destroyer squadron . In June , Smith was in Pearl Harbor , engaged in training exercises , then escorted a convoy back to San Francisco . After overhaul and sea trials in the bay area , Smith returned to Pearl Harbor in August . By October she was part of Task Force 61 , participating in the Battle of Santa Cruz . In the course of the battle , a Japanese torpedo plane crashed into her ; the explosion ignited the forward part of the ship . The crew eventually extinguished the fires , and Smith was able to retain her position in the screen . When the air cleared , 28 were dead and 23 wounded . She was patched up enough in New Caledonia to make her way to Pearl Harbor , where she was under overhaul until February 1943 . The next few months , Smith performed anti @-@ submarine patrols , did convoy duty , and participated in Navy exercises . In September and October , she was part of the amphibious landings at Lae and Finschhafen , New Guinea . In late December 1943 Smith was attached to Task Force 76 , and took part in landing the 1st Marine Division at Cape Gloucester , New Britain .
In January 1944 , Smith participated in the amphibious landing near Saidor , New Guinea , led by Barbey . In February , she bombarded designated targets in preparation for the landing at Los Negros in the Admiralty Islands . By the middle of March , Smith sailed to the west coast for overhaul . Completed in June , she returned to Pearl Harbor for training exercises and gunnery practice . Attached to the 7th Fleet in October , Smith sailed to Leyte Gulf in the Philippine Islands . There , she was positioned northeast of Ponson Island as a fighter director ship for the landing at Ormoc Bay in December 1944 . During January 1945 , Smith supported the landings in Lingayen Gulf , Philippine Islands . In late June , she bombarded Balikpapan , Borneo , in preparation for the landing by an Australian force . Smith departed the Philippines on 15 August 1945 for Buckner Bay , remaining there until steaming to Nagasaki Harbor , Kyushu , Japan , on 15 September , arriving there just 37 days after the nuclear bombing of Nagasaki on 9 August 1945 by US forces . There the ship boarded 80 US military ex @-@ prisoners of war , taking them to Okinawa for transfer to the United States . On 21 September Smith returned to Nagasaki and picked up 90 Allied prisoners of war , taking them to Bickner Bay . She arrived in Sasebo , Nagasaki , on 28 September and departed two days later for San Diego via Pearl Harbor . Docking at San Diego on 19 November , she remained there until ordered to Pearl Harbor on 28 December , arriving there on 3 January 1946 and assumed an inactive status . The ship was decommissioned on 28 June 1946 and struck from the Navy list on 25 February 1947 . Smith received six battle stars for her World War II service .
= = = Preston = = =
USS Preston was in service from October 1936 until November 1942 . Following shakedown , she served briefly under the Chief of Naval Operations , then joined the US Fleet . Preston did peacetime training exercises into the month of December 1941 , and performed patrol and escort duties along the west coast until June 1942 . After that , she screened the carrier Saratoga to Hawaii , followed by four months of patrol and escort work in Hawaiian waters .
In October she became part of Task Force 61 and participated in the Battle of Santa Cruz . In mid @-@ November 1942 , Preston sailed to the western end of Guadalcanal to intercept another run by the Japanese to bombard Henderson Field . In the ensuing skirmish , Preston was hit by a salvo from a Japanese cruiser that put both fire rooms out of commission and toppled the aft stack . Her fires made an easy target ; as they spread , the order was given to abandon ship . The ship rolled onto her side and sank , taking 116 of her crew with her . Preston received two battle stars for her World War II service .
= = = Dunlap = = =
USS Dunlap became part of the US Navy in June 1937 . A year later , she served as an escort at Philadelphia for the steamer SS Kungsholm , which carried Gustaf Adolf , the Crown Prince of Sweden . By April 1940 , Pearl Harbor was Dunlap 's homeport . When the Japanese attacked , Dunlap was at sea bound for Pearl Harbor ; she entered port the following day . In January , she sortied for air strikes on the Marshall Islands , and in February she took part in a raid on Wake Island . Afterward , Dunlap patrolled Hawaiian waters , escorted convoys between various ports on the west coast , and returned to Pearl Harbor in October 1942 . In December , the destroyer moved on to Noumea , New Caledonia , and operated from there until July 1943 . Dunlap saw action at Vella Gulf in the Solomon Islands in a nighttime torpedo clash . In United States Destroyer Operations in World War II ( 1953 ) , Theodore Roscoe wrote : " In the Battle of Vella Gulf , as this engagement was called , the enemy had not laid a hand on the American ships . "
After overhaul in San Diego , Dunlap performed patrol duty out of Adak , Alaska , in November and December 1943 and sailed to Pearl Harbor . From January until March 1944 , she screened carriers in strikes on the Marshall Islands with the 5th Fleet . After that , Dunlap took part in strikes on the Soerabaja area of Java in May and returned to Pearl Harbor in June . In July , she sailed to San Francisco to join the screen for the heavy cruiser Baltimore , which carried Roosevelt for conferences and inspections with top Pacific commanders of Pearl Harbor and Alaskan bases . In early September 1944 , Dunlap participated in the shelling of Wake Island . In October 1944 , she lent a hand in the bombardment of Marcus Island . By January 1945 , the ship was involved in the shelling of Iwo Jima , Haha @-@ jima , and Chichi @-@ jima . On 3 September 1945 , Commodore John H. Magruder accepted the surrender of the Bonin Islands by Lt. General Yoshio Tachibana on board the destroyer . Dunlap sailed to Norfolk , Virginia , in November 1945 , where she was decommissioned in December 1945 and sold in December 1947 . She received six battle stars for her World War II service .
= = = Fanning = = =
USS Fanning was occupied with sea trials and minor repairs for the first six months of her naval service . In April 1938 , she escorted the light cruiser Philadelphia from Annapolis , Maryland , to the Caribbean with Roosevelt aboard . Fanning sailed to New York for overhaul the following month ; in September she moved on to her new base in San Diego , California . Over the next three years , her duties took her to the east coast and eventually to Hawaii . The ship was at sea when the Japanese struck Pearl Harbor ; she returned the following day . Underway for Tutuila in January 1942 , Fanning encountered a blinding rainstorm and collided with Gridley . Both destroyers suffered bow damage and were forced to return to Pearl Harbor . In April 1942 Fanning became part of Task Force 16 , which supported the Doolittle Raid on the air strike against Tokyo . After the mission , she returned to Pearl Harbor .
For the first nine months of 1943 , Fanning deployed against the Japanese on Guadalcanal , supported an occupation force on the Russell Islands , participated in patrol duty , and assisted in the protection of troops occupying Munda , Solomon Islands . In September , she had an overhaul on the west coast , then finished the year operating off the Aleutian Islands . By January 1944 , Fanning was operating with Task Group 58 @.@ 4 in the Marshall Islands . In March she reported to the Eastern Fleet ( British units , reinforced with Australian , Dutch and French warships ) , participating in strikes against Sabang , Indonesia , the next month . Detached from the Eastern Fleet in May , Fanning sailed to the west coast . In July she left San Diego , escorting the heavy cruiser Baltimore to Alaska with Roosevelt on board . Her next assignment was with Task Group 30 @.@ 2 , shelling Marcus Island in October 1944 to create a diversion and destroy enemy installations . During January 1945 , Fanning took part in the shelling of Iwo Jima , Haha @-@ jima , and Chichi @-@ Jima . For the remainder of the war , she was occupied with patrol and escort activities . In September 1945 , she sailed for the United States , and was decommissioned at Norfolk , Virginia , in December 1945 ; she was sold for scrap in 1948 . Fanning received four battle stars for her World War II service .
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= Kaycee Nicole =
Kaycee Nicole , aka Kaycee Nicole Swenson , was a fictitious persona played by an American woman named Debbie Swenson ( born Deborah Marie Dickman 1960 ) , in an early case of Münchausen by Internet . Between 1999 and when the hoax was discovered in 2001 , Swenson , playing the role of Kaycee , represented herself on numerous websites as a teenager suffering from terminal leukemia . Kaycee was reported to have died on May 14 , 2001 and her death was publicized on May 16 ; shortly thereafter , members of the online communities that had supported her unraveled the story and discovered that Kaycee had never actually existed . Debbie Swenson confessed on her blog to the hoax on May 20 , 2001 .
= = Creation = =
In 1998 , Debbie Swenson 's real daughter , Kelli Burke ( born Kelli Jo Swenson 1985 ) , who was in middle school at the time in Gracemont , Oklahoma , created the online persona of " Kaycee Nicole " with a group of her friends . The group created a webpage for the nonexistent girl and used photos of a high school basketball player from their town to represent her , but do not seem to have played the role of Kaycee beyond that or given her an active persona . That came when Debbie Swenson discovered what the girls had done and , rather than forcibly discontinue the hoax , she adopted the persona and began playing the role of Kaycee . In August 1999 , the Swenson family moved from Oklahoma to Kansas .
= = Persona = =
After it came into Debbie Swenson 's possession , the Kaycee Nicole persona appeared on CollegeClub.com in 1999 , as a " sunny blonde " teenaged basketball star in Kansas who shared thoughts and photos with others on the website . She made friends easily with both users and staff at the site , even volunteering to help with administrative work and sending gifts to CollegeClub employees . " Kaycee " was interviewed by telephone by The New York Times in 2000 , under the name " Kaycee Swenson " . She described herself in the resultant article as a high school senior who was taking college courses and planned to start college full @-@ time the next year .
= = Blogging , illness , and death = =
In 2000 , Kaycee revealed to an online friend of hers , Randall van der Woning , that she suffered from leukemia , which was then in remission . Shortly afterward , she told him that the cancer was back . Sympathetic , Van der Woning offered to set up and host a blog for her to chronicle her struggles ; Kaycee accepted the offer and the two created " Living Colours " in August 2000 .
Kaycee 's blog recounted , in sometimes vivid detail , her struggles with the disease , including multiple hospitalizations . The near @-@ daily entries were presented as having been written by Kaycee or , in cases where she was too weak or ill , by her " mother " , Debbie . She maintained an upbeat writing style despite her apparent hardships – her first entry said , " I 'm beginning a new exciting journey . . . into my survival . I want to win ! I 'll fight to the finish ! " and readers of her blog became devoted to the inspirational young girl . Readership of the blog became widespread , with millions of readers visiting the site in the two years it was active and many readers recommending the blog to their own social networks Some sent cards , gifts , and well @-@ wishes to Kaycee by mail ; still others spoke to " Kaycee " on the phone , some , such as the administrator of her blog , many times .
In April 2001 , it was revealed that Kaycee 's liver was failing . Concerned about losing a " friend " without ever having met her , Van der Woning insisted that Kaycee allow him to visit her ; Kaycee told him that he was welcome to visit , but not until after she returned from a trip she would be taking to see the ocean .
However , before Van der Woning could make his trip to see Kaycee , he received a call on May 15 , 2001 from Kaycee 's mother . Sobbing , Debbie informed him that Kaycee had died , unexpectedly , of an aneurysm the day before . News of Kaycee 's death was immediately posted on her blog :
" Thank you for the love , the joy , the laughter and the tears . We shall love you always and forever . Kaycee Nicole passed away May 14 , 2001 , at the age of 19 . "
Readers of the blog mourned Kaycee 's death , many posting obituaries short and long on their own blogs , and news of her loss became widespread and much @-@ discussed throughout the internet .
= = Unraveling of hoax = =
After Kaycee 's ' death ' , mourners who requested an address to send condolence gifts , cards , or flowers to were told that , despite previous acceptance of gifts by Kaycee , there was no longer a post @-@ office box mailing address for her in Newton , Kansas . Debbie Swenson also informed Van der Woning when she told him of her death that there had already been a memorial service and Kaycee had been cremated .
On May 17 , blogger Saundra Mitchell posted an entry to her blog mocking people who faked illnesses on the internet . Though she did not initially name Kaycee Nicole , the next day she published another commentary which did explicitly name her and suggested that in fact , Kaycee Nicole had never existed . She cited the nearly impossible haste with which Kaycee had been interred , noting that even if Kaycee had not been autopsied – which was dependent upon the manner of her death and whether there was a doctor attending – the two days that Debbie claimed that gathering of mourners , memorial service , and cremation had been accomplished in was unlikely ; Mitchell also noted a number of inconsistencies in the backstory about Kaycee 's cancer . Mitchell , working off Kaycee 's " internet address " , traced the girl 's location to Peabody , Kansas . She called around the town , asking if anyone knew of someone of Kaycee 's description who had died recently . No one did .
On May 18 , a user on the weblog Metafilter posted a thread entitled " Is it possible that Kaycee did not exist ? " , which posited , largely on the basis of Saundra Mitchell 's writings , that Kaycee Nicole might have been a hoax . Commenters in the often @-@ heated thread ( even the creator of the thread stated that " I mean , I want it NOT to be true . I hate the thought that a bunch of people are grieving over somebody who did not existi ! [ sic ] " ) made a number of observations about the story of Kaycee , among them that no one had ever met Kaycee in person – not even the internet denizens who had been closest to her – and that no obituary was available in a newspaper , anywhere , for a 19 @-@ year @-@ old girl named Kaycee Nicole .
As the Metafilter thread progressed , users discovered that Kaycee 's CollegeClub account was tied to the CollegeClub account of Debbie Swenson 's teenaged daughter , and that records showed that someone had logged into Kaycee 's account days after she was supposed to have died . A user investigated the photographs that Kaycee had shared on her blog , identified a school mascot pictured , and traced it back to a particular high school , then traced the jersey number that " Kaycee " was wearing to an actual player . Investigation of the player showed that the only connection she had to Kaycee Nicole was that her family had once been acquainted with the Swenson family ; she was not ill , was not named Kaycee Nicole , and had no idea her photo was being used by someone else .
= = = Confession = = =
On May 19 , Debbie Swenson placed a call to her biggest supporter , Randall van der Woning . She told him that Kaycee had not actually been her own child , but rather a foster daughter . She requested that he keep Kaycee 's identity secret . Van der Woning did as requested and kept the information to himself ; however , this had the side effect of allowing the Metafilter investigation to continue . As more and more evidence mounted that the story of Kaycee had been cobbled together using misdirection and borrowed facts , Swenson emailed the truth to him , and he , in turn , posted it to the In Living Colours blog on May 20 : Kaycee Nicole had never existed . " I didn 't know the reactions would be so strong " , Swenson said . " I knew it was wrong and every day it ate at me and I couldn 't take it . " She now claimed that Kaycee was a composite of three people she had known with cancer , none of whom were her daughter .
= = Aftermath = =
Internet anger at the hoax was swift , with Van der Woning and many other supporters disclaiming Kaycee and Debbie Swenson . The local police in Peabody , Kansas were notified and soon handed off the case to the FBI as a possible fraud . The FBI declined to further investigate after its initial acceptance of the case , stating that it had not been able to find evidence that Debbie Swenson 's accepting of gifts for " Kaycee " constituted a dollar amount above their threshold for financial crimes .
Swenson was apologetic for the hoax , but said that she believed the Kaycee character had also done some good . " A lot of people have problems " , she told the New York Times . " I know I helped a lot of people in a lot of different ways . "
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= 1939 Pacific typhoon season =
The 1939 Pacific typhoon season has no official bounds ; it ran year @-@ round in 1939 , but most tropical cyclones tend to form in the northwestern Pacific Ocean between May and November . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northwestern Pacific Ocean .
The scope of this article is limited to the Pacific Ocean , north of the equator and west of the international date line . Storms that form east of the date line and north of the equator are called hurricanes ; see 1939 Pacific hurricane season . Storms in the season were tracked by the United States Weather Bureau and released in the Monthly Weather Review under the header " Typhoons and Depressions over the Far East " . The Monthly Weather Review only covers tropical cyclones west of 150 ° E. Due to lack of satellites and ship reports due to the Pacific Theatre of World War II , it is possible other tropical cyclones existed , especially if they were short @-@ lived or of minor intensity .
There were 29 known tropical cyclones , including 24 of typhoon status , of which several of the storms were deadly . A typhoon in November was the deadliest cyclone of the season , causing 49 deaths as it crossed the Philippines . The same typhoon later struck Hong Kong , where the Hong Kong Observatory recorded the first period of calm during the eye of a cyclone . At least 151 people were killed during the season , with 12 missing and unconfirmed of their status during some point during the season .
= = Storms = =
= = = Season summary = = =
= = = Tropical Depression One = = =
A depression was first observed on February 3 while located about 250 miles ( 400 km ) of Yap . It tracked steadily westward until February 7 when it stalled about 200 miles ( 320 km ) east of the Philippine island of Mindanao . The depression remained nearly stationary for two days until turning to a steady northwest motion . It approached the island of Samar Island on February 12 , where a pressure of 1 @,@ 006 @.@ 0 hectopascals ( 29 @.@ 71 inHg ) was reported , and subsequently turned to the north and later to the northeast . The depression was last observed on February 16 accelerating towards the Aleutian Islands . The system produced heavy rainfall in the Philippines , with extensive flooding reported in Surigao del Norte . It is unknown if the system intensified into a tropical storm .
= = = Typhoon Two = = =
On April 29 , an area of low pressure was located about 300 miles ( 480 km ) south of Yap . It moved westward , northward , and ultimately to the west @-@ northwest before developing into a tropical depression on May 2 to the east of the Philippines . Early on May 3 , after intensifying into a tropical storm the system struck the Philippine island of Samar Island , and the next day it hit Masbate before turning northward . After passing over northern Luzon on May 5 , the storm accelerated northeastward as it moved through the Luzon Strait , and intensified into a typhoon on May 7 . While the typhoon was off the southern coast of Japan , a ship located 290 miles ( 465 km ) south of Nagoya reported a minimum central pressure of 986 @.@ 0 hectopascals ( 29 @.@ 12 inHg ) . The typhoon weakened as it paralleled about 100 miles ( 160 km ) off the coast of Japan , and was last observed on May 9 accelerating northeastward .
The storm produced strong winds throughout the eastern portions of the Philippine archipelago . 90 fishermen were caught in the storm , with one person drowning and eleven missing at one estimate made one month after the storm passed the area . Winds reached tropical storm force in southern Japan .
= = = Typhoon Three = = =
A tropical depression developed on May 26 in the northern portion of the South China Sea . After initially moving to the northwest , the depression later turned to the northeast and quickly intensified to attain typhoon status by May 28 while located to the east of Hainan Island . The typhoon stalled on May 30 before turning to the west , and moved inland on southern China on May 31 . Several ships reported strong winds , rough seas , and heavy rainfall in conjunction with the storm , with one ship reporting a minimum central pressure of 994 @.@ 0 hectopascals ( 29 @.@ 35 inHg ) . On land , a station in Hong Kong recorded a pressure of about 1 @,@ 000 @.@ 0 hectopascals ( 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) as well as minor winds . No damage was reported .
= = = Typhoon Four = = =
On July 7 , a tropical depression was first observed while located about 400 miles ( 645 km ) east of Naha , Okinawa . It moved to the northwest , and the next day a station in Ōshima reported winds in excess of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) and a pressure of 978 @.@ 0 hectopascals ( 28 @.@ 88 inHg ) when the storm was nearby . Based on the report , it is estimated it intensified into a typhoon , and after turning northeastward upon entering the Yellow Sea it struck North Korea . The storm turned to the east , and was last observed on July 12 in the open Pacific Ocean . Rainfall and flooding from the typhoon and several other storms during the month resulted in two deaths and considerable damage to private and public property in the Philippines .
= = = Typhoon Five = = =
A tropical depression developed roughly 250 miles ( 400 km ) of the eastern Philippines on July 7 . The depression tracked northwestward initially , and after intensifying into a typhoon its motion turned to the north @-@ northeast , followed by a turn back to the northwest on July 10 . The typhoon crossed the East China Sea and made landfall on eastern China near Shanghai on July 12 , where 80 @-@ mph ( 130 @-@ km / h ) winds and a pressure of 992 @.@ 0 hectopascals ( 29 @.@ 29 inHg ) were recorded . The storm weakened as it continued its motion while roughly paralleling the northern coastline , and dissipated on July 13 . The passage of the typhoon killed at least six people in Shanghai .
= = = Tropical Storm Six = = =
A typhoon quickly developed about 120 miles ( 195 km ) west of northern Luzon on July 10 . It initially moved northwestward , then a day later turned to the northeast . After passing through the Luzon Strait , the typhoon changed its motion to the northwest , resulting in a landfall on northern Taiwan . The typhoon struck southeastern China , and dissipated about 500 miles ( 800 km ) inland on July 17 . A ship en route to Hong Kong reported a pressure of 997 @.@ 0 hectopascals ( 29 @.@ 44 inHg ) and winds of over 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . A station on western Luzon recorded minor winds and slightly below normal pressures in association with the system , though damage , if any , is unknown .
= = = Typhoon Seven = = =
On July 15 , a low pressure area formed into a tropical depression while located about halfway between the Philippines and the Marianas Islands . The depression steadily intensified as it tracked to the northwest , and attained typhoon status on July 18 . After a brief turn to the north @-@ northeast , the storm changed its motion to the northwest , and made landfall on southeastern Taiwan and later on China on July 20 about 120 miles ( 195 km ) south of Shanghai . It quickly dissipated . A station in the Ryūkyū Islands reported a pressure of 997 @.@ 0 hectopascals ( 29 @.@ 44 inHg ) with light winds . Damage , if any , is unknown .
= = = Typhoon Eight = = =
A tropical depression formed on July 20 while located between the Philippines and the Marianas Islands . After moving steadily northwestward , the system stalled for two days , and later turned to the north @-@ northeast . The storm intensified into a typhoon shortly before crossing the Ryūkyū Islands , after which it turned sharply westward . Unfavorable conditions encountered the storm , and it rapidly dissipated over the open waters of the East China Sea on July 27 . A station in Naha , Okinawa recorded a pressure of 999 @.@ 0 hectopascals ( 29 @.@ 50 inHg ) , with another station in the Ryūkyū Islands reporting winds of around 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) . There was no reported damage .
= = = Typhoon Nine = = =
A well @-@ developed typhoon was first observed on July 22 moving rapidly northward about 700 miles ( 1125 km ) east of Taiwan . The typhoon turned to the northwest , passing just south of the Japanese island of Kyūshū . It turned to the west , crossing the Yellow Sea and striking the Chinese province of Shandong before dissipating on July 25 . A station in the Ryūkyū Islands recorded a pressure of 997 @.@ 0 hectopascals ( 29 @.@ 44 inHg ) , with a station on Borodino Island reporting winds of about 15 mph ( 24 km / h ) . Damage , if any , is unknown .
= = = Typhoon Ten = = =
On July 22 a small typhoon developed a short distance off the coast of Taiwan . It drifted northwestward , then turned to the northeast , and by July 24 unfavorable conditions caused it to dissipate . A ship sailing between Hong Kong and Shanghai , China reported a pressure of 995 @.@ 0 hectopascals ( 29 @.@ 38 inHg ) and winds of around 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . No reports are available from Taiwan , and damage , if any , is unknown .
= = = Typhoon Eleven = = =
An area of low pressure organized into a tropical depression on July 25 over the open waters of the western Pacific Ocean . The depression tracked northwestward , and gradually strengthened to attain typhoon status on July 27 . After turning to the west , it gradually recurved towards the north and approached northern Taiwan . Under varying steering currents , the typhoon executed a counterclockwise loop over the country , and exited from the southern coastline after turning eastward . By the morning of August 1 , it was located about 250 miles ( 400 km ) east of Taiwan , after which the typhoon accelerated to the northeast . After reaching the Ryūkyū Islands on August 3 , the storm stalled , turned to the northwest for a day , then weakened until dissipating on August 6 to the south of Japan after turning to the east . A station in the Philippines reported a pressure of 996 @.@ 0 hectopascals ( 29 @.@ 41 inHg ) in association with the storm , with another station recording winds of 68 mph ( 110 km / h ) . Damage , if any , is unknown .
= = = Typhoon Twelve = = =
On July 28 , a low pressure area formed into a tropical depression over the Marianas Islands . It tracked to the northwest , and quickly intensified into a typhoon a few hours after developing while located about 250 miles ( 400 km ) south of the Ogasawara Islands . After changing its motion to the west , the typhoon turned sharply northward on July 31 , followed by a turn to the east @-@ northeast . The storm passed through the Ogasawara Islands on August 2 , and halted its forward motion before turning to the northwest . On August 6 the typhoon struck south @-@ central Japan and later the island of Hokkaidō after turning to the northeast , and it was last observed on August 8 in the open western Pacific Ocean . A ship passing through the center of the typhoon recorded a pressure of 960 @.@ 0 hectopascals ( 28 @.@ 35 inHg ) and winds exceeding 55 mph ( 88 km / h ) . Damage from the typhoon , if any , is unknown .
= = = Tropical Depression Thirteen = = =
A tropical depression formed on September 12 about 300 miles ( 480 km ) south of Guam . It moved northwestward without strengthening , and dissipated on September 16 about 600 miles ( 965 km ) east of the Philippines . The depression never affected land .
= = = Typhoon Fourteen = = =
On September 17 a tropical depression developed in the South China Sea . It tracked westward , and intensified into a typhoon . On September 19 , the storm made landfall on Vietnam about 150 miles ( 240 km ) northwest of Da Nang , and subsequently dissipated . Meteorological details for the typhoon are unavailable due to the presence of the Pacific Theatre of World War II .
= = = Typhoon Fifteen = = =
An area of disturbed weather organized into a tropical depression on September 18 about 250 miles ( 400 km ) west of Guam . The depression slowly intensified as it moved generally northwestward , and by September 21 it attained typhoon status while located about east of Aparri on the Philippine island of Luzon . Shortly after strengthening into a typhoon , the storm turned to the northeast and paralleled the southern coastline of Japan a short distance offshore . It was last observed on September 24 . Effects , if any , are unknown .
= = = Typhoon Sixteen = = =
Atmospheric pressure was relatively low over the South China Sea during the last week of September , and subsequent to the development of a circulation in an area of disturbed weather , a tropical depression formed on September 27 . It quickly strengthened to typhoon status , and made landfall on eastern Vietnam just south of Da Nang on September 30 . The storm quickly weakened over land , with only slight traces of the former typhoon by the following day . A station in the northern Philippines recorded a pressure of 1 @,@ 000 @.@ 0 hectopascals ( 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) , and a recording station near the location of its final landfall reported winds of about 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . Damage is unknown .
= = = Typhoon Seventeen = = =
On October 3 a tropical depression developed about 500 miles ( 800 km ) south @-@ southeast of Guam , likely having originated from a tropical disturbance in the eastern Caroline Islands . The system gradually strengthened to typhoon status while it tracked west @-@ northwestward . On October 7 the typhoon turned to the northwest and moved through the southern Luzon Strait , passing about 30 miles ( 48 km ) southwest of Basco in the Filipino province of Batanes on October 9 . Under unfavorable conditions the typhoon steadily weakened over the subsequent days , and dissipated on October 12 over the southern portion of the Taiwan Strait . The minimum pressure associated with the typhoon was a value of 957 @.@ 0 hectopascals ( 28 @.@ 26 inHg ) at Basco , where winds exceeding 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) were also recorded . Reportedly damage was minor over northern Luzon , and no deaths occurred .
= = = Typhoon Eighteen = = =
A tropical depression was first observed on October 7 to the east @-@ northeast of Guam . Tracking to the northwest , the depression steadily intensified to attain typhoon status . Several days later , it began to weaken while gradually recurving to the northeast , and on October 13 it became extratropical . A ship on its way to the Philippines recorded a pressure of 995 @.@ 0 hectopascals ( 29 @.@ 38 inHg ) along with winds of about 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) .
= = = Typhoon Nineteen = = =
On October 10 a tropical depression was first observed about 300 miles ( 480 km ) south of Guam . It initially moved west @-@ northwestward , and strengthened into a typhoon on October 11 while briefly changing its motion to the southwest . The next day the typhoon turned to the northwest , and days later turned to the north while located about 150 miles ( 240 km ) east of Bataan Province in the Philippines . After passing through the Ryūkyū Islands , it weakened as it turned to the northeast and east , and on October 17 it was last observed turning to the southeast over the open Pacific Ocean . A ship en route to Hong Kong on October 15 recorded a pressure of 968 @.@ 0 hectopascals ( 28 @.@ 59 inHg ) and winds of over 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) while located to the east of Taiwan . The passage of the typhoon caused 33 fatalities in Japan .
= = = Typhoon Twenty = = =
A low pressure area developed into a tropical depression on October 21 about 300 miles ( 480 km ) northwest of Guam . After initially moving northwestward , it turned to the north and intensified into a typhoon on October 22 . On October 23 it passed near or over the Ogasawara Islands , where a recording station reported a pressure of 996 @.@ 0 hectopascals ( 29 @.@ 41 inHg ) . The typhoon was last observed on October 23 accelerating northeastward .
= = = Tropical Storm Twenty @-@ One = = =
On November 4 a tropical disturbance organized into a tropical depression while located about 300 miles ( 480 km ) east of Mindanao . It moved quickly to the west @-@ northwest , and struck the Philippine island of Samar without strengthening further . After passing through the archipelago , the storm entered the South China Sea late on November 5 , and gradually weakened until dissipation on November 9 near southwestern Taiwan . A station in Santa Cruz in Laguna province recorded a pressure of 997 @.@ 0 hectopascals ( 29 @.@ 44 inHg ) , with at least one station in the Philippines reporting tropical storm force winds . Reports from the country indicate it was potentially a typhoon , though meteorologists decided it was not due to relatively high pressures and lack of significant convection to the southwest of the center . Damage , if any , is unknown .
= = = Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ Two = = =
A tropical depression formed on November 6 about 500 miles ( 800 km ) east of Mindanao . It initially moved to the west @-@ northwest , and gradually recurved to the northeast . After accelerating east @-@ northeastward , the depression was last observed on November 13 as a remnant low pressure area over the open western Pacific Ocean . It is unknown if it strengthened into a tropical storm .
= = = Typhoon Twenty @-@ Three = = =
On November 18 a tropical depression was first observed to the east of Mindanao . The depression steadily intensified as it tracked west @-@ northwestward , and intensified into a typhoon before striking Samar Island and Leyte Island on November 19 . It continued westward until reaching the western region of the South China Sea on November 22 . An approaching cold front turned the typhoon to the northeast , resulting in a rare occurrence of a typhoon recurving northeastward in the western portion of the South China Sea . On November 24 the typhoon passed over Macau , and two hours later the eye crossed directly over Hong Kong . The calm of the center of the eye lasted for fifteen minutes at the Hong Kong Observatory , the first time on record that the calm of a typhoon was recorded there . The typhoon began to become extratropical after making landfall , and continued northeastward through southern China . It gradually weakened while passing through the Taiwan Strait and possibly over Taiwan before dissipating on November 26 .
While crossing over the Philippines , a station in Capiz on Panay Island recorded a pressure of 981 @.@ 0 hectopascals ( 28 @.@ 97 inHg ) as well as winds in excess of 55 mph ( 88 km / h ) . The passage of the typhoon sunk a motor boat on Masbate island , killing 48 of the 50 occupants aboard . One person was reported missing and presumed dead in Balangiga in Eastern Samar , believed to be caused by drowning . Property damage was great in Samar , Leyte , and Capiz provinces . In Hong Kong , wind gusts reached 74 mph ( 119 km / h ) during a rainband ahead of the storm . Rainfall began seven hours before the arrival of the typhoon , and amounted to roughly 4 @.@ 27 inches ( 108 mm ) . The heaviest rainfall occurred in rainbands ahead of the typhoon , with about 1 @.@ 6 inches ( 40 mm ) falling during a 1 @-@ hour time period . The lowest pressure recorded in Hong Kong was about 989 @.@ 0 hectopascals ( 29 @.@ 21 inHg ) while the typhoon was passing through the area . Damage was minor in Hong Kong .
= = = Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ Four = = =
On November 22 a tropical depression formed to the east of Mindanao , and subsequently tracked to the northwest . Days later it stalled while located about 250 miles ( 400 km ) east of Samar Island , and gradually weakened . Cold air intruded the circulation on November 25 , and two days later it became extratropical .
= = = Typhoon Twenty @-@ Five = = =
A well @-@ developed typhoon was first observed on November 29 while located about 150 miles ( 240 km ) south of Yap . It moved to the northwest , and struck Samar Island on December 2 . The typhoon continued northwestward through the archipelago , and gradually weakened while drifting through the South China Sea . It turned to the northeast , and dissipated on December 5 off the coast of northern Luzon . The typhoon produced heavy rainfall and strong winds along its path through the Philippines . Rivers throughout Masbate island were overflown from the abundant rainfall , causing 34 fatalities on the island . A station on Samar Island recorded a barometric minimum of 975 @.@ 0 hectopascals ( 28 @.@ 79 inHg ) .
= = = Typhoon Twenty @-@ Six = = =
An area of disturbed weather organized into a tropical depression on December 5 about 200 miles ( 320 km ) southwest of Guam . After moving west @-@ northwestward for several days , it turned to the northeast on December 9 , during which it attained typhoon status . The typhoon maintained peak winds for about two days before quickly weakening to a remnant area of low pressure on December 11 . A ship in the vicinity of the cyclone reported a minimum pressure of 952 @.@ 0 hectopascals ( 28 @.@ 11 inHg ) .
= = = Typhoon Twenty @-@ Seven = = =
On December 16 , a low pressure area quickly organized into a typhoon about 350 miles ( 565 km ) east of Surigao . It moved quickly to the northwest at speeds of about 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) , faster than all but one previously known typhoon . The storm struck southeastern Luzon and turned to the north and north @-@ northeast . After passing near Manila it reached open waters on December 20 . For the following two days , it drifted eastward , possibly executing a loop , and after accelerating to the northeast it was last observed on December 24 . A station at Sorsogon recorded a pressure of 998 @.@ 0 hectopascals ( 29 @.@ 47 inHg ) . While passing through the northern Philippines , the typhoon produced heavy rainfall , killing 19 on Masbate and 14 in northern Luzon .
= = = Typhoon Twenty @-@ Eight = = =
The final typhoon of the season was first observed on December 22 about 225 miles ( 360 km ) south of Guam . It initially moved to the northwest , and on December 24 the typhoon turned to the east @-@ northeast . It steadily weakened , and was last observed on December 26 accelerating out to sea . The typhoon produced heavy rainfall and winds of around 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) on Guam . The minimum pressure associated with the typhoon was a ship report of 995 @.@ 0 hectopascals ( 29 @.@ 38 inHg ) .
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= HMS Grasshopper ( T85 ) =
HMS Grasshopper was a Dragonfly @-@ class river gunboat built for the Royal Navy in the late 1930s . After completion was sent to the China station where she was deployed on the Yangtse River to relieve the Insect @-@ class gunboat , HMS Gnat . She remained there until the declaration of war by the Empire of Japan in December 1941 . She was subsequently transferred to Singapore Naval Base and participated in the Malayan Campaign in early 1942 . Near the end of the Battle of Singapore , she evacuated the base on 11 February together with her sister ship HMS Dragonfly . Three days later she was attacked and sunk by Japanese aircraft off the island of Sebayer . Most of the ship 's survivors were later captured on Sumatra by Japanese troops .
= = Design and description = =
The design of the Dragonfly @-@ class ships was based on that of the earlier HMS Scorpion with that ship 's flagship accommodations replaced by a low @-@ angle director @-@ control tower . Grasshopper displaced 585 long tons ( 594 t ) at standard load and 685 long tons ( 696 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 196 feet 6 inches ( 59 @.@ 9 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 6 feet 3 inches ( 1 @.@ 9 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 3 @,@ 800 shaft horsepower ( 2 @,@ 800 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by two Admiralty 3 @-@ drum boilers . Grasshopper carried a maximum of 90 long tons ( 91 t ) of fuel oil .
The ship mounted two quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns 4 @-@ inch Mk V guns in single mounts , one each fore and aft of the superstructure . These guns had a maximum elevation of + 30 degrees . She also carried a single QF 3 @.@ 7 @-@ inch howitzer . For anti @-@ aircraft defence , Grasshopper had eight single mounts for .303 @-@ inch ( 7 @.@ 7 mm ) anti @-@ aircraft machine guns . She had a crew of 74 officers and enlisted men .
= = Service = =
The ship was ordered on 9 August 1937 as one of the intended replacements for the existing river gunboats stationed on the Chinese rivers . Grasshopper was laid down on 29 December 1937 by John I. Thornycroft & Company at Woolston , Southampton , and launched on 19 January 1939 .
In April 1939 she sailed to the China Station under her own power and was expected to arrive on 24 May . Grasshopper was commissioned on 1 June 1939 in Hong Kong and completed on 13 June . She was deployed to the Yangtse River where she replaced the Insect @-@ class gunboat HMS Gnat later that month . Part of Gnat 's crew transferred to Grasshopper , including the ship 's mascot , a dog called Judy . Following Japan 's entry into the Second World War in December 1941 , she was transferred from China to Singapore . During January 1942 , Grasshopper supported retreating Allied troops during the Malayan Campaign . Starting on 27 January , Grasshopper and Dragonfly rescued almost 3 @,@ 000 soldiers from the British 53rd Infantry and 15th Indian Infantry Brigades from the swamps south of Batu Pahat after they had been cut off by the advancing Japanese forces .
After the Japanese captured the Malayan Peninsula , both ships moved to Singapore harbour . On 8 February , the Japanese launched an amphibious assault across the Strait of Johore and following heavy fighting , many ships began evacuating from the harbour . By 11 February Gnat and Grasshopper were the largest vessels left . The two ships left Singapore for Batavia at 21 : 00 on 13 February , having taken on other personnel to evacuate them . Amongst these was Commander Ian Forbes , formerly of the battleship Prince of Wales , which had been sunk by the Japanese just over two months earlier . By the following morning they could hear the attacks by Japanese aircraft on other vessels in the distance . As they were sailing south , they were attacked by Japanese bombers . During the initial pass , Grasshopper was hit by a single bomb . When the planes returned , Dragonfly was hit three times and sank quickly . Grasshopper was hit twice and was set on fire . The order to abandon ship was given as the fire spread to compartments adjacent to an ammunition store .
The crew were ferried across to the nearby island of Sebayer by the ship 's boats while the Japanese aircraft strafed them , where they joined some survivors from the Dragonfly . However the ship did not sink initially and after the planes departed , several crewmen were sent back on board to scavenge supplies . Among the survivors were six captured Japanese airmen and two pregnant women who had their babies delivered by the ship 's coxswain . Both boys were named after him by their mothers . Whilst on board , Petty Officer George White found Judy , who would later find a source of fresh water for the crew on the island . On 19 February , the remaining crew managed to commandeer a Chinese tongkang and using that and the ship 's boat , they reached Singkep in the Dutch East Indies . After two days , the crew departed for Sumatra on a Chinese junk , leaving their injured in the care of the Dutch Empire . They eventually reached Sumatra and sailed through the Strait of Malacca and up the Indragiri River . The river narrowed too much for the junk to go any further , leaving the crew 200 miles ( 320 km ) from Padang . They trekked through the jungle but entered a Japanese @-@ held area and were captured 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) outside their destination .
Two of the crew elected not to travel with the others to Sumatra . They were Petty Officer George White and Able Seaman " Tancy " Lee , who were joined by one of the evacuees from the Royal Naval Reserve and two British Army soldiers who were already on Singkep . To prevent trouble with the incoming Japanese forces , they were transferred to the smaller Selayar Island . They were subsequently offered a boat by the island 's administrator , and a map of the Indian ocean torn from a child 's atlas . They decided that they would aim to sail to Madras , India , as there were concerns that the Japanese were working their way through the islands . Their departure timetable was brought forward after the island was visited by a boat containing a Japanese officer and five soldiers . They were told by the Japanese to remain on the island and await collection . That evening they prepared the boat and put supplies on board . They departed on 11 April , only travelling by night until they were clear of the islands . During the day , they landed on nearby islands and hid . After four days , the engine broke and could not be turned off . As they travelled through the islands , they passed two Japanese transport ships and were buzzed by a Japanese bomber . Once out of sight of the islands , they navigated using the position of the stars during the night and the sun during the day . After seventeen days of travelling , they landed in India , a distance of 2 @,@ 680 miles ( 4 @,@ 310 km ) , only 23 miles ( 37 km ) away from their intended destination .
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= Coenwulf of Mercia =
Coenwulf ( also spelled Cenwulf , Kenulf , or Kenwulph ) was King of Mercia from December 796 until his death in 821 . He was a descendant of a brother of King Penda , who had ruled Mercia in the middle of the 7th century . He succeeded Ecgfrith , the son of Offa ; Ecgfrith only reigned for five months , and Coenwulf ascended to the throne in the same year that Offa died . In the early years of Coenwulf 's reign he had to deal with a revolt in Kent , which had been under Offa 's control . Eadberht Præn returned from exile in Francia to claim the Kentish throne , and Coenwulf was forced to wait for papal support before he could intervene . When Pope Leo agreed to anathematize Eadberht , Coenwulf invaded and retook the kingdom ; Eadberht was taken prisoner , was blinded , and had his hands cut off . Coenwulf also appears to have lost control of the kingdom of East Anglia during the early part of his reign , as an independent coinage appears under King Eadwald . Coenwulf 's coinage reappears in 805 , indicating that the kingdom was again under Mercian control . Several campaigns of Coenwulf 's against the Welsh are recorded , but only one conflict with Northumbria , in 801 , though it is likely that Coenwulf continued to support the opponents of the Northumbrian king Eardwulf .
Coenwulf came into conflict with Archbishop Wulfred of Canterbury over the issue of whether laypeople could control religious houses such as monasteries . The breakdown in the relationship between the two eventually reached the point where the archbishop was unable to exercise his duties for at least four years . A partial resolution was reached in 822 with Coenwulf 's successor , King Ceolwulf , but it was not until about 826 that a final settlement was reached between Wulfred and Coenwulf 's daughter , Cwoenthryth , who had been the main beneficiary of Coenwulf 's grants of religious property .
He was succeeded by his brother , Ceolwulf ; a post @-@ Conquest legend claims that his son Cynehelm was murdered to gain the succession . Within two years Ceolwulf had been deposed , and the kingship passed permanently out of Coenwulf 's family . Coenwulf was the last king of Mercia to exercise substantial dominance over other Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms . Within a decade of his death , the rise of Wessex had begun under King Egbert , and Mercia never recovered its former position of power .
= = Background and sources = =
For most of the eighth century , Mercia was dominant among the Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms south of the river Humber . Æthelbald , who came to the throne in 716 , had established himself as the overlord of the southern Anglo @-@ Saxons by 731 . He was assassinated in 757 , and was briefly succeeded by Beornred , but within a year Offa ousted Beornred and took the throne for himself . Offa 's daughter Eadburh married Beorhtric of Wessex in 789 , and Beorhtric became an ally thereafter . In Kent , Offa intervened decisively in the 780s , and at some point became the overlord of East Anglia , whose king , Æthelred , was beheaded at Offa 's orders in 794 .
Offa appears to have moved to eliminate dynastic rivals to the succession of his son , Ecgfrith . According to a contemporary letter from Alcuin of York , an English deacon and scholar who spent over a decade as a chief advisor at Charlemagne 's court , " the vengeance of the blood shed by the father has reached the son " ; Alcuin added , " This was not a strengthening of the kingdom , but its ruin . " Offa died in July 796 . Ecgfrith succeeded him but reigned for less than five months before Coenwulf came to the throne . The surviving sources do not record whether Ecgfrith died of natural causes or was assassinated , though Alcuin 's letter seems to imply the latter .
A significant corpus of letters dates from the period , especially from Alcuin , who corresponded with kings , nobles , and ecclesiastics throughout England . Letters between Coenwulf and the papacy also survive . Another key source for the period is the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , a collection of annals in Old English narrating the history of the Anglo @-@ Saxons . The Chronicle was a West Saxon production , however , and is sometimes thought to be biased in favour of Wessex . Charters dating from Coenwulf 's reign have survived ; these were documents granting land to followers or to churchmen and were witnessed by the kings who had the authority to grant the land . A charter might record the names of both a subject king and his overlord on the witness list appended to the grant . Such a witness list can be seen on the Ismere Diploma , for example , where Æthelric , son of king Oshere of the Hwicce , is described as a " subregulus " , or subking , of Æthelbald .
= = Mercia and southern England at Ecgfrith 's death = =
According to the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , Ecgfrith only reigned for 141 days . Offa is known to have died in 796 , on either 26 July or 29 July , so Ecgfrith 's date of death is either 14 December or 17 December of the same year . Coenwulf succeeded Ecgfrith as king . Coenwulf 's father 's name was Cuthberht , who may have been the same person as an ealdorman of that name who witnessed charters during the reign of Offa . Coenwulf is also recorded as witnessing charters during Offa 's reign . According to the genealogy of Mercian kings preserved in the Anglian collection Coenwulf was descended from a brother of Penda named Cenwealh , of whom there is no other record . It is possible that this refers to Cenwealh of Wessex , who was married to ( and later repudiated ) a sister of Penda .
Coenwulf 's kin may have been connected to the royal family of the Hwicce , a subkingdom of Mercia around the lower river Severn . It appears that Coenwulf 's family were powerful , but they were not of recent Mercian royal lineage . A letter written by Alcuin to the people of Kent in 797 laments that " scarcely anyone is found now of the old stock of kings " . Eardwulf of Northumbria had , like Coenwulf , gained his throne in 796 , so Alcuin 's meaning is not clear , but it may be that he intended it as a slur on Eardwulf or Coenwulf or on both . Alcuin certainly held negative views of Coenwulf , regarding him as a tyrant and criticizing him for putting aside one wife and taking another . Alcuin wrote to a Mercian nobleman to ask him to greet Coenwulf peaceably " if it is possible to do so " , implying uncertainty about Coenwulf 's policy towards the Carolingians .
Coenwulf 's early reign was marked by a breakdown in Mercian control in southern England . In East Anglia , King Eadwald minted coins at about this time , implying that he was no longer subject to Mercia . A charter of 799 seems to show that Wessex and Mercia were estranged for some time before that date , though the charter is not regarded as undoubtedly genuine . In Kent , an uprising began , probably starting after Ecgfrith 's death , though it has been suggested that it began much earlier in the year , before Offa 's death . The uprising was led by Eadberht Præn , who had been an exile at Charlemagne 's court : Eadberht 's cause almost certainly had Carolingian support . Eadberht became king of Kent , and Æthelheard , the archbishop of Canterbury at that time , fled his see ; it is likely that Christ Church , Canterbury was sacked .
= = Reign = =
Coenwulf was unwilling to take military action in Kent without acknowledgement from Pope Leo III that Eadberht was a pretender . The basis for this assertion was that Eadberht had reportedly been a priest , and as such had given up any right to the throne . Coenwulf wrote to the Pope and asked Leo to consider making London the seat of the southern archbishopric , removing the honour from Canterbury ; it is likely that Coenwulf 's reasons included the loss of Mercian control over Kent . Leo refused to agree to moving the archiepiscopate to London , but in the same letter he agreed that Eadberht 's previous ordination made him ineligible for the throne :
And concerning that letter which the most reverend and holy Æthelheard sent to us ... as regards that apostate cleric who mounted to the throne ... we excommunicate and reject him , having regard to the safety of his soul . For if he should still persist in that wicked behaviour , be sure to inform us quickly , that we may [ write to ] princes and all people dwelling in the island of Britain , exhorting them to expel him from his most wicked rule and procure the safety of his soul .
This authorization from the Pope to proceed against Eadberht was delayed until 798 , but once it was received Coenwulf took action . The Mercians captured Eadberht , put out his eyes and cut off his hands , and led him in chains to Mercia , where according to later tradition he was imprisoned at Winchcombe , a religious house closely affiliated with Coenwulf 's family . By 801 at the latest Coenwulf had placed his brother , Cuthred , on the throne of Kent . Cuthred ruled until the time of his death in 807 , after which Coenwulf took control of Kent in name as well as fact . Coenwulf styled himself " King of the Mercians and the Province of Kent " ( rex Merciorum atque provincie Cancie ) in a charter dated 809 .
Offa 's domination of the kingdom of Essex was continued by Coenwulf . King Sigeric of Essex left for Rome in 798 , according to the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , presumably abdicating the throne in favour of his son , Sigered . Sigered appears on two charters of Coenwulf 's in 811 as king ( rex ) of Essex , but his title is reduced thereafter , first to subregulus , or subking , and thereafter to dux or ealdorman .
The course of events in East Anglia is less clear , but Eadwald 's coinage ceased , and new coinage issued by Coenwulf began by about 805 , so it is likely that Coenwulf forcibly re @-@ established Mercian dominance there . The resumption of friendly relations with Wessex under Beorhtric received a setback when Beorhtric died and the throne of Wessex passed to Egbert , who , like Eadberht , had been an exile at Charlemagne 's court . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle records that on the same day that Egbert came to the throne , an ealdorman of the Hwicce named Æthelmund led a force across the Thames at Kempsford but was defeated by the men of Wiltshire under the leadership of Weohstan , also an ealdorman . Egbert may also have had a claim on the Kentish throne , according to the Chronicle , but he made no move to recover it during Coenwulf 's reign . Egbert appears to have been independent of Mercia from the beginning of his reign , and Wessex 's independence meant that Coenwulf was never able to claim the overlordship of the southern English that had belonged to Offa and Æthelbald . He did , however , claim the title of " Emperor " on one charter , the only Anglo @-@ Saxon king to do so before the 10th century .
In 796 or 797 the Welsh engaged Mercian forces at Rhuddlan . By 798 Coenwulf was in a position to invade in return , killing Caradog ap Meirion , the King of Gwynedd . A civil war in Gwynedd in the 810s ended with the succession of Hywel ap Caradog in 816 or 817 , and Coenwulf invaded again , this time ravaging Snowdonia and taking control of Rhufuniog , a small Welsh territory near Rhos . It is not clear if the Mercians were involved in a battle recorded in Anglesey in 817 or 818 , but the following year Coenwulf and his army devastated Dyfed .
The Northumbrian king , Æthelred , was assassinated in April 796 , and less than a month later his successor , Osbald , was deposed in favour of Eardwulf . Eardwulf had Alhmund killed in 800 ; Alhmund was the son of King Alhred of Northumbria , who had reigned from 765 to 774 . Alhmund 's death was regarded as a martyrdom , and his cult subsequently developed at Derby , in Mercian territory , perhaps implying Mercian involvement in Northumbrian politics at the time . Coenwulf gave hospitality to Eardwulf 's enemies , who had been exiled from Northumbria , and consequently Eardwulf invaded Mercia in 801 . The invasion was inconclusive , however , and peace was arranged on equal terms . Coenwulf may also have been behind the coup in 806 that led to Eardwulf losing his throne , and he likely continued to support Eardwulf 's enemies after Eardwulf returned in 808 .
= = Relations with the church = =
In 787 , Offa had persuaded the Church to create a new archbishopric at Lichfield , dividing the archdiocese of Canterbury . The new archdiocese included the sees of Worcester , Hereford , Leicester , Lindsey , Dommoc , and Elmham ; these were essentially the midland Anglian territories . Canterbury retained the sees in the south and southeast . Hygeberht , already Bishop of Lichfield , was the new archdiocese 's first and only archbishop .
Two versions of the events that led to the creation of the new archdiocese appear in the form of an exchange of letters in 798 between Coenwulf and Pope Leo III . Coenwulf asserted in his letter that Offa wanted the new archdiocese created out of enmity for Jaenberht , the Archbishop of Canterbury at the time of the division ; but Leo responded that the only reason the papacy agreed to the creation was because of the size of the kingdom of Mercia . The comments of both Coenwulf and Leo are partisan , as each had his own reasons for representing the situation as they did : Coenwulf was entreating Leo to make London the sole southern archdiocese , while Leo was concerned to avoid the appearance of complicity with the unworthy motives Coenwulf imputed to Offa . Coenwulf 's desire to move the southern archbishopric to London would have been influenced by the situation in Kent , where Archbishop Æthelheard had been forced to flee by Eadberht Præn . Coenwulf would have wished to retain control over the archiepiscopal seat , and at the time he wrote to the pope Kent was independent of Mercia .
Æthelheard , who had succeeded Jaenberht in 792 , had been the abbot of a monastery at Louth in Lindsey . On 18 January 802 Æthelheard received a papal privilege that re @-@ established his authority over all the churches in the archdiocese of Lichfield as well as those of Canterbury . Æthelheard held a council at Clovesho on 12 October 803 which finally stripped Lichfield of its archiepiscopal status . However , it appears that Hygeberht had already been removed from his office ; a Hygeberht attended the council of Clovesho as the head of the Church in Mercia but signed as an abbot .
Archbishop Æthelheard died in 805 and was succeeded by Wulfred . Wulfred was given freedom to mint coins that did not name Coenwulf on the reverse , probably indicating that Wulfred was on good terms with the Mercian king . In 808 there was evidently a rift of some kind : a letter from Pope Leo to Charlemagne mentioned that Coenwulf had not yet made peace with Wulfred . After this no further discord is mentioned until 816 , when Wulfred presided over a council which attacked lay control of religious houses . The council , held at Chelsea , asserted that Coenwulf did not have the right to make appointments to nunneries and monasteries , although both Leo and his predecessor , Pope Hadrian I , had granted Offa and Coenwulf the right to do so . Coenwulf had recently appointed his daughter , Cwoenthryth , to the position of abbess of Minster @-@ in @-@ Thanet . Leo died in 816 , and his successor , Stephen IV , died the following January ; the new pope , Paschal I confirmed Coenwulf 's privileges but this did not end the dispute . In 817 Wulfred witnessed two charters in which Coenwulf granted land to Deneberht , bishop of Worcester , but there is no further record of Wulfred acting as archbishop for the rest of Coenwulf 's reign . One account records that the quarrel between Wulfred and Coenwulf led to Wulfred being deprived of his office for six years , with no baptisms taking place during that time , but this may have been an exaggeration , with four years being the more likely term of the suspension .
In 821 , the year of Coenwulf 's death , a council was held in London at which Coenwulf threatened to exile Wulfred if the archbishop did not surrender an estate of 300 hides and make a payment of 120 pounds to the king . Wulfred is recorded to have agreed to these terms , but the conflict continued well past Coenwulf 's death , with an apparently final agreement between Wulfred and Coenwulf 's daughter Cwoenthryth reached in 826 or 827 . However , Wulfred officiated at the consecration of Coenwulf 's brother and heir , Ceolwulf , on 17 September 822 , so it is evident that some accommodation had been reached by that time . Wulfred had probably resumed his archiepiscopal duties earlier that year .
= = Coinage = =
The coinage of Coenwulf follows the broad silver penny format established under Offa and his contemporaries . His very first coins are very similar to the heavy coinage of Offa 's last three years , and since the mints at Canterbury and in East Anglia were under the control of Eadbert Praen and Eadwald respectively , these earliest pennies must be the product of the London mint . Before 798 the new tribrach type appeared , with a design consisting of three radial lines meeting at the centre . The tribrach design was introduced initially at London alone but soon spread to Canterbury after it was reconquered from the rebels . It was not struck in East Anglia , but there are tribrach pennies in the name of Cuthred , sub @-@ king of Kent . Around 805 a new portrait coinage was introduced to all three of the southern mints . After around 810 a range of reverse designs was introduced , though several were common to many or all of the moneyers . From this date there is also evidence of a new mint , at Rochester in Kent .
A recent development in the coinage of Coenwulf came with the discovery in 2001 of a gold coin bearing the name Coenwulf at Biggleswade in Bedfordshire , England , on a footpath beside the River Ivel . The 4 @.@ 33 g ( 0 @.@ 15 oz ) mancus , worth about 30 silver pennies , is only the eighth known Anglo @-@ Saxon gold coin dating to the mid @-@ to @-@ late Anglo @-@ Saxon period . The coin 's inscription , " DE VICO LVNDONIAE " , indicates that it was minted in London . Initially sold to American collector Allan Davisson for £ 230 @,@ 000 at an auction held by Spink auction house in 2004 , the British Government subsequently put in place an export ban in the hope of saving it for the British public . In February 2006 the coin was bought by the British Museum for £ 357 @,@ 832 with the help of funding from the National Heritage Memorial Fund and The British Museum Friends making it the most expensive British coin purchased until then , though the price was exceeded the following July by the third @-@ known example of a Double Leopard . The coin is now on display in the museum 's money gallery .
= = Family and succession = =
A charter of 799 records a wife of Coenwulf named Cynegyth ; the charter is forged , but this detail is possibly accurate . Ælfthryth is more reliably established as Coenwulf 's wife , again from charter evidence ; she is recorded on charters dated between 804 and 817 . Coenwulf 's daughter , Cwoenthryth , survived him and inherited the monastery at Winchcombe which Coenwulf had established as part of the patrimony of his family . Cwoenthryth subsequently was engaged in a long dispute with Archbishop Wulfred over her rights to the monastery . Coenwulf also had a son , Cynehelm , who later became known as a saint , with a cult dating from at least the 970s . According to Alfred the Great 's biographer , the Welsh monk and bishop , Asser , Alfred 's wife Ealhswith was descended from Coenwulf through her mother , Eadburh , though Asser does not say which of Coenwulf 's children Eadburh descends from .
Coenwulf died in 821 at Basingwerk near Holywell , Flintshire , probably while making preparations for a campaign against the Welsh that took place under his brother and successor , Ceolwulf , the following year . A mid @-@ 11th century source asserts that Cynehelm briefly succeeded to the throne while still a child and was then murdered by his tutor Æscberht at the behest of Cwoenthryth . This version of events " bristles with historical problems " , according to one historian , and it is also possible that Cynehelm is to be identified with an ealdorman who is found witnessing charters earlier in Coenwulf 's reign , and who appears to have died by about 812 . The opinion of historians is not unanimous on this point : Simon Keynes has suggested that the ealdorman is unlikely to be the same person as the prince and that Cynehelm therefore may well have survived to the end of his father 's reign . Regardless of interpretation of Cynehelm 's legend , there does appear to have been dynastic discord early in Ceolwulf 's reign : a document from 825 says that after the death of Coenwulf " much discord and innumerable disagreements arose between various kings , nobles , bishops and ministers of the Church of God on very many matters of secular business " .
Coenwulf was the last of a series of Mercian kings , beginning with Penda in the early 7th century , to exercise dominance over most or all of southern England . In the years after his death , Mercia 's position weakened , and the battle of Ellendun in 825 firmly established Egbert of Wessex as the dominant king south of the Humber .
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= Winona Ryder =
Winona Ryder ( born Winona Laura Horowitz ; October 29 , 1971 ) is an American actress . One of the most profitable and iconic 1990s actresses , she made her film debut in the 1986 film Lucas . As Lydia Deetz , a goth teenager in Tim Burton 's Beetlejuice ( 1988 ) , she won critical acclaim and widespread recognition . After appearances in film and on television , Ryder continued her acting career with the cult film Heathers ( 1988 ) , a controversial satire of teenage suicide and high school life that has since become a landmark teen film . She later appeared in the coming of age drama Mermaids ( 1990 ) , earning a Golden Globe nomination , in Burton 's dark fairy @-@ tale Edward Scissorhands ( 1990 ) , and in Francis Ford Coppola 's gothic romance Bram Stoker 's Dracula ( 1992 ) .
Having played diverse roles in many well @-@ received films in the mid @-@ late 1980s and early 1990s , Ryder won a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress and an Academy Award nomination in the same category for her role in The Age of Innocence in 1993 as well as another Academy Award nomination , for Best Actress , for the literary adaptation Little Women the following year . She later appeared in the Generation X hit Reality Bites ( 1994 ) , Alien : Resurrection ( 1997 ) , the Woody Allen comedy Celebrity ( 1998 ) , and Girl , Interrupted ( 1999 ) , which she also executive @-@ produced . In 2000 , Ryder received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame , honoring her legacy in the film industry .
Ryder 's personal life has attracted significant media attention . Her relationship with Johnny Depp in the early 1990s and a 2001 arrest for shoplifting were constant subjects of tabloid journalism . She has been open about her personal struggles with anxiety and depression . In 2002 , she appeared in the box office hit Mr. Deeds alongside Adam Sandler . In 2006 , Ryder returned to the screen after a brief hiatus , later appearing in high @-@ profile films such as Star Trek . In 2010 , she was nominated for two Screen Actors Guild Awards : as the lead actress in When Love Is Not Enough : The Lois Wilson Story and as part of the cast of Black Swan . She also reunited with Burton for Frankenweenie ( 2012 ) .
= = Early life = =
Ryder was born Winona Laura Horowitz in a farmhouse near Winona , Minnesota , the daughter of Cynthia Palmer ( née Istas ) and Michael Horowitz . Her mother is an author , video producer , and editor . Her father is an author , editor , publisher , and antiquarian bookseller . He also worked as an archivist for psychedelic guru Dr. Timothy Leary ( who was Ryder 's godfather ) . Her father 's family is Jewish ( they emigrated from Romania and Russia ) , and Ryder has described herself as Jewish . Many members of her father 's family perished in the Holocaust . Her father 's family was originally named " Tomchin " but took the surname " Horowitz " when they immigrated to America .
Named after the nearby city of Winona , she was given her middle name , Laura , because of her parents ' friendship with Laura Huxley , writer Aldous Huxley 's wife . Her stage name derives from Mitch Ryder , a soul and rock singer of whom her father was a fan . Ryder 's father is an atheist and her mother is a Buddhist ; they encouraged their children to take the best part of other religions and use them to make their own belief systems .
Ryder has one full sibling , a younger brother , Uri ( named in honor of the first Soviet cosmonaut , Yuri Gagarin ) , and two half @-@ siblings from her mother 's prior marriage : an older half @-@ brother , Jubal Palmer , and an older half @-@ sister , Sunyata Palmer . Ryder 's family friends are her godfather , Timothy Leary , the Beat Movement poets Allen Ginsberg and Lawrence Ferlinghetti , and the science fiction novelist Philip K. Dick .
In 1978 , when Ryder was seven years old , she and her family relocated to Rainbow , a commune near Elk , Mendocino County , California , where they lived with seven other families on a 300 @-@ acre ( 120 ha ) plot of land . As the remote property had no electricity or television sets , Ryder began to devote her time to reading and became an avid fan of J. D. Salinger 's The Catcher in the Rye . She developed an interest in acting after her mother showed her a few movies on a screen in the family barn . At age 10 , Ryder and her family moved on again , this time to Petaluma , California . During her first week at Kenilworth Junior High , she was bullied by a group of her peers who mistook her for an effeminate , scrawny boy . As a result , she ended up being home @-@ schooled that year . In 1983 , when Ryder was 12 , she enrolled at the American Conservatory Theater in nearby San Francisco , where she took her first acting lessons . In 1989 , Ryder graduated from Petaluma High School with a 4 @.@ 0 GPA . She suffers from aquaphobia because of a traumatic near @-@ drowning at age 12 . This caused problems with the underwater scenes in Alien : Resurrection ( 1997 ) , some of which had to be re @-@ shot numerous times .
= = Career = =
= = = Early works , 1985 – 1990 = = =
In 1985 , Ryder sent a videotaped audition , where she recited a monologue from the novel Franny and Zooey by J. D. Salinger , to appear in the film Desert Bloom . Although the part went to Annabeth Gish , writer / director David Seltzer noticed her talent and cast her in his 1986 film Lucas , about a boy called Lucas ( Corey Haim ) and his life at high school . Shot in the summer of 1985 , the film co @-@ starred Charlie Sheen and Kerri Green with Ryder playing Rina , one of Lucas 's friends at school . When asked how she wanted her name to appear in the credits , she suggested " Ryder " as her surname because a Mitch Ryder album that belonged to her father was playing in the background .
Her next film was Square Dance ( 1987 ) , where her teenage character creates a bridge between two different worlds – a traditional farm in the middle of nowhere and a large city . Ryder won acclaim for her role , and The Los Angeles Times called her performance in Square Dance " a remarkable debut . " Both films , however , were only marginally successful commercially . Director Tim Burton decided to cast Ryder in his film Beetlejuice ( 1988 ) , after being impressed with her performance in Lucas . In the film , she plays goth teenager Lydia Deetz . Lydia 's family moves to a haunted house populated by ghosts played by Geena Davis , Alec Baldwin and Michael Keaton . Lydia quickly finds herself the only human with a strong empathy toward the ghosts and their situation . The film was a success at the box office , and Ryder 's performance and the overall film received mostly positive reviews from critics .
Ryder landed the role of Veronica Sawyer in the 1988 independent film Heathers . The film , a satirical take on teenage life , revolves around Veronica , who is ultimately forced to choose between the will of society and her own heart after her boyfriend , played by Christian Slater , begins killing off popular high school students . Ryder 's agent initially begged her to turn the role down , saying the film would " ruin her career . " Reaction to the film was largely positive , and Ryder 's performance was critically embraced , with The Washington Post stating Ryder is " Hollywood 's most impressive ingénue ... Ryder ... makes us love her teen @-@ age murderess , a bright , funny girl with a little Bonnie Parker in her . She is the most likable , best @-@ drawn young adult protagonist since the sexual innocent of Gregory 's Girl . " The film was a box office flop , yet achieved status as a predominant cult film . Later that year , she starred in Great Balls of Fire ! , playing the 13 @-@ year @-@ old bride ( and cousin ) of Jerry Lee Lewis . The film was a box office failure and received divided reviews from critics . In April 1989 , she played the title role in the music video for Mojo Nixon 's " Debbie Gibson Is Pregnant with My Two @-@ Headed Love Child . "
In 1990 , Ryder was selected for four film roles . She played the leading female role alongside her then @-@ boyfriend Johnny Depp in the fantasy film Edward Scissorhands . The film reunited Tim Burton and Ryder , who had previously worked together on Beetlejuice in 1988 . Edward Scissorhands was a significant box office success , grossing US $ 56 million at the United States box office and receiving much critical devotion . Later that year , she withdrew from the role of Mary Corleone in Francis Ford Coppola 's The Godfather Part III ( after traveling to Rome for filming ) due to exhaustion . Eventually , Coppola 's daughter Sofia Coppola was cast in the role . Ryder 's ninth role was in the family comedy @-@ drama Mermaids ( 1990 ) , which co @-@ starred Cher and Christina Ricci . Mermaids was a moderate box office success and was embraced critically . Ryder 's performance was acclaimed ; critic Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times wrote : " Winona Ryder , in another of her alienated outsider roles , generates real charisma . " For her performance , Ryder received a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actress in a Supporting Role . Ryder then performed alongside Cher and Christina Ricci in the video for " The Shoop Shoop Song " , the theme from Mermaids . Following Mermaids , she had the lead role in Welcome Home , Roxy Carmichael , a film about an adopted child Dinky Bossetti played by Ryder . The film co @-@ starred Jeff Daniels and was deemed a flop due to its poor showing at the box office .
= = = 1991 – 1995 = = =
In 1991 , Ryder played a young taxicab driver who dreams of becoming a mechanic in Jim Jarmusch 's Night on Earth . The film was given only a limited release at the box office , but received critical praise . Ryder then starred in the dual roles of Count Dracula 's reincarnated love interest Mina Murray and Dracula 's past lover Princess Elisabeta , in Bram Stoker 's Dracula ( 1992 ) , a project she brought to director Francis Ford Coppola 's attention . In 1993 , she starred in the melodrama The House of the Spirits , based on Isabel Allende 's novel . Ryder played the love interest of Antonio Banderas ' character . Principal filming was done in Denmark and Portugal . The film was poorly reviewed and a box office flop , grossing just $ 6 million on its $ 40 million budget .
Ryder starred in The Age of Innocence with Michelle Pfeiffer and Daniel Day @-@ Lewis , a film based on a novel by Edith Wharton and helmed by director Martin Scorsese , whom Ryder considers " the best director in the world . " In the film , Ryder plays May Welland the fiancée of Newland Archer ( Day @-@ Lewis ) . The film , set in the 1870s , was principally filmed in New York and Paris . Her role in this movie won her a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress as well as an Academy Award nomination in the same category . Although not a commercial success , it received critical praise . Vincent Canby in the New York Times wrote ; ' Ms Ryder is wonderful as this sweet young thing who 's hard as nails , as much out of ignorance as of self @-@ interest . ' Ryder was set to star in Broken Dreams with actor River Phoenix . The project was put on hold due to his untimely death in 1993 .
Ryder 's next role was in the Generation X drama Reality Bites ( 1994 ) , directed by Ben Stiller , where she played a young woman searching for direction in her life . Her performance received acclaim and the studio hoped the film would gross a substantial amount of money , yet it did not make as much money as expected . Bruce Feldman , Universal Pictures ' Vice @-@ President of Marketing said : " The media labeled it as a Generation X picture , while we thought it was a comedy with broad appeal . " The studio placed TV ads during programs chosen for their appeal to 12- to 34 @-@ year @-@ olds and in interviews Stiller was careful not to mention the phrase " Generation X. "
In 1994 , Ryder was handpicked to play the lead role of Josephine March in Little Women , an adaptation of Louisa May Alcott 's novel . The film received widespread praise ; critic Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote that the film was the greatest adaptation of the novel , and remarked on Ryder 's performance : " Ms. Ryder , whose banner year also includes a fine comic performance in ' Reality Bites ' , plays Jo with spark and confidence . Her spirited presence gives the film an appealing linchpin , and she plays the self @-@ proclaimed ' man of the family ' with just the right staunchness . " She received a Best Actress Oscar nomination the following year .
She made a guest appearance in The Simpsons episode " Lisa 's Rival " as Allison Taylor , whose intelligence and over @-@ achieving personality makes her a rival of Lisa 's . Her next starring role was in How to Make an American Quilt ( 1995 ) , an adaptation of the novel of the same name by Whitney Otto , co @-@ starring Anne Bancroft . Ryder plays a college graduate who spends her summer hiatus at her grandmother 's property to ponder her boyfriend 's recent marriage proposal . The film was not a commercial success , nor was it popular with critics .
= = = 1996 – 2000 = = =
Ryder made several film appearances in 1996 , the first in Boys . The film failed to become a box office success and attracted mostly negative critical reaction . Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times stated that " Boys is a low @-@ rent , dumbed @-@ down version of Before Sunrise , with a rent @-@ a @-@ plot substituting for clever dialogue . " Her next role was in Looking for Richard , Al Pacino 's documentary on a production of Shakespeare 's Richard III , which grossed only $ 1 million at the box office , but drew moderate critical acclaim . She starred in The Crucible with Daniel Day @-@ Lewis and Joan Allen . The film , an adaptation of Arthur Miller 's play , centered on the Salem witch trials . The film was expected to be a success , considering its budget , but became a large failure . Despite this , it received acclaim critically , and Ryder 's performance was lauded , with Peter Travers of Rolling Stone saying , " Ryder offers a transfixing portrait of warped innocence . "
In December 1996 , Ryder accepted a role as an android in Alien : Resurrection ( 1997 ) , alongside Sigourney Weaver , who had appeared in the entire Alien trilogy . Ryder 's brother , Uri , was a major fan of the film series , and when asked , she took the role . The film became one of the least successful entries in the Alien film series , but was considered a success as it grossed $ 161 million worldwide . Weaver 's and Ryder 's performances drew mostly positive reviews , and Ryder won a Blockbuster Entertainment Award for Best Actress . Ryder then starred in Woody Allen 's Celebrity ( 1998 ) , after Drew Barrymore turned down Ryder 's role , in an ensemble cast . The film satirizes the lives of several celebrities . She later appeared in the music video for Jon Spencer Blues Explosion 's Talk About the Blues , which was on their sixth studio album ACME . Ryder also appeared on the cover artwork of its follow up album Xtra @-@ Acme USA , which was made using a screenshot from the previously mentioned music video .
In 1999 , she performed in and served as an executive producer for Girl , Interrupted , based on the 1993 autobiography of Susanna Kaysen . The film had been in project and post @-@ production since late 1996 , but it took time to surface . Ryder was deeply attached to the film , considering it her " child of the heart . " Ryder starred as Kaysen , who has borderline personality disorder and was admitted to a psychiatric hospital for recovery . Ryder starred alongside Whoopi Goldberg and Angelina Jolie . While Ryder was expected to make her comeback with her leading role , the film instead became the " welcome @-@ to @-@ Hollywood coronation " for Jolie , who won an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance . Jolie thanked Ryder in her acceptance speech . The same year , Ryder was parodied in South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut .
The following year , she starred in the melodrama Autumn in New York , alongside Richard Gere . The film revolves around a relationship between an older man ( Gere ) and a younger woman ( Ryder ) . Autumn in New York received mixed reviews , but was a commercial success , grossing $ 90 million at the worldwide box office . Ryder then played a nun of a secret society loosely connected to the Roman Catholic Church and determined to prevent Armageddon in Lost Souls ( 2000 ) , which was a commercial failure . Ryder refused to do commercial promotion for the film . Later in 2000 , she was one of several celebrities who made small cameo appearances in Zoolander ( released in 2001 ) . On October 6 , 2000 , Ryder received her own star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame , located directly in front of the Johnny Grant building next to the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel on Hollywood Boulevard . She was the 2,165th recipient of this honor .
= = = Hiatus , 2001 – 2005 = = =
Ryder had a hiatus after her shoplifting incident in 2001 ( see below ) . The book Conversations with Woody Allen reports that in 2003 , film director Woody Allen wanted to cast Robert Downey , Jr. and Ryder in his film Melinda and Melinda , but was unable to do so because " I couldn 't get insurance on them ... We couldn 't get bonded . The completion bonding companies would not bond the picture unless we could insure them . [ ... ] We were heartbroken because I had worked with Winona before [ on Celebrity ] and thought she was perfect for this and wanted to work with her again . "
In 2002 , Ryder appeared in two movies , filmed before her arrest . The first was a romantic comedy titled Mr. Deeds with Adam Sandler . This was her most commercially successful movie to date , earning over $ 126 million in the United States alone . The film was not a critical success , however ; film critic Philip French described it as a terrible film , saying that " remakes are often bad , but this one was particularly bad . " The second film was the science fiction drama S1m0ne in which she portrayed a glamorous star who is replaced by a computer simulated actress due to the clandestine machinations of a director , portrayed by her Looking for Richard costar Al Pacino . In July 2003 , she was number 183 on VH1 's and People magazine 's " 200 Greatest Pop Culture Icons " countdown list .
= = = 2006 – 2010 = = =
In 2006 , following her hiatus , Ryder appeared in Richard Linklater 's A Scanner Darkly , a film based on Philip K. Dick 's well @-@ received science fiction novel of the same name . Ryder starred alongside Keanu Reeves , Robert Downey , Jr. and Woody Harrelson . Live action scenes were transformed with rotoscope software and the film was entirely animated . A Scanner Darkly was screened at the 2006 Cannes Film Festival and the 2006 Seattle International Film Festival . Critics disagreed over the film 's merits ; Carina Chocano of the Los Angeles Times found the film " engrossing " and wrote that " the brilliance of [ the film ] is how it suggests , without bombast or fanfare , the ways in which the real world has come to resemble the dark world of comic books . " Matthew Turner of View London , believing the film to be " engaging " and " beautifully animated , " praised the film for its " superb performances " and original , thought @-@ provoking screenplay . " Ryder appeared in the comedy The Darwin Awards with Joseph Fiennes . The film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival on January 25 , 2006 .
Ryder reunited with Heathers screenwriter Daniel Waters for the surreal black comedy Sex and Death 101 ( 2007 ) . The story follows the sexual odysseys of successful businessman Roderick Blank , played by Simon Baker , who receives a mysterious e @-@ mail on the eve of his wedding , listing all of his past and future sex partners . " We will be doing a sequel to Heathers next " , Ryder stated . " There 's Heathers in the real world ! We have to keep going ! " In a more recent interview Ryder was quoted as saying on the speculation of a Heathers sequel : " I don 't know how much of the movie is official ; it 's a ways away . But it takes place in Washington and Christian Slater agreed to come back and make an Obi @-@ Wan @-@ type appearance . It 's very funny . "
Ryder appeared in David Wain 's comedy The Ten . The film centers around ten stories , each inspired by one of the Ten Commandments . The film debuted at the 2007 Sundance Film Festival on January 10 , 2007 , with a theatrical release on August 3 , 2007 . Ryder played the female lead opposite Wes Bentley and Ray Romano in Geoffrey Haley 's 2008 offbeat romantic drama The Last Word . In 2009 , she starred as a newscaster in the movie version of The Informers .
= = = 2010 – present = = =
Ryder was cast by director J. J. Abrams 's Star Trek , as Spock 's human mother Amanda Grayson . Several media outlets have noted her return to the box office and upcoming roles as a remarkable comeback . She starred alongside Robin Wright and Julianne Moore in Rebecca Miller 's The Private Lives of Pippa Lee , released on February 9 , 2009 at the 59th Berlin International Film Festival , with a limited US release scheduled for November 2009 . On June 2 , 2009 , Entertainment Weekly reported that in an interview with Ryder in Empire magazine , she revealed that she and Christian Slater will reprise their roles in a sequel to Heathers . In 2010 , Ryder played Beth McIntyre , an aging ballet star in Darren Aronofsky 's Black Swan . She also was cast in an independent film , Stay Cool , alongside Hilary Duff , Mark Polish and Chevy Chase . The same year , she also starred as Lois Wilson in the television movie , When Love Is Not Enough : The Lois Wilson Story for which she has received leading female Screen Actors Guild Award and Satellite Award nominations .
Ryder appeared in a leading role in the film , The Dilemma , directed by Ron Howard and previously called Cheaters and What You Don 't Know . The film , which also starred Vince Vaughn and Kevin James , began filming in Chicago in May 2010 and was released in January 2011 . In 2011 , she was cast as Deborah Kuklinski , the wife of contract killer Richard Kuklinski , in the thriller The Iceman . In 2012 , Tim Burton cast her as the love interest in The Killers music video , " Here with Me " . She was reunited with Tim Burton for a role in the animated 3D feature film Frankenweenie , released in October 2012 , and appeared alongside James Franco in the action thriller Homefront ( 2013 ) .
In 2013 , Ryder starred in a segment of the Comedy Central television series Drunk History called " Boston " . She played religious protestor Mary Dyer , opposite stern Puritan magistrate John Endicott , played by Michael Cera . She has also appeared in the American miniseries Show Me a Hero , playing the president of the Yonkers City Council , and the British television film Turks & Caicos . In 2015 , she starred alongside Peter Sarsgaard in the biographical drama film Experimenter , playing the wife of Stanley Milgram . Experimenter was released to positive reviews in October 2015 . Aside from acting , she was also announced as the face of Marc Jacobs .
In 2016 , Ryder starred in the Netflix Original Series " Stranger Things " created by the Duffer Brothers In the show she plays single mother Joyce Byers set in 1980 's Indiana whose 12 year @-@ old son vanishes mysteriously . The show was released by Netflix on July 15 , 2016 . It received very positive reviews for its characterization , pacing , atmosphere , acting , soundtrack , directing , writing , and homages to 1980s genre films . Ryder plays one of the main protagonists in the series .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Relationships = = =
Ryder was engaged to actor Johnny Depp for three years beginning in July 1990 . She met Depp at the Great Balls of Fire ! premiere in June 1989 ; two months later they began dating . Following her split from Depp , she dated Soul Asylum front man Dave Pirner for three years , from 1993 to 1996 . She later had a two @-@ year relationship with actor Matt Damon between 1998 and 2000 .
= = = Polly Klaas = = =
In 1993 , Ryder offered a reward in the hope that it would lead to the return of kidnapped child Polly Klaas . Klaas lived in Petaluma , the same town where Ryder grew up . Ryder offered a $ 200 @,@ 000 reward for the 12 @-@ year @-@ old kidnap victim 's safe return . After the girl 's death , Ryder starred as Jo in the 1994 film adaptation of Little Women by Louisa May Alcott and dedicated her performance to Klaas ' memory . Little Women was one of Klaas ' favorite novels .
During a sentencing hearing related to the 2001 shoplifting incident ( see below ) , Ryder 's attorney , Mark Geragos , referred to her work with the Polly Klaas Foundation and other charitable causes . In response , Deputy District Attorney Ann Rundle said : " What 's offensive to me is to trot out the body of a dead child . " Ryder was visibly upset at the accusation and Rundle was admonished by the judge . Outside the courthouse , Polly 's father Marc Klaas defended Ryder and expressed outrage at the prosecutor 's comments .
= = = 2001 arrest = = =
On December 12 , 2001 , Ryder was arrested on shoplifting charges in Beverly Hills , California . She was accused of stealing $ 5 @,@ 500 worth of designer clothes and accessories at a Saks Fifth Avenue department store . Ryder agreed under signature to pay two Civil Demands , as permitted under California 's Statute for Civil Recovery for Shoplifting , from Saks Fifth Avenue that completely reimbursed Saks Fifth Avenue for the stolen and surrendered merchandise while detained in the Security Offices of the Saks Fifth Avenue store , and before she was read her Miranda rights and arrested by the Los Angeles Police Department . Los Angeles District Attorney Stephen Cooley produced a team of eight prosecutors . Cooley filed four felony charges against her . Ryder hired noted celebrity defense attorney Mark Geragos . Negotiations for a plea bargain failed at the end of summer 2002 . As noted by Joel Mowbray from National Review , the prosecution was not ready to offer the actress an open door to a no @-@ contest plea on misdemeanor charges .
During the trial she was accused of using drugs , including oxycodone , diazepam , and Vicodin ( hydrocodone / APAP ) without valid prescriptions . Ryder was convicted of grand theft , shoplifting , and vandalism but was acquitted on the third felony charge , burglary . In December 2002 , she was sentenced to three years ' probation , 480 hours of community service , $ 3 @,@ 700 in fines , and $ 6 @,@ 355 in restitution to the Saks Fifth Avenue store and ordered to attend psychological and drug counseling . After reviewing Ryder 's probation report , Superior Court Judge Elden Fox noted that Ryder served 480 hours of community service and on June 18 , 2004 , the felonies were reduced to misdemeanors . Ryder remained on probation until December 2005 .
Of the incident , Ryder explained to Interview that it occurred during a time in her career where she was clinically depressed . She also stated that the heavy painkilling medication she was prescribed at the time by a quack doctor had significantly clouded her judgment .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Music videos = = =
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= Grindhouse ( film ) =
Grindhouse is a 2007 American horror film double feature co @-@ written , produced , and directed by Robert Rodriguez and Quentin Tarantino . The double feature consists of two feature @-@ length segments , Rodriguez 's Planet Terror and Tarantino 's Death Proof , and is bookended by fictional trailers for upcoming attractions , advertisements , and in @-@ theater announcements . The film 's title derives from the U.S. film industry term " grindhouse " , which refers to ( now mostly defunct ) movie theaters specializing in B movies , often exploitation films , shown in a multiple @-@ feature format . The film stars Rose McGowan , Freddy Rodriguez , Marley Shelton , Michael Biehn , Jeff Fahey , Josh Brolin , Naveen Andrews , Fergie , Bruce Willis , Kurt Russell , Rosario Dawson , Tracie Thoms , Mary Elizabeth Winstead and stuntwoman Zoë Bell , who plays herself .
Rodriguez 's segment , Planet Terror , revolves around an outfit of rebels attempting to survive an onslaught of zombie @-@ like creatures as they feud with a rogue military unit , while Tarantino 's segment , Death Proof , focuses on a misogynistic , psychopathic stuntman who targets young women , murdering them with his " death proof " stunt car . Each feature is preceded by faux trailers of exploitation films in other genres that were developed by other directors .
After the film was released on April 6 , 2007 , ticket sales performed significantly below box office analysts ' expectations despite mostly positive critic reviews . In much of the rest of the world , each feature was released separately in extended versions . Two soundtracks were also released for the features and include music and audio snippets from the film . The feature later found more success on DVD and Blu @-@ ray . In several interviews , despite the box office failure , the directors have expressed their interest in a possible sequel to the film due to its critical acclaim and successful home media sales . Three spin @-@ off films were later made , based on Grindhouse 's fake trailers : Machete , Machete Kills and Hobo with a Shotgun .
= = Planet Terror = =
In a rural town in Texas , go @-@ go dancer Cherry Darling decides to quit her low @-@ paying job and find another use for her numerous " useless " talents . She runs into mysterious ex @-@ boyfriend El Wray at the Bone Shack , a restaurant owned by J.T. Hague . Meanwhile , a group of military officials , led by the demented Lt. Muldoon , are making a business transaction with a scientist named Abby for mass quantities of a deadly biochemical agent known as DC2 ( codename " Project Terror " ) . Muldoon learns that Abby has an extra supply on hand and attempts to take him hostage . Abby intentionally releases the gas into the air . The gas reaches the town and turns its residents into deformed bloodthirsty , man @-@ eating psychopaths , mockingly referred to as " sickos " by the surviving humans . The infected townspeople are treated by the sinister Dr. William Block and his abused , neglected anesthesiologist wife Dakota at a local hospital . As the patients quickly become enraged aggressors , Cherry and El Wray lead a team of accidental warriors into the night , struggling to find safety .
Cast
Rose McGowan as Cherry Darling : A go @-@ go dancer . After Cherry 's leg is torn off by sickos , she is given a special prosthetic leg in the form of a high powered machine gun .
Freddy Rodriguez as El Wray : The ex @-@ boyfriend of Cherry Darling . The two meet and take on the sickos together which causes them to fall in love again .
Josh Brolin as Dr. William Block : The husband of Dr. Dakota Block , the father of Tony Block and the son @-@ in @-@ law of Sheriff Earl McGraw . He tries to kill Dakota because she cheated on him with Tammy .
Marley Shelton as Dr. Dakota Block : The estranged daughter of Sheriff Earl McGraw . Dakota is also the wife of Dr. William Block , with whom she shares a son , Tony Block .
Jeff Fahey as J.T. Hague : The owner and head chef of the Bone Shack , who is known for having the best BBQ recipes in the world . He is Sheriff Hague 's brother .
Michael Biehn as Sheriff Hague : J.T. ' s brother . He hates El Wray , but later likes him because El Wray saves his life .
Rebel Rodriguez as Tony Block : The son of Dr. Dakota Block and Dr. William Block .
Bruce Willis as Lt. Muldoon : A scientist who caused the sickos . He has the gas to protect himself from the deadly poison which everyone in the movie wants .
Naveen Andrews as Dr. John " Abby " Abbington : A scientist and possible terrorist . He has the cure for the disease that turned everyone into sickos .
Stacy Ferguson as Tammy Visan : The girl Dr. Dakota Block is having an affair with .
Tom Savini as Deputy Tolo : Gets his finger bitten off by the sickos , then gets eaten alive by them .
Nicky Katt as Joe : Gets bitten by the sickos , and later on becomes one .
Michael Parks as Earl McGraw : The estranged father of Dr. Dakota Block .
Quentin Tarantino as Lewis ( Rapist # 1 ) : A rapist who tries to rape Cherry and Dr. Dakota Block .
= = Death Proof = =
Three friends – Arlene , Shanna , and radio disc jockey " Jungle " Julia – spend a night in Austin , Texas for fun , unknowingly followed by a mysterious man in a souped @-@ up 1971 Chevy Nova . The man , Stuntman Mike , stalks the young women with his " death proof " car , eventually killing all three . Fourteen months later , Stuntman Mike , now in Tennessee and driving a 1969 Dodge Charger , tails another group of young women – Lee , Abernathy , Kim , and stuntwoman Zoë – a group of women working below the line in Hollywood , whose Stock 1970 Dodge Challenger proves a worthy adversary .
Cast
Kurt Russell as Stuntman Mike Mikke : Little is known about Stuntman Mike , except that he hangs around the Texas Chili Parlor and may or may not have been a professional stuntman on various TV shows during the 1960s and 1970s .
Zoë Bell as Zoë Bell : An old friend of Kim and a film stuntwoman . For fun , she straps herself to a car with Kim driving and Abernathy in the passenger seat .
Rosario Dawson as Abernathy Ross : She is the feminist friend of Kim , Zoe , and Lee . She is the make @-@ up artist for Lindsay Lohan .
Vanessa Ferlito as Arlene " Butterfly " : She is friend of Julia and Shanna , from New York . Stuntman Mike has been following her .
Sydney Tamiia Poitier as " Jungle " Julia Lucai : A sexy radio DJ in Austin , Texas . She went to school with Pam where she bullied her and slept around a lot .
Tracie Thoms as Kim Mathis : She is friend of Abernathy , Zoe and Lee . She is a professional stuntwoman and is usually armed for personal protection .
Rose McGowan as Pam : In the bar she needs a ride home and Stuntman Mike volunteers to take her . She eventually becomes his first victim .
Jordan Ladd as Shanna : She is a friend of Jungle Julia and Arlene , and has arranged a location to spend the night .
Mary Elizabeth Winstead as Lee Montgomery : She is a friend of Abernathy and Kim . She is a beginner actress who will play a cheerleader in a movie .
Quentin Tarantino as Warren : The owner and bartender of the Texas Chili Parlor .
Michael Parks as Earl McGraw : Sheriff who works on Stuntman Mike 's case .
Jonathan Loughran as Jasper : A car mechanic who keeps Lee with him to make sure that he hasn 't been duped by the girls .
= = Fictitious trailers = =
Before each segment , there are trailers advertising fake films , as well as vintage theater snipes and an ad for a fictional restaurant called Acuña Boys . According to Rodriguez , it was Tarantino 's idea to film fake trailers for Grindhouse . " I didn 't even know about it until I read it in the trades . It said something like ' Rodriguez and Tarantino doing a double feature and Tarantino says there 's gonna be fake trailers . ' And I thought , ' There are ? ' " Rodriguez and Tarantino had originally planned to make all of the film 's fake trailers themselves . According to Rodriguez , " We had so many ideas for trailers . I made Machete . I shot lobby cards and the poster and cut the trailer and sent it to Quentin , and he just flipped out because it looked so vintage and so real . He started showing it around to Eli Roth and to Edgar Wright , and they said , ' Can we do a trailer ? We have an idea for a trailer ! ' We were like , ' Hey , let them shoot it . If we don 't get around to shooting ours , we 'll put theirs in the movie . If theirs come out really great , we 'll put it in the movie to have some variety . ' Then Rob Zombie came up to me in October at the Scream Awards and said , ' I have a trailer : Werewolf Women of the SS . ' I said , ' Say no more . Go shoot it . You got me . ' " Each trailer was shot in two days . While Wright and Roth shot only what ended up on screen , Zombie shot enough footage to work into a half @-@ hour film and was particularly pained to edit it down . Some Canadian screening releases included the South by Southwest @-@ winning trailer Hobo with a Shotgun .
= = = Machete = = =
Rodriguez wrote Machete in 1993 as a full feature for Danny Trejo . " I had cast him in Desperado and I remember thinking , ' Wow , this guy should have his own series of Mexploitation movies like Charles Bronson or like Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme . ' So I wrote him this idea of a federale from Mexico who gets hired to do hatchet jobs in the U.S. I had heard sometimes FBI or DEA have a really tough job that they don 't want to get their own agents killed on , they 'll hire an agent from Mexico to come do the job for $ 25 @,@ 000 . I thought , ' That 's Machete . He would come and do a really dangerous job for a lot of money to him but for everyone else over here it 's peanuts . ' But I never got around to making it . " The trailer was made into a feature film which was released in September 2010 ; a sequel , Machete Kills ( 2013 ) , followed .
= = = Werewolf Women of the SS = = =
Rob Zombie 's contribution , Werewolf Women of the SS , starred Nicolas Cage as Fu Manchu ; Udo Kier as Franz Hess , the commandant of Death Camp 13 ; Zombie 's wife , Sheri ; and Sybil Danning as SS officers / sisters Eva and Gretchen Krupp ( The She @-@ Devils of Belzac ) . Professional wrestlers Andrew " Test " Martin and Oleg " Vladimir Kozlov " Prudius also featured , plus Olja Hrustic , Meriah Nelson , and Lorielle New as the Werewolf Women . According to Zombie , " Basically , I had two ideas . It was either going to be a Nazi movie or a women @-@ in @-@ prison film , and I went with the Nazis . There 're all those movies like Ilsa , She Wolf of the SS ; Fräulein Devil ; and Love Camp 7 — I 've always found that to be the most bizarre genre . " Zombie is also quoted as saying " I was getting very conceptual in my own mind with it . [ ... ] A lot of times these movies would be made like , ' Well , you know , I 've got a whole bunch of Nazi uniforms , but I got this Chinese set too . We 'll put ' em together ! ' They start jamming things in there , so I took that approach . "
= = = Don 't = = =
Edgar Wright 's contribution , Don 't , was produced in the style of a 1970s ' Hammer House of Horror film trailer . The trailer featured appearances from Jason Isaacs , Matthew Macfadyen , singer Katie Melua , Lee Ingleby , Georgina Chapman , Emily Booth , Stuart Wilson , Lucy Punch , Rafe Spall , Wright regulars Simon Pegg and Nick Frost , and a voice @-@ over by Will Arnett . Mark Gatiss , MyAnna Buring , Peter Serafinowicz , Michael Smiley and Nicola Cunningham ( who played the zombie " Mary " in Shaun of the Dead ) , among others , made uncredited cameo appearances . To get the necessary 1970s look , Wright used vintage lenses and old @-@ style graphics . During editing , he scratched some of the film with steel wool and dragged it around a parking lot to make it appear neglected by wayward projectionists . According to Wright , " In the ' 70s , when American International would release European horror films , they 'd give them snazzier titles . And the one that inspired me was this Jorge Grau film : In the UK , it 's called The Living Dead at Manchester Morgue . In Spain and in Italy , I think it 's called Do Not Speak Ill of the Dead . But in the States , it was called Don 't Open the Window . I just loved the fact that there isn 't a big window scene in the film — it 's all based around the spin and the voiceover not really telling you what the hell is going on in the film . " On the Charlie Rose talk show , Quentin Tarantino also pointed out another aspect of American advertising of British films in the 1970s that was being referenced — none of the actors have any dialogue in the trailer , as if the trailer was intentionally edited to prevent American viewers from realizing that the film is British .
= = = Thanksgiving = = =
Eli Roth 's contribution is a promo for the slasher opus Thanksgiving . Produced in the style of holiday @-@ themed slasher films like Halloween , Silent Night , Deadly Night , April Fool 's Day and My Bloody Valentine , the trailer starred Jeff Rendell as a killer who stalks victims while dressed as a pilgrim ; Jordan Ladd , Jay Hernandez , and Roth himself as his intended victims ; and Michael Biehn as the Sheriff . The design for the titles in Thanksgiving was based on a Mad magazine slasher parody titled Arbor Day . Excerpts of the score from Creepshow were used in the faux trailer .
According to Roth , " My friend Jeff , who plays the killer pilgrim – we grew up in Massachusetts , we were huge slasher movie fans and every November we were waiting for the Thanksgiving slasher movie . We had the whole movie worked out : A kid who 's in love with a turkey , and then his father killed it , and then he killed his family and went away to a mental institution and came back and took revenge on the town . I called Jeff and said , ' Dude , guess what , we don 't have to make the movie , we can just shoot the best parts . ' " " Shooting the trailer was so much fun , " Roth has stated , " because every shot is a money shot . Every shot is decapitation or nudity . It 's so ridiculous , it 's absurd . It 's just so wrong and sick that it 's right . "
Roth 's fake trailer contained elements that almost earned Grindhouse an NC @-@ 17 rating , including a cheerleader simultaneously stripping , bouncing on a trampoline and getting stabbed in the vulva , and three decapitations , one of which occurs as the victim 's girlfriend performs fellatio on him . According to Roth , " Instead of seeing it spread out in a feature , watching it all jammed together non @-@ stop makes it more shocking . But we had a great discussion with the ratings board . They got it . Once they saw it with all the bad splices and the distress and scratches they were fine with it . " Roth confirmed in an interview with Cinema Blend 's Eric Eisenberg that he and co @-@ writer Jeff Rendell are working on a possible feature film .
= = = Hobo with a Shotgun = = =
Some screenings of Grindhouse ( mainly in Canada ) also featured a fake trailer for a film titled Hobo with a Shotgun . The trailer , created by Dartmouth , Nova Scotia filmmakers Jason Eisener , John Davies , and Rob Cotterill , won Robert Rodriguez 's South by Southwest Grindhouse trailers contest . In the trailer , David Brunt plays a vagabond with a 20 @-@ gauge shotgun ( changed to a 12 @-@ gauge for the actual movie ) who becomes a vigilante . In the trailer , he is shown killing numerous persons , ranging from armed robbers to corrupt cops to a pedophilic Santa Claus . The trailer was available in certain selected movie theaters in the United States and Canada .
In 2010 , the trailer was made into a full @-@ length feature film starring Rutger Hauer as the hobo , with David Brunt playing a dirty cop . Hobo With a Shotgun was the second of Grindhouse 's fake trailers to be turned into a feature film , the first being Machete . The film was released March 25 , 2011 in Canada , April 1 , 2011 on American Video On Demand and May 6 , 2011 in U.S. theatres .
= = History and development = =
The idea for Grindhouse came to Robert Rodriguez and Quentin Tarantino when Tarantino set up screenings of double features in his house , complete with trailers before and in between the films . During one screening in 2003 , Rodriguez noticed that he owned the same double feature movie poster as Tarantino for the 1957 films Dragstrip Girl and Rock All Night . Rodriguez asked Tarantino , " I always wanted to do a double feature . Hey , why don 't you direct one and I 'll do the other ? " Tarantino quickly replied , " And we 've got to call it Grindhouse ! "
The film 's name originates from the American term for theaters that played " all the exploitation genres : kung fu , horror , Giallo , sexploitation , the ' good old boy ' redneck car @-@ chase movies , blaxploitation , spaghetti Westerns — all those risible genres that were released in the 70s . " According to Rodriguez , " The posters were much better than the movies , but we 're actually making something that lives up to the posters . "
Rodriguez first came up with the idea for Planet Terror during the production of The Faculty : " I remember telling Elijah Wood and Josh Hartnett , all these young actors , that zombie movies were dead and hadn 't been around in a while , but that I thought they were going to come back in a big way because they ’ d been gone for so long . I said , ' We 've got to be there first . ' I had [ a script ] I ’ d started writing . It was about 30 pages , and I said to them , ' There are characters for all of you to play . ' We got all excited about it , and then I didn 't know where to go with it . The introduction was about as far as I 'd gotten , and then I got onto other movies . Sure enough , the zombie [ movie ] invasion happened and they all came back again , and I was like , ' Ah , I knew that I should 've made my zombie film . ' " The story was reapproached when Tarantino and Rodriguez developed the idea for Grindhouse .
As Planet Terror took shape , Tarantino developed the story for Death Proof , based on his fascination for the way stuntmen would " death @-@ proof " their cars . As long as they were driving , stuntmen could slam their cars headfirst into a brick wall at 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) and survive . This inspired Tarantino to create a slasher film featuring a deranged stuntman who stalks and murders sexy young women with his " death @-@ proof " car . Tarantino remembers , " I realized I couldn 't do a straight slasher film , because with the exception of women @-@ in @-@ prison films , there is no other genre quite as rigid . And if you break that up , you aren 't really doing it anymore . It 's inorganic , so I realized — let me take the structure of a slasher film and just do what I do . My version is going to be fucked up and disjointed , but it seemingly uses the structure of a slasher film , hopefully against you . "
According to Rodriguez , " [ Tarantino ] had an idea and a complete vision for it right away when he first talked about it . He started to tell me the story and said , ' It 's got this death @-@ proof car in it . ' I said , ' You have to call it Death Proof . ' I helped title the movie , but that 's it . " Of the car chases , Tarantino stated , " CGI for car stunts doesn 't make any sense to me — how is that supposed to be impressive ? [ ... ] I don 't think there have been any good car chases since I started making films in ' 92 — to me , the last terrific car chase was in Terminator 2 . And Final Destination 2 had a magnificent car action piece . In between that , not a lot . Every time a stunt happens , there 's twelve cameras and they use every angle for Avid editing , but I don 't feel it in my stomach . It 's just action . "
= = Production = =
= = = Direction = = =
According to actress Marley Shelton , " Rodriguez and Tarantino really co @-@ directed , at least Planet Terror . Quentin was on set a lot . He had notes and adjustments to our performances and he changed lines every once in a while . Of course , he always deferred to Robert on Planet Terror and vice versa for Death Proof . So it 's really both of their brainchild . " Tarantino has stated , " I can 't imagine doing Grindhouse with any other director in the way me and Robert did it because I just had complete faith and trust in him . So much so that we didn 't actually see each other 's movie completed until three weeks before the film opened . It was as if we worked in little vacuums and cut our movies down , and then put them together and watched it all play , and then made a couple of little changes after that , and pretty much that was it . "
= = = Casting = = =
Many of the cast members had previously worked with both directors . Before appearing in Grindhouse , Marley Shelton had auditioned for The Faculty , but Rodriguez chose not to cast her . She was eventually cast in the role of a customer in the opening sequence of Sin City . Bruce Willis had appeared in both Tarantino 's Pulp Fiction and Rodriguez 's Sin City , in addition to having a cameo appearance in a segment Tarantino directed for the anthology film Four Rooms . Tom Savini had previously acted in From Dusk Till Dawn , which was written by Tarantino and directed by Rodriguez . Michael Parks reprises the role of Earl McGraw in Planet Terror and Death Proof . Parks first portrayed the role in From Dusk Till Dawn . His son , James , appears in Death Proof as Edgar McGraw , a character that first appeared in From Dusk Till Dawn 2 : Texas Blood Money . The first time the two characters appeared together was in Tarantino 's Kill Bill . Tarantino himself plays small roles in both segments of Grindhouse , and director Eli Roth , who contributed the fake trailer Thanksgiving and whose film Hostel was produced by Tarantino , has a cameo in Death Proof .
Tarantino attempted to cast both Kal Penn and Sylvester Stallone in Death Proof , but both were unable to work due to prior commitments . In an interview , Tarantino revealed that he decided to cast Kurt Russell as the killer stunt driver because " for people of my generation , he 's a true hero ... but now , there 's a whole audience out there that doesn 't know what Kurt Russell can do . When I open the newspaper and see an ad that says ' Kurt Russell in Dreamer , ' or ' Kurt Russell in Miracle , ' I 'm not disparaging these movies , but I 'm thinking : When is Kurt Russell going to be a badass again ? "
= = = Cinematography = = =
Rodriguez and Tarantino each acted as cinematographer on their segments . Although Rodriguez had previously worked as the cinematographer on six of his own feature films , Death Proof marked Tarantino 's first credit as a cinematographer . The director of photography for Rob Zombie 's fake trailer Werewolf Women of the SS was Phil Parmet , whom Zombie had first worked with on The Devil 's Rejects . The director of photography for Eli Roth 's fake trailer Thanksgiving was Milan Chadima , whom Roth had previously worked with on Hostel .
= = = Special effects = = =
Though set in the modern day , the film uses various unconventional techniques to make the films look like those that were shown in grindhouse theaters in the 1970s . Throughout both feature @-@ length segments and the fake trailers , the film is intentionally damaged to make it look like many of the exploitation films of the 1970s , which were generally shipped around from theater to theater and usually ended up in bad shape . To reproduce the look of damaged film reels in Planet Terror , five of the six 25 @,@ 000 @-@ frame reels were edited with real film damage , plug @-@ ins , and stock footage .
Planet Terror makes heavy use of digital effects throughout the film . Perhaps the most notable effect is Cherry 's ( Rose McGowan ) fake leg . To accomplish the fake leg that Cherry sports after her accident , during post @-@ production the effects teams digitally removed McGowan 's right leg from the shots and replaced it with computer @-@ generated props — first a table leg and then an M16 rifle . During shooting for these scenes , McGowan wore a special cast which restricted her leg movement to give her the correct motion , and helped the effects artists to digitally remove it during post @-@ production .
= = = Editing = = =
During editing , Tarantino and Rodriguez came up with the idea of inserting " missing reels " into the film . " [ Quentin ] was about to show an Italian crime movie with Oliver Reed , " Rodriguez recalls , " and he was saying , ' Oh , it 's got a missing reel in it . But it 's really interesting because after the missing reel , you don 't know if he slept with a girl or he didn 't because she says he did and he says that he didn 't . It leaves you guessing , and the movie still works with 20 minutes gone out of it . ' I thought , ' Oh , my God , that 's what we ’ ve got to do . We 've got to have a missing reel ! ' I 'm going to use it in a way where it actually says ' missing reel ' for 10 seconds , and then when we come back , you 're arriving in the third act . [ ... ] The late second acts in movies are usually the most predictable and the most boring , that 's where the good guy really turns out to be the bad guy , and the bad guy is really good , and the couple becomes friends . Suddenly , though , in the third act , all bets are off and it 's a whole new story anyway . "
On the editing of Death Proof , Tarantino stated " There is half @-@ an @-@ hour 's difference between my Death Proof and what is playing in Grindhouse . [ ... ] I was like a brutish American exploitation distributor who cut the movie down almost to the point of incoherence . I cut it down to the bone and took all the fat off it to see if it could still exist , and it worked . " An extended , 127 @-@ minute version of Death Proof was screened in competition for the Palme d 'Or at the 60th Cannes Film Festival . Tarantino is quoted as saying " It works great as a double feature , but I 'm just as excited if not more excited about actually having the world see Death Proof unfiltered . [ ... ] It will be the first time everyone sees Death Proof by itself , including me . "
Grindhouse is rated R in the United States for " strong graphic bloody violence and gore , pervasive language , some sexuality , nudity , and drug use " . On March 15 , 2007 , The New York Post reported that the film would possibly require heavy and extensive cuts in order to avoid an NC @-@ 17 rating . Shortly after , the film officially received an R @-@ rating from the MPAA . Ain 't It Cool News reported that according to Tarantino , only minimal cuts were made which ended up totaling 20 seconds .
= = = Soundtrack influences = = =
The music for Planet Terror was composed by Rodriguez . Inspiration for his score came from John Carpenter , whose music was often played on set . A cover version of the Dead Kennedys ' " Too Drunk to Fuck " performed by Nouvelle Vague was also featured . The soundtrack for Death Proof consists entirely of non @-@ original music , including excerpts from the scores of other films . Soundtrack albums for both segments were released on April 3 , 2007 .
= = Response = =
= = = Box office = = =
Grindhouse did not perform well at the box office , surprising box office analysts and fans alike given the strong reviews and favorable media buzz . Costing $ 53 million to produce , Grindhouse opened poorly with " a disappointing $ 11 @.@ 5 million " in the United States , making a per @-@ theater average of $ 4 @,@ 417 ; box office analysts originally predicted an opening weekend total of at least $ 20 – $ 30 million .
The opening weekend box office total stood below not only the second weekends of Blades of Glory and Meet the Robinsons , but also fell below the opening weekend gross of the widely panned Are We Done Yet ? . In an attempt to explain the film 's disappointing opening weekend , box office analyst Brandon Gray suggested that Grindhouse " suffered the usual horror comedy dilemma that afflicted Snakes on a Plane and Slither among others : too funny to be scary , too scary to be funny . " Box office analyst Lee Tistaert of tracking website Lee 's Movie Info compared the result with what may have happened if Tarantino 's Kill Bill saga had been released as one film , instead of two separate volumes . " Is it possible that Tarantino got his wish this time as a result of two back @-@ to @-@ back $ 60 million grosses ? " he asked . Others attributed the film 's disappointing opening to the timing of Easter weekend , noting that the weekend is more tailored for family @-@ oriented films or light @-@ comedy , not exploitative horror films . The film 's length — running more than three hours — also hurt , keeping away casual theater @-@ goers and limiting the number of screenings that could be held in a day .
Quentin Tarantino was quoted as saying about the film 's box office results , " It was disappointing , yeah . But the movie worked with the audience . [ ... ] People who saw it loved it and applauded . [ ... ] I 'm proud of my flop . " Harvey Weinstein said that he was so " incredibly disappointed " with the film 's opening weekend that he was considering re @-@ releasing it as two separate films and possibly adding back the " missing " scenes . The film altogether earned $ 25 @,@ 422 @,@ 088 in ticket sales . Grindhouse was separated and released internationally . Death Proof grossed $ 30 @,@ 663 @,@ 961 , while Planet Terror grossed $ 10 @,@ 871 @,@ 224 . , bringing Grindhouse 's total gross to $ 67 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Grindhouse was embraced by critics ; review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 83 % of critics gave the film a positive review based on a sample of 191 reviews , with an average score of 7 @.@ 4 / 10 . The site 's consensus reads , " Grindhouse delivers exhilarating exploitation fare with wit and panache , improving upon its source material with feral intelligence . " At the website Metacritic , which utilizes a normalized rating system , the film earned a favorable rating of 77 / 100 based on 36 reviews by mainstream critics .
Entertainment Weekly awarded the film a " B + " rating , praising it as a " crazily funny and exciting tribute to the grimy glory days of 1970s exploitation films " that " will leave you laughing , gasping , thrilled at a movie that knows , at long last , how to put the bad back in badass . " Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film a positive review , commenting that " by stooping low without selling out , this babes @-@ and @-@ bullets tour de force gets you high on movies again . " Critic James Berardinelli also enjoyed the film but was not as positive as other critics . Awarding the film three stars ( out of four ) , Berardinelli found the film to be " cinema as an expression of pulp with attitude ... [ Rodriguez and Tarantino ] are speaking from the hearts ... but that doesn 't mean everyone sitting in the theater will get it . "
The critics who did not like the film were not amused by the film 's graphic and comical violence , with Larry Ratliff of San Antonio Express @-@ News noting that " this ambitious , scratched and weathered venture never manages a real death grip on the senses . " Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle awarded the film a high rating , but noted that " the Rodriguez segment is terrific ; the Tarantino one long @-@ winded and juvenile . " Others considered Death Proof to be a deeper and more noteworthy segment . Critic A. O. Scott of The New York Times noted that " [ a ] t a certain point in Death Proof the scratches and bad splices disappear , and you find yourself watching not an arch , clever pastiche of old movies and movie theaters but an actual movie . " Chicago Sun @-@ Times critic Roger Ebert was divided . He gave Grindhouse as a whole two and a half stars out of four , awarding Planet Terror two stars and Death Proof three stars . Ebert also noted the irony of grindhouse films largely being superseded by many big @-@ budget R @-@ rated mainstream films that included a great deal of nudity and graphic violence .
Critics generally enjoyed the fake trailers . Geoff Pevere of the Toronto Star wrote that the use of the trailers helps the film establish " its credibility as both mock @-@ artifact and geeky fetish object even before the opening feature . " Todd McCarthy of Variety claimed that the trailers were " excellent candidates for exploitation immortality . " Jeff Vice of Deseret News , who gave the feature films negative reviews , called the trailers " ... the strongest aspect of the entire presentation . " Maitland McDonagh of TV Guide added , " With the exception of Werewolf Women , which tries a little too hard , they 're all spot @-@ on pastiches . "
The double feature appeared at number six on Jack Mathews and Owen Gleiberman 's respective top ten lists for New York Daily News and Entertainment Weekly , and at number seven on Stephanie Zacharek 's list for Salon . Marc Savlov listed Death Proof at number ten on his list for The Austin Chronicle .
= = Release = =
= = = Theatrical = = =
Outside the US and Canada , Planet Terror and Death Proof were released separately in extended versions , approximately two months apart . The poster artwork for each film 's release in the Netherlands claimed that Death Proof would feature " coming attractions " from Rodriguez , while Planet Terror would feature " coming attractions " from Tarantino . While the separated version of Planet Terror includes the Machete trailer , none of the other fake trailers were included when the features were released individually .
In reaction to the possibility of a split in a foreign release , Tarantino stated " Especially if they were dealing with non @-@ English language countries , they don 't really have this tradition ... not only do they not really know what a grind house is , they don 't even have the double feature tradition . So you are kind of trying to teach us something else . " Many European fans saw the split as an attempt to increase profits by forcing audiences to pay twice for what was shown as a single film in the United States .
In the United Kingdom , Death Proof was released on September 21 , 2007 . The release of Planet Terror followed on November 9 with an eventual , theatrical , limited run of the entire Grindhouse feature the following year . Death Proof was screened in Europe in the extended version that was presented in competition at the Cannes film festival . The additional material includes scenes that were replaced in the American theatrical release version with a " missing reel " title card , such as the lap dance scene . A total of about 27 minutes were added for this version . In Australia , the edited version of Death Proof was first screened on November 1 , 2007 as a separate film . However , from January 17 , 2008 , Grindhouse had limited screenings . In April 2008 , Grindhouse was screened by Dendy Cinemas in one venue at a time across the country , through the use of a traveling 35 mm reel . In South America , Planet Terror was released in January 2010 , while Death Proof was released in July 2010 at least in Brazil .
= = = Home media = = =
Death Proof and Planet Terror were released separately on DVD in the United States . The trailers were omitted from Death Proof , with the exception of Machete which was from Planet Terror . Death Proof was released on September 18 , 2007 , with Planet Terror following on October 16 , 2007 . Both were two @-@ disc special editions featuring extended versions of the films . Robert Rodriguez stated in his 10 @-@ Minute Film School that a box set of the two films would be available soon , and that his 10 @-@ Minute Cook School would appear on it . This release would also reportedly include Hobo with a Shotgun . A six @-@ DVD edition of the film was released on March 21 , 2008 in Japan , featuring the films in both their individual extended versions and in the abridged double feature presentation along with previously @-@ unreleased special features .
Planet Terror and Death Proof were released individually on Blu @-@ ray Disc on December 16 , 2008 in North America . The Blu @-@ ray edition of Planet Terror also contained a " scratch @-@ free " version of the film that removed much of the damage effects , while the Blu @-@ ray edition of Death Proof only contained the " damaged " version of the film . The theatrical version of Grindhouse was released on Region 2 DVD and the stand @-@ alone version of Death Proof HD DVD was released in Germany on December 31 , 2009 .
A two @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray " Special Edition " of Grindhouse was released on October 5 , 2010 in the US by Vivendi Entertainment and has exclusive bonus features . This release marks the first time that US viewers can view the full Grindhouse " Double Feature Presentation " experience at home as it was originally released in theaters . The first disc of the 2 @-@ disc set contains Death Proof and Planet Terror , along with the faux trailers , including the " trailer " for Machete . The theatrical cut was released on DVD in Canada from Alliance Atlantis . All of the extras from the previous individual DVD releases were included , however none of the extras from the Special Edition Blu @-@ ray were included .
Bill Moseley stated at FanExpo on August 27 , 2010 that the Blu @-@ ray would also include a 5 @-@ minute version of Werewolf Women of the SS .
= = Adaptations of the fake trailers = =
In 2010 , Rodriguez wrote and co @-@ directed a feature @-@ length adaptation of his fake trailer , Machete . Many of the original actors from the trailer returned to their roles for it . Machete screened September 1 at the Venice Film Festival and was released across cinemas in the US on September 3 , 2010 .
Machete turned out to be more of a success at the box office than Grindhouse , grossing $ 44 million internationally against a just @-@ over $ 10 million budget . At the end of the film , the announcer says that there would be two sequels : Machete Kills and Machete Kills Again . Soon afterward , Rodriguez confirmed that the financing for the sequels was in place , and that once everyone was free , they could begin shooting .
The director of a trailer that played in some theaters in the United States and Canada ( mainly the latter ) , Hobo with a Shotgun , Jason Eisener , also made a feature @-@ length adaptation of it . Rutger Hauer replaced Dave Brunt as the titular character , though Brunt does make a cameo as a corrupt cop .
These two adaptations received mainly positive reviews , with the general consensus being that they were cartoonishly enjoyable and gleefully violent homages to their reasons for being . Although Hobo with a Shotgun was not as big a box office success in the U.S. as it was in Canada , it has since gained a cult following there .
Many of the other fake trailer directors have expressed interest in making their trailers into real films , including Edgar Wright and Eli Roth .
Both Rodriguez and Tarantino have said that they are interested in making a sequel to Grindhouse . Tarantino said that he wants to shoot an " old @-@ school Kung Fu movie in Mandarin with subtitles in some countries , and release a shorter , dubbed cut in others " for his segment . It has also been reported by Rotten Tomatoes that Edgar Wright may expand Don 't into a feature film . According to Eli Roth , he and Wright have discussed the possibility of pairing Don 't with Thanksgiving for a Grindhouse sequel . Roth is quoted as saying " We 're talking to Dimension about it . I think they 're still trying to figure out Grindhouse 1 before we think about Grindhouse 2 , but I 've already been working on the outline for it and I would do it in a heartbeat . "
Electra and Elise Avellan , Rodriguez 's nieces who play the Crazy Babysitter Twins in both films , originally stated their uncle wanted to do a sequel featuring both Machete and The Babysitter Twins , but the latter concept did not materialize with the former 's release . " Robert mentioned something about the end of the world and Hollywood action films , where we 'd be trained in Mexico to come back here and fight , " Electra Avellan told bloody @-@ disgusting.com.
A third feature @-@ length film based on the trailers , the Robert Rodriguez @-@ directed Machete Kills , was released at the end of 2013 .
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= Muskrat =
The muskrat ( Ondatra zibethicus ) , the only species in genus Ondatra and tribe Ondatrini , is a medium @-@ sized semiaquatic rodent native to North America , and is an introduced species in parts of Europe , Asia , and South America . The muskrat is found in wetlands over a wide range of climates and habitats . It has important effects on the ecology of wetlands and is a resource of food and fur for humans .
The muskrat is the largest species in the subfamily Arvicolinae , which includes 142 other species of rodents , mostly voles and lemmings . Muskrats are referred to as " rats " in a general sense because they are medium @-@ sized rodents with an adaptable lifestyle and an omnivorous diet . They are not , however , members of the genus Rattus .
= = Etymology = =
The muskrat 's name probably comes from a word of Algonquian ( possibly Powhatan ) origin , muscascus ( literally " it is red " , so called for its colorings ) , or from the Abenaki native word mòskwas , as seen in the archaic English name for the animal , musquash . Because of the association with the " musky " odor , which the muskrat uses to mark its territory , and its flattened tail the name became altered to musk @-@ beaver ; later it became muskrat due to its resemblance to rats .
Similarly , its specific name zibethicus means ‘ musky ’ , being the adjective of zibethus ‘ civet musk ; civet ’ . The genus name comes from the Huron word for the animal , ondathra , and entered New Latin as Ondatra via French .
= = Description = =
An adult muskrat is about 40 – 70 cm ( 16 – 28 in ) long , half of that is the tail , and weighs from 0 @.@ 6 – 2 kg ( 1 @.@ 3 – 4 @.@ 4 lb ) . That is about four times the weight of the brown rat ( Rattus norvegicus ) , though an adult muskrat is only slightly longer , and are almost certainly the largest and heaviest members of the diverse family Cricetidae , which includes all voles , lemmings and most mice native to the Americas . Muskrats are much smaller than beavers ( Castor canadensis ) , with whom they often share their habitat .
Muskrats are covered with short , thick fur which is medium to dark brown or black in color , with the belly a bit lighter ( countershaded ) ; as the age increases , it turns a partly gray in color . The fur has two layers , which helps protect them from the cold water . They have long tails covered with scales rather than hair and , to aid them in swimming , are slightly flattened vertically , which is a shape that is unique to them . When they walk on land , their tails drag on the ground , which makes their tracks easy to recognize .
Muskrats spend much of their time in the water and are well suited for their semiaquatic life . They can swim under water for 12 to 17 minutes . Their bodies , like those of seals and whales , are less sensitive to the buildup of carbon dioxide than those of most other mammals . They can close off their ears to keep the water out . Their hind feet are semiwebbed , although in swimming , their tails are their main means of propulsion .
= = Distribution and ecology = =
Muskrats are found over most of Canada and the United States and a small part of northern Mexico . They were introduced to Europe in the beginning of the 20th century and have become an invasive species in northwestern Europe . They mostly inhabit wetlands , areas in or near saline and freshwater wetlands , rivers , lakes , or ponds . They are not found in the state of Florida , where the round @-@ tailed muskrat , or Florida water rat ( Neofiber alleni ) , fills their niche .
Their populations naturally cycle ; in areas where they become abundant , they are capable of removing much of the vegetation in wetlands . They are thought to play a major role in determining the vegetation of prairie wetlands in particular . They also selectively remove preferred plant species , thereby changing the abundance of plant species in many kinds of wetlands . Species commonly eaten include cattail and yellow water lily . Alligators are thought to be an important natural predator , and the absence of muskrats from Florida may in part be the result of alligator predation .
While much wetland habitat has been eliminated due to human activity , new muskrat habitat has been created by the construction of canals or irrigation channels , and the muskrat remains common and widespread . They are able to live alongside streams which contain the sulfurous water that drains away from coal mines . Fish and frogs perish in such streams , yet muskrats may thrive and occupy the wetlands . Muskrats also benefit from human persecution of some of their predators .
The muskrat is classed as a " prohibited new organism " under New Zealand 's Hazardous Substances and New Organisms Act 1996 , preventing it from being imported into the country .
Trematode Metorchis conjunctus can also infect muskrats .
= = Behavior = =
Muskrats normally live in groups consisting of a male and female pair and their young . During the spring , they often fight with other muskrats over territory and potential mates . Many are injured or killed in these fights . Muskrat families build nests to protect themselves and their young from cold and predators . In streams , ponds or lakes , muskrats burrow into the bank with an underwater entrance . These entrances are 6 – 8 in ( 15 – 20 cm ) wide . In marshes , push @-@ ups are constructed from vegetation and mud . These push @-@ ups are up to 3 ft ( 91 cm ) in height . In snowy areas , they keep the openings to their push @-@ ups closed by plugging them with vegetation , which they replace every day . Some muskrat push @-@ ups are swept away in spring floods and have to be replaced each year . Muskrats also build feeding platforms in wetlands . They help maintain open areas in marshes , which helps to provide habitat for aquatic birds .
Muskrats are most active at night or near dawn and dusk . They feed on cattails and other aquatic vegetation . They do not store food for the winter , but sometimes eat the insides of their push @-@ ups . While they may appear to steal food beavers have stored , more seemingly cooperative partnerships with beavers exist , as featured in the BBC David Attenborough wildlife documentary The Life of Mammals . Plant materials make up about 95 % of their diets , but they also eat small animals , such as freshwater mussels , frogs , crayfish , fish , and small turtles . Muskrats follow trails they make in swamps and ponds . When the water freezes , they continue to follow their trails under the ice .
Muskrats provide an important food resource for many other animals , including mink , foxes , coyotes , wolves , lynx , bears , eagles , snakes , alligators , and large owls and hawks . Otters , snapping turtles , and large fish such as pike prey on baby muskrats . Caribou and elk sometimes feed on the vegetation which makes up muskrat push @-@ ups during the winter when other food is scarce for them . In their introduced range in the former Soviet Union , the muskrat 's greatest predator is the golden jackal . They can be completely extirpated in shallow water bodies , and during the winter of 1948 – 49 in the Amu Darya ( river in central Asia ) , muskrats constituted 12 @.@ 3 % of jackal faeces contents , and 71 % of muskrat houses were destroyed by jackals , 16 % of which froze and became unsuitable for muskrat occupation . Jackals also harm the muskrat industry by eating muskrats caught in traps or taking skins left out to dry .
Muskrats , like most rodents , are prolific breeders . Females can have two or three litters a year of six to eight young each . The babies are born small and hairless , and weigh only about 22 g ( 0 @.@ 78 oz ) . In southern environments , young muskrats mature in six months , while in colder northern environments , it takes about a year . Muskrat populations appear to go through a regular pattern of rise and dramatic decline spread over a six- to 10 @-@ year period . Some other rodents , including famously the muskrat 's close relatives the lemmings , go through the same type of population changes .
= = In human history = =
Native Americans have long considered the muskrat to be a very important animal . Some predict winter snowfall levels by observing the size and timing of muskrat lodge construction .
In several Native American creation myths , it is the muskrat that dives to the bottom of the primordial sea to bring up the mud from which the earth is created , after other animals have failed in the task .
Muskrats have sometimes been a food resource for Americans . In the southeastern portion of Michigan , a longstanding dispensation allows Catholics to consume muskrat on Ash Wednesday and on Lenten Fridays ( when the eating of meat , except for fish , is prohibited ) ; this tradition dates back to at least the early 19th century .
Muskrat fur is warm , becoming prime at the beginning of December in northern North America . In the early 20th century , the trapping of the animal for its fur became an important industry there . During that era , the fur was specially trimmed and dyed to be sold widely in the US as " Hudson seal " fur . Muskrats were introduced at that time to Europe as a fur resource , and spread throughout northern Europe and Asia .
In some European countries , such as Belgium , France , and the Netherlands , the muskrat is considered an invasive pest , as its burrowing damages the dikes and levees on which these low @-@ lying countries depend for protection from flooding . In those countries it is trapped , poisoned , and hunted to attempt to keep the population down . Muskrats also eat corn and other farm and garden crops growing near water bodies .
Royal Canadian Mounted Police winter hats are made from muskrat fur .
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= Yorktown campaign =
The Yorktown or Virginia campaign was a series of military maneuvers and battles during the American Revolutionary War that culminated in the decisive Siege of Yorktown in October 1781 . The result of the campaign was the surrender of the British Army force of General Charles , Earl Cornwallis , an event that led directly to the beginning of serious peace negotiations and the eventual end of the war . The campaign was marked by disagreements , indecision , and miscommunication on the part of British leaders , and by a remarkable set of cooperative decisions , at times in violation of orders , by the French and Americans .
The campaign involved land and naval forces of Great Britain and France , and land forces of the United States . British forces sent to Virginia between January and April 1781 joined with Cornwallis 's army in May , which came north from an extended campaign through the southern states . These forces were first opposed weakly by Virginia militia , but General George Washington sent first the Marquis de Lafayette and then Anthony Wayne with Continental Army troops to oppose the raiding and economic havoc the British were wreaking . The combined American forces , however , were insufficient in number to oppose the combined British forces , and it was only after a series of controversially confusing orders by General Sir Henry Clinton , the British commander @-@ in @-@ chief , that Cornwallis moved to Yorktown in July and built a defensive position that was strong against the land forces he then faced , but was vulnerable to naval blockade and siege .
British naval forces in North America and the West Indies were weaker than the combined fleets of France and Spain , and , after some critical decisions and tactical missteps by British naval commanders , the French fleet of Paul de Grasse gained control over Chesapeake Bay , blockading Cornwallis from naval support and delivering additional land forces to blockade him on land . The Royal Navy attempted to dispute this control , but Admiral Thomas Graves was defeated in the key Battle of the Chesapeake on September 5 . American and French armies that had massed outside New York City began moving south late in August , and arrived near Yorktown in mid @-@ September ; deceptions about their movement successfully delayed attempts by Clinton to send more troops to Cornwallis .
The Siege of Yorktown began on September 28 . In a step that probably shortened the siege , Cornwallis decided to abandon parts of his outer defenses , and the besiegers successfully stormed two of his redoubts . When it became clear that his position was untenable , Cornwallis opened negotiations on October 17 and surrendered two days later . When the news reached London , the government of Lord North fell , and the following Rockingham ministry entered into peace negotiations . These culminated in the Treaty of Paris in 1783 , in which King George III recognized the independent United States of America . Clinton and Cornwallis engaged in a public war of words defending their roles in the campaign , and British naval command also discussed the navy 's shortcomings that led to the defeat .
= = Background = =
By December 1780 , the American Revolutionary War 's North American theaters had reached a critical point . The Continental Army had suffered major defeats earlier in the year , with its southern armies either captured or dispersed in the loss of Charleston and the Battle of Camden in the south , while the armies of George Washington and the British commander @-@ in @-@ chief for North America , Sir Henry Clinton watched each other around New York City in the north . The national currency was virtually worthless , public support for the war , about to enter its sixth year , was waning , and army troops were becoming mutinous over pay and conditions . In the Americans ' favor , Loyalist recruiting in the south had been checked with a severe blow at Kings Mountain in October .
= = = French and American planning for 1781 = = =
Virginia had largely escaped military notice before 1779 , when a raid destroyed much of the state 's shipbuilding capacity and seized or destroyed large amounts of tobacco , which was a significant trade item for the Americans . Virginia 's only defenses consisted of locally raised militia companies , and a naval force that had been virtually wiped out in the 1779 raid . The militia were under the overall direction of Continental Army General Baron von Steuben , a prickly Prussian taskmaster who , although he was an excellent drillmaster , alienated not only his subordinates , but also had a difficult relationship with the state 's governor , Thomas Jefferson . Steuben had established a training center in Chesterfield for new Continental Army recruits , and a " factory " in Westham for the manufacture and repair of weapons and ammunition .
French military planners had to balance competing demands for the 1781 campaign . After a series of unsuccessful attempts at cooperation with the Americans ( leading to failed assaults on Newport , Rhode Island and Savannah , Georgia ) , they realized more active participation in North America was needed . However , they also needed to coordinate their actions with Spain , where there was potential interest in making an assault on the British stronghold of Jamaica . It turned out that the Spanish were not interested in operations against Jamaica until after they had dealt with an expected British attempt to reinforce besieged Gibraltar , and merely wanted to be informed of the movements of the West Indies fleet .
As the French fleet was preparing to depart Brest in March 1781 , several important decisions were made . The West Indies fleet , led by the Comte de Grasse , after operations in the Windward Islands , was directed to go to Cap @-@ Français ( present @-@ day Cap @-@ Haïtien ) to determine what resources would be required to assist Spanish operations . Due to a lack of transports , France also promised six million livres to support the American war effort instead of providing additional troops . The French fleet at Newport was given a new commander , the Comte de Barras . De Barras was ordered to take the Newport fleet to harass British shipping off Nova Scotia and Newfoundland , and the French army at Newport was ordered to combine with Washington 's army outside New York . In orders that were deliberately not fully shared with General Washington , De Grasse was instructed to assist in North American operations after his stop at Cap @-@ Français . The French general , the Comte de Rochambeau was instructed to tell Washington that de Grasse might be able to assist , without making any commitment . ( Washington learned from John Laurens , stationed in Paris , that de Grasse had discretion to come north . )
The French fleet sailed from Brest on March 22 . The British fleet was busy with preparations to resupply Gibraltar , and did not attempt to oppose the departure . After the French fleet sailed , the packet ship Concorde sailed for Newport , carrying the Comte de Barras , Rochambeau 's orders , and credits for the six million livres . In a separate dispatch sent later , de Grasse also made two important requests . The first was that he be notified at Cap @-@ Français of the situation in North America so that he could decide how he might be able to assist in operations there , and the second was that he be supplied with 30 pilots familiar with North American waters .
= = = British planning for 1781 = = =
General Clinton never articulated a coherent vision for what the goals for British operations of the coming campaign season should be in the early months of 1781 . Part of his problem lay in a difficult relationship with his naval counterpart in New York , the aging Vice Admiral Marriot Arbuthnot . Both men were stubborn , prone to temper , and had prickly personalities ; due to repeated clashes , their working relationship had completely broken down . In the fall of 1780 Clinton had requested that either he or Arbuthnot be recalled ; however , orders recalling Arbuthnot did not arrive until June 1781 . Until then , according to historian George Billias , " The two men could not act alone , and would not act together " . Arbuthnot was replaced by Sir Thomas Graves , with whom Clinton had a somewhat better working relationship .
The British presence in the south consisted of the strongly fortified ports of Savannah , Georgia and Charleston , South Carolina , and a string of outposts in the interior of those two states . Although the strongest outposts were relatively immune to attack from the Patriot militia that were their only formal opposition in those states , the smaller outposts , as well as supply convoys and messengers , were often the target of militia commanders like Thomas Sumter and Francis Marion . Portsmouth had most recently been occupied in October 1780 by a force under the command of Major General Alexander Leslie , but Lieutenant General Charles , Earl Cornwallis , commanding the British southern army , had ordered them to South Carolina in November . To replace General Leslie at Portsmouth , General Clinton sent 1 @,@ 600 troops under General Arnold ( recently commissioned into the British Army as a brigadier ) to Virginia in late December .
= = British raiding in Virginia = =
Part of the fleet carrying General Arnold and his troops arrived in Chesapeake Bay on December 30 , 1780 . Without waiting for the rest of the transports to arrive , Arnold sailed up the James River and disembarked 900 troops at Westover , Virginia , on January 4 . After an overnight forced march , he raided Richmond , the state capital , the next day , encountering only minimal militia resistance . After two more days of raiding in the area , they returned to their boats , and made sail for Portsmouth . Arnold established fortifications there , and sent his men out on raiding and foraging expeditions . The local militia were called out , but they were in such small numbers that the British presence could not be disputed . This did not prevent raiding expeditions from running into opposition , as some did in skirmishing at Waters Creek in March .
When news of Arnold 's activities reached George Washington , he decided that a response was necessary . He wanted the French to send a naval expedition from their base in Newport , but the commanding admiral , the Chevalier Destouches , refused any assistance until he received reports of serious storm damage to part of the British fleet on January 22 . On February 9 , Captain Arnaud de Gardeur de Tilley sailed from Newport with three ships ( ship of the line Eveille and frigates Surveillante and Gentile ) . When he arrived off Portsmouth four days later , Arnold withdrew his ships , which had shallower drafts than those of the French , up the Elizabeth River , where de Tilley could not follow . De Tilley , after determining that the local militia were " completely insufficient " to attack Arnold 's position , returned to Newport . On the way he captured the HMS Romulus , a frigate sent by the British from New York to investigate his movements .
Congress authorized a detachment of Continental forces to Virginia on February 20 . Washington assigned command of the expedition to the Marquis de Lafayette , who left Peekskill , New York the same day . His troops , numbering about 1 @,@ 200 , were three light regiments drawn from troops assigned to Continental regiments from New Jersey and New England ; these regiments were led by Joseph Vose , Francis Barber , and Jean @-@ Joseph Sourbader de Gimat . Lafayette 's force reached Head of Elk ( present @-@ day Elkton , Maryland , the northern navigable limit of Chesapeake Bay ) on March 3 . While awaiting transportation for his troops at Annapolis , Lafayette traveled south , reaching Yorktown on March 14 , to assess the situation .
= = = American attempts at defense = = =
De Tilley 's expedition , and the strong encouragement of General Washington , who traveled to Newport to press the case , convinced Destouches to make a larger commitment . On March 8 he sailed with his entire fleet ( 7 ships of the line and several frigates , including the recently captured Romulus ) , carrying French troops to join with Lafayette 's in Virginia . Admiral Arbuthnot , alerted to his departure , sailed on March 10 after sending Arnold a dispatch warning of the French movement . Arbuthnot , whose copper @-@ clad ships could sail faster than those of Destouches , reached Cape Henry on March 16 , just ahead of the French fleet . The ensuing battle was largely indecisive , but left Arbuthnot free to enter Lynnhaven Bay and control access to Chesapeake Bay ; Destouches returned to Newport . Lafayette saw the British fleet , and pursuant to orders , made preparations to return his troops to the New York area . By early April he had returned to Head of Elk , where he received orders from Washington to stay in Virginia .
The departure of Destouches ' fleet from Newport had prompted General Clinton to send Arnold reinforcements . In the wake of Arbuthnot 's sailing he sent transports carrying about 2 @,@ 000 men under the command of General William Phillips to the Chesapeake . These joined Arnold at Portsmouth on March 27 . Phillips , as senior commander , took over the force and resumed raiding , targeting Petersburg and Richmond . By this time , Baron von Steuben and Peter Muhlenberg , the militia commanders in Virginia , felt they had to make a stand to maintain morale despite the inferior strength of their troops . They established a defensive line in Blandford , near Petersburg ( Blandford is now a part of the city of Petersburg ) , and fought a disciplined but losing action on April 25 . Von Steuben and Muhlenberg retreated before the advance of Phillips , who hoped to again raid Richmond . However , Lafayette made a series of forced marches , and reached Richmond on April 29 , just hours before Phillips .
= = Cornwallis and Lafayette = =
To counter the British threat in the Carolinas , Washington had sent Major General Nathanael Greene , one of his best strategists , to rebuild the American army in North Carolina after the defeat at Camden . General Cornwallis , leading the British troops in the south , wanted to deal with him and gain control over the state . Greene divided his inferior force , sending part of his army under Daniel Morgan to threaten the British post at Ninety Six , South Carolina . Cornwallis sent Banastre Tarleton after Morgan , who almost wiped out Tarleton 's command in the January 1781 Battle of Cowpens , and almost captured Tarleton in the process . This action was followed by what has been called the " race to the Dan " , in which Cornwallis gave chase to Morgan and Greene in an attempt to catch them before they reunited their forces . When Greene successfully crossed the Dan River and entered Virginia , Cornwallis , who had stripped his army of most of its baggage , gave up the pursuit . However , Greene received reinforcements and supplies , recrossed the Dan , and returned to Greensboro , North Carolina to do battle with Cornwallis . The earl won the battle , but Greene was able to withdraw with his army intact , and the British suffered enough casualties that Cornwallis was forced to retreat to Wilmington for reinforcement and resupply . Greene then went on to regain control over most of South Carolina and Georgia . Cornwallis , in violation of orders but also in the absence of significant strategic direction by General Clinton , decided to take his army , now numbering just 1 @,@ 400 men , into Virginia on April 25 ; it was the same day that Phillips and von Steuben fought at Blandford .
Phillips , after Lafayette beat him to Richmond , turned back east , continuing to destroy military and economic targets in the area . On May 7 , Phillips received a dispatch from Cornwallis , ordering him to Petersburg to effect a junction of their forces ; three days later , Phillips arrived in Petersburg . Lafayette briefly cannonaded the British position there , but did not feel strong enough to actually make an attack . On May 13 , Phillips died of a fever , and Arnold retook control of the force . This caused some grumbling amongst the men , since Arnold was not particularly well respected . While waiting for Cornwallis , the forces of Arnold and Lafayette watched each other . Arnold attempted to open communications with the marquis ( who had orders from Washington to summarily hang Arnold ) , but the marquis returned his letters unopened . Cornwallis arrived in Petersburg on May 19 , prompting Lafayette , who commanded under 1 @,@ 000 Continentals and about 2 @,@ 000 militia , to retreat to Richmond . Further British reinforcements led by the Ansbacher Colonel von Voigt arrived from New York shortly after , raising the size of Cornwallis 's army to more than 7 @,@ 000 .
Cornwallis , after dispatching General Arnold back to New York , then set out to follow General Clinton 's most recent orders to Phillips . These instructions were to establish a fortified base and raid rebel military and economic targets in Virginia . Cornwallis decided that he had to first deal with the threat posed by Lafayette , so he set out in pursuit of the marquis . Lafayette , clearly outnumbered , retreated rapidly toward Fredericksburg to protect an important supply depot there , while von Steuben retreated to Point of Fork ( present @-@ day Columbia , Virginia ) , where militia and Continental Army trainees had gathered with supplies pulled back before the raiding British . Cornwallis reached the Hanover County courthouse on June 1 , and , rather than send his whole army after Lafayette , detached Banastre Tarleton and John Graves Simcoe on separate raiding expeditions .
Tarleton , his British Legion reduced by the debacle at Cowpens , rode rapidly with a small force to Charlottesville , where he captured several members of the Virginia legislature . He almost captured Governor Jefferson as well , but had to content himself with several bottles of wine from Jefferson 's estate at Monticello . Simcoe went to Point of Fork to deal with von Steuben and the supply depot . In a brief skirmish on June 5 , von Steuben 's forces , numbering about 1 @,@ 000 , suffered 30 casualties , but they had withdrawn most of the supplies across the river . Simcoe , who only had about 300 men , then exaggerated the size of his force by lighting a large number of campfires ; this prompted von Steuben to withdraw from Point of Fork , leaving the supplies to be destroyed by Simcoe the next day .
Lafayette , in the meantime , was expecting the imminent arrival of long @-@ delayed reinforcements . Several battalions of Pennsylvania Continentals under Brigadier General Anthony Wayne had also been authorized by Congress for service in Virginia in February . However , Wayne had to deal with the aftereffects of a mutiny in January that nearly wiped out the Pennsylvania Line as a fighting force , and it was May before he had rebuilt the line and begun the march to Virginia . Even then , there was a great deal of mistrust between Wayne and his men ; Wayne had to keep his ammunition and bayonets under lock and key except when they were needed . Although Wayne was ready to march on May 19 , the force 's departure was delayed by a day because of a renewed threat of mutiny after the units were paid with devalued Continental dollars . Lafayette and Wayne 's 800 men joined forces at Raccoon Ford on the Rappahannock River on June 10 . A few days later , Lafayette was further reinforced by 1 @,@ 000 militia under the command of William Campbell .
After the successful raids of Simcoe and Tarleton , Cornwallis began to make his way east toward Richmond and Williamsburg , almost contemptuously ignoring Lafayette in his movements . Lafayette , his force grown to about 4 @,@ 500 , was buoyed in confidence , and began to edge closer to the earl 's army . By the time Cornwallis reached Williamsburg on June 25 , Lafayette was 10 miles ( 16 km ) away , at Bird 's Tavern . That day , Lafayette learned that Simcoe 's Queen 's Rangers were at some remove from the main British force , so Lafayette sent some cavalry and light infantry to intercept them . This precipitated a skirmish at Spencer 's Ordinary where each side believed the other to be within range of its main army .
= = Allied decisions = =
While Lafayette , Arnold , and Phillips maneuvered in Virginia , the allied leaders , Washington and Rochambeau , considered their options . On May 6 the Concorde arrived in Boston , and two days later Washington and Rochambeau were informed of the arrival of de Barras as well as the vital dispatches and funding . On May 23 and 24 , Washington and Rochambeau held a conference at Wethersfield , Connecticut where they discussed what steps to take next . They agreed that , pursuant to his orders , Rochambeau would move his army from Newport to the Continental Army camp at White Plains , New York . They also decided to send dispatches to de Grasse outlining two possible courses of action . Washington favored the idea of attacking New York , while Rochambeau favored action in Virginia , where the British were less well established . Washington 's letter to de Grasse outlined these two options ; Rochambeau , in a private note , informed de Grasse of his preference . Lastly , Rochambeau convinced de Barras to hold his fleet in readiness to assist in either operation , rather than taking it out on expeditions to the north as he had been ordered . The Concorde sailed from Newport on June 20 , carrying dispatches from Washington , Rochambeau , and de Barras , as well as the pilots de Grasse had requested . The French army left Newport in June , and joined Washington 's army at Dobb 's Ferry , New York on July 7 . From there , Washington and Rochambeau embarked on an inspection tour of the British defenses around New York while they awaited word from de Grasse .
De Grasse had a somewhat successful campaign in the West Indies . His forces successfully captured Tobago in June after a minor engagement with the British fleet . Beyond that , he and British Admiral George Brydges Rodney avoided significant engagement . De Grasse arrived at Cap @-@ Français on July 16 , where the Concorde awaited him . He immediately engaged in negotiations with the Spanish . He informed them of his intent to sail north , but promised to return by November to assist in Spanish operations in exchange for critical Spanish cover while he sailed north . From them he secured the promise to protect French commerce and territories so that he could bring north his entire fleet , 28 ships of the line . In addition to his fleet , he took on 3 @,@ 500 troops under the command of the Marquis de St. Simon , and appealed to the Spanish in Havana for funds needed to pay Rochambeau 's troops . On July 28 , he sent the Concorde back to Newport , informing Washington , Rochambeau , and de Barras that he expected to arrive in the Chesapeake at the end of August , and would need to leave by mid @-@ October . He sailed from Cap @-@ Français on August 5 , beginning a deliberately slow route north through a little @-@ used channel in the Bahamas .
= = British decisions = =
The movement of the French army to the New York area caused General Clinton a great deal of concern ; letters written by Washington that Clinton had intercepted suggested that the allies were planning an attack on New York . Beginning in June he wrote a series of letters to Cornwallis containing a confusing and controversial set of ruminations , suggestions , and recommendations , that only sometimes contained concrete and direct orders . Some of these letters were significantly delayed in reaching Cornwallis , complicating the exchange between the two . On June 11 and 15 , apparently in reaction to the threat to New York , Clinton requested Cornwallis to fortify either Yorktown or Williamsburg , and send any troops he could spare back to New York . Cornwallis received these letters at Williamsburg on June 26 . He and an engineer inspected Yorktown , which he found to be defensively inadequate . He wrote a letter to Clinton indicating that he would move to Portsmouth in order to send troops north with transports available there .
On July 4 Cornwallis began moving his army toward the Jamestown ferry , to cross the broad James River and march to Portsmouth . Lafayette 's scouts observed the motion , and he realized the British force would be vulnerable during the crossing . He advanced his army to the Green Spring Plantation , and , based on intelligence that only the British rear guard was left at the crossing , sent General Wayne forward to attack them on July 6 . In reality , the earl had laid a clever trap . Crossing only his baggage and some troops to guard them , he sent " deserters " to falsely inform Lafayette of the situation . In the Battle of Green Spring , General Wayne managed to escape the trap , but with significant casualties and the loss of two field pieces . Cornwallis then crossed the river , and marched his army to Suffolk .
Cornwallis again detached Tarleton on a raid into central Virginia . Tarleton 's raid was based on intelligence that supplies might be intercepted that were en route to General Greene . The raid , in which Tarleton 's force rode 120 miles ( 190 km ) in four days , was a failure , since supplies had already been moved . ( During this raid , some of Tarleton 's men were supposedly in a minor skirmish with Peter Francisco , one of the American heroes of Guilford Court House . ) Cornwallis received another letter from General Clinton while at Suffolk , dated June 20 , stating that the forces to be embarked were to be used for an attack against Philadelphia .
When Cornwallis reached Portsmouth , he began embarking troops pursuant to Clinton 's orders . On July 20 , with some transports almost ready to sail , new orders arrived that countermanded the previous ones . In the most direct terms , Clinton ordered him to establish a fortified deep @-@ water port , using as much of his army as he thought necessary . Clinton took this decision because the navy had long been dissatisfied with New York as a naval base , firstly because sand bars obstructed the entrance to the Hudson River , damaging the hulls of the larger ships ; and secondly because the river often froze in winter , imprisoning vessels inside the harbour . Arbuthnot had recently been replaced and to show his satisfaction at this development , Clinton now acceded to the Navy 's request , despite Cornwallis 's warning that the Chesapeake 's open bays and navigable rivers meant that any base there " will always be exposed to sudden French attack . " It was to prove a fatal error of judgement by Clinton , since the need to defend the new facility denied Cornwallis any freedom of movement . Nevertheless , having inspected Portsmouth and found it less favourable than Yorktown , Cornwallis wrote to Clinton informing him that he would fortify Yorktown .
Lafayette was alerted on July 26 that Cornwallis was embarking his troops , but lacked intelligence about their eventual destination , and began maneuvering his troops to cover some possible landing points . On August 6 he learned that Cornwallis had landed at Yorktown and was fortifying it and Gloucester Point just across the York River .
= = Convergence on Yorktown = =
Admiral Rodney had been warned that de Grasse was planning to take at least part of his fleet north . Although he had some clues that he might take his whole fleet ( he was aware of the number of pilots de Grasse had requested , for example ) , he assumed that de Grasse would not leave the French convoy at Cap @-@ Français , and that part of his fleet would escort it to France as Admiral Guichen had done the previous year . Rodney made his dispositions accordingly , balancing the likely requirements of the fleet in North America with the need to protect Britain 's own trade convoys . SIxteen of his twenty @-@ one battleships , therefore , were to sail with Hood in pursuit of de Grasse to the Chesapeake before proceeding to New York . Rodney , who was ill , meanwhile took three other battleships back to England , two as merchant escorts , leaving his remaining two in dock for repairs . Hood was well satisfied with these arrangements , telling a colleague that his fleet was " equal fully to defeat any designs of the enemy , let de Grasse bring or send what number of ships he might in aid of Barras . " What neither Rodney or Hood knew was de Grasse 's last minute decision to take his entire fleet to North America , thus ensuring a French superiority of three to two in battleship strength . Blissfully unaware of this development , Hood eventually sailed from Antigua on August 10 , five days after de Grasse . During the voyage , one of his smaller ships carrying intelligence about the American pilots was captured by a privateer , thus further depriving the British in New York of valuable information . Hood himself , following the direct route , reached the Chesapeake on August 25 , and found the entrance to the bay empty . He then sailed on to New York to meet with Admiral Sir Thomas Graves , in command of the New York station following Arbuthnot 's departure .
On August 14 General Washington learned of de Grasse 's decision to sail for the Chesapeake . The next day he reluctantly abandoned the idea of assaulting New York , writing that " [ m ] atters having now come to a crisis and a decisive plan to be determined on , I was obliged ... to give up all idea of attacking New York ... " The combined Franco @-@ American army began moving south on August 19 , engaging in several tactics designed to fool Clinton about their intentions . Some forces were sent on a route along the New Jersey shore , and ordered to make camp preparations as if preparing for an attack on Staten Island . The army also carried landing craft to lend verisimilitude to the idea . Washington sent orders to Lafayette to prevent Cornwallis from returning to North Carolina ; he did not learn that Cornwallis was entrenching at Yorktown until August 30 . Two days later the army was passing through Philadelphia ; another mutiny was averted there when funds were procured for troops that threatened to stay until they were paid .
Admiral de Barras sailed with his fleet from Newport , carrying the French siege equipment , on August 25 . He sailed a route that deliberately took him away from the coast to avoid encounters with the British . De Grasse reached the Chesapeake on August 30 , five days after Hood . He immediately debarked the troops from his fleet to assist Lafayette in blockading Cornwallis , and stationed some his ships to blockade the York and James Rivers .
News of de Barras ' sailing reached New York on August 28 , where Graves , Clinton , and Hood were meeting to discuss the possibility of making an attack on the French fleet in Newport , since the French army was no longer there to defend it . Clinton had still not realized that Washington was marching south , something he did not have confirmed until September 2 . When they learned of de Barras ' departure they immediately concluded that de Grasse must be headed for the Chesapeake ( but still did not know of his strength ) . Graves sailed from New York on August 31 with 19 ships of the line ; Clinton wrote Cornwallis to warn him that Washington was coming , and that he would send 4 @,@ 000 reinforcements .
On September 5 , the British fleet arrived at the mouth of the Chesapeake to see the French fleet anchored there . De Grasse , who had men ashore , was forced to cut his cables and scramble to get his fleet out to meet the British . In the Battle of the Chesapeake , de Grasse won a narrow tactical victory . After the battle , the two fleets drifted to the southeast for several days , with the British avoiding battle and both fleets making repairs . This was apparently in part a ploy by de Grasse to ensure the British would not interfere with de Barras ' arrival . A fleet was spotted off in the distance on September 9 making for the bay ; de Grasse followed the next day . Graves , forced to scuttle one of his ships , returned to New York for repairs . Smaller ships from the French fleet then assisted in transporting the Franco @-@ American army down the Chesapeake to Yorktown , completing the encirclement of Cornwallis .
= = Yorktown = =
On September 6 , General Clinton wrote a letter to Cornwallis , telling him to expect reinforcements . Received by Cornwallis on September 14 , this letter may have been instrumental in the decision by Cornwallis to remain at Yorktown and not try to fight his way out , despite the urging of Banastre Tarleton to break out against the comparatively weak Lafayette . General Washington , after spending a few days at Mount Vernon for the first time in years , arrived in the camps outside Yorktown on September 17 . That same day , the British military leadership in New York held a council , in which they agreed that Cornwallis could not be reinforced until they had regained control of the Chesapeake . Historian Richard Ketchum describes the decision of the council as leaving Cornwallis " dangling in the wind . " One day earlier , Cornwallis wrote a desperate plea for help : " I am of the opinion that you can do me no effectual service but by coming directly to this place . " Before dispatching the letter on the 17th , Cornwallis added , " If you cannot relieve me very soon , you must prepare to hear the worst . "
Washington , Rochambeau , and de Grasse then held council aboard de Grasse 's flagship Ville de Paris to finalize preparations for the siege ; de Grasse agreed to provide about 2 @,@ 000 marines and some cannons to the effort . During the meeting , de Grasse was convinced to delay his departure ( originally planned for mid @-@ October ) until the end of October . Upon the return of the generals to Williamsburg , they heard rumors that British naval reinforcements had arrived at New York , and the French fleet might again be threatened . De Grasse wanted to pull his fleet out of the bay as a precaution , and it took the pleas of Washington and Rochambeau , delivered to de Grasse by Lafayette , to convince him to remain .
The siege formally got underway on September 28 . Despite a late attempt by Cornwallis to escape via Gloucester Point , the siege lines closed in on his positions and the allied cannons wrought havoc in the British camps , and on October 17 he opened negotiations to surrender . On that very day , the British fleet again sailed from New York , carrying 6 @,@ 000 troops . Still outnumbered by the combined French fleets , they eventually turned back . A French naval officer , noting the British fleet 's departure on October 29 , wrote , " They were too late . The fowl had been eaten . "
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Disposition of the British army = = =
The negotiations for surrender were complicated by two issues . When American forces surrendered at Charleston in 1780 , they were not granted customary terms of capitulation that included flying colors and the playing of an enemy tune . Washington insisted that these terms be applied to the surrender of the British army at Yorktown , his negotiators pointing out that the defenders had in both instances acted with valor . The second issue concerned the disposition of Loyalists in the British camp . This issue was finessed with the addition of a clause to the terms that allowed one British vessel , the sloop Bonetta , to be sent without any sort of inspection to carry dispatches from Cornwallis to New York ; Americans , suspecting that either runaway slaves or Loyalists might be aboard , were prevented from searching the vessel .
When the British garrison marched out of their positions on October 19 , it was with colors cased , possibly playing the British tune " The World Turned Upside Down " . Cornwallis , claiming illness , did not attend the ceremony , sending his deputy General O 'Hara to deliver his sword . O 'Hara at first sought to deliver it to a French officer , but he was finally directed to one of Washington 's officers , Benjamin Lincoln , the defeated commander at Charleston . Lincoln briefly held the proferred sword and then returned it to O 'Hara .
Over the following weeks , the army was marched under guard to camps in Virginia and Maryland . Cornwallis and other officers were returned to New York and allowed to return to England on parole . The ship on which Cornwallis sailed in December 1781 also carried Benedict Arnold and his family .
= = = Disposition of the allies = = =
The local militia that supported the siege were dismissed from service . Some of the American Continental forces were returned to the New York City region , where Washington continued to stand against the British presence until the end of the war ; others were sent south to assist in General Greene 's efforts in the Carolinas . Issues of pay and condition were an ongoing problem until the war ended , but Washington fought no more battles .
The French forces that came with de Grasse were reembarked , and he sailed for the West Indies , with the fleet of de Barras , in early November . After recapturing a number of British @-@ held targets there , de Grasse was preparing to join with the Spanish for an assault on Jamaica when Admiral Rodney defeated him in the April 1782 Battle of the Saintes , capturing him and his flagship . The forces of General Rochambeau wintered in Virginia , and marched back to Rhode Island the next summer .
= = = Reactions = = =
General Washington 's aide , Lieutenant Tench Tilghman , was dispatched to deliver the news to Congress . Arriving in Philadelphia on October 22 , he was two days behind the first notice of the surrender , which had been expressed from Baltimore ahead of him . The news electrified Congress and the populace . Church bells pealed , and the Liberty Bell was reportedly rung , actions that were repeated as the news traveled through the colonies . Some Congressmen introduced a resolution calling on General Washington to arrest and hang General Cornwallis ; after " [ t ] he debate continue 'd several Day 's " , the resolution was voted down .
The news put British @-@ occupied New York City into mourning . At first met with some skepticism , the news was finally confirmed on October 27 , although the city still awaited news of Clinton 's abortive relief effort . Clinton was recalled to London , and left the city in March 1782 . He was replaced by General Guy Carleton , who was under orders to suspend offensive operations .
When the news reached London on November 25 , Lord Germain described the reaction of Lord North to the news : " he would have taken a ball on his breast . For he opened his arms exclaiming wildly as he paced up and down the apartment , during the few minutes , ' Oh God ! It is all over ! ' " King George was reported to receive the news with calmness and dignity , although he later became depressed as the news sank in , and even considered abdication . The king 's supporters in Parliament were depressed , and the opposition elated . A resolution calling for an end to the war was introduced on December 12 , and failed to pass by a single vote . Lord Germain was dismissed in early 1782 , and the North administration fell shortly afterward . Peace negotiations followed , and the war was formally ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on September 3 , 1783 .
General Cornwallis , despite being the commander who surrendered , was not blamed for the defeat . He was well @-@ received on his return to London , and one writer echoed a common sentiment that " Lord Cornwallis 's army was sold . " General Clinton spent the rest of his life defending his own reputation ; he was " laughed at by the rebels , despised by the British , and cursed by the loyalists . " In 1783 , he published a Narrative of the Campaign of 1781 in North America in which he attempted to lay the blame for the 1781 campaign failures on General Cornwallis . This was met with a public response by Cornwallis , who leveled his own criticisms at Clinton . The highly public debate included the publication of much of their correspondence .
Admiral Graves also did not suffer due to his defeat by de Grasse ; he was eventually promoted to full admiral and given a peerage . However , many aspects of the Battle of the Chesapeake have been the subject of both contemporary and historical debate , beginning right after the battle . On 6 September , Admiral Graves issued a memorandum justifying a confusing use of signals , indicating that " [ when ] the signal for the line of battle ahead is out at the same time with the signal for battle , it is not to be understood that the latter signal shall be rendered ineffectual by a too strict adherence to the former . " Hood , in commentary written on the reverse of his copy , observed that this eliminated any possibility of engaging an enemy who was disordered , since it would require the British line to also be disordered . Instead , he maintained , " the British fleet should be as compact as possible , in order to take the critical moment of an advantage opening ... " Others criticise Hood because he " did not wholeheartedly aid his chief " , and that a lesser officer " would have been court @-@ martialled for not doing his utmost to engage the enemy . "
The Comte de Rochambeau dispatched two messengers to deliver the news to Paris in a move that had unusual consequences in French military politics . The Duc de Lauzun and the Comte de Deux @-@ Pontes , both of whom had distinguished themselves in the siege , were sent on separate ships to bring the news . Deux @-@ Pontes was accompanied by a favorite of the French naval minister the Marquis de Castries , the Comte de Charlus , who Lauzun had urged Rochambeau to send in his stead for political reasons . King Louis XVI and his ministers received the news warmly , but Castries and the snubbed Charlus ensured that Lauzun and Rochambeau were denied or delayed in the receipt of rewards for the success . Deux @-@ Ponts was rewarded with the Order of Saint Louis and command of a regiment .
= = Analysis = =
Historian John Pancake describes the later stages of the campaign as " British blundering " and that the " allied operations proceeded with clockwork precision . " Naval historian Jonathan Dull has described de Grasse 's 1781 naval campaign , which encompassed , in addition to Yorktown , successful contributions to the French capture of Tobago and the Spanish siege of Pensacola , as the " most perfectly executed naval campaign of the age of sail " , and compared the string of French successes favorably with the British Annus Mirabilis of 1759 . He also observes that a significant number of individual decisions , at times against orders or previous agreements , contributed to the success of the campaign :
French ministers Montmorin and Vergennes convinced the French establishment that decisive action was needed in North America in order to end the war .
The French naval minister Castries wrote orders for de Grasse that gave the latter sufficient flexibility to assist in the campaign .
Spanish Louisiana Governor Bernardo de Gálvez released ships and troops to cover French territories while de Grasse sailed north with most of the French military establishment in the West Indies .
Spanish Cuban colonial official Francisco Saavedra cooperated in the decision @-@ making that enabled de Grasse 's northward expedition .
General Rochambeau and Chevalier Luzerne both urged de Grasse to decide on the Chesapeake .
Admiral de Barras violated his orders to operate off Newfoundland , making possible the timely delivery of the French siege train to Yorktown .
George Washington decided against an attack on New York and instead embarked on a risky march to Virginia .
Admiral De Grasse agreed to overstay his planned time in the Chesapeake , understanding the importance of the undertaking there .
Of de Grasse 's negotiations with the Spanish that secured the use of his fleet and his order to the economic fleet to remain in the West Indies , Royal Navy Captain Thomas White , in his 1830 analysis of the 1781 campaign , wrote that " [ i ] f the British government had sanctioned , or a British admiral had adopted such a measure , [ ... ] the one would have been turned out , and the other would have been hung : no wonder they succeeded and we failed . "
= = Legacy = =
The principal points of commemoration of the events of this campaign are managed by the National Park Service in the Colonial National Historical Park . In addition to the battlefield at Yorktown , the park includes the Cape Henry Memorial , where the French naval victory by de Grasse is remembered .
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= Ypresiomyrma =
Ypresiomyrma is an extinct genus of ants in the subfamily Myrmeciinae that was described in 2006 . There are four species described ; one species is from the Isle of Fur in Denmark , two are from the McAbee Fossil Beds in British Columbia , Canada , and the fourth from the Bol ’ shaya Svetlovodnaya fossil site in Russia . The queens of this genus are large , the mandibles are elongated and the eyes are well developed ; a stinger is also present . The behaviour of these ants would have been similar to that of extant Myrmeciinae ants , such as solitary foraging for arthropod prey and never leaving pheromone trails . The alates were poor flyers due to their size , and birds and animals most likely preyed on these ants . Ypresiomyrma is not assigned to any tribe , and is instead generally regarded as incertae sedis within Myrmeciinae . However , some authors believe Ypresiomyrma should be assigned as incertae sedis within Formicidae .
= = History and classification = =
Fossils of Ypresiomyrma were first studied and described by Bruce Archibald , Stefan Cover and Corrie Moreau of the Museum of Comparative Zoology in Cambridge , Massachusetts . They published their 2006 description of the genus and species in an Annals of the Entomological Society of America journal article . The genus name is a combination of Ypresian , referring to the age of the specimens and the Greek myrmex , meaning " ant " . The minimum fossil age is approximately 54 @.@ 5 to 55 @.@ 5 million years .
Along with the genus description , the paper contained descriptions of the type species Ypresiomyrma orbiculata and Ypresiomyrma bartletti , both from the McAbee Fossil Beds in British Columbia , part of the Eocene Okanagan Highlands lake system . Archibald , Cover and Moreau also included a redescription of the Danish species Pachycondyla rebekkae under the new name combination Ypresiomyrma rebekkae . A fourth species , Ypresiomyrma orientalis was described in 2015 .
Archibald and colleagues originally classified Ypresiomyrma as incertae sedis ( Latin for " of uncertain placement " ) within the ant subfamily Myrmeciinae , as the ants could not be identified to any tribe level . However , a 2008 paper by Cesare Baroni Urbani of the University of Basel , Switzerland , expressed doubt that members of Ypresiomyrma were even ants . He notes that the development of the malar area ( an area between the compound eyes and the mandibles ) was different and not reduced , as a reduced malar is synapomorphic ( key diagnostic traits ) in Myrmeciinae . Baroni Urbani further notes that the antennae 's shape on the type species could not be properly determined , making its true placement within Formicidae indeterminable . However , the antennae of Y. rebekkae has an elongated scape which means the fossil is definitely an ant , as this feature is a key diagnostic trait for Formicidae . Due to this , Baroni Urbani believed that Ypresiomyrma could only be confidently classified as incertae sedis within the family Formicidae . A subsequent report by Russian palaeoentomologist Gennady M. Dlussky describing new myrmecines accepted the classification of Archibald and colleagues without mentioning the comments of Baroni Urbani .
The following cladogram generated by Archibald and colleagues show the possible phylogenetic position of Ypresiomyrma among some ants of the subfamily Myrmeciinae . The genus may be closely related to other extinct Myrmeciinae genera , including Avitomyrmex and Macabeemyrma , and the extant Nothomyrmecia macrops .
= = Description = =
There are several characteristics that separate Ypresiomyrma from other ant genera . The waist connecting the thorax and the abdomen in Ypresiomyrma is composed of a single segment . The head in each species varies in shape , and mandibles are a distinct triangular shape and shorter than the head capsule with eight to twelve teeth , although they are elongated . Queens of the genus are large , measuring over 20 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) . Other characters include large , well developed eyes , a rounded propodeal dorsum and a noticeable stinger .
= = = Y. orbiculata = = =
Y. orbiculata was described from a single part and counterpart compression fossil found at the Middle Ypresian McAbee Fossil Beds , Kamloops Group , near Cache Creek , British Columbia . The type specimens numbered UCCIPR L @-@ 18 F @-@ 749 and UCCIPR L @-@ 18 F @-@ 750 for the part and counterpart is currently preserved in the palaeoentomology collections housed at Thompson Rivers University , in Kamloops , British Columbia . Archibald , Cover , and Moreau coined the specific epithet from the Latin " orbiculatus " , meaning " rounded " or " circular " , in reference to the shape of the head . The species is discernible from the other two species of Ypresiomyrma by its notably rounded head capsule , and by the shape of the petiole which has a smoothly sloping convex shape with a node in the center . The petiole is similar in appearance to Prionomyrmex janzeni , and the propodeum is round . The queen is estimated to have been approximately 25 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) . The compound eyes are large and oval shape , but the antennae cannot be described due to poor preservation . The mandibles are large , containing seven to eight teeth . A well @-@ developed stinger is also present .
= = = Y. bartletti = = =
The second species described from the McAbee Fossil Beds is Y. bartletti which , like Y. orbiculata , is known from a single queen specimen . The holotype part and counterpart are included in the Geological Survey of Canada , Ottawa collections as GSC 127632a and GSC 127632b . The shape of the head is subtriangular , which separates it from Y. orbiculata , and at an estimated 20 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) it is smaller than Y. rebekkae . The petiole shape in Y. bartletti is distinct from both other species . The specific epithet was chosen in honor of Rod Bartlett who collected the specimen , and to honor his work with the Vancouver Paleontological Society and the British Columbia Paleontological Alliance . The antennae are not preserved and the eyes cannot be distinguished . The mandibles have around ten or fewer teeth . The forewings of the queen are faintly preserved , and portions of the legs are preserved and disarticulated . Some portions of the gaster are deformed and the specimen appears to be crushed , but the overall morphology of this species justifies its placement within Myrmeciinae . An undescribed worker in the form genus Myrmeciites may possibly be a Y. bartletti ant , but this cannot be confirmed due to its poor preservation .
= = = Y. rebekkae = = =
This species is known from over 100 specimens collected from the earliest Ypresian Ølst and Fur Formations , found in calcareous rocks . The specimens were first studied and described by Jes Rust and N. Møller Andersen in 1999 , and they named the species for Rebekka Madsen who collected the type specimen in September 1994 . The holotype and paratype queen described are well preserved , although the legs are missing ; the part and counterpart , GMUC No. 1995 8B and GMUC No. 1995 8A are deposited in the Geological Museum of the University of Copenhagen . At that time , Rust and Andersen placed the species into the modern ponerin genus Pachycondyla based on the shape of the abdominal segment VI and lack of dentition on the mandibles . Archibald , Cover , and Moreau moved the species to Ypresiomyrma based on the similarity to the McAbee species , by the shape of the abdominal segment III , which differs from that found in the Ponerinae subfamily genera , and by the morphology of the petiole . Y. rebekkae can be distinguished from other species by the shape of its petiole and the size of its head , being notably larger than Y. bartletti . The ants ' somewhat angular head is also different , with other species having a rounded head . The species is known almost exclusively from queens , with only one known male ant assigned to it by Rust and Andersen .
The average length of a queen is around 25 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) , with a robust body . The head is round , and the width and length are the same , measuring 4 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 18 in ) . The eyes are oval shaped and developed , located near the middle of the head . The mandibles are triangular and long , with ten teeth present . The antennae are long with 11 segments , and the scape is 3 @.@ 4 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 13 in ) long . The mesosoma is 7 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 28 in ) long and 4 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 18 in ) wide . The mesosoma is convex and domed , and the pronotum is short . The petiole is 1 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 059 in ) long and 2 @.@ 3 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 091 in ) in wide , and the gaster is swollen , but this is due to the early taphonomic process ( the transition of a decaying organism over time and how it becomes fossilised ) . A well @-@ developed stinger is present in the fossilized specimens .
Only a single complete male is known from all the collected specimens . The body length is shorter in comparison to the queen caste , measuring 25 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) and it is also more slender . The head and mandibles are small , but the eyes are fully developed and large . The antennae are not preserved , and only small fragments of the legs are present . The gaster is smaller and more elongated , but the genitalia are not preserved .
= = = Y. orientalis = = =
Y. orientalis was described from a part and counterpart holotype and a solitary forewing paratype compression fossil found at the late Eocene Bol ’ shaya Svetlovodnaya fossil site , in the Sikhote @-@ Alin area of far @-@ eastern Russia . The type specimens numbered PIN 3429 / 1109 for the part and counterpart and PIN 3429 / 1198 are currently preserved in the A.A. Borissiak Paleontological Institute fossil collections of the Russian Academy of Sciences . Dlussky , Rasnitsyn , and Perfilieva coined the specific epithet from the Latin " orientalis " , meaning " eastern " , in reference to the type locality . The species is discernible from Y. rebekkae by its smaller petiole node size . While there are no distinct differences between Y. orientalis and the two Okanagan Highlands species Y. bartletti and Y. orbiculata , the fossils were placed into a new species by Dlussky , Rasnitsyn , and Perfilieva . This is due to the notable time difference between the highlands and Bol ’ shaya Svetlovodnaya . Though the possible gyne is incomplete the estimated body length is 17 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 69 in ) and the mesosoma is robust . The fore @-@ wing has closed 1 + 2r , 3r , rm and mcu cells , with the 3r elongated while the 1 + 2r is shorted to just over twice as long as wide .
= = Ecology = =
The life habits of Ypresiomyrma would have been similar to that of extant Myrmeciinae ants . Colonies nested in the soil or in trees , making them an arboreal nesting species . Workers were most likely solitary foragers , foraging on the ground or onto low vegetation and trees while preying on arthropods or consuming nectar . Workers most likely did not recruit or lead nestmates to food sources , nor did workers lay down pheromone trails . Ypresiomyrma ants most likely used their large eyes to find prey and for navigational purposes .
The abundance of Ypresiomyrma queens collected suggests that these ants mated in swarms , but the alates were poor flyers due to their large size . The morphology of the mandibles indicate they were specialised tools for excavating chambers in soil or wood during colony foundation ; their large size and common occurrence in their geographical range would mean they were an important food source to a variety of birds and Paleogene animals that predominately fed on insects .
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= Sword of Mana =
Sword of Mana , originally released in Japan as Shin 'yaku Seiken Densetsu ( 新約 聖剣伝説 , lit . " Legend of the Sacred Sword : The New Testament " ) , is a 2003 action role @-@ playing game developed by Square Enix and Brownie Brown and published by Square Enix and Nintendo for the Game Boy Advance . It is an enhanced remake of the original Game Boy game Final Fantasy Adventure , which was released as Seiken Densetsu : Final Fantasy Gaiden in Japan and Mystic Quest in Europe . Final Fantasy Adventure is the first game in the Mana series , and Sword of Mana is the fifth released game in the series . Set in a high fantasy universe , the game follows an unnamed hero and heroine as they seek to defeat the Dark Lord and defend the Mana Tree from enemies who wish to misuse its power .
While incorporating gameplay elements from the original game and generally following the same plot , Sword of Mana has new gameplay mechanics and a much more involved story . It removes elements of the Final Fantasy series present in the original game as a marketing ploy , while adding in gameplay elements and artistic styles from later games in the series . The plot is modified to allow the player to follow the parallel stories of either the hero or the heroine , and the backstory and dialogue is expanded from the original . Sword of Mana was produced by series creator Koichi Ishii , directed by Takeo Oin , and largely developed by employees of Brownie Brown who had previously worked on the series for Square .
The game received weakly positive reviews from critics . Reviewers praised the graphics of the game , as well as its enhancements to the original version . They were generally dismissive of the plot , even with enhancements , and disliked elements of the gameplay , especially the computer @-@ controlled ally . Critics recommended the game mainly to fans of the genre or the series .
= = Gameplay = =
The gameplay of Sword of Mana is an expanded and modified version of the gameplay of the action role @-@ playing game Final Fantasy Adventure , with elements added from later games in the Mana series . Like previous games in the series , Sword of Mana displays a top @-@ down perspective , in which the player characters navigate the terrain and fight off hostile creatures . Unlike the original game , the terrain is in color , is not composed of square tiles , and the player is not restricted to moving only in the cardinal directions . At the beginning of the game the player chooses to follow the story of either the unnamed hero or heroine , and controls them thereafter . The player is often joined by either the unchosen protagonist or by temporary companions , and at any point during battles can choose to take direct control of the other party member instead of their chosen character . The non @-@ selected character is controlled via artificial intelligence . Unlike prior games in the series , Sword of Mana does not have a direct multiplayer component . Instead , players can connect their Game Boy Advances together via a Link Cable to give their characters powerful attacks to be used at a later time , known as the " Amigo " system . The original game featured no multiplayer capabilities .
The two main characters have different capabilities . Both are capable of using weapons and magic , but the hero is stronger with melee weapons and the heroine is stronger with ranged magical attacks . Weapons have three attributes : slash , jab , and bash ; and different attributes cause more or less damage to different enemies . Magical spells can cause damage or defend the protagonists , and are affected by the weapon the character is holding . Combat takes place in real @-@ time . Located at the bottom of the screen is an overdrive gauge that increases by one point at each hit given to an enemy . When that gauge is full , the player can release a powerful attack that will deplete the gauge completely if the attack lands . Upon collecting enough experience points in battle , each character increases in level and improves in areas such as strength and evasion .
The player can rest in towns , where they can regain hit points or purchase restorative items and equipment . Options such as changing equipment , casting spells , or checking status are performed by cycling through the game 's Ring Commands , a circular menu which hovers over the currently controlled party member . The Ring Command menu , which lets the player pause the game in combat to select different weapons , spells , and items , was not present in the original game , but was present in the sequels Secret of Mana and Seiken Densetsu 3 . A version of the day @-@ and @-@ night system introduced in Seiken Densetsu 3 was added to the game , whereby some enemies are only present at different times of day , which changes whenever the player enters a new area . Much like Legend of Mana , players can forge weapons and plant produce in an orchard in the game 's " Hot House " feature .
= = Plot = =
Sword of Mana has a similar story to Final Fantasy Adventure with additional details and dialogue added . The player has the choice to follow the story of either the hero or the heroine , who are named by the player , instead of only the hero as in the original game . The two stories parallel each other , and the two protagonists are often together .
The hero 's story begins with a flashback dream of the death of his parents at the hands of the Dark Lord , the ruler of the nation of Granz . Upon waking , the hero , a gladiator @-@ slave in Granz , attempts to escape before being confronted by the Dark Lord and thrown off of a bridge . After being fished out of a lake , the hero is advised to head to the city of Topple . The heroine 's story also begins with a flashback dream of the Dark Lord and his assistant , Julius , killing her stepmother and destroying her village . Upon awaking , she is advised by the knight Bogard to head to Topple , while he journeys to the city of Wendell . The hero and heroine meet in Topple , and agree to journey together . They head toward Wendell , and along the way discover that women of the Mana tribe , which the heroine belongs to , are being kidnapped by vampires . The heroine is kidnapped , and is rescued by the hero and an unnamed man ; they discover that the kidnappings are to keep the woman safe from the Dark Lord and Julius , who are killing them all in part because the tribe was unable to save the Dark Lord 's mother from a terrible fate .
In Wendell , the two protagonists learn that Bogard and several other knights were instrumental in overthrowing the Vandole Empire twenty years prior , which had been abusing Mana , the source of magic . The hero states his intention to find the legendary Mana Sword in order to avenge his parents and the heroine reveals she has a pendant from her stepmother that is the key to the Mana Tree , the source of Mana . The unnamed man then reveals himself to be Julius and kidnaps the heroine for the pendant ; during a failed rescue attempt the hero falls from an airship along with the pendant . After a side story resulting in the hero and heroine killing the Dark Lord 's mother , who had been turned into a monster , the pendant is stolen and given to the Dark Lord . The protagonists chase after him . After the two defeat the Dark Lord , Julius reveals himself to be the last survivor of the Vandole Empire . Once gaining the pendant he mind controlled the heroine to use the pendent to give him control the Mana Tree , which Vandole had attempted to do prior to being overthrown . Julius defeats the hero and heroine , and heads off to the Mana Tree .
The hero and heroine split up to find the Mana Sword . After the hero passes trials to prove himself worthy of the sword , which first appears as a rusty blade , the two join forces to storm the Mana Tree and defeat Julius . They do so , but the tree is killed in the process ; prior to death , the tree reveals that she was the heroine 's mother , and asks the heroine to replace her as the next Mana Tree . The heroine agrees , and the two protagonists part ways .
= = Development and release = =
After the release of the previous game in the Mana series , 1999 's Legend of Mana , several members of the development team for the game left Square to form a new development studio , Brownie Brown . These included character designer Kameoka Shinichi and lead artist Kouji Tsuda , as well as several other writers and artists . Square , in turn , outsourced development of the fifth game in the Mana series to Brownie Brown . The producer for the game was Square 's Koichi Ishii , who had directed or designed the previous games in the series . Ishii had served as the director for the original game in the series , Final Fantasy Adventure , which Sword of Mana is a remake of . The remake , in addition to adding enhanced graphics to the original Game Boy title , sought to add elements present in later games in the series , such as the Ring Command menu system , and to expand the game 's storyline . It also removed elements from the Final Fantasy series , which had been placed in the original game as a part of the marketing for the game before its sequels moved to be a distinct series .
While the original game had black and white graphics in a style similar to The Legend of Zelda , Sword of Mana 's Game Boy Advance graphics were made similar to the third game in the series , the Super Famicom game Seiken Densetsu 3 . The ability to play as the girl character was added , and an element of multiplayer features that the series had become known for was added by allowing two players to link their Game Boy Advances together to trade items .
Square announced in August 2002 that a Mana game for the Game Boy Advance was under development , and in early 2003 announced that the game was a remake of Final Fantasy Adventure and would be released in Japan later that year under the name Shinyaku Seiken Densetsu . On April 24 , 2003 , Square Enix , formed from the merger of Square and Enix during the game 's development , announced that Sword of Mana would have North American and European releases as well . While Legend of Mana had been released worldwide , Seiken Densetsu 3 had only been released in Japan . In July 2003 , IGN listed the game as one of the top ten most anticipated Game Boy Advance games of 2003 . Sword of Mana was released in Japan on August 29 , 2003 , in North America on December 1 , and in Europe on March 18 , 2004 . In Japan , a special edition " Mana Blue " -colored Game Boy Advance SP was released on the same date as the game , packaged with Sword of Mana and a carrying case . Those who purchased the game 's soundtrack and strategy guide between August 27 and September 30 , 2003 , were given the opportunity to win a Cactus character cushion and a cellphone strap .
= = = Music = = =
The score for Sword of Mana was composed by Kenji Ito , the composer for the original Final Fantasy Adventure . The music includes reworked tracks from the original game as well as new material . Ito 's music is mainly inspired by images from the game rather than outside influences ; however , he never played either the original game or the remake . The 2003 Sword of Mana Premium Soundtrack album collects 47 tracks of music from the game . The two @-@ disc album contains over an hour and a half of music and was published by DigiCube , with a 2004 reprint by Square Enix . The first disc contains music directly from the game , while the second disc features seven piano arrangements by Ito of songs from the soundtrack . The first edition of the soundtrack included a bonus disc , containing an orchestral arrangement of " Rising Sun ~ Endless Battlefield " . The album reached position # 118 on the Japan Oricon charts , and stayed on the charts for only one week . Music from the soundtrack has been arranged for the piano and published by DOREMI Music Publishing . Additionally , KMP Music Publishing has published a book of sheet music for the piano tracks included in the album .
= = Reception = =
Sword of Mana sold over 277 @,@ 000 copies in Japan in 2003 . It received positive reviews from critics . The game 's presentation was praised , especially its graphics ; Brad Shoemaker of GameSpot praised the " lush , colorful backgrounds " and animation quality , which was seconded by the reviewer for GamePro . Game Informer 's Justin Leeper also felt that the graphics were beautiful , and Shane Bettenhausen of Electronic Gaming Monthly said it was " one of the most stunning games on [ the ] GBA " . Kevin Gifford of 1UP.com also praised the graphics in relation to other Game Boy Advance games , while Darryl Vassar of GameSpy said that it would have been the best @-@ looking Game Boy Advance game if were not for what he felt was poor animation quality . Reaction to the music was more mixed ; while the reviews for Game Informer and GamePro praised it , Shoemaker of GameSpot termed the music " mostly bland " and Craig Harris of IGN and GameSpy 's Vassar said it was nice but repetitive . Reviewers also noted technical problems with the presentation : both the GameSpot and IGN reviews noted graphical glitches in the game as marring the presentation .
The game 's plot was widely dismissed ; IGN 's Harris termed it " a little on the basic side " and " borderline silly " , which 1UP.com 's Gifford amended to just " silly " , with " needlessly @-@ long dialogue " . Vassar of GameSpy felt that the added dialogue simply unjustly inflated a simple story . Shoemaker of GameSpot called it " quaintly simplistic " , while the Electronic Gaming Monthly review said it was one of the biggest problems with the game .
Elements of the gameplay were also poorly received . The computer @-@ controlled companion was almost universally derided : Bettenhausen of Electronic Gaming Monthly said they were " nearly useless " , as did Gifford of 1UP.com , Shoemaker of GameSpot called them " just plain dumb " , and IGN 's Harris said it was " the absolute pits " and " definitely the weakest aspect " of the game . The GamePro , GameSpot , and GameSpy reviews found issues with the combat mechanics , and the GameSpot and IGN reviewers felt the game was too easy . 1UP.com 's Gifford felt that the boss battles were too easy , and that the weapon @-@ switching system was needlessly complicated . IGN 's Harris and Game Informer 's Leeper found the day / night system to be odd and unnecessary , and Harris additionally felt that the multiplayer system was underwhelming . Shoemaker of GameSpot concluded that the game was " pretty good " , and recommended it for fans of the genre , while Leeper of Game Informer and Bettenhausen of Electronic Gaming Monthly said that it was " decent " and " worth a look for fans " of the series . The Japanese magazine Famitsu said that it was a good update to Final Fantasy Adventure without innovating the gameplay much beyond the original game .
= = = Legacy = = =
Sword of Mana was adapted into manga form by author Shiro Amano and published by Enterbrain on February 25 , 2004 . Two novels based on the game were written by Matsui Oohama with illustrations by Yumiko Murakami and were also published by Enterbrain on February 27 , 2004 . Square Enix also produced a book of yonkoma comics based on the game on January 16 , 2004 .
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= George Thomas Coker =
George Thomas Coker ( born July 14 , 1943 ) is a retired US Navy Commander , honored with the Navy Cross for his leadership as a prisoner of war ( POW ) during the Vietnam War , and a Distinguished Eagle Scout noted for his devotion to Scouting .
In 1966 , the A @-@ 6 Intruder on which Coker was serving as bombardier – navigator was shot down over North Vietnam . He was held as a prisoner of war in the " Hanoi Hilton " and other camps for 6 @.@ 5 years ( 1966 – 1973 ) . After his release , he continued to serve in the Navy until his retirement in 1986 . He also returned to active participation in Scouting .
= = Personal information = =
George Coker was born in Amarillo , Texas in 1943 . In 1951 , his family moved to Linden , New Jersey , where he became a New Jersey high school state wrestling champion in the 142 lb weight class and played high school varsity football at Saint Benedict 's Preparatory School in Newark , New Jersey . Coker attended Rutgers University from 1961 – 1963 , where he also wrestled . While at Rutgers , he participated in an aviation officer cadet program and was commissioned an Ensign in the United States Navy . After his release from Vietnam , he returned to college and graduated from the University of San Diego in 1976 with a BS in political science . He studied education and mathematics at Old Dominion University from 1982 to 1986 . Coker is married and has three children ; two daughters and a son .
= = Scouting life = =
Coker grew up in Linden , New Jersey and became an Eagle Scout in Troop 32 of Saint Elizabeth 's Catholic Church in Linden on January 27 , 1959 . He has stated that his passion for Scouting is one of the things that got him through his 6 @.@ 5 years as a POW in North Vietnam , to the point that at times all he could remember was the Scout Oath , but not the names of his family members .
Both of Coker 's older brothers were involved in Scouting and Coker first became involved when he joined Cub Scouts in late 1951 . He completed the Cubbing program and joined Troop 32 . Troop 32 had about a dozen members at that time but had over 60 members when Coker made Eagle Scout in 1959 . During this time the troop formed an Explorer Post and Sea Scout unit . After making Eagle Scout , Coker joined the Sea Scout unit and worked at summer camp before the joined the Navy in October 1963 . When Coker returned to Linden after being released from captivity , the Scouts were his biggest supporter . Troop 32 now had over 100 members . Local citizens turned out by the hundreds to greet him . Coker visited many of the local Scouting units . Coker was then inactive in Scouting during a busy Naval career , but got involved again when his son joined Cub Scouts as a Tiger Cub after the family had settled in Virginia Beach , Virginia . He became the den leader of 7 boys , all of whom earned their Arrow of Light , the highest recognition in Cub Scouting . They moved on to Troop 62 , Virginia Beach , in May 1994 ; with five of them later becoming Eagle Scouts , including his son .
Troop 62 's adults asked Coker to become Scoutmaster , a position in which he served for several years . Coker is also a Vigil Honor member of the Order of the Arrow ( OA ) . Coker served as the lodge adviser for Tidewater Council 's OA lodge , Blue Heron Lodge , from December 2005 until December 2007 . He was honored by the Boy Scouts of America with their Distinguished Eagle Scout Award on August 9 , 2005 .
= = Military career = =
= = = Bombardier / navigator = = =
Coker served as a Naval Flight Officer for 23 years in the United States Navy . He entered the United States Navy Reserve on October 31 , 1963 and entered active service at Lakehurst , New Jersey on November 13 , 1963 , serving until his retirement on September 30 , 1986 . Following graduation from Aviation Officer Candidate School , he attended Basic Naval Aviation Observer ( BNAO ) School at NAS Pensacola , Florida followed by advanced jet navigation training at NAS Glynco , Georgia . Following graduation and receiving his wings as a Naval Aviation Observer ( NAO ) , he completed additional training as a bombardier / navigator in the A @-@ 6 Intruder .
On his first deployment , Coker took part in a 19 @-@ aircraft attack on a radar control facility in Kép , 38 miles northeast of Hanoi . In the face of flak , automatic weapons fire and extremely difficult weather conditions , Coker directed the pilot , navigated his aircraft , managed the ordnance system and used his electronic countermeasures equipment to provide protection for the strike group . The attack inflicted significant damage on the well @-@ protected and dug @-@ in radar station and its equipment , with all three radar stations out of operation and the target described as " obliterated " . For his actions , Coker was awarded the Navy Commendation Medal .
Coker was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for his actions the following day , July 1 , 1966 . His airplane was diverted to attack three North Vietnamese torpedo boats in the Gulf of Tonkin that were heading towards U.S. Navy destroyers in the area . Coker navigated to the scene and called out airspeed , altitude and dive angle to allow the pilot to focus their attacks on the enemy boats as they in turn concentrated their fire at Coker 's aircraft . One enemy ship was hit and sunk , and a second suffered a near @-@ miss . The citation notes that " Lieutenant Coker 's resourcefulness , superb airmanship , and courage in the face of great danger contributed materially to the success of the mission . " In a two @-@ hour @-@ long battle , all three ships were sunk by the U.S. Navy aircraft .
Coker was awarded the Navy Commendation Medal for his actions as part of a coordinated 23 @-@ aircraft attack on petroleum storage tanks in Hai Phong on August 2 , 1966 , consisting of four waves of A @-@ 6 Intruders and A @-@ 4 Skyhawks , firing a combination of 750 and 1 @,@ 000 pound bombs and rockets . The attack was the third in a series of attacks on North Vietnamese oil storage depots dating back to June . Despite heavy anti @-@ aircraft fire , Coker provided accurate guidance to the pilot on airspeed , altitude and dive angle , while operating both the attack navigation radar system and electronic countermeasures . Despite adverse weather conditions , Coker 's actions contributed to an attack that destroyed all but one of the facility 's storage tanks .
= = = Prisoner of war = = =
On Coker 's 55th bombing mission , he was a Lieutenant , junior grade serving as the Bombardier – Navigator of an A @-@ 6 Intruder from Attack Squadron 65 ( VA @-@ 65 ) operating from the USS Constellation ( CV @-@ 64 ) , when he and his pilot , John H. " Jack " Fellowes , were shot down over North Vietnam on August 27 , 1966 while flying near Vinh in Nghệ An Province . The aircraft was hit by a surface @-@ to @-@ air missile , which blew off the right wing , and the two crewmembers ejected from the aircraft after it went into a flat spin . Their wingman tracked the parachutes as the crew descended , but lost sight of them due to poor visibility and flak after the crew were within 50 feet of the ground . Ejection was at about 2 @,@ 000 feet altitude and 18 miles inland in flat terrain . Coker and Fellowes landed about one mile apart . Fellowes landed on a hillside and Coker in a large rice paddy in a well @-@ populated area . Both were captured by armed villagers soon after landing . For three hours after they ejected , American aircraft made a thorough search , despite moderate to heavy flak , but were unable to spot the parachutes or get a signal from their emergency beepers .
Coker was held by the North Vietnamese at a number of different POW camps in the Hanoi area , including Cu Loc , Dirty Bird , Alcatraz Grove , the Zoo , Little Vegas , and Hỏa Lò Prison ( the " Hanoi Hilton " ) .
While in a facility on the outskirts of Hanoi known as " The Zoo " , he was forced to endure a torture called " the wall " , in which he , as well as other prisoners , were forced to stand facing a wall in his cell with his hands above his head from the time a gong sounded at 5 : 30 in the morning until it sounded again at 10 : 00 at night . After two weeks , the knee injury he suffered when he ejected had worsened , and he was taken to a hospital where the infection was drained . After a two @-@ day respite while he recuperated , " the wall " torture continued for two more months . Coker called this " probably my worst experience in Vietnam " .
During his captivity , Coker was notable for the ferocity with which he resisted his incarceration . Coker was considered one of " the baddest of the baddest " of the POWs , a reference to his stubborn resistance to his captivity . Coker 's Silver Star Medal citation cited his fierce resistance as one of the significant reasons the North Vietnamese eventually abandoned harsh treatment of the prisoners . Coker served as Chaplain to his fellow prisoners while he was in captivity , providing them with spiritual guidance and constructive counseling . For these efforts , he was awarded the Legion of Merit .
In July 1967 , Coker devised " unusual and ingenious methods " to allow his fellow prisoners to communicate with each other within their camp , assisting their collective efforts to resist their captor 's demands and improving the morale of American and Allied POWs . For his " heroic achievement " , Coker was awarded the Bronze Star Medal with Combat " V " .
That year , Coker and Air Force Captain George McKnight ( another of the " baddest " ) conceived an escape plan . The two would escape from their cells and make it to the nearby Red River , swim by night and hide by day , estimating that it would take three or four days to reach the mouth of the river . There they would commandeer a boat and make it out to sea where they hoped to flag down a ship of the United States Seventh Fleet , estimating that it would take eight days from their escape until their rescue . The two removed the hinges from their cell and escaped from Dirty Bird prison in Hanoi the night of October 12 , 1967 , climbed to the roof of the prison block and jumped to another roof to escape . They tied themselves together to avoid separation and jumped into the Red River near the Tanwa Bridge . That night they made it 15 miles downstream in the dark and hid in the mud on the river 's edge at daybreak . The two were recaptured 12 ½ hours after they had escaped when they were spotted by fishermen along the shore early that morning and were handed over to soldiers . They were held in irons at Hỏa Lò prison before being returned to Dirty Bird a few days later . Their effort made them two of the very few POWs to ever escape from a North Vietnamese POW camp . Coker was awarded the Navy Cross , the Navy 's highest award for heroism , for his actions in his attempted escape as a prisoner of war . The citation reads in part :
... for extraordinary heroism during an extremely daring escape from a solitary confinement cell while a Prisoner of War in Hanoi , North Vietnam on October 12 , 1967 . During a period of particularly harsh treatment , Lieutenant Commander Coker and another prisoner executed an escape as a two @-@ man team despite the high risk of brutal reprisal or possible loss of life . That night , after opening the cell door by removing door bolt brackets from inside the room , he proceeded over the wall and through several blocks of housing to the Domer Bridge . Walking under the bridge to the Red River 's edge , he swam downstream all night and at sunrise buried himself in a mudbank in an effort to remain concealed . He was later discovered , recaptured , severely beaten for many hours , and banished to solitary confinement for two and a half years .
On October 25 , 1967 , Coker was one of 11 of the most effective resisters , among the 267 POWs then held , who were placed in a special facility in a courtyard behind the North Vietnamese Ministry of National Defense , soon nicknamed " Alcatraz " , located about one mile away from Hỏa Lò Prison . Coker and McKnight were added to nine prisoners who had been at a facility nicknamed " Vegas " : Jeremiah Denton , Harry Jenkins , Sam Johnson , James Mulligan , Howard Rutledge , Robert Shumaker , James Stockdale , Ronald Storz and Nels Tanner . While most of those among the Alcatraz 11 were senior officers , Coker was the youngest and most junior of those isolated from the other POWs . The 11 , known as the " Alcatraz Gang " , were separated from other captives and placed in solitary confinement for their leadership in resisting their captors . In Alcatraz , each of the 11 men were kept in solitary confinement . Coker spent two years alone in a windowless concrete cell measuring 3 feet by 9 feet that had a light bulb kept on around the clock . He was locked each night in irons by a guard . Coker remained in Alcatraz until December 9 , 1969 and spent the next three years in captivity shuffled between a number of different prisons .
On March 4 , 1973 , both Coker and Fellowes were released as part of Operation Homecoming . Vietnam @-@ era POWs were released by order of capture , and Fellowes and Coker were in the second large release group , about No. 123 and # 124 . Of their 2 @,@ 382 days in captivity ( 6 @.@ 5 years ) , 2 @.@ 5 years were in solitary confinement and 2 @.@ 5 years in the " Hanoi Hilton " . They also spent time in several other POW camps around Hanoi . Fellowes retired from the Navy in July 1986 and Coker on October 1 , 1986 .
Coker was promoted to full Lieutenant during his captivity and retroactively designated as a Naval Flight Officer ( NFO ) , all NAOs having been redesignated as NFOs during his captivity . Coker was awarded six decorations at a ceremony at NAS North Island in San Diego , California : Navy Cross , Silver Star ( Silver Star Medal ) , two Bronze Stars ( two Bronze Star Medals ) , Legion of Merit , and the Navy Commendation ( Navy and Marine Corps Commendation Medal ) . In 1974 , Mayor John T. Gregorio presented him with a key to the city of Linden . Coker was also awarded the Meritorious Service Medal for his " aggressive leadership " as Director of the Atlantic Fleet Command Center upon retiring from the Navy .
Coker is one of the names of fellow POW 's that future Senator John McCain recites in the 2005 film , Faith of My Fathers ; a film based on the 1999 McCain memoir of the same title , Faith of My Fathers .
The 1974 documentary film Hearts and Minds , which was critical of the United States ' role in the Vietnam War , featured Coker briefly . Coker , at the time of filming , had recently returned from six and a half years of internment in North Vietnamese camps for American prisoners of war – where he had endured torture and other mistreatment by his captors . The film shows a homecoming parade in his honor in his hometown of Linden , New Jersey , where he tells the assembled crowd on the steps of city hall that if the need arose , that they must be ready to send him back to war . Answering a student 's question about what Vietnam looked like , he responded : " Well , if it wasn 't for the people , it was very pretty . The people over there are very backward and very primitive , and they just make a mess out of everything . " Time magazine 's Stefan Kanfer criticized the lack of balance in the film 's portrayal of Coker , noting that " [ t ] he camera , which amply records the agonies of South Vietnamese political prisoners , seems uninterested in the American lieutenant 's experience of humiliation and torture . "
A fellow POW , Commander Paul Galanti , said " George is one of my heroes ... but the real reason we 're home is the bad guys wanted to get Coker out of the country . So , you see , George Coker is the real reason we were released . "
= = = Military decorations and awards = = =
Coker 's military awards include :
Navy Cross
Silver Star Medal
Legion of Merit w / Combat " V "
Distinguished Flying Cross
Bronze Star Medal w / 5 ⁄ 16 inch gold star and Combat " V "
Purple Heart w / 5 ⁄ 16 inch gold star
Meritorious Service Medal
Air Medal w / bronze Numeral 5 device
Navy Commendation w / two 5 ⁄ 16 inch gold stars and Combat " V "
Combat Action Ribbon
Navy Unit Commendation
POW Medal
National Defense Service Medal
Vietnam Service Medal w / two 3 ⁄ 16 inch silver stars and two 3 ⁄ 16 inch bronze stars
Republic of Vietnam Gallantry Cross Unit Citation w / palm
Republic of Vietnam Civil Actions Unit Citation w / palm
Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal w / 1960- device
= = In retirement = =
In addition to continued Scouting activities , Coker has been involved in supporting ex – POWs for many years . In December 2004 , he was elected Commander of his local POW chapter , the Tidewater ex @-@ POW Association . In 2008 , he was also serving as the head of a Virginia state ex – POW association . Coker and his wife are also active in church and civic activities , such as counseling young married couples . Coker still has nightmares from his time as a POW . Reflecting on his wartime experiences in a Veterans Day tribute to POWs , he said " If you 're never tested , you don 't know ... You 're capable of a great deal more than you realize , if you really set your mind to it . Look at me . I did it , and there 's nothing special about me . I 'm just another guy . " Coker went on to say part of that is " ... realizing there 's something bigger than yourself ... "
= Incredible Room 7 – Hoa Lo Prison
| publisher =
nampows.org
| date
= November 7 , 2001
| url =
http : / / www.nampows.org / room _ 7.html
| accessdate = September 3 , 2010
} }
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= Centre Democrats ( Netherlands ) =
The Centre Democrats ( Dutch : Centrum Democraten , CD ) was a political party in the Netherlands . Founded in 1984 by members who split out from the Centre Party ( CP ) , the Centre Democrats was joined one month later by the only CP Member of Parliament — Hans Janmaat . Janmaat went on to become the leader of the party , which subsequently became strongly centered on his person . The newly formed Centre Democrats represented the more moderate faction of the Centre Party , but espoused an anti @-@ immigration and nationalist ideology . Their claims of standing in the centre of the political landscape have thus been disputed by political scientists .
The Centre Democrats did not gain enough votes for parliamentary representation in the 1986 general election , but Janmaat won back his seat after the following election in 1989 . In 1994 he was joined by two additional representatives won by the party . The CD was subject to a cordon sanitaire by the other parties in Parliament , although some parties rather sought to confront it following its 1994 success . The CD failed to win any seats in the 1998 election , and it fell into disarray until it was finally dissolved in 2002 .
= = History = =
= = = Early years ( 1984 – 1989 ) = = =
The Centre Democrats was founded on 7 November 1984 by a few low @-@ key members who broke away from the Centre Party ( CP ) . On 5 December the same year the only Member of Parliament for the Centre Party , Hans Janmaat , changed party to the Centre Democrats and became its seventh member . Janmaat believed that by steering a more moderate course , the Centre Party would attract more voters at the polls , but was expelled by the party 's hardliners . In an attempt to appear more mainstream than the Centre Party , the new Centre Democrats ' slogans were more moderate and less explicit . As opposed to the Centre Party 's Eigen volk eerst ( " Our People First " ) , the Centre Democrats ' manifesto used the Dutch proverb Oost West Thuis Best ( " East , West , Home Best " ) . After Janmaat joined the Centre Democrats , the party became known as " his " party . Despite widespread media coverage generated by Janmaat 's reputation , party membership remained small in the first few years .
During its early years , the Centre Democrats received extensive media attention on two occasions . The first occurred when the Centre Democrats and Centre Party met on 29 March 1986 in Kedichem . A group of anti @-@ fascist activists believed that the two parties were planning to merge , and firebombed the hotel where the meeting was held . The venue was severely damaged , Janmaat narrowly escaped death and the party secretary Wil Schuurman had one leg amputated after jumping from a window to escape the conflagration .
Janmaat 's attempt to be reinstated as a teacher at his old school following his failed re @-@ election to parliament led to the second media frenzy . Although he was legally permitted to go back to his job , the protests of some students and parents due to his reputation as a " racist " , led him to be bought off by the court from pursuing a return to his old job . Unable to go back to his former job , Jaanmaat returned to politics . Taking advantage of Janmaat 's profile , the Centre Democrats contested the 1986 general election under the name Lijst Janmaat / Centrumdemocraten , but gained just 0 @.@ 1 % of the vote and no parliamentary seat . The Centre Democrats failed in its attempt to win votes from the Centre Party , which gained 0 @.@ 4 % of the vote but also did not win a seat .
= = = In parliament ( 1989 – 1998 ) = = =
Following the 1986 election , the Centre Democrats worked on improving both its image and its grassroots support . The strategy paid off with Janmaat winning a seat in the House of Representatives in the 1989 general election . By contesting the election in all nineteen constituencies , the party won the right to state @-@ sponsored television and radio time but still had no more than 300 registered members . In the 1990 local elections the Centre Democrats won eleven seats , then , in the 1991 provincial elections , three seats in the provincial parliament .
Electoral success overtook the party and Janmaat began to make controversial statements in the media . Based on his conviction that high office should be restricted to third @-@ generation Dutch nationals , he suggested that several cabinet ministers , including Justice Minister Ernst Hirsch @-@ Ballin who was of Jewish descent , and Agriculture State Secretary Dzsingisz Gabor who was of Hungarian descent , should be removed from the Dutch leadership . This marked the start of prosecutions of Centre Democrats party members on charges of racism , as well as the decision by the other parties in Parliament and government to place a cordon sanitaire around the party .
The cordon sanitaire turned out to be counterproductive with the Centre Democrats winning 77 seats in the 1994 local elections and gaining representation in almost every city where it fielded a candidate . Large cities were strongholds of the party , winning more than 10 % of the vote in Rotterdam . It became the fifth largest Dutch political party . After the elections , however , scandal loomed over the Centre Democrats , largely because of its weak organization and lack of active party members . Many of its previously won local seats became vacant after a while , as elected representatives failed to take them up , joined or founded other parties , left the party or left politics altogether . Before the 1994 general election opinion polls predicted that the party could win more than five seats in the House of Representatives . However , media reports claiming that some newly elected local members had extremist pasts damaged the Centre Democrats ' prospects . A secret recording broadcast on national television one week before the election showed an Amsterdam council member bragging about having set immigrant centers on fire in the early 1980s . In the election that followed , the Centre Democrats won 2 @.@ 5 % of the vote and three seats in the House of Representatives ( Janmaat was joined by Wil Schuurman and Cor Zonneveld ) , well below earlier expectations . Janmaat claimed that the relatively poor result was a result of an anti @-@ CD campaign in the media . Due to its growth , and questions arising amongst the other parties over the development of a multicultural society , political opponents began to confront the Centre Democrats directly rather than maintain a strict cordon sanitaire around it .
Despite attempts to broaden their appeal , the issue of foreigners remained central to the party 's rhetoric . Janmaat was convicted of " inciting racial hatred " by the Dutch courts for speaking out against multiculturalism . His conviction later came to be seen as unwarranted by mainstream observers . Janmaat and Schuurman , who were to marry in 1996 , dominated the party . With Schuurman 's son head of the party office , the Centre Democrats became almost a family affair . Janmaat remained skeptical of initiatives outside his own control , and expelled multiple local council members from the party . While much of this was due to local cooperation — unauthorized by the Centre Democrats leadership — with the more radical Centre Party ' 86 ( CP ' 86 ) , Janmaat later agreed to coordinate joint demonstrations with it . The cooperation soon fell apart and Janmaat distanced himself from CP ' 86 as the 1998 election approached .
In the 1995 provincial elections , in the face of competition from four new ethnocentric competitors , none of which won a seat , the Centre Democrats did not increase its three @-@ seat presence in the provincial parliament . In the 1998 local elections the Centre Democrats lost all but one of its seats , having contested the election in just around half of the municipalities it contested in 1994 . In the 1998 general election two months later , the party lost all its seats in Parliament . This was as a result of the Centre Democrats 's failure to benefit from increased attention on immigration issues , its years of internal infighting , and new legislation directed mainly against the far @-@ right , which had raised the number of signatures per district required in order to contest elections .
= = = Demise ( 1998 – 2002 ) = = =
After the 1998 election , Janmaat became increasingly worried by legal pressure , believing that the Centre Democrats could become the government 's next target after CP ' 86 was officially banned in 1998 . He founded the " Conservative Democrats " as a potential successor party in the event that the Centre Democrats was proscribed . The new party contested the 1999 European elections as the Lijstverbinding Centrumdemocraten / Conservatieve Democraten , a supposed two @-@ party cooperation , where the two names in reality represented the same party . It won only 0 @.@ 5 % of the vote in the election , a showing widely seen as the last spasm of a dying party . Janmaat 's increasing physical exhaustion only served to exacerbate the situation . Nonetheless , with a new political climate following the September 11 attacks and the rise of Pim Fortuyn , Janmaat sought political rehabilitation in his final years . The reason was that his earlier criminal convictions arose from stating things that had now become accepted .
On 18 April 2002 , only a few months before Janmaat died , the party was formally dissolved . As a result it did not participate in the 2002 general election , where the recently emerged Pim Fortuyn List attracted votes based on an appeal similar to that of the Centre Democrats .
= = Ideology = =
After the split from the Centre Party , the ideology of the Centre Democrats was broadly similar to that of its originator , although the Centre Party became increasingly radical in the following years . The Centre Democrats did not publish a party or electoral manifesto before 1989 , and until then its policies were known primarily through the small @-@ scale distribution of pamphlets , which were almost exact copies of old Centre Party pamphlets . Like the Centre Party , the Centre Democrats claimed to be at the centre of the political spectrum , representing a " centre @-@ democratic ideology " . Nevertheless , the party focused mainly on the issue of immigration , and mainstream observers considered the party 's ideology to be a populist form of nationalism .
= = = Immigration and multiculturalism = = =
The Centre Democrats was strongly opposed to multiculturalism and immigration . It did not , however , exclude people based on ethnicity . It spoke , initially at least , of a Dutch population rather than a Dutch ethnic community . The party remained distinct from ethnic nationalists , as it gave immigrants the choice between repatriation or assimilation . Its 1989 party program stated that " foreigners and minorities either adjust to the Dutch ways and customs or leave the country . " The Centre Democrats considered Dutch culture to be under threat from foreigners , and that Muslims in particular had come to the Netherlands with the intention of taking over or dominating the country . Also opposed to " multicultural marriages , " and wanting to limit the possibility of adoptions from the Third World , the CP generally sought a return to the old Dutch society with its singular Dutch culture . According to political scientist Cas Mudde , the party 's ideology is best described as civic nationalism . Nevertheless , by 1994 the party had moved more towards ethnic nationalism by asserting that its program began " from the indissoluble unity and solidarity of the Dutch ethnic community [ ... ] based on the common history and the culture that originated from that history . "
= = = Foreign policy = = =
The Centre Democrats opposed any limitation of the sovereignty of the Dutch state and was thus skeptical of the European Union and European integration , seeing the Maastricht Treaty as one of many international defeats inflicted on the Dutch government . While it generally described international organizations such as the United Nations as superfluous and inefficient bureaucracies , it supported NATO as a means of keeping the West safe from Communism . In its 1998 program , the Centre Democrats included a call for the " reunification with Flanders and other Dutch @-@ speaking territories " , thereby promoting the idea of a Greater Netherlands .
= = = Society = = =
While the party did not originally place heavy emphasis on ethical issues , it did see the family as the cornerstone of society . By 1994 , it had become more conservative , stressing law and order as well as traditional morals and values . Over the years , it also sought to make divorce more difficult , particularly for families with children . The party also lent much space to discussing the AIDS virus , which it put in the context of a moral crisis and moral relativism that it considered to only be solvable by returning to traditional morality .
= = = Economic = = =
The party 's economic policies did not deviate substantially from the generally supported mixed economy of the Netherlands . Its other demands did not have a strong ideological coherency . Supporting a generous welfare state for the Dutch people , it was otherwise sceptical of state interventionism in the economy ; notably by high taxes which would hinder private initiative , or overspending on subsidies .
= = Organisation = =
The original scientific bureau , or think tank , of the Centre Democrats was the Stichting Wetenschappelijke Onderbouwing Centrumdemocratische Ideologie ( Foundation for the Scientific Elaboration of the Centre Democratic Ideology , SWOCI ) . In 1992 its name was changed to the Thomas Hobbes Stichting ( Thomas Hobbes Foundation ) , after Janmaat 's favorite political philosopher .
The Young Centre Democrats ( Jonge Centrumdemocraten ) , became the youth organization of the Centre Democrats , having originally been founded as the youth wing of the Centre Party in the early 1980s . It was later succeeded by the CD Youth ( CD @-@ Jongeren ) , which was based almost exclusively in the Haarlem area . The Centre Democrats did not attract many youngsters , nor did it establish a particularly active youth organization . Most of the far @-@ right youth tended to join CP ' 86 .
Over time the Centre Democrats published a variety of party papers of varying quality . The Centrumtaal and the Middenkoers were the original newspapers first published in 1986 . Although the former was intended for general party news , and the latter aimed at a more intellectual readership , they did not differ much in content . By 1987 – 1988 , Centrumtaal was more or less succeeded by CD @-@ info , and Middenkoers by CD @-@ actueel . CD @-@ actueel was distributed for the last time in 1993 , with CD @-@ info succeeded by the CD @-@ Nieuwsbrief in 1997 , although in later years it had been published less and less frequently .
= = International relations = =
The CD regarded itself as related to other European " patriotic parties " , but its official contact was limited to the German People 's Union , the French National Front and the Belgian Vlaams Blok . The party regularly attended annual meetings of the German People 's Union and the National Front , and Janmaat spoke of his good contacts with the latter party 's leader Jean @-@ Marie Le Pen . Relations with the Vlaams Blok created a conflict of interest given VB 's arguably better contacts with CP ' 86 , the Centre Democrats ' main rival in the Netherlands . Even so , the Centre Democrats maintained official contacts domestically with both the Centre Party and its successor , the CP ' 86 .
= = Election results = =
= = = House of Representatives = = =
= = = European Parliament = = =
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= Battle of Wareo =
The Battle of Wareo ( 27 November – 8 December 1943 ) was fought by Australian and Japanese forces in New Guinea during the Huon Peninsula campaign of World War II in the later part of 1943 . Coming after the capture of Sattelberg by the Allies , the battle took place amidst the Australian advance north towards Sio . The Australians committed elements from four infantry brigades from the Australian 9th Division with supporting elements including artillery , engineers and tank support , while the Japanese force consisted primarily of two depleted infantry regiments from the 20th Division , with limited artillery support .
The Australian advance in this region developed into three drives . In the west , forces advanced north from Sattelberg following its capture , while in the east , an advance was made from North Hill on the coast , north of Scarlet Beach , where the Australians had landed earlier in the campaign . A smaller drive was made in the centre from Nongora , which lay in between the two , although this was limited and subsequently linked up with the coastal drive . Although possessing significant forces , the Australian advance proved slow . Heavy rain and harsh terrain slowed the Australian resupply efforts and reduced the mobility of their manoeuvre elements . Disease and fatigue also heavily depleted their infantry , with more casualties being suffered from illnesses than combat .
The Japanese units in the area also defended strongly , but they too were short on supplies and in the end they were forced to withdraw further north . Wareo subsequently fell to the Allies on 8 December , who then established a line east from Wareo to Gusika on the coast . From there they carried out further advances north later in the month and into early January 1944 .
= = Background = =
In September 1943 , Australian forces launched the first phase of Operation Cartwheel , General Douglas MacArthur 's advance on the main Japanese base at Rabaul . The operation initially went well . Lae fell on 16 September , and having advanced north along the coast towards the Huon Peninsula , the Australians had the Japanese forces on the back foot . On 22 September , elements of the Australian 9th Division , commanded by Major General George Wootten , landed at Scarlet Beach from where they began to fan out to the south and west to capture Finschhafen and to begin the advance towards Sio , further around the coast on the northern side of the Huon Peninsula .
Up to this point the Allied advance had been faster than planned , but at Finschhafen it faltered . The rapid advance had created logistical difficulties . In particular , the engineers required to develop the captured areas were not yet available . This became critical when heavy rains delayed the opening of the Lae – Nadzab Road . Without the road , the planned airbase at Nadzab could not be developed , and without the airbase , air cover could not be provided for another amphibious operation . MacArthur was forced to postpone the next phase of Cartwheel , Operation Dexterity , the landing on New Britain .
The initiative now passed to the Japanese . As the Australians advanced , a large force of Japanese – consisting largely of the 79th and 80th Infantry Regiments , part of the 26th Field Artillery Regiment and a battalion of the 238th Infantry Regiment , which were grouped together as the 20th Division under Lieutenant General Shigeru Katagiri – launched an unsuccessful counter @-@ attack in October before retreating inland towards an abandoned German mission that sat atop a 900 @-@ metre ( 3 @,@ 000 ft ) peak at Sattelberg .
By 5 November , General Headquarters ( GHQ ) South West Pacific Area ( SWPA ) had decided that the Finschhafen area would be developed into a major air and naval base , but the large Japanese force on Sattelberg still overlooked the base area . In order to remove this threat , Wootten sent the 26th Infantry Brigade to capture Sattelberg on 16 November . On 25 November , after 10 days of fighting , and an advance up the southern approaches from Jivevaneng by infantry supported by artillery , armour and air support , Sattelberg was seized by the Australians . Having suffered heavy casualties , and short on supplies , the Japanese withdrew north to Wareo , where they established themselves in preparation for further attacks by the Australians .
= = Logistics = =
= = = Allied = = =
Allied supplies were hauled from Lae in the Landing Craft , Vehicle , Personnel and Landing Craft Mechanised of the US 2nd Engineer Special Brigade , affectionately known as the " 9th Division Navy " . The capture of Dreger Harbour and Langemak Bay provided sheltered unloading areas , although they had not yet been developed into ports . This allowed the 2nd Engineer Special Brigade to make supply runs every second day . During October , its boats made 3 @,@ 870 trips totalling 157 @,@ 513 miles ( 253 @,@ 493 km ) , and carried 5 @,@ 930 troops and 26 @,@ 573 long tons ( 26 @,@ 999 t ) of cargo .
These were supplemented by less frequent trips by the much larger Landing Craft Tank and Landing Ships Tank of the VII Amphibious Force , which brought up tanks and artillery pieces . Their capacity was not as great as it could have been because , due to fear of Japanese air attacks , they had to quickly unload in the darkness . Some 800 men were employed by day and 800 by night unloading craft on the beaches . By 1 November , there were 12 @,@ 000 rounds of 25 pounder ammunition in the Finschhafen area , and stocks were increasing at a rate of two LCM loads per day . After unloading at Finschhafen , supplies were moved overland to where they were needed by jeeps , and where the terrain prevented this , by hand . In this regard , some New Guinean labourers were employed , but a shortage of such personnel resulted in the Australians allocating some of their combat troops to this role .
The wounded were taken to the aid posts and dressing stations in the field , and then to the 2 / 3rd Casualty Clearing Station , which arrived at Langemak Bay in October , or the 2 / 2nd Casualty Clearing Station , which opened at Heldsbach Plantation in November . Patients evacuated by sea on the small Australian Army hospital ship Stradbroke II , and later the improvised American Army hospital ship Norab . Air evacuation began when the airstrip at Finschhafen was opened in December .
Large numbers of Australian and American troops began arriving in November to develop the base at Finschhafen . There were US Army engineers to develop the airbase , and US Navy Seabees to build a PT Boat at Dreger Harbour . The Finschhafen Base Sub Area , under the command of Lieutenant Colonel H. T. Allan , was formed in November to support Australian operations in the area . Its American counterpart , known as Base F , followed on 15 November .
= = = Japanese = = =
The Japanese also relied upon water transport for logistics during the battle . Due to heavy shipping losses earlier in the year during the Battle of the Bismarck Sea , they employed a small force of submarines in an effort to avoid Allied air attack . Closer to the battle zone , barges were used to augment these submarines , but they too proved vulnerable to attack by Allied aircraft and PT boats . The distribution of Japanese supplies was hampered by the lack of native carriers , which the Japanese had been unable to recruit due to an Allied propaganda campaign in the region . In addition , there was a lack of motor transport and the track system was under developed . As a result , distribution of supplies once they had been landed was undertaken by resupply parties which were drawn largely from combat units . These parties moved overland on foot using a number of key tracks that existed north of the Wareo – Gusika ridge .
= = Prelude = =
Shortly after the Australians had landed at Scarlet Beach in late September , they began to patrol the area north of there towards Bonga and Gusika . Several key tracks and junctions were located by troops from the 2 / 43rd Infantry Battalion , who named them " Imperial " , " Oriental " , " Norfolk " and " Exchange " , after Adelaide pubs . Through the use of aerial reconnaissance evidence was found that the Japanese were using these tracks to traverse the area and to move supplies west towards Sattelberg . Observation posts were established and it became apparent to the Australians that one hill in particular , a feature later dubbed " Pabu " by the Australians after one of their native scouts , was the key terrain in the area . Part of an area that later became known as " Horace the Horse " to the Australians due to its shape as viewed from the air , it was within artillery range of the Australian forward positions at North Hill and as such could be occupied and held by a small party who could then disrupt the Japanese supply line . In October , the Japanese had launched a counter @-@ attack in the region and as the Australians had been forced back , they were forced to abandon Pabu .
The October counter @-@ attack was turned back . The commander of the Japanese XVIII Army , Lieutenant General Hatazō Adachi , visited Katagiri 's command post , and ordered a renewal of the attack , which Katagiri scheduled for 23 November . Meanwhile , the Australians sought to regain the initiative . Wootten decided to establish a position in depth behind the Japanese forward line , and subsequently further efforts were made to establish a force at Pabu in front of the Australian forward line at North Hill . Three companies from the 2 / 32nd Infantry Battalion under Major Bill Mollard , were sent to occupy it in mid @-@ November , and after striking north of the Song River from North Hill , with the help of native scouts , they moved between the Japanese positions as " Exchange " and " Pino Hill " . Following a heavy bombardment from the field guns of the 2 / 12th Field Regiment firing from Heldsbach Plantation , they captured the position . Over the next few days , the Australians established themselves , and began patrolling operations . After bringing up mortars and Vickers medium machine guns , they began to attack the Japanese resupply parties moving through the area , inflicting heavy casualties .
As a result of the occupation of Pabu , and the general movement of Australian forces towards Wareo – Bonga , the Japanese infantry were threatened with being trapped . In response , the Japanese commander , Katagiri , diverted some of the effort away from the recapture of Finschhafen , and resolved to recapture the North Hill – Pabu area . A strong force of Japanese subsequently advanced south along the coastal track from Bonga , attempting to retake North Hill and the ground north of the Song River . Commencing on 22 November , the Japanese made heavy assaults around North Hill , on positions which were defended by Australians from the 2 / 43rd Infantry Battalion and the 2 / 2nd Machine Gun Battalion . The 2 / 32nd , with two companies isolated to the north around Pabu , was also in the thick of the fighting , and over the space of 10 days it was subjected to repeated attacks . Despite being short of food and receiving repeated mortar fire , the 2 / 32nd held its ground with the assistance of strong artillery support , and in doing so inflicted heavy casualties upon the Japanese . Later at least 195 bodies were found around the 2 / 32nd 's position ; their own losses amounted to 25 killed and 51 wounded . The Japanese commanding general , Hatazo Adachi , later pinpointed the Australian capture of Pabu Hill as one of the main reasons for the defeat of his force during the Huon Peninsula campaign .
The Japanese counter @-@ attacks were eventually repulsed and after this , the Australians resumed their advance . The plan called for a three @-@ pronged attack by a divisional sized force of around 13 @,@ 000 men . While the 26th Infantry Brigade advanced to Wareo , the 24th Infantry Brigade took up a position on their right with the intention of capturing the area from Gusika on the coast to the " Lakes " , two large water features about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) inland . The 20th Infantry Brigade advanced in the centre between the 24th and 26th Infantry Brigades , striking out for Wareo from Nongora . Meanwhile , the 4th Infantry Brigade was assigned to defend the Allied beachhead around Finschhafen and Heldsbach , although it would later be employed in the coastal drive .
= = Battle = =
= = = Pursuit of Japanese forces to Bonga = = =
Along the coast , the 2 / 28th Infantry Battalion was assigned the task of leading the Australian advance along with a troop from the 1st Tank Battalion and engineers from the 2 / 7th Field Company . Commencing in the afternoon of 27 November , they began clearing operations between Bonga and North Hill along the coast with a secondary task of sending a company towards Pabu to facilitate the relief of the 2 / 32nd . In the vicinity , the Japanese 20th Division , consisting of the remnants of the 79th , 80th and 238th Infantry Regiments , numbered 4 @,@ 670 men , of which 2 @,@ 500 were combat effective . The lead company of the 2 / 28th Infantry Battalion moved off shortly after midday , passing through the 2 / 43rd Infantry Battalion 's lines . Initially there was no opposition and by the afternoon they established a defensive position near a waterfall . The following morning , the advance continued . The ground astride the coastal track , although flat , was covered in dense jungle , which was not suitable for tracked vehicles to move across . The result of this was that the Australian tanks had to remain on the track , advancing behind the infantry , which limited the rate of their advance and prevented them from being able to apply the full weight of their firepower .
As the Australians advanced , the engineers used bulldozers to improve the track to facilitate the flow of supplies , nevertheless the advance was slow . Sabotage of the bridges that spanned the various creeks that crossed the track held up the tanks , which were forced to wait while engineers came forward . While a bridge was being prepared for the tanks to cross a stream , attempts were made to attack the Japanese with infantry , however the ground was too rough and hard to penetrate and after suffering two casualties , the attack was called off . The Japanese attempted to delay the oncoming Australian units with snipers and suicide actions , however the supporting fire from the Australian tanks , which had joined the combat after crossing the stream and which at some points closed to 100 yards ( 91 m ) to fire at the Japanese , was used effectively where Japanese resistance was heaviest . In the face of this , the Japanese fell back . At the same time , a platoon advanced north from Pabu and occupied a position named " Exchange " by the Australians , capturing a 75 mm artillery piece in the process .
The two companies from the 2 / 32nd Infantry Battalion around Pabu had been reinforced by the remaining two companies which had fought their way through on 26 November , having also captured " Pino Hill " with four Matilda tanks and artillery support . They were then relieved by the 2 / 43rd , who were warned out to begin an advance to the west . The following morning , 29 November , the 2 / 28th Infantry Battalion once again led the Australian advance . By mid @-@ morning Bonga had been taken and shortly after midday , Australian reconnaissance patrols found Gusika undefended and so the main body subsequently occupied a local feature called " Oriental " to its south . It was the site of a large Japanese headquarters , but was found to be abandoned , with piles of equipment left behind .
The fall of Bonga put the Japanese forces firmly on the back foot ; their supply route through Bonga having been cut , they had to send supplies and reinforcements along the rough track that passed between Kiligia and Wareo . The next step for the Australians was the capture of Gusika to the north on the coast and a position known as " Horace 's Ears " further inland to the west . To that point , the advance had been going well for the Australians , so they split their forces , with the 2 / 28th pushing on to Gusika and the 2 / 43rd turning west towards " Horace " . At this point the Australian forces received a boost in the form of the 4th Infantry Brigade , which was assigned to the 9th Division to begin the advance north up the coastal track towards the high features that existed around Fortification Point . At the same time , the 24th Infantry Brigade would advance on Wareo from Bonga , in the east .
The terrain over which the two brigades were to advance was generally steep with the track having been cut along a high spur line that dropped on either side into deep ravines that were covered by kunai grass interspersed with areas of thick jungle . North of Bonga , the ground was markedly different , with the track having been pushed through flat swamp land that was punctuated by many deep creeks ; vegetation in the area was mainly thick secondary growth , although to the west , in the steep hills , kunai grass was predominate . As a result of the harsh conditions and terrain , as the Australian advance continued it was increasingly hampered by vehicle break downs and fatigue amongst their crews . Resupply was also a problem for the Australians and consequently a lack of spare parts developed . This meant that a number of jeeps became unserviceable and some of the Matilda tanks were unable to advance for some time while their crews waited for parts to be brought up .
= = = Japanese stand at Horace 's Ears = = =
By 30 November , the Australian commander , Wootten , had concentrated a significant force , consisting of 12 infantry battalions , a machine gun battalion , a Matilda tank squadron , a battalion of pioneers , a squadron of commandos , and artillery and engineer support , and was ready to begin the next stage of the advance . The advance began that morning with the 2 / 28th Infantry Battalion advancing on the Australian right in concert with the Matildas from 3 Troop , 1st Tank Battalion . Crossing the Kalueng River , they penetrated only 0 @.@ 25 miles ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) before meeting Japanese resistance , which was overcome with the assistance of an artillery barrage and mortars . At the same time , the 2 / 43rd , which had relieved the 2 / 32nd around Pabu earlier , also advanced . Two companies were sent out late in the afternoon , each with armoured support in the shape of two Matildas , tasked with taking the position known by the Australians as " Horace 's Ears " by advancing through an area of low ground dubbed " Lilac Valley " by the Australians .
The Japanese had developed the position considerably , establishing a complex defensive network and , whereas up until that point they had usually withdrawn in the face of the advancing Australians , they decided to make a stand . Employing a 75 mm gun , which was fired over open sights due to the closeness of the fighting , along with some 37 mm guns and a number of machine guns of varying calibre , they fought fiercely . Halted by fire , the Australians called in fire support to overwhelm the Japanese with fire superiority , and resorting to employing the indirect method that would characterise their operations during this phase of the advance , and which was necessitated by the depleted state of their forces . Moving up a steep slope that was covered by kunai grass , one of the tanks broke down , nevertheless the Australian armour was able to deliver a significant bombardment which enabled the infantry to take the position early in the evening .
= = = Kalueng Lakes = = =
The 2 / 28th Infantry Battalion put a patrol over the Kalueng River on 1 December . The previous day artillery had been used to reduce the Japanese presence in the area of the " Lagoon " – north of Gusika – and , as a consequence , the patrol was able to penetrate deep to the north , almost reaching the Lagoon before turning around . On the return leg , the Australians located a Japanese position and attacked it , killing one and wounding three others before skirting around the position and moving south in an effort to regain Australian lines . A second Japanese force , however , blocked their way and after a firefight at sunset in which a further three Australians were wounded , they were forced back to the north , where they established a defensive position . Runners were sent out to take a message through to the battalion headquarters . Both men never made it , though , being killed after encountering several Japanese . After darkness fell and it began to rain , the patrol , however , was able to extricate itself back to the river where they spent the night before rejoining their battalion early on 2 December .
The troop of tanks that had initially been committed was at this point relieved , with another – an ad hoc formation drawn from Headquarters Troop and 2 Troop from the 1st Tank Battalion – being brought up to replace them . In concert with a company from 2 / 43rd , five tanks struck out from Pabu on 2 December . The tanks were kept in reserve at this stage and one broke down early in the advance . Together , the force penetrated close to the Lakes , but a Japanese force moved to cut off their rear , forcing them back . A second company from the 2 / 43rd , also with tank support , was then thrown forward to conduct a move to flank towards the larger of the two water features , approaching from the south . The Japanese were positioned in strength in a heavily wooded area and began firing on the Australians with machine guns , which pinned them down until two tanks came up and destroyed the Japanese position , firing from point blank range . At this point , the Australians lost another tank , which became bogged in the mud and which had to be left with an infantry guard to defend it while the advance continued .
By mid @-@ afternoon , the 2 / 43rd 's second company 's advance was checked again , having progressed a further 100 metres ( 110 yd ) . At this point , the last tank , named " Costello " by its crew , moved forward to provide support . As it came up past the infantry , it was fired upon from Japanese artillery positioned on some high ground to the north of the lake . It was initially fired upon by a 37 mm gun , which fired from about 50 metres ( 55 yd ) away , before that was joined by 75 mm artillery piece . Despite being hit more than 50 times , the tank 's crew remained unhurt and were able to keep firing the tank 's 2 pounder until they eventually had to abandon the tank and fall back with the infantry . At this point , the Australians withdrew .
Overnight , the Japanese pulled the two guns off the high ground and left a small force behind which was quickly overwhelmed by the Australians when they resumed their advance the following day . The Australian infantry suffered further casualties when they approached the previously abandoned " Costello " and triggered a mine that had been set by the withdrawing Japanese . The advance was slow , though , and in order to support the 2 / 43rd , the 2 / 32nd was brought forward again . Together the composite force overcame the Japanese resistance around the Lakes around midday on 3 December , and at this point they were re @-@ tasked with taking over the drive in the central sector from the 20th Infantry Brigade , which was to be rested for later in the campaign , and pushing on to the Christmas Hills .
= = = Nongora and Christmas Hills = = =
Although originally the whole 20th Infantry Brigade had been assigned the task of advancing through the Australian centre towards Nongora , in the end only one infantry battalion , the 2 / 15th , and a platoon from the Papuan Infantry Battalion was committed . Stepping off on 30 November , this force struck north from Nongora towards the Song River . The lead company crossed the river west of a fjord and shortly after completing this manoeuvre , a force of Japanese engaged them with machine gun fire , killing one and wounding three others . Still in contact , the Australian company secured the crossing enabling two other companies from the 2 / 15th to come across . While the lead company fixed the Japanese position , the other two conducted a passage of lines manoeuvre and bypassed the Japanese machine gun position as they continued the advance towards Nongora . The lead company then also broke contact and followed them , and in the early afternoon , finding themselves confronted by a high feature to their front which blocked their path east towards Nongora , they established a defensive position short of their objective ; meanwhile , the 2 / 15th 's fourth company , following up in reserve , found the Japanese machine gun position abandoned and subsequently occupied it .
On 1 December , the Australians began to prepare to capture the high ground to their front . Japanese had been seen atop it and in the early afternoon a company @-@ level attack was put in on the southern end of the feature . Suffering 13 casualties , the Australians were beaten back , however , during the night the Japanese withdrew from the ridge . The following day , the Australians discovered this and began following them up ; by midday they had entered Nongora and established themselves there . Once this was completed , the 2 / 15th began to send out patrols to the west to probe the Christmas Hills , and to the east towards the Kalueng Lakes , to make contact with the 24th Infantry Brigade . This was affected the following day . At the same time , the 2 / 15th probed the Christmas Hills area , where they were engaged by the Japanese about 900 yards ( 820 m ) south of the feature , with one of their officers being killed . Another patrol was sent out by the 2 / 15th in the early afternoon of 4 December . Advancing on the eastern side of the main track they were able to penetrate deep towards the hills , before finding their way barred by a deep gorge which forced them to turn back .
At this point , the Australian commander issued a new operation order , reassigning the task of capturing the Christmas Hills area to the 24th Infantry Brigade and pulling the 20th Infantry Brigade back to Nongora to rest up for the next phase of the campaign , which would see them advance up the coast . The strain of the advance along the coastal route , which had been the 24th Infantry Brigade 's main effort , however , had taken its toll . As a result , the 2 / 32nd Infantry Battalion was called forward again as the 2 / 28th was plagued by sickness and the 2 / 43rd was physically worn out . On the night of 4 / 5 December , the Japanese withdrew from their forward positions , leaving behind a large quantity of equipment and their dead . The following morning , a composite force of Australians from the 2 / 32nd and 2 / 43rd Infantry Battalions then took up the advance towards the Christmas Hills , ranging west , and undertaking a series of flanking moves in order to break into the Japanese main defensive position , where the Japanese were well @-@ entrenched . A firefight ensued in which six Japanese and seven Australians were killed , before the Australian attack was turned back .
On 6 December the Australians attacked again , this time with two companies approaching from the north @-@ east , using an intense artillery and mortar bombardment to prepare the area first ; the attack was repulsed with heavy fire . A further barrage rained down on the Japanese and by sunset , the 2 / 32nd Infantry Battalion , severely depleted with most its companies – several of which were commanded by junior non commissioned officers due to heavy casualties amongst the subalterns – at platoon strength , had managed to establish a lodging near the top of the feature on its eastern approach . That night the Japanese fell back from the position and the following day the Australians occupied Christmas Hills .
= = = Drive on Kuanko and Wareo = = =
In the west , the 26th Infantry Brigade had begun patrolling operations north of Sattelberg on 27 November , moving towards the Song River . The distance to Wareo was 6 @,@ 000 yards ( 5 @,@ 500 m ) , but due to the type of terrain , the actual distance to be traversed was about quadruple that . The 2 / 23rd Infantry Battalion was given the task of leading the Australian advance in this sector and after striking north from Masangkoo , they moved towards Fior , with the task for finding a river crossing for the brigade . No crossing could be found . At the same time the 2 / 24th set out from Palanko in search of jungle tracks towards the river . Flank protection on the left was provided by the 2 / 4th Commando Squadron and a platoon from the Papuan Infantry Battalion . The search was unsuccessful and after minor clashes occurred , the Australians dispatched two platoons to Fior in an effort to link up with the 2 / 23rd . Short of Fior , the Japanese had established themselves in strength in well dug @-@ in positions amidst a thick bamboo grove . As the 2 / 24th 's platoons approached , they were fired upon and forced to halt their advance , establishing a night defensive position .
During the night the Japanese withdrew silently and moved back across the Song , destroying the suspension bridge that spanned it as they went . They established themselves on the opposite side of the river and waited for the Australians to follow after them . The next morning , when the two Australian battalions rose they discovered that the ground in front of them was undefended and they advanced unopposed towards Fior . The 2 / 23rd advanced down the steep escarpment towards Fior , descending some 2 @,@ 300 feet ( 700 m ) into the valley through which the river flowed , crossing several creeks and entering the undefended town . The lead company from the 2 / 23rd Infantry Battalion then exploited towards the river , looking for a crossing . They found the bridge near the main crossing destroyed and about 150 yards ( 140 m ) from the river , began receiving fire from the opposite bank . The Australians then sent out patrols to scout other potential crossings ; one was found and by the early evening the Australians had established themselves on the other side of the Song .
Early on 30 November , the single company from the 2 / 23rd that had made it across the Song was joined by another . Together they moved up the steep slope to the Kuanko Track where they split up : one company went north to continue the advance , while the other turned to the south to attack the Japanese that had fired upon them earlier , taking them from the rear . Two attacks were put in against the rearguard of this position , achieving a break @-@ in , which was then exploited by a platoon , which attacked with fixed bayonets , capturing the position . A total of 30 Japanese were killed or wounded in the attack and a short time later , the rest of the 2 / 23rd was able to exploit the main river crossing . Meanwhile , the company that had struck north continued to advance . They were about 900 yards ( 820 m ) north of the river when their advance was checked , at which point the 2 / 23rd formed a defensive harbour to wait out the night .
Late that afternoon , after about a week of dry weather , it began to rain . As a result , the track became more difficult and mobility was reduced ; the tanks found the track impassable and as a consequence the advancing Australian infantry lost their direct fire support . Resupply also proved to be a problem for them . The jeeps that had been bringing up supplies could not get forward and there were not enough native porters to meet the demand . As a result , the Australians had to resort to using one of their infantry battalions , the 2 / 24th , to bring supplies forward from Palanko while the 2 / 23rd continued the advance on Kuanko . Several isolated pockets of Japanese defenders were located along the track holding and so , while their sister battalion struggled up and down the steep track under the weight of their portage , on 1 December elements of the 2 / 23rd , leaving their heavy stores and equipment behind , advanced up a steep , muddy slope and set about clearing these positions . The Japanese resistance was overwhelmed and by midday the Australians entered Kuanko . Exploiting beyond the village in the afternoon , the lead Australian company took fire from a ridge line to the north @-@ west and the advance was halted for the day .
The next morning the Australians sent out patrols and as they probed forward through the dense bamboo it became apparent to them that the Japanese had established themselves in strength along a ridge line that stretched off to a position called Peak Hill . In response to the Australian patrols , the Japanese raked the jungle with machine gun fire to which the Australians responded by calling in an artillery and mortar bombardment . As the sun began to set , the Japanese launched a quick attack on the lead Australian company , forcing them back . In order to regain the initiative , the 2 / 23rd Infantry Battalion launched a night attack , which , although supported by very accurate artillery fire from the 2 / 12th Field Regiment , proved unsuccessful . As a result of the failed attack , in the morning the Australians found themselves in a position overlooked by the Japanese . Throughout the day , both sides exchanged sniper fire and the Australians had to re @-@ route their supply lines after they came under fire from the high ground . A company from the 2 / 24th was released from their portage tasks and were brought up to bolster the 2 / 23rd , taking up a position to the south in close proximity . During the night , however , the Japanese began to encircle the Australian position . In response , the company from the 2 / 24th moved to link up with the 2 / 23rd . Just short of the position , their advance was checked when they came under heavy fire ; the Australians eventually managed to send out a patrol which outflanked the Japanese positions and linked up with the 2 / 23rd .
By 5 December , the Australians had managed to stockpile enough supplies in forward areas to enable the 2 / 24th Infantry Battalion , which had been engaged in moving the stores , to be released from this task and thrown back into the fighting . In order to bypass the Japanese position , elements from the 2 / 23rd along with one company from the 2 / 24th carried out flanking manoeuvres to the west of the track were undertaken before the Australians established themselves in defensive positions short of Peak Hill . On 6 December , the remaining three companies of the 2 / 24th came up and as the Australians continued to advance towards Peak Hill they found considerable Japanese positions which had been abandoned . As movement was seen in Wareo , which was visible in the distance , an artillery bombardment was called in by the Australians . In the afternoon , the Australians cut the branch track that turned towards Kwatingkoo before an attack was put in on Peak Hill . The Japanese defences held and the attack beaten off , the Australians attempted to outflank to the north but they were prevented from doing so by the thick jungle and as the sun set , they had to be content to dig @-@ in on the western approach to Peak Hill .
Once again the Japanese withdrew during the night and early the following morning , 7 December , the Australians were able to capture the hill . Throughout the morning , they continued to advance until they were halted by fire about 600 yards ( 550 m ) from Wareo . A brief halt was called at this time , while patrols were sent out to Kwatingkoo to determine the strength of the Japanese there . It was found to be heavily defended . Later in the day , elements of the 2 / 24th and the 2 / 32nd established contact , forming a link between the 24th and 26th Infantry Brigades . At this point fatigue amongst the Australians stalled their advance ; it did not last long , though , and early on 8 December Kwatingkoo was captured by elements of the 2 / 24th Infantry Battalion without opposition as its defenders had fallen back earlier . Follow up moves advanced them towards Wareo and by mid @-@ morning it too had been captured .
= = Aftermath = =
The Australian advance had been hampered by bad weather , steep terrain , supply problems , fatigue and the strong defence mounted by the Japanese , nevertheless they had secured the Wareo – Gusika spur and the track that ran between Wareo and Bonga . In the face of the Australian advance on Wareo , early in December the Japanese commander , Katagiri , had ordered his troops , who were weary from the fighting and hungry due to a lack of supplies , to fall back to the north . The 79th Infantry Regiment , which had been defending the area around the Lakes , was ordered to move back to Kalasa and Sio , while the 80th Infantry Regiment , having been located around Kuanko , followed the 79th and moved east towards the coast .
The Australians were also in need of rest and were suffering heavily from tropical diseases , which had inflicted more casualties than Japanese actions in this phase of the campaign . Nevertheless , after the fall of Wareo , fighting in the area continued . In order to enable the two main Japanese infantry regiments to make a clean break , the 2nd Battalion , 238th Infantry Regiment , carried out rearguard operations in the Wareo area until 15 December . On 8 December , shortly after the capture of Kwatingkoo , a company from the 2 / 24th Infantry Battalion was ambushed while moving towards Bazuluo ; eight Australians were killed and another four wounded .
A strong force of Japanese also held out on the 2200 feature , which lay about 1 @,@ 700 yards ( 1 @,@ 600 m ) north @-@ east of Wareo , threatening the Australian hold on the newly won Wareo – Bonga track . On 12 December , the fighting in the Wareo region intensified briefly when a significant clash occurred on the hill . Concerned about the presence of the Japanese rearguard , the Australians sent a force from the 2 / 24th Infantry Battalion to assault the Japanese that were ensconced there . A pitched battle followed in which 27 Japanese and three Australians were killed , before the Australians captured the position .
Elsewhere , the Allies landed at Arawe on New Britain on 15 December , while the Australian 4th Infantry Brigade , having commenced its advance up the coast from Gusika on 3 December , continued on passing through Bald Hill , Lakona and Kiligia on its way to Fortification Point as it led the opening phase of the Australian advance towards Sio . In late December , the 20th Infantry Brigade , which had largely been rested during the advance on Wareo , took over from the 4th . After sweeping up the coast quickly against light Japanese resistance , they captured Sio in early January 1944 , having suffered only very light casualties .
After the war , the Australian Army commemorated the battle , and the fighting that occurred on its periphery , through the awarding of a number of battle honours : " Pabu " , " Gusika " , " Wareo " and " Nongora " . The 2 / 32nd and 2 / 43rd Infantry Battalions both received " Pabu " , while the 2 / 28th was awarded " Gusika " . The 1st Tank Battalion and the 2 / 23rd and 24th Infantry Battalions received " Wareo " , and " Nongora " went to the 2 / 15th . Casualties during the capture of Wareo and Gusika over the 26 November to 7 December period were reported by the Australian II Corps Headquarters as follows : 451 Japanese killed , as well as 40 found dead , and one captured . Against this , 47 Australians were killed and 332 were reported wounded .
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= Chacal @-@ class destroyer =
The Chacal @-@ class destroyer , sometimes known as the Jaguar class , were a group of six large destroyers ( contre @-@ torpilleurs ) built for the French Navy during the 1920s . Their primary role was scouting for the battleline . All were named for predators : Chacal means jackal , and the other five were named for big cats .
The ships were initially split between the Mediterranean Squadron and the Second Squadron ( 2ème Escadre ) , based at Brest . One ship served as a flagship during the 1930s , but her sister ships were assigned as training ships beginning in 1932 . The Chacal class was assigned convoy escort duties after the start of World War II in September 1939 until three of them were committed to the English Channel after the Battle of France began on 10 May 1940 . Two of these were sunk shortly afterwards by German forces .
When France surrendered on 22 June , two ships were in French Algeria , one was refitting in Toulon and the last ship was in England . During Operation Catapult in July , an attack on the Vichy Fleet intended to prevent it from being turned over to the Germans , the British seized the ship in England , but failed to prevent the two in Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir from escaping to Toulon when they attacked the port .
All three of the ships in Toulon were placed in reserve and two of them were captured virtually intact when the Germans attempted to seize the French fleet in November 1942 . They were turned over to the Royal Italian Navy ( Regia Marina ) , but they were only used for transport missions before the Italy surrendered in September 1943 . One of these was scuttled by the Italians , but the other escaped to join the Free French and spent the remainder of the war as a convoy escort in the Mediterranean or protecting Allied forces in the Ligurian Sea .
In the meantime , the British had turned over Léopard to the Free French who used her as a convoy escort before she helped to liberate the island of La Réunion in late 1942 . She ran aground shortly after being transferred to the Mediterranean in mid @-@ 1943 and became a total loss . The only ship to survive the war , Tigre , was mostly used after the war as a troop transport and as a training ship until she was struck from the Navy List in 1954 before being scrapped the next year .
= = Background = =
Preliminary studies for large destroyers capable of defending the French battleline against attacks by enemy destroyers and torpedo boats by the Naval General Staff ( NGS ) began before World War I , but were suspended when the war began . They resumed in 1917 , but serious planning did not begin until after the war when the NGS decided to split the role of the destroyer in 1919 . The smaller torpilleur d 'escadre would have the role of attacking the enemy 's battleline with torpedoes and defending that of the French from enemy torpedo craft . The primary role of the larger contre @-@ torpilleur was scouting ; defending the battleline was secondary and attacking the enemy battleline least important . This required high speed in all weather , good endurance and a powerful armament capable of engaging small cruisers .
The Naval Minister selected a 1 @,@ 780 @-@ metric @-@ ton ( 1 @,@ 750 @-@ long @-@ ton ) design , armed with five 100 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) guns , in early 1920 , but this was rejected by the French Parliament . Influenced by the large Italian Leone @-@ class destroyers , armed with eight 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) , and the 2 @,@ 060 @-@ metric @-@ ton ( 2 @,@ 030 @-@ long @-@ ton ) ex @-@ German destroyer SMS S113 , turned over to France as war reparations , that was armed with four 150 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns , the French went back to the drawing board for a much larger ship armed with six or seven of the new Canon de 130 mm modèle 1919 gun . Ordering was delayed by the negotiations during the Washington Naval Treaty , but six ships of the Chacal class were approved as part of the 1922 Naval Law .
= = Description = =
They had an overall length of 126 @.@ 8 meters ( 416 ft 0 in ) , a beam of 11 @.@ 1 meters ( 36 ft 5 in ) , and a draft of 4 @.@ 1 meters ( 13 ft 5 in ) . The ships displaced 2 @,@ 126 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 092 long tons ) at standard load and 2 @,@ 980 – 3 @,@ 075 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 933 – 3 @,@ 026 long tons ) at deep load . A double bottom covered most of the ships ' length and the hull was subdivided by 11 transverse bulkheads into a dozen watertight compartments . Their crew consisted of 10 officers and 187 crewmen in peacetime and 12 officers and 209 enlisted men in wartime .
The raised forecastle and the prominent sheer and flare of the bow ensured that the Chacal @-@ class ships were good seaboats , but they proved to be topheavy with poor lateral stability despite 40 @-@ meter @-@ long ( 130 ft ) bilge keels . Furthermore , they were not very maneuverable because the 14 @.@ 44 @-@ square @-@ meter ( 155 @.@ 4 sq ft ) rudder was too small and its servomotor too weak ( taking 25 – 30 seconds to move from one side to the other ) .
The Chacal class was powered by two geared steam turbine sets , each driving a 3 @.@ 6 @-@ meter ( 11 ft 10 in ) propeller , using steam provided by five du Temple boilers that operated at a pressure of 18 kg / cm2 ( 1 @,@ 765 kPa ; 256 psi ) and a temperature of 216 ° C ( 421 ° F ) . Four ships were fitted with Rateau @-@ Bretagne turbines that were satisfactory once the initial teething problems were worked out , but Léopard and Lynx used Breguet @-@ Laval turbines that were very troublesome and caused Léopard to be enter service two years late . The turbines were designed to produce 50 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 37 @,@ 000 kW ; 49 @,@ 000 shp ) , which would propel the ships at 35 @.@ 5 knots ( 65 @.@ 7 km / h ; 40 @.@ 9 mph ) . During their sea trials , the turbines generated 54 @,@ 850 – 57 @,@ 810 metric horsepower ( 40 @,@ 340 – 42 @,@ 520 kW ; 54 @,@ 100 – 57 @,@ 020 shp ) and they reached a maximum speed of 36 @.@ 7 knots ( 68 @.@ 0 km / h ; 42 @.@ 2 mph ) for a single hour . The ships carried 530 metric tons ( 522 long tons ) of fuel oil which gave them a range of 3 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 600 km ; 3 @,@ 500 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . Fuel consumption at high speeds was excessive and the range was only 600 nmi ( 1 @,@ 100 km ; 690 mi ) at 35 knots ( 65 km / h ; 40 mph ) . The ships were fitted with two 60 @-@ kilowatt ( 80 hp ) turbo generators in the forward engine room . In addition , two diesel generators , one of 30 @-@ kilowatt ( 40 hp ) and the other of 15 @-@ kilowatt ( 20 hp ) capacity , were located in the central superstructure .
= = = Armament = = =
The main armament of the Chacal @-@ class ships was originally intended to be mounted in a mix of single and twin mounts , but the twin @-@ gun mounts proved unsatisfactory so the ships were armed with five 40 @-@ caliber Canon de 130 mm mle 1919 guns in single mounts , one superfiring pair each fore and aft of the superstructure and the fifth gun abaft the aft funnel . The guns were numbered ' 1' to ' 5' from front to rear . The mounts had a range of elevation from -10 ° to + 36 ° , which gave the gun a range of 18 @,@ 900 meters ( 20 @,@ 700 yd ) at maximum elevation , and the guns could be loaded at any angle below + 16 ° . They fired 32 @.@ 05 @-@ kilogram ( 70 @.@ 7 lb ) armor @-@ piercing projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 735 m / s ( 2 @,@ 410 ft / s ) at a rate of five to six rounds per minute . The fore and aft magazines had a total capacity of 802 shells . Each mount had a ready rack holding 24 shells , except for No. 3 , which had a larger supply of 30 rounds because it lacked an ammunition hoist down to the magazines .
The NGS deemed this gun obsolete shortly after the first ships were laid down , but the gun that it wanted to use , the Canon de 138 mm modèle 1923 , was not yet available , so they planned to replace the 130 mm guns later . The guns and their larger hoists were ordered well before any of the ships were completed and had to be written off when it became apparent that the ships ' stability was too marginal to tolerate the additional top weight .
The initial plan was to fit each ship with a director that fed data to the Mle 1923B electro @-@ mechanical fire @-@ control computer , but development was protracted and it was not ready in time for the first four ships . They were fitted with the simpler Mle 1919 type aviso mechanical computer ; only Léopard and Lynx had the Mle 1923B computer upon completion . The earlier ships had their Mle 1919 computers replaced by the later computer beginning in 1927 . Development of the director was abandoned and the ships were fitted with a 3 @-@ meter ( 9 ft 10 in ) Mle B.1926 coincidence rangefinder that fed data to the computers . This was replaced by a stereoscopic rangefinder in 1931 and by a 5 @-@ meter ( 16 ft 5 in ) PC.1936 model from 1937 .
The anti @-@ aircraft armament of the Chacal class consisted of two 50 @-@ caliber Canon de 75 mm modèle 1924 guns in single mounts positioned amidships . The mounts could elevate to + 90 ° and depress to -10 ° and the guns could be loaded at any angle up to + 75 ° . Their 5 @.@ 93 @-@ kilogram ( 13 @.@ 1 lb ) shells were fired at a muzzle velocity of 850 m / s ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) . The guns had a range of 14 @,@ 100 meters ( 15 @,@ 400 yd ) and a ceiling of about 10 @,@ 000 meters ( 33 @,@ 000 ft ) . They had a theoretical rate of fire of 15 rounds per minute , but only about half that in service . The ships carried 150 rounds , plus 60 star shells , for each gun , of which 30 rounds could be stowed in ready @-@ use lockers . In 1932 , the navy decided that the ships were too top @-@ heavy to accept a director for the guns so they were to be replaced by four twin mounts for 13 @.@ 2 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) anti @-@ aircraft machineguns . These were installed in 1933 – 34 , together with a dedicated 1 @-@ meter ( 3 ft 3 in ) OPL J.1930 stereoscopic rangefinder . The substitution saved about 12 metric tons ( 12 long tons ) of weight , although the machineguns proved to have limited utility in combat . Combat operations in 1939 had shown the French that their anti @-@ aircraft defenses were inadequate and they planned to augment them beginning in 1940 by replacing the mainmast with a platform for a twin @-@ gun mount for the 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Mle 1933 light AA gun . This was only installed aboard Panthère before the armistice with Germany and it was removed shortly afterwards .
The Chacal @-@ class ships carried two above @-@ water triple sets of 550 @-@ millimeter ( 21 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . Their Mle 1919D torpedoes had a 238 @-@ kilogram ( 525 lb ) , picric @-@ acid warhead and could be set for a speed of 35 knots with a range of 6 @,@ 000 meters ( 6 @,@ 600 yd ) or 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) for 14 @,@ 000 meters ( 15 @,@ 000 yd ) . A pair of depth charge chutes were built into their stern ; these housed a total of twenty Guiraud Mle 1922 200 @-@ kilogram ( 440 lb ) depth charges . They were also fitted with four depth @-@ charge throwers abreast the fore funnel for which they carried a dozen Guiraud Mle 1922 100 @-@ kilogram ( 220 lb ) depth charges . The four depth charge throwers were removed in 1932 as they were badly positioned and their charges tended to cause leaks in the hull when used , although two were reinstalled after the war began in 1939 . Space and weight was reserved for a pair of Ginocchio towed anti @-@ submarine torpedoes , but these were a failure and were never used in combat .
Space was reserved for an unsuccessful French sonar system that was cancelled in September 1930 . The NGS also intended to fit a passive Walser acoustic locator system in the Chacal class , but only Panthère was actually fitted with one . This consisted of a set of two steel lenses , one set on each side of the ship , with a large number of diaphrams that ambient amplified sound for the operator . This proved useless while the ship was moving faster than dead slow and was removed in 1931 . The Walser compartment was reused when a British Type 123 ASDIC system was installed aboard the ships in 1939 – 40 , although Panthère did not receive one .
= = Ships = =
= = Service = =
The first three ships to be commissioned , Tigre , Chacal , and Panthère , were assigned to the Mediterranean Squadron at Toulon , and the last three were assigned to the Second Squadron ( 2ème Escadre ) at Brest . The ships made many port visits and participated in several naval reviews during the 1920s and early 1930s . Several even made visits to French West Africa and the French West Indies in the early 1930s . Jaguar served as the flagship of several different destroyer ( torpilleur d 'escadre ) flotillas from 1928 to 1937 . The Chacal @-@ class ships started to become dedicated training ships beginning in 1932 and continued to do so until the beginning of World War II .
Jaguar , Léopard and Panthère were assigned to the Northern Command ( Forces maritimes du Nord ) on 7 September in anticipation of a German invasion of Belgium . They proved , however , to be too large and unmaneuverable for operations in the shallow waters of the English Channel and North Sea ; Panthère ran aground on 10 September in poor visibility , but suffered only minor damage , and Jaguar did the same thing on the night of 28 / 29 October . The contre @-@ torpilleurs were relieved by smaller torpilleurs d 'escadre beginning in mid @-@ October . The other ships were assigned to the Western Command ( Forces maritimes de l 'Ouest ) for convoy escort duties from October 1939 to May 1940 where they guarded convoys traveling between Gibraltar and Brest as well as Casablanca , French Morocco , and Le Verdon @-@ sur @-@ Mer . They were joined by the first three ships as they were replaced in the Northern Command . Jaguar was badly damaged during a collision with a British destroyer in January 1940 and her repairs were not completed until early May .
When the Germans invaded France on 10 May 1940 , Panthère was being refitted at Toulon and her sisters were still escorting convoys . Jaguar , Léopard and Chacal were assigned to the Northern Command on 22 May to support Allied forces on the French coast . Jaguar was sunk the next day off Dunkirk and Chacal on the evening of 23 / 24 May near Boulogne by German bombers . Léopard remained in the area and bombarded advancing German forces near the northern French coast . After the surrender of France , she was seized by the British in July and turned over to the Free French the following month .
Léopard escorted convoys in the Western Approaches in 1940 – 41 before beginning a year @-@ long conversion into an escort destroyer . She helped to sink the German submarine U @-@ 136 in July 1942 before helping to liberate the island of La Réunion in November . The ship ran aground near Benghazi just a few weeks after being transferred to the Mediterranean in mid @-@ 1943 . Salvage attempts failed and her wreck was abandoned after it broke in half .
In July 1940 , Lynx and Tigre were present when the British attacked the French ships at Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir , but managed to escape without damage . After they reaching Toulon , the sisters were placed in reserve , together with Panthère , as the oldest contre @-@ torpilleurs in service and stripped of their light anti @-@ aircraft armament . On 27 November 1942 , Lynx was scuttled when the Germans attempted to capture the French ships at Toulon , but Panthère and Tigre were captured virtually intact . They were turned over to the Royal Italian Navy ( Regia Marina ) who renamed them FR 22 and FR 23 , respectively , when they recommissioned them in early 1943 . They were being used as transports when Italy surrendered in September ; FR 22 ( Panthère ) was scuttled by the Italians , but FR 23 ( Tigre ) managed to escape and join the Allies .
Tigre resumed her former name and was given to the Free French the following month , but she needed extensive repairs that lasted until early 1944 . The ship returned to convoy work for a few months before beginning a more extensive reconstruction that lasted until early 1945 . She was then assigned to the Flank Force that protected Allied forces in the Tyrrhenian Sea from German forces in Northern Italy for the rest of the war . Several weeks after the end of the war in May , the ship supported French forces in Algeria during the riots in May – June . Tigre was then assigned as a fast troop transport until the end of 1946 . She became a gunnery training ship until mid @-@ 1948 and was then hulked for the Engineering School . The ship was stricken from the Navy List in 1954 and broken up the following year .
= = See Also = =
List of ships of the Second World War
List of ship classes of the Second World War
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= John Capper =
Major @-@ General Sir John Edward Capper KCB KCVO ( 7 December 1861 – 24 May 1955 ) was a senior officer of the British Army during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century who served on the North @-@ West Frontier of British India , in South Africa and during the First World War , where he was instrumental in the development of the tank .
An experienced engineer , Capper was involved in numerous building projects during his years in India and pioneered the development of airships in Britain . He helped establish and command several military training establishments in Britain , was involved in large @-@ scale military planning during 1918 and 1919 and was pivotal in establishing the tank as an important feature of the British Army . Although Capper was sometimes described as pompous and possessing poor communication skills , earning the nickname Stone Age for his attitude towards the ideas of junior officers in the Royal Tank Corps , he nevertheless played a vital role in the development and deployment of armoured vehicles in the British Army .
= = India , Burma and South Africa = =
John Capper was born in Lucknow , India to civil servant William Copeland Capper and his wife Sarah in December 1861 . Returning to England at an early age for education , Capper attended Wellington College and upon leaving in 1880 enrolled in the Royal Military Academy , Woolwich from where he went on to study at the School of Military Engineering at Chatham , before subsequently being commissioned into the Royal Engineers as a lieutenant . A capable engineering officer , Capper served in India and Burma for most of the first 17 years of his career , principally employed on military and public construction projects . He performed well in this position , being promoted to captain in 1889 .
In 1897 , Capper was attached to the force dispatched to the Tirah Campaign on the North @-@ West Frontier of British India . One of his tasks there was to supervise the construction of the first road for wheeled vehicles across the Khyber pass . At the campaign 's successful conclusion , he was promoted to major and transferred to South Africa while his wife Edith Mary ( neé Beausire ) and their son John Beausire Copeland Capper returned to England . Arriving in South Africa at the outbreak of the Second Boer War , Capper became deputy assistant director of railways , a vital job given the lengthy and dangerous supply routes along which the war was fought . In 1900 , he received the brevet rank of lieutenant colonel and commanded several locally raised units , eventually becoming the commandant at Johannesburg . He returned to England in June 1902 , following the end of hostilities the previous month , and on 31 October 1902 was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath ( CB ) .
= = Aeronautics = =
In 1903 he settled with his family at Bramdean House in Alresford , and was appointed Commander of the Balloon Sections , based at Aldershot under the command of Col James Templer . In 1906 , having briefly become the Balloon Companies , the organisation became the School of Ballooning with Capper as its Commandant . At about the same time the Balloon Factory was split off and moved to a new site nearby at Farnborough and , on Templer 's retirement , Capper also became its Superintendent and was given the brevet rank of full colonel . Templer was retained at the factory under Capper to complete the development Britain 's first military airship , the Nulli Secundus ( " second to none " ) in a purpose @-@ built airship shed .
Capper not only supervised the British Army 's ballooning and airship activities , but took a wider interest in aeronautics . In anticipation of the new airship , he took up the civilian sport of ballooning , flying in competitions initially as assistant to the Hon. C.S. Rolls and later with his own balloon " Pegasus " and his wife as assistant . These included the man @-@ lifting " war kites " developed by Samuel Franklin Cody and the early work on aeroplanes by both Cody and J. W. Dunne . He also conducted fact @-@ finding visits to the USA , where he and his wife befriended the Wright brothers and became involved in protracted but ultimately futile negotiations for the War Office to buy a Wright machine .
Capper and Cody undertook the first successful flight of a British airship , the Nulli Secundus , over London in 1907 .
Capper went on to modify the airship as Nulli Secundus II , parodied by Punch as " second to none the second " , and a smaller experimental airship called Baby . Neither was an immediate success , although Baby would later be modified and have a long and successful career .
Capper oversaw the first Army aeroplanes . He briefly flew Dunne 's first glider , the D.1 , during secret trials at Blair Atholl in Scotland in 1907 . The flight had lasted only a few seconds when the glider crashed into a wall , with Capper sustaining a cut to the head . The next year , Cody flew the first British @-@ built aeroplane at Farnborough , which earned it the title British Army Aeroplane No.1. This was an ironic achievement for Capper 's command , as he had pinned his personal hopes on Dunne , whose D.4 achieved no more than a few hops .
That Autumn the government conducted a formal Inquiry into military aviation . Capper had to return early from Blair Atholl in order to present his evidence . He argued strongly for a promising future of all forms of aeronautics and especially the aeroplane . However his Army superiors on the committee were against aeronautics in any form . It was decided that only small @-@ scale airship experiments should continue and that aeroplane work should be stopped . It formally ceased when Dunne and Cody 's contracts ran out at the end of March 1909 .
Soon afterwards the Balloon Factory was removed from the command of the Army and a new civilian superintendent , Mervyn O 'Gorman , appointed . Capper remained in command of the Army Balloon School .
When Dunne left Farnborough , Capper was one of several friends who offered support for his efforts . In 1911 , one of Dunne 's new aeroplanes was exhibited at the Olympia Aero Show , with a placard stating it was " Built to the order of Col. J. E. Capper , R.E. "
In 1910 Capper was transferred to command of the Royal School of Military Engineering at Chatham , marking the end of his aeronautical career .
= = First World War = =
Capper remained at Chatham until September 1914 when the lack of experienced officers forced his transfer to France in the early months of the First World War .
As a brigadier @-@ general , Capper was first made deputy inspector of the lines of communication before being given the post of Chief Engineer to the Third Corps . In July 1915 he was promoted to major @-@ general and made chief engineer of the British Third Army . In October , following the deaths of several senior officers at the Battle of Loos , including Capper 's younger brother Major @-@ General Sir Thompson Capper , he was promoted to overall command of the 24th Division . Capper remained in command of the division for the next 18 months , including periods of heavy fighting at the Battle of the Somme , in which his son John was killed in action serving with the Royal Artillery . The division also spent extensive periods of time in other sections of the line and gained extensive battle experience at the cost of high casualties . As a reward for his service in command of the division , he was presented with the Commander 's Cross of the Légion d 'honneur by the French government .
In May 1917 , he was recalled to England , initially to run the Machine @-@ Gun Corps training centre and from 28 July hold the position of Director @-@ General of the newly formed Tank Corps at the War Office . Operational command of tanks at the frontlines was in the hands of Hugh Elles , the first commander of the Heavy Branch . Although tanks had first been introduced on the Somme the year before , their design and manufacture were both inadequate and the tactics of their deployment almost non @-@ existent . Capper 's job at the Tank Corps was to shape the organisation of the unit into an efficient battlefield force , improve mechanical reliability and develop effective tactics . It was in this role that Capper was given the nickname Stone Age , as his subordinates considered him to be unwilling to accept new innovations in tank tactics . In fact , Capper was an able tactician who worked with General J. F. C. Fuller to develop a plan for a large scale armoured assault on German lines in 1919 ( known as Plan 1919 ) : his subordinates ' prejudices were based on Capper 's rigid adherence to the military hierarchy and his consequent failure to communicate his ideas to those below his rank . For his services as Director General of the Tank Corps , Capper was made a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath .
= = Retirement = =
In July 1918 , Capper left the War Office and commanded the 64th Division in England until May 1919 , when he took over command of Number 1 Area in France and Flanders . In September 1919 , Capper became Lieutenant @-@ Governor of Guernsey and took over command of the island 's military installations . He held the post for five years and during that time was made Colonel @-@ Commandant of the Royal Tank Corps . On 11 July 1921 , he was made a Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order . Retiring in 1925 , Capper remained associated with the Tank Corps and also became a governor of Wellington College , associations he retained until 1946 .
During the Second World War , Capper joined the Hampshire Home Guard and remained on duty with the unit until 1943 . Post @-@ War he retired fully to Bramdean House and remained there until shortly before his death . He was widowed in 1953 and died at Esperance Nursing Home in Eastbourne in May 1955 , leaving a daughter . In 1971 , his collected papers , and those of his brother Thompson , who had been an instructor at the Staff College , Camberley , were donated to the Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives at King 's College London where they are still available to researchers .
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= Obsidian ( 1986 video game ) =
Obsidian is an action @-@ adventure computer game for the Amstrad CPC personal computer published by Artic Computing in 1986 . The game is set on the titular space station located within the centre of an asteroid , which is out of control and drifting towards a black hole . The player must guide an astronaut with a jet pack around the station and re @-@ activate its engine shields to prevent the Obsidian 's destruction . This involves collecting items and using them to solve puzzles , while avoiding the Obsidian 's reactivated security systems .
Obsidian is the first game that was developed by Revolution Software co @-@ founder Tony Warriner , who was a school pupil at the time . Due to concentrating on Obsidian 's development rather than revising he failed all of his exams . The game received a positive response from journalists , it was praised for the quality of its graphics , reviewers held mixed views on the game 's ability to maintain player interest . The jet pack was criticized for being too sensitive when responding to the player 's movement inputs .
= = Gameplay = =
Obsidian is an action @-@ adventure presented in two dimensions , spread across approximately 50 game screens . Locations contrast between spaceship interior and rock surfaces . Players control a jet pack wearing astronaut who must deactivate the five engines of the titular spacestation Obsidian , which is located in the hollow centre carved out of an asteroid . Objects are stored in gravity boxes on the station 's ceilings , only one object can be held at a time . These are used to solve the game 's puzzles and allow the player to continue further into the game . Each object 's purpose must be discovered as they are not labelled .
The game world is filled with traps , laser defence mechanisms and security robots , all of which kill the astronaut on contact , resulting in the loss of one of his five lives . These defences must be shut down with objects obtained from gravity boxes in order to progress , as the player has no weapon to directly attack the robots with . The jet pack enables the astronaut to travel more quickly , but has a limited supply of nitro fuel . Should this fuel run out then the astronaut will lose a life . The spaceship contains points at which the jet pack can be refuelled , though these can be difficult to locate .
= = Plot = =
The crew of the Obsidian have temporarily abandoned the vessel in order to allow it to pass through a black hole . The Obsidian 's internal systems are capable of withstanding the black hole , but the station cannot shield its human inhabitants from the gravitational forces . The crew have taken refuge in a smaller craft which has been shielded , intending to return to the Obsidian when both vessels have passed through the black hole . A radiation storm has damaged the Obsidian 's engine protection systems and erased its flight path , leaving the station drifting towards the black hole where it will be destroyed . Only one member of the crew has the skills necessary to return to the Obsidian and prepare it to pass through the black hole , this is the game 's player character . The astronaut is forced to contend with the Obsidian 's re @-@ activated security system which has resulted in security robots being deployed , the space station 's internal doors sealing and defensive laser grids becoming active . Once the player has restored power , reactivated the Obsidian 's engines and reset the station 's flight path , there is a limited time to teleport back to the smaller shielded craft before the Obsidian 's engines carry the astronaut through the black hole without being shielded .
= = Development = =
Obsidian is the first game developed by Tony Warriner , one of four founders of the adventure game developer Revolution Software . Warriner was introduced to home computers at the age of 13 , as a result of which he developed an interest in game development . This interest resulted in him creating Obsidian when he should have been studying for his school exams , resulting in him failing every exam . The game was published , however , resulting in the young developer 's entry into the video game industry . Revolution Software was formed 4 years later .
= = Reception = =
The reviewer for Amtix ! magazine awarded the game a score of 64 % , calling it " ... an average , if rather simple , arcade adventure . " The same reviewer stated that Obsidian 's graphics are its most striking feature . The lack of enemies and objects to manipulate in some screens and low number of sound effects received were criticized . The reviewer for Amstrad Action , Bob Wade , awarded the game a score of 81 % and a ' A A Rave ' award , praising the game 's graphics and animations . He listed the game 's robotics enemies as " annoying as you flick between screens " . The reviewers differed in opinion on how the game progressed . Wade stated " ... as the playing area opens up it soon becomes clear that many objects will be required to complete the game and that some hard thinking as well as trial and error will be needed . " Amtix ! ' s reviewer stated " The trouble was that it became all very predictable and easy to solve once a few puzzles had been solved . " Both reviewers stated that the jet pack 's controls are too sensitive , making its usage difficult .
Computer and Video Games ' reviewer gave the game a score of 7 out of 10 in each of the magazine 's scoring criteria — graphics , sound , value and playability . The reviewer stated that the game 's premise is unoriginal , but that the game is enjoyable and makes " ... full use of the Amstrad 's colour graphics ... " The reviewer also stated " ... the smooth movement of objects and characters makes this game a pleasure to watch and play . " The game was reviewed again in Amtix ! by Massimo Valducci , several months later when Obsidian was re @-@ released on the budget label Americana . Valducci stated it had been one of his favourite titles when it was originally released , giving the game a rating of 70 % and stating " Everyone should have this game in their software collection . " He praised the game for adding a twist to the maze theme by disallowing the player from fighting back against threats . He added " ... a lot of thought and planning is needed to make your way around the various sections , deactivating the security systems as you go . "
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= Project X ( 2012 film ) =
Project X is a 2012 American comedy film directed by Nima Nourizadeh and written by Michael Bacall and Matt Drake based on a story by Bacall , and produced by director Todd Phillips . The film follows three friends — Thomas ( Thomas Mann ) , Costa ( Oliver Cooper ) and J.B. ( Jonathan Daniel Brown ) — who plan to gain popularity by throwing a party , a plan which quickly escalates out of their control .
The title Project X was initially a placeholder for a final title , but interest generated by the secretive title kept it in place . A nationwide open casting call was employed to find fresh faces . The majority of the cast were sourced from this casting call , but a few with prior acting credits , such as Mann , were accepted after multiple auditions . Filming took place on sets in Los Angeles over five weeks on a US $ 12 million budget . The film is presented as a found footage home video from the perspective of an attendee using a camera to document the night 's events .
Project X was released in the United States , Canada , and the United Kingdom on March 2 , 2012 , and grossed over $ 100 million worldwide during its theatrical run . Criticism focused on the " loathsome " behavior of the lead characters , the perceived misogyny and the disregard for the effects of drug use . Other reviews considered it funny and thrilling , and equated it to a modern incarnation of the 1978 comedy Animal House . Following release , incidents of large scale parties referenced or blamed the film as an inspiration .
= = Plot = =
In Pasadena , high school students Costa and J.B. plan to throw a party for their friend Thomas ' birthday , aiming to increase their popularity . Thomas ' parents go away for the weekend , leaving him alone in the house , but warn him not to have too many people over , and not to drive his father 's Mercedes . Thomas is reluctant to have the party at his house , but Costa continues with his plan . Costa hires AV @-@ student Dax to chronicle the night 's events . Costa and J.B. advertise the party throughout the school . Thomas himself invites Alexis , the hottest girl at school , and his best friend Kirby , who has a crush on Thomas .
Costa , Thomas , and J.B. go to buy marijuana from drug @-@ dealer T @-@ Rick . While T @-@ Rick gets the marijuana , Costa steals his lawn gnome to use as a party mascot . As they leave , T @-@ Rick discovers his gnome stolen and chases after them but they escape in Thomas ' mini @-@ van . As night falls , the party 's start time passes but no one turns up and Thomas worries that the party will fail . Suddenly , party @-@ goers arrive en @-@ masse . Thomas intends to limit the party to the backyard and poolhouse with the house guarded by two young security guards , Everett and Tyler . However , more and more people begin to arrive and the party moves beyond their control and into the house . Thomas questions Costa on how he advertised the party , forcing him to confess that he put ads on Craigslist and on a local radio station , worried that no one would attend .
Things escalate quickly and the police arrive , responding to a noise complaint . The partygoers remain silent , convincing the officers that the party has already ended . The police leave and the party resumes . T @-@ Rick 's gnome is smashed , revealing that it contains a large amount of ecstasy tablets , which are quickly consumed by the partygoers . Thomas kisses Kirby and reveals that he loves her . Alexis meanwhile flirts with Thomas throughout the night and eventually seduces him . Kirby walks in on the pair as they are about to have sex and leaves the party upset . The noise and chaos of the party , which has now spilled into the surrounding neighborhood , receives televised news coverage with helicopters flying over the house . A dwarf guest drives Thomas ' dad 's Mercedes into the pool after being put into an oven by other partygoers .
The police return in force but are overwhelmed and repelled by the guests . They decide to let the party end naturally before moving in . T @-@ Rick arrives armed with a flamethrower in an attempt to reclaim his gnome . He begins setting fire to the trees and cars in search of Costa , forcing the guests to flee and the party to end . The police shoot his flamethrower pack and it explodes . Thomas , Costa , J.B. , and Dax flee with the other guests as Thomas ' house burns and the SWAT team moves in to retake the neighborhood . The neighborhood is left aflame .
By morning , the friends return to their respective homes to discover what punishment awaits them . After his parents return , Thomas ' father commends him for managing to throw the party because he thought he was a loser , but he uses Thomas ' college fund to pay for the damages . At school , Thomas , Costa and J.B. are cheered by the students and Thomas reconciles romantically with Kirby . In the epilogue , T @-@ Rick is recovered alive following the explosion , Thomas is convicted for disturbing the peace , contributing to the delinquency of minors , and inciting a riot , and Costa and J.B. are acquitted ; Costa because of his expensive lawyer and J.B. because his parents convince the court that he is mentally incapable and unfit to stand trial . Costa , however , is currently waiting for the results of three paternity tests . Dax , meanwhile , is under investigation for the disappearance of his parents . In an interview with Jillian Reynolds , Costa promises his next party will be even better .
= = Cast = =
Thomas Mann as Thomas Kub
Mann had prior acting experience , in the feature film It 's Kind of a Funny Story ( 2010 ) , and was told he could not audition for Project X because the producers wished to cast only people without acting credits . Mann ultimately auditioned seven times before winning the role .
Oliver Cooper as Costa
The film is Cooper 's feature film debut . Costa 's confident nature and backstory of being unwillingly moved to the film 's setting of North Pasadena from Queens , New York was developed based on Cooper 's auditions , where it was felt he gave the impression of being from New York City , despite originating from Ohio .
Jonathan Daniel Brown as J.B.
The film is Brown 's feature film debut .
Dax Flame as Dax
A friend of Costa 's hired to chronicle the party . Flame was discovered through his personal YouTube video blog . Describing his character , Flame stated " Because he ’ s holding the camera , my character doesn ’ t have a lot of screen time , but when he does , it ’ s very impactful . "
Kirby Bliss Blanton as Kirby
Thomas ' friend , who has an unrequited crush on Thomas .
Brady Hender and Nick Nervies as Everett and Tyler
A pair of children hired as security for Costa 's party .
Alexis Knapp as Alexis
A popular high school girl . Knapp 's character required nudity , something with which she was initially uncomfortable , stating " I just had a lot of moral issues with it but I got over it and I heard that it ’ s not that revealing . So I ’ m relieved . " Knapp described her character as a tomboy , and was given the opportunity to add to the role , move beyond a " hot chick " archetype .
The cast also includes : Miles Teller as college jock Miles ; Martin Klebba as Angry Little Person , a party guest ; Rick Shapiro as drug dealer T @-@ Rick ; Rob Evors as Rob , Thomas 's neighbor ; Caitlin Dulany and Peter MacKenzie as Thomas 's Mom and Dad respectively ; Nichole Bloom as J.B. ' s girl ; and Jesse Marco as the party DJ . Television hosts Jillian Reynolds and Jimmy Kimmel cameo as themselves .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Producer Todd Phillips described the film as an experiment , after executive producer Alex Heineman provided a basic concept , with the production team sharing tales of memorable parties that they had either attended or heard about . Writer Michael Bacall developed these stories into an outline scenario in one night with the goal of creating the " gnarliest high school party of all time " . The remainder of the story was fleshed out in the following weeks . Bacall and Drake were told to " go crazy " with the script , although Bacall confessed " I was a nerd in high school so I never did anything like what 's in the movie " . Bacall worked on the script generally at nights between simultaneously working on the scripts for 21 Jump Street and Scott Pilgrim vs. the World .
Nima Nourizadeh had previously only worked directing music videos and commercials , but he came to the producers ' attention for his directing work on a series of party @-@ themed Adidas commercials . Nourizadeh explained to the producers how he would want to develop the script and how he would want the film to look and feel , and he was eventually brought from London to Los Angeles , for what he believed would be two weeks , but stretched to two years . Phillips believed that Nourizadeh 's interpretation of the film was compatible with his vision , influencing the decision to hire Nourizadeh in his feature film debut .
Project X was not intended to be the title of the film , but it was kept to capitalize on interest generated by the rumored secrecy surrounding the project . Adding to the secrecy , producers decided to not send full scripts to any prospective cast member , instead providing only watermarked individual pages .
= = = Casting = = =
To create the impression that the events of Project X had actually happened , the producers decided against casting known faces , but to find completely new actors . Phillips stated that the goal of the open call was to cast “ unknown actors " and " real people of all ethnicities , ” who would not normally be given a chance to star in a film . Phillips and producer Joel Silver decided to create a nationwide open casting call , allowing any United States resident over the age of 18 to audition for Project X through a specially created website . Actors were required to provide videos of themselves telling embarrassing or funny stories , or dancing . However , traditional casting was still employed to allow actors with little professional acting credits to audition . The process allowed traits of the selected actors to be incorporated into their characters , including in several cases , their respective characters taking the actors ' names . In casting the three leads , the production avoided solo casting and instead had a group of three actors auditioning together , switching out and adding different actors to see which group worked best together .
The casting of low @-@ profile actors aided in keeping the production budget low by avoiding the larger salaries attached to stars . To prepare for the role and create a believable friendship between the leads , Brown , Cooper , and Mann were sent to Disneyland together and spent a weekend in a cabin at Big Bear City , California .
= = = Principal photography = = =
Principal photography was scheduled to begin on June 14 , 2010 , in Los Angeles , California on a budget of $ 12 million . Filming took place over twenty @-@ five nights between 5pm and 5am on the Warner Ranch in Burbank , California . The set contained a faux residential area featuring multiple houses . The house belonging to Thomas was situated directly opposite the house used by Danny Glover 's character Roger Murtaugh in the Silver @-@ produced 1987 action film Lethal Weapon .
The production decided to film on a set because locating a real neighborhood that could be effectively closed off and which would allow filming throughout the evening and early morning proved difficult . Phillips explained that using a real neighborhood would have also proven difficult because of the fire damage required for the film . Much of the set was destroyed as part of filming . The film was largely shot in chronological sequence as repairing the set damage from a later scene to film an earlier one would have been difficult . Mann described the filming as a " party atmosphere " , with New York disc jockey Jesse Marco on set performing music even when the cameras stopped rolling to maintain the energy of the cast and extras . Many of the same extras were brought back for multiple nights of filming , and would continue to party between scenes . Periodic takes of up to 20 minutes were made of just extras dancing . During filming , Burbank police were called to the set concerning noise complaints made by nearby residents .
Project X was filmed in cinéma vérité style , only displaying the events of the film through the first @-@ person view of the cameraman observing the party , to create the effect of the audience being in attendance at the out of control party . Nourizadeh stated that the style allowed the film to seem " real " and " show some of the realities of what kids do " . Cinematographer Ken Seng and Nourizadeh tested twelve different camera systems before choosing the digital @-@ HD Sony F23 video camera , basing their decision on its ability to handle sudden extreme changes in lighting due to natural daylight and strobe lights .
The film is primarily presented from the perspective of the character Dax and his camera , but Nourizadeh also obtained footage by providing the cast and extras with recording devices such as BlackBerrys and iPhones to capture events occurring outside of the perspective or knowledge of the cameraman . This resulted in hours of unusable footage that had to be observed by Nourizadeh and his team to find segments that could be incorporated into the final film . Nourizadeh stated " when you have real material being shot by real people , it then kind of feels like it is . It is found footage . I hated spending 10 hours looking through bits of flip footage – people didn ’ t press stop , it ’ s like in their pockets . But yeah , it was great , man . " Other footage was provided from fictional police and news cameras to give a different perspective on the events .
= = Release = =
Project X held its world premiere on February 29 , 2012 , at the Grauman 's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood , followed by an after party with performances by Kid Cudi , Tyler , The Creator , and The Hundred in the Hands . Party guests were greeted by a Los Angeles Police Department cruiser and a bouncer warning them to keep their clothes on .
The film was scheduled for release in November 2011 , but in August of that year the date was pushed back four months to March 2012 . The film first received a wide release on March 1 , 2012 , in Australia , followed on March 2 , 2012 by the United States and Canada .
= = = Box office = = =
During its box office run , the film grossed $ 54 @,@ 731 @,@ 865 in North America and $ 48 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 from markets elsewhere – a worldwide total of $ 102 @,@ 731 @,@ 865 .
The film opened to $ 1 @.@ 2 million in midnight takings from 1 @,@ 003 theaters in the United States and Canada . Throughout its opening day , the film 's release was expanded to 3 @,@ 055 theaters , where it grossed a total of $ 8 @.@ 2 million including midnight takings . The end of the opening weekend saw the film take a total of $ 21 million – an average of $ 6 @,@ 891 per theater – finishing as the number two grossing film of the weekend behind the animated family film The Lorax ( $ 70 @.@ 2 million ) , and exceeding expectations that it would finish with a gross in the mid to high teens . Project X was highly popular with males and youth ; 58 percent of the opening weekend audience for the film was male , and 67 percent of the audience was under the age of 25 .
Outside of North America , the film had its most successful opening weekends in France ( $ 3 @.@ 8 million ) , Australia ( $ 1 @.@ 3 million ) , and Germany ( $ 1 @.@ 2 million ) . These countries also represented its largest total gross takings , with $ 15 million from France , $ 4 @.@ 4 million from Australia , and $ 4 @.@ 3 million from Germany .
= = = Critical reception = = =
On Rotten Tomatoes , the film has a rating of 28 % , based on 129 reviews , with an average score of 4 @.@ 2 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus reads , " Unoriginal , unfunny , and all @-@ around unattractive , Project X mines the depths of the teen movie and found @-@ footage genres for 87 minutes of predictably mean @-@ spirited debauchery . " On Metacritic , the film has a score of 48 out of 100 , based on 25 critics , indicating " mixed or average reviews " . CinemaScore polls reported that the average grade moviegoers gave the film was a " B " on an A + to F scale , with young males rating it the highest ( A ) , and males in general rating the film higher ( B + ) than females ( C + ) .
Criticism against the film focused on the perceived misogyny , mean @-@ spirit , and " loathsome " behavior of the characters , and disregard for the effects of drugs . Empire 's Chris Hewitt gave the film one star out of five , and referred to the central characters portrayed by Mann , Cooper , and Brown , as " spectacularly unlikable " . Hewitt labeled the characters " unrepentant , nihilistic , vile , venal , animalistic , avaricious , charmless , entitled , sub @-@ Kardashian , stunningly irresponsible brats " . Hewitt ended his review by stating that the film was " possibly the worst film of the last 20 years . It ’ s certainly the worst comedy of the last 20 years " . Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter was similarly critical , calling it " grimly depressing , glumly unfunny teensploitation " , but admitted that it would " enthrall a portion of the high school / college age demographic it depicts , just as it alternately outrages , confounds and disgusts other , presumably older audiences . " USA Today 's Claudia Puig found the film treated female characters poorly , labeling it a " heinous , misogynistic movie filled with faceless crowds and nary a character who resembles an actual human being " , a sentiment echoed by Melissa Anderson of The Village Voice who felt the film promoted " skull @-@ numbing hedonism without consequences " , and " second @-@ nature misogyny " , and that the only purpose of the male characters is to " ' get high , fuck bitches . ' "
Robbie Collin of The Telegraph called the film " flamboyantly loathsome on every imaginable level " and was critical of the three lead characters , saying " unlike Superbad 's leads , these three are poisonously unpleasant , and the supposedly comedic banter between them comes off as bullying . " The Los Angeles Times 's Robert Abele called the main trio " numbingly predictable " and the film itself " unoriginal " , stating the film " bears a cravenly piggish attitude toward rewarding socially unacceptable behavior that feels unseemly rather than exciting " .
The New York Times ' Neil Genzlinger said that the funny script and skilled editing potentially made it the " Animal House of the iPhone generation " . Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly praised the film for updating the clichés of similarly themed films from the 1970s to the 1980s like Animal House and Risky Business " so that they look just dangerous enough to make nostalgia feel naughty " , but stated that the film does not offer anything more outrageous than real parties , despite implying " that it 's breaking down bold new barriers of misbehavior " . Gleiberman accused negative reviews of " fulfilling the role of all those uptight parents in ’ 50s news reports about the dangers of rock & roll " , by applying moral judgments to the events of the film . Time Out 's Joshua Rothkopf gave the film four stars out of five , calling it " brainless " , but feeling that the sheer anarchy of the film 's events were " thrilling " . Pete Travers of Rolling Stone praised the film as " gut @-@ bustingly funny " that appealed to a base youth element to become " shitfaced and run amok " , and said that it puts its own spin on Animal House . Travers gave particular mention to Mann as " excellent " , however he also stated that Nourizadeh 's filmmaking was a " disaster " .
Several reviewers were particularly critical towards Cooper and his character . Hewitt called him " the most annoying movie character since Jar Jar Binks " , while others similarly described him as " singularly loathsome , venal and without humor " , " supremely annoying " , " that dick in a sweater @-@ vest " and a " misogynistic " imitation of Jonah Hill " minus the timing , sad sack appeal and motormouth grace " . Conversely , Genzlinger praised Cooper for bringing a " mischievous likability " to Costa that " anchors " the events .
= = = Accolades = = =
Cooper was nominated for two 2012 MTV Movie Awards for Best Comedic Performance and Best On @-@ Screen Dirtbag , and the film received a nomination for Best Music for the Steve Aoki remix of the Kid Cudi song Pursuit of Happiness . Project X was listed as the number 1 most illegally downloaded film of 2012 on BitTorrent with approximately 8 @.@ 7 million downloads .
= = = Home media = = =
Project X was released on DVD , Blu @-@ ray disc , the UltraViolet cloud storage service and digital download on June 19 , 2012 . Two versions of the Blu @-@ ray disc were released : one containing a Blu @-@ ray and UltraViolet copy of the film , and a combo pack containing the film on Blu @-@ ray , DVD and UltraViolet . The Blu @-@ ray disc version contains an extended edition featuring approximately 6 minutes of additional footage , the theatrical cut , and presents the film in 1080p / AVC with DTS @-@ HD Master Audio sound . The home release also contains three featurettes : " Project X : Declassified " , a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes look at the film 's production ; " Project X : The Pasadena Three " , showing the casting of the three leads , Mann , Cooper , and Brown ; and " Project Xpensive " , detailing how much the damage caused in the film would have cost in reality . The DVD version sold 401 @,@ 204 units in the United States during its first week , earning approximately $ 5 @.@ 9 million , and as of December 2012 , it has sold 1 @,@ 012 @,@ 223 units and earned $ 15 @.@ 5 million from home media sales .
= = Soundtrack = =
The Project X ( Original Motion Picture Soundtrack ) was released on iTunes and on CD on February 28 , 2012 , by WaterTower Music . The album features 13 tracks which appeared throughout the film , with songs by Kid Cudi , D12 , MGK , Nas , and Pusha T.
The score spent eighteen weeks on the US Billboard 200 , where it peaked at number twelve . The album reached number five on the Top Digital Albums , number one on the Top Soundtracks and Top Independent Albums , and number three on the Top Rap Albums and Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums . It also charted on the Top Canadian Albums at number eight , the Swiss Albums Chart at number seventy @-@ three , the French Albums Chart at number twenty , and the Belgian Ultratop 50 Albums Charts at number sixty @-@ six in Flanders and number twenty @-@ nine in Wallonia . In the United States , the album was the number 6 selling soundtrack album of 2012 , selling approximately 217 @,@ 000 units .
= = Impact = =
Following the release of Project X , many parties were inspired by the film .
On March 9 , 2012 , " Project M " became the first event to gain media attention after a party invite was posted on Twitter by Farmington Hills , Michigan high schooler Mikey Vasovski , and was subsequently passed to thousands of users , to the point that the message was being resent once per second , and was posted on Craigslist . The party was dubbed " Project M " by Vasovski , and the invite contained the address of a foreclosed home where the party would take place . By 9 a.m. on March 9 , potential party @-@ goers began arriving at the location , but by 11 a.m. the party had been officially cancelled after police began escorting people off of the premises . Based on his promotion job , Vasovski was offered a summer internship by Gawker Media . On March 10 , 2012 , a second party gained media attention . The party was organized by a Canadian student , titled " Project Kris " . Within 24 hours , it had been viewed by over 900 @,@ 000 people . The event was allegedly intended to be a small party for 30 .
On March 13 , 2012 , two separate parties were attempted in Miramar , Florida and Houston , Texas . In Miramar , people were invited to a foreclosed home to recreate the film as " Project X House Party 2 " . The promoter was arrested and charged with $ 19 @,@ 000 of criminal damage before the party had begun . Police claimed to have turned away 2 @,@ 000 teenagers who approached the property unaware of the party 's cancellation . In Houston , 13 teenagers were arrested after successfully throwing a party and causing up to $ 100 @,@ 000 of damage to an empty home . When police questioned the teens about their motivation , they claimed to have been inspired by the film . A second Houston party attracted between 500 and 1 @,@ 000 guests , but resulted in the death of one person after an attendee started firing a gun when police attempted to break up the event .
On September 21 , 2012 , in the small Dutch town of Haren a party spiraled out of control after a Facebook invitation . News reports indicated that " There were multiple mentions of an American film called Project X " , and that some revelers wore T @-@ shirts marked ' Project X Haren ' . The damage was estimated to be over € 1 million ( $ 1 @.@ 32 million ) .
In 2012 , a party called Proyecto X ( " Project X " in Spanish ) was held in the Pilar Partido of Buenos Aires Province , Argentina . The event gathered 4 @,@ 500 teenagers who were sold alcohol .
In 2014 , a party called “ Project P ” was thrown in Mecosta County , MI which attracted more that 2 @,@ 000 people to an isolated farm house . There were go @-@ go dancers , strippers , a fire thrower and two DJs reportedly hired for the party . Dozens of participants were taken to area hospitals after overdosing on drugs ( particularly heroin ) and alcohol including one reported sexual assault . Police from seven agencies who responded chose to manage the situation from the perimeter because of the risk of hundreds of intoxicated drivers fleeing the scene . Three suspected organizers of the rave were formally charged .
= = Sequel = =
On March 6 , 2012 , four days after its release , Warner Bros. announced a sequel , with Bacall returning to write a script . On May 19 , 2015 , the studio officially announced that the sequel would be titled Project XX and is scheduled for release on August 19 , 2016 .
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= .no =
.no is the Internet country code top @-@ level domain ( ccTLD ) for Norway . Norid , the domain name registry , is based in Trondheim , is owned by the state @-@ owned Uninett and operates under supervision of the Norwegian Post and Telecommunications Authority . As of May 10 , 2013 there were 583 @,@ 962 registered .no @-@ domains . Organizations with a presence in Norway and registration at the Brønnøysund Register Centre are limited to 100 domains each . Individuals residing in Norway may register in the second @-@ level domain priv.no and , as of June 17 , 2014 , directly under .no. Other second @-@ level domains exist for organizations of certain types , such as municipalities and schools . The strict regulations have resulted in near @-@ absence of cybersquatting and warehousing .
Management of the ccTLD was awarded to Pål Spilling in 1983 , but was taken over by Uninett four years later . The 1000th domain was registered in 1995 . Norid is the result of several re @-@ organizations within Uninett , in 2003 becoming a separate limited company . Norway has also been allocated two other ccTLDs , .sj for Svalbard and Jan Mayen and .bv for Bouvetøya ; neither are open to registration . Originally only a single domain was permitted per organization , and this was manually checked by Norid to ensure compliance with trademark ownership . The regulations were liberalized in 2001 , when the process was automated and a retrospective dispute resolution scheme was introduced . This resulted in a boom of registrations , with the accumulated registrations exceeding 100 @,@ 000 in the course of the year . Domain names may consist of the twenty @-@ six basic Latin letters , digits and the hyphen , and beginning in 2004 three Norwegian language letters and twenty Sami language letters have been permitted . All @-@ numeric domains were introduced in 2007 and priv.no in 2011 .
= = History = =
The domain name registry responsibility for .no was in 1983 awarded to Pål Spilling at the Norwegian Telecommunications Administration 's Research Institute . The actual registration work was carried out by Jens Thomassen . The first registered domains were tor.nta.no ( the Norwegian Telecommunications Administration ) and ifi.uio.no ( the Department of Informatics at the University of Oslo ) . Initially the workload of domain registration was light , but after a few years the workload had become unmanageable as a side project for an individual . Policy @-@ makers also indicated a need for the domain registration to be managed by a non @-@ commercial organization . The responsibility was therefore transferred to the publicly owned Uninett , a supplier of information and communications technology to Norwegian public universities , colleges and research institutions on 17 March 1987 . The oldest archived zone file dates from 1989 and includes 19 domains . In 1991 and 1992 , all state university colleges were connected to the Internet and issued domain names , causing a boom of registrations . The 1000th domain was registered in 1995 .
Uninett was at first administrated as a division of SINTEF , but was in 1993 transformed to a limited company owned by the Ministry of Education and Research . Norid was established as a division within Uninett in 1996 , and issued the responsibility of managing the .no domain . On 21 August 1997 , Norid was given the responsibility for the newly created .sj and .bv domains . Uninett FAS was established the following year as a subsidiary of Uninett to manage the technical network and service infrastructure , including operation of the network systems for the universities and colleges . Thus Norid also became part of the Uninett FAS portfolio . Two organizations were established in 1998 : the Domain Resolution Body , to resolve domain disputes , and Norpol , a political advisory board . Domain name registrars were introduced in 1999 to handle aspects that could be provided by a third party . Uninett Norid was in 2003 registered as a limited company owned by Uninett , to secure the management of the domains within an independent organization .
Until 2001 , each organization could only register a single domain and had to document its right to the name , either directly connected to the company 's name or a trademark ; this information was verified by Norid . The rules were liberalized on 19 February 2001 . A new cap was set at fifteen domains per organization and Norid no longer made an evaluation of the right to the name ; if the domain was not registered it would be awarded . This resulted in a large increase in the number of domains , and the 100,000th domain was registered that same year . Originally only the basic Latin letters were permitted , but from 9 February 2004 an additional twenty @-@ three characters from the Norwegian and Sami languages were permitted , along with the number of permitted domains per organization increasing to twenty . From 13 June 2007 , all @-@ numerical domains names were allowed . The 500,000th domain was registered in January 2011 . The priv.no second @-@ level domain was permitted from June 2011 , which gave individuals the possibility to register . On 30 November 2011 , organizations were permitted to register 100 domains .
On 17 June 2014 Norid opened up for private citizen registrations of .no domains . On 9 December 2014 Norid enabled support for DNSSEC .
= = Management = =
Management of .no lies with the Trondheim @-@ based Norid , which is also the domain name registry for the unused .sj and .bv. Norid is a limited company owned by Uninett , which is again owned by the Ministry of Education and Research . The legal right to manage the domains is two @-@ fold , based both on an agreement with the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority ( IANA ) and regulations under the Electronic Communications Act which is supervised by the Norwegian Post and Telecommunications Authority . The policy for use of .no is regulated by the Regulation Concerning Domain Names Under Norwegian Country Code Top @-@ level Domains , also known as the Domain Regulation . This regulation also regulates Norway 's other two ccTLDs , .bv and .sj , for Bouvetøya and Svalbard and Jan Mayen , respectively ; neither are open to registration .
Registration takes place through a third party , a domain name registrar . The relationship between Norid , the registrar and the holder is regulated through civil legal agreements . The registrar registers the domain on behalf of the holder , and the holder then holds the right to the domain name until it is terminated , unless a dispute resolution dictates otherwise . Norid charges registrars 60 Norwegian krone ( NOK ) per registration and change of holder , as well as NOK 60 in an annual fee per domain . Registrars must meet criteria regarding technical and administrative resources , must pay an annual fee of NOK 5 @,@ 000 and a deposit of minimum NOK 10 @,@ 000 , depending on activity level . Registrars must also undertake a minimum activity of either administrating or registering forty domains per year .
Upon registering a domain , the user signs a declaration that they are not infringing on the rights of other parties and that the user will assume full responsibility for any consequences of use of the domain name . The registration process at Norid is fully automated and does not include any steps to ensure that the user has the rights to the name . Disputes regarding the right to a domain name are handled retrospectively , either through the Alternative Dispute Resolution Committee or court proceedings . Issues which could give the right to take over a domain name include infringements of the Trademarks Act and the Marketing Control Act . Trademark holders will also be awarded the domain if the registration was solely made to sell the domain to the trademark owner . The dispute bodies will also consider the risk of confusion , based on the domain name itself rather than the content of the site . For one domain , volvoimport.no , the issue of ownership was subject to a Supreme Court case .
The Supreme Court has ruled that the Norwegian Prosecuting Authority may seize domain registrations under specifications of the General Civil Penal Code , as domains are legally regarded as assets with financial value . As of 27 September 2012 there were 552 @,@ 255 registered domains . .no @-@ domains had a 90 @.@ 6 @-@ percent renewal rate in 2009 , which is significantly higher than more liberal domains , such as 71 percent of .com domains . Cybersquatting and warehousing has not been a problem with .no @-@ domains because of the strict registration requirements . Norpol is an advisory body with thirteen members appointed to discuss and comment on the domain policy . It consists of members from several government authorities , the Internet industry and other stakeholders .
= = Policy = =
Only organizations with a local presence in Norway and with registration in the Brønnøysund Register Centre are allowed to register domains under .no. Specifically , they must be registered in the Central Coordinating Register for Legal Entities — and thus have an organization number , have a postal address in Norway and must be able to actually document activity in Norway upon request from Norid . All qualified users may register up to 100 domains directly under .no and five additional domains under each second @-@ level domain .
The priv.no domain is available for registration by individuals . To register , an individual must be registered in the National Registry and have been issued a national identity number , must be resident in Norway and be at least 18 years old . Moving abroad will not result in the domain being deleted , but the person cannot register any more domains while living abroad . There is a limit of five registered domains per person .
Domain names must consist of 2 to 63 characters . Permitted characters are the ISO basic Latin alphabet ( a through z ) , digits ( 0 through 9 ) , the hyphen ( - ) , the three Norwegian language letters æ , ø and å , and twenty special Sami languages letters ( á · à · ä · č · ç · đ · é · è · ê · ŋ · ń · ñ · ó · ò · ô · ö · š · ŧ · ü · ž ) . The domain name must start and end in a digit or a letter . A large number of domains cannot be registered , including all that are the basis for second @-@ level domains , and a specified series of geographical names , including names of settlements and islands , which may become second @-@ level domains in the future . Eight specific Internet terms may not be registered ( ftp , localhost , whois , www , no , nic , internet and internett ) . Additional general @-@ category potential future second @-@ level domains have also been blocked , such as com.no and as.no.
= = Second @-@ level domains = =
There are three types of second @-@ level domains : geographaphy @-@ oriented , category @-@ oriented and those managed by other agencies than Norid . There are reserved geographic second @-@ level domains for all counties ( such as oslo.no for Oslo and nt.no for Nord @-@ Trøndelag ) , all urban areas with at least 5 @,@ 000 inhabitants ( such as orkanger.no for Orkanger ) and all municipalities ( such as bergen.no for Bergen and both inderoy.no and inderøy.no for Inderøy ) . In addition , svalbard.no has been reserved for Svalbard and jan @-@ mayen.no for Jan Mayen . Users are asked to not register with a geographic second @-@ level domain unless they have a local presence in the area . The www name under a geographic second @-@ level domain ( such as www.lillehammer.no ) may only be carried out by the local government of the area , such as the municipality , the county municipality and the Governor of Svalbard .
The category second @-@ level domains require the user to meet specific characteristics ; for instance , only upper secondary schools may register under vgs.no. Most of the second @-@ level domains are managed by Norid , although five domains are managed by three other government agencies , the Government Administration Services for central parts of the government , the Norwegian Armed Forces for their own sites and the Norwegian Association of Local and Regional Authorities for municipalities and county municipalities .
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= Matanikau Offensive =
The Matanikau Offensive , from 1 – 4 November 1942 , sometimes referred to as the Fourth Battle of the Matanikau , was an engagement between United States ( U.S. ) Marine and Army and Imperial Japanese Army forces around the Matanikau River and Point Cruz area on Guadalcanal during the Guadalcanal campaign of World War II . The action was one of the last of a series of engagements between U.S. and Japanese forces near the Matanikau River during the campaign .
In the engagement , seven battalions of U.S. Marine and Army troops under the overall command of Alexander Vandegrift and tactical command of Merritt A. Edson , following up on the U.S. victory in the Battle for Henderson Field , crossed the Matanikau River and attacked Japanese Army units between the river and Point Cruz , on the northern Guadalcanal coast . The area was defended by the Japanese Army 's 4th Infantry Regiment under Nomasu Nakaguma along with various other support troops , under the overall command of Harukichi Hyakutake . After inflicting heavy casualties on the Japanese defenders , U.S. forces halted the offensive and temporarily withdrew because of a perceived threat from Japanese forces elsewhere in the Guadalcanal area .
= = Background = =
= = = Guadalcanal Campaign = = =
On 7 August 1942 , Allied forces ( primarily U.S. ) landed on Guadalcanal , Tulagi , and Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands . The landings on the islands were meant to deny their use by the Japanese as bases for threatening the supply routes between the U.S. and Australia , and to secure the islands as starting points for a campaign with the eventual goal of isolating the major Japanese base at Rabaul while also supporting the Allied New Guinea campaign . The landings initiated the six @-@ month @-@ long Guadalcanal campaign .
Taking the Japanese by surprise , by nightfall on 8 August , the 11 @,@ 000 Allied troops , under the command of Lieutenant General Alexander Vandegrift and mainly consisting of United States Marine Corps units , had secured Tulagi and nearby small islands , as well as an airfield under construction at Lunga Point on Guadalcanal . The airfield was later named Henderson Field by Allied forces . The Allied aircraft that subsequently operated out of the airfield became known as the " Cactus Air Force " ( CAF ) after the Allied codename for Guadalcanal . To protect the airfield , the U.S. Marines established a perimeter defense around Lunga Point .
In response to the Allied landings on Guadalcanal , the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters assigned the Imperial Japanese Army 's 17th Army , a corps @-@ sized command based at Rabaul and under the command of Lieutenant @-@ General Harukichi Hyakutake , with the task of retaking Guadalcanal from Allied forces . Beginning on 19 August , various units of the 17th Army began to arrive on Guadalcanal with the goal of driving Allied forces from the island .
Because of the threat by CAF aircraft based at Henderson Field , the Japanese were unable to use large , slow transport ships to deliver troops and supplies to the island . Instead , the Japanese used warships based at Rabaul and the Shortland Islands to carry their forces to Guadalcanal . The Japanese warships , mainly light cruisers or destroyers from the Eighth Fleet under the command of Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa , were usually able to make the round trip down " The Slot " to Guadalcanal and back in a single night , thereby minimizing their exposure to CAF air attack . Delivering the troops in this manner , however , prevented most of the soldiers ' heavy equipment and supplies , such as heavy artillery , vehicles , and much food and ammunition , from being carried to Guadalcanal with them . These high speed warship runs to Guadalcanal occurred throughout the campaign and were later called the " Tokyo Express " by Allied forces and " Rat Transportation " by the Japanese .
The first Japanese attempt to recapture Henderson Field failed when a 917 @-@ man force was defeated on 21 August in the Battle of the Tenaru . The next attempt took place from 12 – 14 September , with the 6 @,@ 000 soldiers under the command of Major General Kiyotake Kawaguchi being defeated in the Battle of Edson 's Ridge . After their defeat at Edson 's Ridge , Kawaguchi and the surviving Japanese troops regrouped west of the Matanikau River on Guadalcanal .
As the Japanese regrouped , the U.S. forces concentrated on shoring up and strengthening their Lunga defenses . On 18 September , an Allied naval convoy delivered 4 @,@ 157 men from the U.S. 7th Marine Regiment to Guadalcanal . These reinforcements allowed Vandegrift , beginning on 19 September , to establish an unbroken line of defense completely around the Lunga perimeter .
General Vandegrift and his staff were aware that Kawaguchi 's troops had retreated to the area west of the Matanikau and that numerous groups of Japanese stragglers were scattered throughout the area between the Lunga Perimeter and the Matanikau River . Vandegrift , therefore , decided to conduct a series of small unit operations around the Matanikau Valley .
The first U.S. Marine operation against Japanese forces west of the Matanikau , conducted between 23 September and 27 September 1942 by elements of three U.S. Marine battalions , was repulsed by Kawaguchi 's troops under Colonel Akinosuke Oka 's local command . In the second action , between 6 October and 9 October , a larger force of U.S. Marines successfully crossed the Matanikau River , attacked newly landed Japanese forces from the 2nd ( Sendai ) Infantry Division under the command of generals Masao Maruyama and Yumio Nasu and inflicted heavy casualties on the Japanese 4th Infantry Regiment . The second action forced the Japanese to retreat from their positions east of the Matanikau .
In the meantime , Major General Millard F. Harmon , commander of United States Army forces in the South Pacific , convinced Vice Admiral Robert L. Ghormley , commander of Allied forces in the South Pacific Area , that U.S. Marine forces on Guadalcanal needed to be reinforced immediately if the Allies were to successfully defend the island from the anticipated Japanese offensive . Thus on 13 October , a naval convoy delivered the 2 @,@ 837 @-@ strong 164th U.S. Infantry Regiment , a North Dakota Army National Guard formation from the U.S. Army 's Americal Division , to Guadalcanal .
= = = Battle for Henderson Field = = =
Between 1 October and 17 October , the Japanese delivered 15 @,@ 000 troops to Guadalcanal , giving Hyakutake 20 @,@ 000 total troops to employ for his planned offensive . Because of the loss of their positions on the east side of the Matanikau , the Japanese decided that an attack on the U.S. defenses along the coast would be prohibitively difficult . Therefore , Hyakutake decided that the main thrust of his planned attack would be from south of Henderson Field . His 2nd Division ( augmented by troops from the 38th Infantry Division ) , under Lieutenant General Masao Maruyama and comprising 7 @,@ 000 soldiers in three infantry regiments of three battalions each was ordered to march through the jungle and attack the American defences from the south near the east bank of the Lunga River . To distract the Americans from the planned attack from the south , Hyakutake 's heavy artillery plus five battalions of infantry ( about 2 @,@ 900 men ) from the 4th and 124th Infantry Regiments under the overall command of Major General Tadashi Sumiyoshi were to attack the American defenses from the west along the coastal corridor .
Sumiyoshi 's forces , including two battalions of the 4th Infantry Regiment under Colonel Nomasu Nakaguma , launched attacks on the U.S. Marine defenses at the mouth of the Matanikau on the evening of 23 October . U.S. Marine artillery , cannon , and small arms fire repulsed the assaults and killed many of the attacking Japanese soldiers while suffering only light casualties to themselves .
Beginning on 24 October and continuing over two consecutive nights , Maruyama 's forces conducted numerous , unsuccessful frontal assaults on the southern portion of the U.S. Lunga perimeter . More than 1 @,@ 500 of Maruyama 's troops were killed in the attacks while the Americans lost about 60 killed .
Further Japanese attacks near the Matanikau on 26 October by Oka 's 124th Infantry Regiment were also repulsed with heavy losses for the Japanese . Thus , at 08 : 00 on 26 October , Hyakutake called off any further attacks and ordered his forces to retreat . About half of Maruyama 's survivors were ordered to retreat back to the area west of the Matanikau River while the rest , the 230th Infantry Regiment under Colonel Toshinari Shoji , was told to head for Koli Point , east of the Lunga perimeter . The 4th Infantry Regiment retreated back to positions west of the Matanikau and around the Point Cruz area while the 124th Infantry Regiment took up positions on the slopes of Mount Austen in the upper Matanikau Valley .
In order to exploit the recent victory Vandegrift planned another offensive west of the Matanikau which would have two objectives : to drive the Japanese beyond artillery range of Henderson Field and to cut off the retreat of Maruyama 's men towards the village of Kokumbona , location of the 17th Army 's headquarters . For the offensive , Vandegrift committed the three battalions of the 5th Marine Regiment , commanded by Colonel Merritt Edson , plus the augmented 3d Battalion , 7th Marine Regiment ( called the Whaling Group ) commanded by Colonel William Whaling . Two battalions of the 2nd Marine Regiment would be in reserve . The offensive was supported by artillery from the 11th Marine Regiment and the 164th Infantry Regiment , CAF aircraft , and gunfire from U.S. Navy warships . Edson was placed in tactical command of the operation .
Defending the Matanikau area for the Japanese were the 4th and 124th Infantry Regiments . Nakaguma 's 4th Infantry defended the Matanikau from the shore to about 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 914 m ) inland while Oka 's 124th Infantry extended the line further inland along the river . Both regiments , which on paper consisted of six battalions , were severely understrength because of battle damage , tropical disease , and malnutrition . In fact , Oka described his command as at only " half strength . "
= = Action = =
Between 01 : 00 and 06 : 00 on 1 November , U.S. Marine engineers constructed three footbridges across the Matanikau . At 06 : 30 , nine Marine and U.S. Army artillery batteries ( about 36 guns ) and U.S. warships San Francisco , Helena , and Sterett opened fire on the west bank of the Matanikau , and U.S. aircraft , including 19 B @-@ 17 heavy bombers , dropped bombs in the same area . At the same time , the 1st Battalion ( 1 / 5 ) of the 5th Marine Regiment crossed the Matanikau at its mouth while the 2nd Battalion , 5th Marines ( 2 / 5 ) and the Whaling Group crossed the river further inland . Facing the Marines was the Japanese 2nd Battalion , 4th Infantry under Major Masao Tamura .
The 2 / 5 and the Whaling Group encountered very little resistance and reached and occupied several ridges south of Point Cruz by early afternoon . Along the coast near Point Cruz , however , the 7th Company from Tamura 's battalion fiercely resisted the U.S. advance . In several hours of fighting , Company C , 1 / 5 suffered heavy casualties , including the loss of three officers , and was driven back toward the Matanikau by Tamura 's troops . Assisted by another company from 1 / 5 and later by two companies from the 3rd Battalion , 5th Marines ( 3 / 5 ) , plus determined resistance by Marine Corporal Anthony Casamento , among others , the Americans were successful in stopping the retreat .
Reviewing the situation at the end of the day , Edson , along with Colonel Gerald Thomas and Lieutenant Colonel Merrill Twining from Vandegrift 's staff , decided to try to encircle the Japanese defenders around Point Cruz . They ordered 1 / 5 and 3 / 5 to continue to press the Japanese along the coast the next day while 2 / 5 wheeled north to envelop their adversaries west and south of Point Cruz . Tamura 's battalion had taken heavy losses in the day 's fighting , with Tamura 's 7th and 5th Companies being left with only 10 and 15 uninjured soldiers respectively .
Fearing that the U.S. troops were on the verge of breaking through their defenses , Hyakutake 's 17th Army headquarters hurriedly sent whatever troops could be found on @-@ hand to bolster the 4th Infantry 's defensive efforts . The troops included the 2d Anti @-@ Tank Gun Battalion with 12 guns and the 39th Field Road Construction Unit . These two units took position in pre @-@ prepared fighting emplacements around the south and west of Point Cruz .
On the morning of 2 November , with the Whaling Group covering their flank , the men of 2 / 5 marched north and reached the coast west of Point Cruz , completing the encirclement of the Japanese defenders . The Japanese defenses were centered in a draw between a coastal trail and a beach just west of Point Cruz and included coral , earth , and log bunkers as well as caves and foxholes . U.S. artillery bombarded the Japanese positions throughout the day on 2 November , causing an unknown number of casualties to the Japanese defenders .
Later in the day , Company I of 2 / 5 conducted a frontal assault with fixed bayonets on the northern portion of the Japanese defenses , overrunning and killing the Japanese defenders . At the same time , two battalions from 2nd Marine Regiment , now committed to the offensive , advanced past the Point Cruz area .
At 06 : 30 on 3 November , some Japanese troops attempted to break out of the pocket but were beaten back by the Marines . Between 08 : 00 and noon , five Marine companies from 2 / 5 and 3 / 5 , using small arms , mortars , demolition charges , and direct and indirect artillery fire , completed the destruction of the Japanese pocket near Point Cruz . Marine participant Richard A. Nash described the battle :
A jeep wheeled up towing a 37 @-@ mm anti @-@ tank gun and Captain Andrews of D Company put a crew of men to setting the thing up to fire into the palm grove . Then I heard it — just before the gun began firing — a weird wailing and moaning , almost a religious chant ... coming from the trapped Japanese soldiers . Then the gun fired canister shot into them , again and again , and after a while the chanting stopped and the firing stopped and for a moment it was all @-@ quiet . Some of us went among the palm trees to look , and there , row on row , were the torn and shattered bodies of perhaps 300 young Japanese soldiers . There were no survivors .
The Marines captured 12 37mm anti @-@ tank guns , one 70 mm field artillery piece , and 34 machineguns and counted the dead bodies of 239 Japanese soldiers , including 28 officers .
At the same time , the 2nd Marines with the Whaling Group continued to push along the coast , reaching a point 3 @,@ 500 yards ( 3 @,@ 200 m ) west of Point Cruz by nightfall . The only Japanese troops left in the area to oppose the Marines ' advance were the remaining 500 soldiers of the 4th Infantry augmented by a few frail survivors from units involved in the earlier Tenaru and Edson 's Ridge battles plus malnourished naval troops from the original Guadalcanal garrison . The Japanese feared that they would be unable to prevent the Americans from taking the village of Kokumbona , which would cut @-@ off the retreat of the 2nd Infantry Division and seriously threaten the rear @-@ area support and headquarters units of Japanese forces on Guadalcanal . In despair , Nakaguma discussed taking the regimental colors and seeking death in a final charge at the U.S. forces , but was dissuaded from doing so by other officers on the 17th Army 's staff .
A significant event now occurred which granted the Japanese forces a reprieve . Early on 3 November , Marine units near Koli Point , east of the Lunga Perimeter , engaged 300 fresh Japanese troops that had just been landed by a Tokyo Express mission of five destroyers . This , plus the knowledge that a large body of Japanese troops was in the process of relocating to Koli Point after the defeat in the Henderson Field battle , led the Americans to believe that the Japanese were about to conduct a major attack on the Lunga Perimeter from the Koli Point area .
To discuss these developments , the Marine leaders on Guadalcanal met on the morning of 4 November . Twining recommended that the Matanikau offensive continue . Edson , Thomas , and Vandegrift , however , urged the abandonment of the offensive and a shift of forces to counter the Koli Point threat . Thus , that same day the 5th Marines and the Whaling group were recalled to Lunga Point . The 2nd Marine 's 1st and 2nd Battalions , plus the 1st Battalion , 164th Infantry took up positions about 2 @,@ 000 yards ( 1 @,@ 829 m ) west of Point Cruz with plans to hold in that location . With their route of retreat still open , the Sendai ( 2nd ) Division survivors began to reach Kokumbona this same day . Around this time , Nakaguma was killed by an artillery shell .
= = Aftermath = =
After chasing away the Japanese forces at Koli Point , the U.S. renewed the western offensive towards Kokumbona on 10 November with three battalions under the overall command of U.S. Marine Colonel John Arthur . In the meantime , fresh Japanese troops from the 228th Infantry Regiment of the 38th Infantry Division landed by Tokyo Express over several nights beginning on 5 November and effectively resisted the American attack . After making small advances , at 13 : 45 on 11 November Vandegrift suddenly ordered all the American forces to return to the east bank of the Matanikau .
Vandegrift ordered the withdrawal because of the receipt of intelligence from coastwatchers , aerial reconnaissance , and radio intercepts that a major Japanese reinforcement effort was imminent . Indeed , the Japanese were in the process of attempting to deliver the 10 @,@ 000 remaining troops from the 38th Division to Guadalcanal in order to reattempt to capture Henderson Field . The resulting efforts by the Americans to stop this reinforcement attempt resulted in the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal , the decisive naval battle of the Guadalcanal campaign , in which the Japanese reinforcement effort was turned back .
The Americans recrossed the Matanikau and attacked westward again beginning on 18 November , but made slow progress against determined resistance from Japanese forces . The U.S. attack was halted on 23 November at a line just west of Point Cruz . The Americans and Japanese would remain facing each other in these positions for the next six weeks , until the ending stages of the campaign when U.S. forces began their final , successful push to drive Japanese forces from the island . Although the Americans had come close to overrunning the Japanese rear areas in the early November offensive , it would not be until the final stages of the campaign that the U.S. finally captured Kokumbona .
= = = Books = = =
Dull , Paul S. ( 1978 ) . A Battle History of the Imperial Japanese Navy , 1941 @-@ 1945 . Naval Institute Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 87021 @-@ 097 @-@ 1 .
Frank , Richard ( 1990 ) . Guadalcanal : The Definitive Account of the Landmark Battle . New York : Random House . ISBN 0 @-@ 394 @-@ 58875 @-@ 4 .
Griffith , Samuel B. ( 1963 ) . The Battle for Guadalcanal . Champaign , Illinois , USA : University of Illinois Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 252 @-@ 06891 @-@ 2 .
Hammel , Eric ( 2007 ) . Guadalcanal : The U.S. Marines in World War II . St. Paul , Minnesota , USA : Zenith Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 7603 @-@ 3148 @-@ 0 .
Jersey , Stanley Coleman ( 2008 ) . Hell 's Islands : The Untold Story of Guadalcanal . College Station , Texas : Texas A & M University Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 58544 @-@ 616 @-@ 5 .
Morison , Samuel Eliot ( 1958 ) . The Struggle for Guadalcanal , August 1942 – February 1943 , vol . 5 of History of United States Naval Operations in World War II . Boston : Little , Brown and Company . ISBN 0 @-@ 316 @-@ 58305 @-@ 7 .
Rottman , Gordon L. ( 2005 ) . Japanese Army in World War II : The South Pacific and New Guinea , 1942 – 43 . Dr. Duncan Anderson ( consultant editor ) . Oxford and New York : Osprey . ISBN 1 @-@ 84176 @-@ 870 @-@ 7 .
Smith , Michael T. ( 2000 ) . Bloody Ridge : The Battle That Saved Guadalcanal . New York : Pocket . ISBN 0 @-@ 7434 @-@ 6321 @-@ 8 .
= = = Web = = =
Anderson , Charles R. ( 1993 ) . GUADALCANAL . The U.S. Army Campaigns of World War II . United States Army Center of Military History . CMH Pub 72 @-@ 8 . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 09 .
Hough , Frank O. ; Ludwig , Verle E. ; Shaw , Henry I. , Jr . " Pearl Harbor to Guadalcanal " . History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 05 @-@ 16 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
Shaw , Henry I. ( 1992 ) . " First Offensive : The Marine Campaign For Guadalcanal " . Marines in World War II Commemorative Series . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 25 .
Zimmerman , John L. ( 1949 ) . " The Guadalcanal Campaign " . Marines in World War II Historical Monograph . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 04 .
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= Rich Girl ( Gwen Stefani song ) =
" Rich Girl " is a song by American singer and songwriter Gwen Stefani from her debut solo studio album , Love . Angel . Music . Baby . ( 2004 ) . Produced by Dr. Dre , the track features American rapper Eve , and is a remake of Louchie Lou & Michie One 's 1993 song of the same name , which is in turn an adaptation of the Fiddler on the Roof song " If I Were a Rich Man " . Stefani says the song discusses her dreams of fame and riches from the perspective of " when she was just an Orange County girl " .
The last song to be included on the album , " Rich Girl " was released as the album 's second single in late 2004 to mixed reviews from music critics . It was a commercial success , reaching the top 10 on most of the charts it entered . In the United States , " Rich Girl " was certified gold , and it received a nomination for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration at the 47th Grammy Awards .
= = Writing and development = =
Stefani and Eve had previously collaborated on the 2001 single " Let Me Blow Ya Mind " . When Stefani first began recording solo material , Eve expressed interest in working with Stefani again , saying , " She 's fly , she 's tight and she is talented . It 's going to be hot regardless . " The two decided to work together again after talking in Stefani 's laundry room during a party . After Stefani had co @-@ written more than 20 songs for her solo debut , she approached Dr. Dre , who had produced for her twice before . Dre had produced " Let Me Blow Ya Mind " as well as " Wicked Day " , a track that was excluded from No Doubt 's 2001 album Rock Steady .
After playing some of the songs on which she had been working , Dr. Dre told her , " You don 't want to go back there . " Instead of using one of the tracks , Dr. Dre instead suggested using English reggae duo Louchie Lou & Michie One 's 1993 song " Rich Girl " , which itself interpolated " If I Were a Rich Man " from the 1964 musical Fiddler on the Roof . Stefani and Eve helped each other with their parts , but when they presented Dr. Dre with the demo , he told them to rewrite the song , suggesting that Stefani play a character in the song .
Since she had not seen the musical since she was a child , Stefani went to Broadway to better understand the theme that " even if you 're poor and you have love , you 're rich . " The idea which became the final version came to Stefani while brainstorming on her treadmill . She commented that the troubles in writing the song came because " Dre was really pushing me to write in a new way " , but when she presented him with the song , " he just totally tricked the track out . "
= = Composition = =
" Rich Girl " is a reggae song composed in the key of C minor . It is written in common time and moves at a moderate 100 beats per minute . The beat is accompanied by an alternating perfect fifth dyad and an accented piano trichord . The song is written in verse – chorus form , and its instrumentation includes the electronic keyboard , guitar , and keyboard bass . Stefani 's voice ranges from G3 to E5 .
The introduction consists of the repeated use of the word na . Stefani reaches her highest note of the song , E5 , as part of a trichord and her lowest , G3 , during this section . After the first chorus , Stefani discusses dreams of wealth and luxury , and she namechecks fashion designers Vivienne Westwood and John Galliano . Stefani commented that the references were not product placement but that she included them " because I think they 're rad and want to talk about them . [ ... ] I 'd give all my money to [ Westwood ] and buy all her clothes ! " A bridge , in which Stefani 's voice is overdubbed , precedes the second chorus . During the second verse Stefani discusses her Harajuku Girls , and she then repeats the bridge . Following Eve 's rap , Stefani sings the chorus and closes the song with a coda , which , like the introduction , consists of repeating the word na .
= = Critical reception = =
" Rich Girl " received mixed reviews from music critics . Richard Smirke of Playlouder said that it brought " a much @-@ needed element of diversity " to L.A.M.B. and called it a " potential hit single " . Krissi Murison of the NME , however , described it as " playground chant featuring a tough @-@ girl ragga cameo from Eve . " John Murphy from musicOMH gave it an overall positive review , calling it " a great fun song , and far superior to some of the dross that comes out these days " , but also commented that it did not live up to " Let Me Blow Ya Mind " and found the references to the Harajuku Girls " slightly creepy . " Lisa Haines of BBC Music referred to the song as " disco gold , impossibly girly and very easy to dance to . " The song drew comparisons to the No Doubt album Rock Steady , and Charles Merwin of Stylus Magazine described it as " a lite version of ' Hey Baby . ' "
Several reviewers found it ironic that Stefani , who had already sold 26 million records with No Doubt , discussed having money in the counterfactual conditional . John Murphy from musicOMH found it " rather strange " for Stefani to sing the song while living off of royalties from No Doubt and her husband , post @-@ grunge musician Gavin Rossdale . Anthony Carew from Neumu called the lyrics " insipid " and noted that " the incredibly wealthy pop @-@ starlet wonders what it 'd be like to be , uh , incredibly wealthy " . The Orange County Register writer Ben Wener told Stefani that the song was disingenuous and " absurd " , to which Stefani responded that the point of view was from before she was famous . Stefani later refused to issue credentials to the newspaper after Wener wrote that " while posting a reported US $ 90 million via her clothing lines [ ... ] she 's no more ' just an Orange County girl ' than Best Buy is just a shack that sells Commodore 64s " in response to a track titled " Orange County Girl " from Stefani 's second album The Sweet Escape .
The interpolation of " If I Were a Rich Man " drew mixed reviews . Jason Damas , writing for PopMatters , argued that the track " turns it into an anthem of urban bling @-@ lust " and that its " simple pounding piano chord makes for great percussive backing . " Nick Sylvester from Pitchfork Media found the song corny , classifying it as " Eve- and Dre- and Tevye @-@ powered camp @-@ hop . " The Villager 's Winnie MCCroy found the interpolation " innovative " and noted the song 's take on " the current style of shout @-@ out rap songs . " David Browne of Entertainment Weekly disagreed , stating that the interpolation was used awkwardly , and Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone called the interpolation a goof . Jason Shawhan from About.com called the track " a dancehall / classic house teardown of ' If I Were a Rich Man ' " and added , " If this is what Jay @-@ Z 's fudging with Annie has wrought , I say , be glad of it . "
= = Commercial performance = =
" Rich Girl " debuted at number 74 on the Billboard Hot 100 on December 25 , 2004 , and peaked 10 weeks later at number seven , remaining on the chart for over six months . The song did well on pop @-@ oriented charts , reaching number three on the Pop 100 , number four on the Mainstream Top 40 , and number 16 on the Adult Top 40 . The single had little crossover success on the urban charts , only reaching number 27 on the Rhythmic Top 40 and number 78 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs . " Rich Girl " was helped on the Hot 100 and Pop 100 charts by its strong digital downloads , peaking at number two on the Hot Digital Songs . The song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on March 29 , 2005 . At the 2006 Grammy Awards , the song was nominated for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration but lost to Jay @-@ Z and Linkin Park 's " Numb / Encore " . The single was less successful in Canada , where it peaked at number 12 on the Canadian Singles Chart .
" Rich Girl " was largely successful across Europe , reaching number two on the European Hot 100 Singles . It reached the top five in Belgium , Denmark , France , Ireland , the Netherlands , Norway , and Sweden and the top 10 in Austria , Finland , Italy , and Switzerland . The song also charted highly in the United Kingdom , debuting at number four on March 20 , 2005 for the week ending date March 26 , 2005 . The track was unable to reach a higher position and remained on the chart for 12 weeks .
Elsewhere , " Rich Girl " peaked within the top 20 on the majority of the charts it entered . In Australia , it debuted on February 27 , 2005 at number two behind Nelly 's " Over and Over " featuring Tim McGraw . It was unable to reach number one and dropped off the chart after 13 weeks . The single was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for sales in excess of 70 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Rich Girl " was directed by David LaChapelle and features a pirate theme . The video , inspired by an early @-@ 1980s Vivienne Westwood advertising campaign , opens with four Japanese schoolgirls playing with a toy pirate ship and two Bratz dolls of Stefani and Eve , while the girls discuss what they would do if they were a " rich girl " . The video features several sequences . Stefani is first shown below the deck of a pirate ship , dancing on a table and singing to the song . She is surrounded by pirates and wenches and is soon joined by Eve , wearing an eyepatch . In the surreal style of LaChapelle , the pirate crew has distorted features , and a leaked casting call commented , " I need the freaks on this one . " Above deck Stefani , the Harajuku Girls , Eve , and more pirates dance on the deck and rigging . Stefani is also seen dancing with the Harajuku Girls in a treasure trove , often carrying a sword , and swinging from an anchor . When the girls dunk the toy ship in a fish tank , the galleon engages in cannon fire , causing Stefani and the pirates to fall all over the ship , and Stefani and the Harajuku Girls are soon shipwrecked .
The music video was a success on video channels . The video debuted at number nine on MTV 's Total Request Live on December 13 , 2004 . It worked its way to number five , staying on the chart for a total of 13 days . The video also reached number four on MuchMusic 's Countdown , remaining on the chart for 16 weeks . VH1 listed " Rich Girl " at number 24 on its Top 40 Videos of 2005 .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Love . Angel . Music . Baby .
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Battle of Spencer 's Ordinary =
The Battle of Spencer 's Ordinary was an inconclusive skirmish that took place on 26 June 1781 , late in the American Revolutionary War . British forces under Lieutenant Colonel John Graves Simcoe and American forces under Colonel Richard Butler , light detachments from the armies of General Lord Cornwallis and the Marquis de Lafayette respectively , clashed near a tavern ( the " ordinary " ) at a road intersection not far from Williamsburg , Virginia .
Lafayette had been shadowing Cornwallis as he moved his army toward Williamsburg from central Virginia . Aware that Simcoe had become separated from Cornwallis , he sent Butler out in an attempt to cut Simcoe off . Both sides , concerned that the other might be reinforced by its main army , eventually broke off the battle .
= = Background = =
In May 1781 , Lord Charles Cornwallis arrived in Petersburg , Virginia after a lengthy campaign through North and South Carolina . In addition to his 1 @,@ 400 troops , he assumed command of another 3 @,@ 600 troops that had been under the command of the turncoat Benedict Arnold , and was soon thereafter further reinforced by about 2 @,@ 000 more troops sent from New York . These forces were opposed by a much smaller Continental Army force led by the Marquis de Lafayette , then located at Richmond . Following orders originally given to Arnold 's predecessor in command , William Phillips ( who died a week before Cornwallis ' arrival ) , Cornwallis worked to eliminate Virginia 's ability to support the revolutionary cause , and gave chase to Lafayette 's army , which numbered barely 3 @,@ 000 and included a large number of inexperienced militia .
Lafayette successfully eluded engaging Cornwallis for about one month , who used his numerical advantage to detach forces for raids against economic , military , and political targets in central Virginia . Cornwallis then turned back to the east , marching for Williamsburg . Lafayette , whose force grew to number about 4 @,@ 000 with the arrival of Continental Army reinforcements under General Anthony Wayne and additional experienced militiamen under William Campbell , followed Cornwallis . Buoyed by the increase in his troop strength , Lafayette also became more aggressive in his tactics , sending out detachments of his force to counteract those that Cornwallis sent on forage and raiding expeditions . These detachments were composed of select units taken from a variety of regiments . Among those that were commonly in the army 's advance guard were a combined cavalry and infantry unit from Pennsylvania under Captain William McPherson , and companies of Virginia riflemen under Majors Richard Call and John Willis .
Lafayette , once he was joined by Wayne and Campbell , wanted to engage elements of Cornwallis ' army without necessarily facing its full strength . As Cornwallis approached Williamsburg , Lafayette and Wayne received word that Lieutenant Colonel John Graves Simcoe and his Loyalist regiment of Queen 's Rangers were returning from a raid to destroy boats and forage for supplies on the Chickahominy River . Simcoe 's full force included , in addition to the Rangers , a few companies of Hessian jägers led by Captains Johann Ewald and Johann Althaus . On the night of 25 June , Wayne sent most of the advance guard under Colonel Richard Butler , including McPherson , Call , and Willis , to intercept Simcoe 's force . A forward party of about 50 dragoons and 50 light infantry under McPherson caught up with advance companies of Simcoe 's force near Spencer 's Ordinary , a tavern at a road intersection about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) north of Williamsburg .
= = Battle = =
Simcoe 's troops were moving down the road toward Williamsburg , convoying some cattle with the infantry and jägers in the lead under Major Richard Armstrong , with Simcoe and the cavalry about an hour behind them . At Spencer 's Ordinary ( " ordinary " meaning tavern at the time ) , the troops rejoined and paused to rest . Simcoe ordered fences in the area torn down since " it was an admirable place for the chicanery of action " . While they rested , some of the Loyalists went out to round up more cattle found in the area , and the cavalry went to a nearby farm to feed their horses . McPherson 's men encountered the latter , whose sentries raised the alarm to the main body . Simcoe 's cavalry charged McPherson 's formation , breaking it up . McPherson and a number of his men were unhorsed in the melee , and several were taken prisoner before the leading edge of Butler 's main force began to arrive . Simcoe ordered most of the infantry up to support his cavalry , and sent the jägers and light infantry into the woods on the right to flank the arriving enemy column . By questioning the prisoners , Simcoe learned that Lafayette was not far off . He sent word to Cornwallis , dispatched the cattle convoy toward Williamsburg , and ordered trees to be felled to make a barricade across the road as a point of defense . He then arrayed his troops in a way calculated to mislead the Americans into believing that more troops were in formation just over a rise . When Butler 's force arrived , Simcoe ordered an infantry charge . This scattered the first wave of Butler 's men into the nearby woods , where the jägers then pushed them back . However , Butler 's men continued to advance . Simcoe ordered a cavalry charge and fired a field cannon to give the impression that a larger force was arriving . The charge forced Butler 's men back , at which point the two forces disengaged , Simcoe because he was concerned that Lafayette was approaching , and Butler because his men were fooled by Simcoe 's stratagem .
= = Aftermath = =
Simcoe left his wounded men at the tavern under a truce flag , and withdrew down the Williamsburg road , joining with forces Cornwallis sent about two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) down the road . The Americans retreated to Lafayette 's camp at Tyre 's Plantation , and Simcoe was able to return to the tavern and recover his wounded .
Simcoe reported his losses at 11 killed and 25 wounded , and the American loss at 9 killed , 14 wounded , and 32 captured . Lafayette claimed the Americans had killed 60 and wounded 100 , while Cornwallis claimed the British had 33 killed and wounded . ( The latter number agrees with that provided by Fryer and Dracott if Hessian casualties are excluded . )
The location of the battle is now within the grounds of James City County 's Freedom Park in Williamsburg . Published park materials do not indicate if the exact location is marked in any way .
= = Butler 's identity = =
Sources disagree on the name of the Butler who commanded the American force . In early histories , Benson Lossing claims that one Percival Butler was in command , who had also served under Daniel Morgan in earlier campaigns , while Henry Johnston identifies the commander as Richard Butler , a hero of Stony Point . In modern histories , Fryer and Dracott also identify him as Richard , while Brendan Morrissey apparently misidentifies him as John Butler .
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= Subway Sadie =
Subway Sadie is a 1926 American comedy @-@ drama film directed by Alfred Santell . Adapted from Mildred Cram 's 1925 short story Sadie of the Desert , the film focuses on a relationship between New York salesgirl Sadie Hermann ( Dorothy Mackaill ) and subway guard Herb McCarthy ( Jack Mulhall ) , who meet on a subway and become engaged . However , after Sadie receives a promotion , she must choose between her new job and marrying Herb . The cast also includes Charles Murray , Peggy Shaw , Gaston Glass , and Bernard Randall .
The film began production in May 1926 . Arthur Edeson served as cinematographer , shooting around Central Park in areas like casinos and nightclubs . Distributed by First National Pictures , the film premiered in New York on September 12 , 1926 . Many publications wrote positively of the film , praising its acting and Santell 's direction . Today , it remains unclear if a print of Subway Sadie has survived .
= = Plot = =
Salesgirl Sadie Hermann ( Dorothy Mackaill ) , employed in a New York fur store , has always dreamed of traveling to Paris . While riding the subway to work one morning , she meets Irish subway guard Herb McCarthy ( Jack Mulhall ) , and the two strike up a conversation before Herb eventually arranges to have them meet at Cleopatra 's Needle that Sunday .
Herb and Sadie are soon engaged to be married , but as Sadie has been promoted from saleslady to firm buyer she must cancel the wedding date to sail to Paris for the job , saddening Herb . Sadie prepares to leave , but then receives a message from Herb , which informs her that he is in the hospital as the result of an accident . Sadie chooses to visit him , and she decides to forgo her new job and marry Herb instead , Herb revealing that his father is the president of the subway company .
= = Production = =
Alfred Santell directed Subway Sadie , from a screenplay written by Adele Comandini and Paul Schofield . The pair adapted a short story by Mildred Cram entitled Sadie of the Desert , which had first been published in an October 1925 issue of The Red Book Magazine .
On May 3 , 1926 , the film entered production . Santell and Al Rockett , the film 's producer and production manager , selected the actors to appear in the film . Jack Mulhall was cast in the lead as Herb McCarthy . Although he had ridden on a subway many times , he did not take notice of the guards , so as preparation for playing the character he rode on a subway for " practically an entire day " to observe them . Mulhall said of Santell :
That man 's a great director . He can make people feel perfectly natural . He 's got what Chaplin did when he directed A Woman of Paris - he and Lewis Milestone and Mal St. Clair all have that same touch , they all belong to the new school of directors , it seems to me . They 're not so busy thinking about technique that they have actors turning into marionettes .
Chosen to play female lead Sadie Hermann , Dorothy Mackaill opined that the film would appeal to " every girl in America . " She believed that " there is not a situation in this picture which could not happen to any girl . That is one of the things I like about it . There is nothing in it that could not be true . " The rest of the cast includes Charles Murray as a driver , Peggy Shaw as Ethel , Gaston Glass as Fred Perry , and Bernard Randall portraying Brown .
Arthur Edeson served as the cinematographer for Subway Sadie , shooting the silent film in black @-@ and @-@ white . Filming took place at several locations in Central Park , including Cleopatra 's Needle and a local casino inn , which marked the first time the location had been filmed . A nightclub scene was also shot in New York . Hugh Bennett served as the film 's editor , while Al Rockett Productions produced . Rockett told Motion Picture News in June 1926 that the film had been completed . First National Pictures filed a copyright for the film on August 18 , 1926 . The finished product was seven reels long , and comprised 6 @,@ 727 feet ( 2 @,@ 050 m ) of film , running for about 70 minutes .
= = Release and reception = =
First National Pictures handled distribution for Subway Sadie , with the film premiering in New York on September 12 , 1926 . It received positive reviews ; a journalist for The New York Times enjoyed the film , calling it " an amusing photoplay " . Although the review branded the ending unsurprising , they described it as " nevertheless pleasing " . The Evening Independent praised the film , lauding it as " one of the cleverest and most interesting pictures that has been here this season " .
A review from Photoplay applauded Mackaill 's performance and described the film as " a true and human story " . The review in the Motion Picture Herald assessed it as " a nice little feature , nothing big , but will go over on bargain nights " , with praise directed to Mulhall 's performance . A Berkeley Daily Gazette review wrote of the film by saying " sheer brilliance rarely has been equalled " and praised the story , direction , and acting .
The Morning Telegraph 's review said that Subway Sadie would " delight the majority of straphangers " and that " it is what the boys call excellent box @-@ office " . The New York American review was similarly positive , describing it as " a light but charming comedy " . In the New York World , the review described the film as " a consistently decent affair " which featured good direction by Santell . A review in The Daily Mirror wrote positively of Mackaill 's performance and complimented Santell 's directing abilities , while Reading Eagle praised the performances of the leads , calling them " a stellar combination . " Not all reviews were positive ; a negative review came from The Educational Screen , whose reviewer found the film to be " pretty trite stuff " .
In June 1927 , a Southeast Missourian journalist wrote that the film had since become " very successful " . The pairing of Mulhall and Mackaill was described as " such a perfect team " that plans to have them star in many further films occurred . Films they appeared in after Subway Sadie include Smile , Brother , Smile ( 1927 ) , Ladies ' Night in a Turkish Bath ( 1928 ) , Lady Be Good ( 1928 ) , and Children of the Ritz ( 1929 ) . The 1933 drama Curtain at Eight marked the final film they appeared in together .
Screenings of Subway Sadie occurred as late as January 12 , 1928 . As of November 2007 , it is unclear whether a print of the film exists ; it has likely become a lost film . A poster of the film can be seen at the New York Transit Museum .
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= Manifesto of the Sixteen =
The Manifesto of the Sixteen ( French : Manifeste des seize ) , or Proclamation of the Sixteen , was a document drafted in 1916 by eminent anarchists Peter Kropotkin and Jean Grave which advocated an Allied victory over Germany and the Central Powers during the First World War . At the outbreak of the war , Kropotkin and other anarchist supporters of the Allied cause advocated their position in the pages of the Freedom newspaper , provoking sharply critical responses . As the war continued , anarchists across Europe campaigned in anti @-@ war movements and wrote denunciations of the war in pamphlets and statements , including one February 1916 statement signed by prominent anarchists such as Emma Goldman and Rudolf Rocker .
At this time , Kropotkin was in frequent correspondence with those who shared his position , and was convinced by one of their number , Jean Grave , to draft a document encouraging anarchist support for the Allies . The resulting manifesto was published in the pages of the pro @-@ war socialist periodical La Bataille on March 14 , 1916 , and republished in other European anarchist periodicals shortly thereafter . The manifesto declared that supporting the war was an act of resistance against the aggression of the German Empire , and that the war had to be pursued until its defeat . At this point , the authors conjectured , the ruling political parties of Germany would be overthrown and the anarchist goal of the emancipation of Europe and of the German people would be advanced .
Contrary to its misleading title , the Manifesto of the Sixteen had originally fifteen signatories — among them some of the most eminent anarchists in Europe — and was later countersigned by another hundred . The position of the Manifesto was in stark contrast to that of most anarchists of the day , many of whom denounced its signatories and their sympathizers , and accused them of betraying anarchist principles . In the fallout over the war , Kropotkin became increasingly isolated , with many former friends cutting their ties to him . The Russian anarchist movement was split into two , with a faction supporting Kropotkin 's position to the strong criticism of the Bolsheviks . Elsewhere in Europe , including in the Spanish and Swiss anarchist movements , the dismissal of the Manifesto was overwhelming , with supporters being angrily denounced and marginalized .
= = Background = =
= = = Kropotkin 's anti @-@ German stance = = =
Anti @-@ German sentiment was a strong current in progressive and revolutionary movements in Russia from their early beginnings , due to German influence on the aristocracy of the ruling Romanov dynasty . Historian George Woodcock contended that as a Russian , Kropotkin was influenced by similar opinions throughout his life , culminating in a staunch anti @-@ German prejudice at the onset of the First World War . Kropotkin was also influenced by fellow Russian anarchist Mikhail Bakunin , who was affected by his rivalry with Karl Marx ; the successes of the Social Democratic Party of Germany , which subverted Germany 's revolutionary movements ; and the rise of the German Empire under the rule of Otto von Bismarck . As such , Woodcock notes Kropotkin came to despise the growth of Marxism , " German ideas " , and augmented this with an interest in the French Revolution , which Woodcock referred to as " a kind of adoptive patriotism " .
Following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria , Kropotkin was arrested under suspicion of having motivated the assassins . While in jail , Kropotkin was interviewed for an article to appear in the August 27 edition of The New York Times . The piece , which referred to him as a " veteran Russian agitator and democrat " , quoted him as an optimistic supporter of the newly erupted war , believing it would ultimately have a liberalizing effect on Russian society . In a letter to Jean Grave , written in September of that year , Kropotkin chastised Grave for desiring a peaceful end to the conflict , and insisted that the war must be fought to its end since " the conditions of peace would be imposed by the victor " .
Months later , Kropotkin allowed a letter he wrote to be included in an October 1914 issue of Freedom . Entitled " A Letter to Steffen " , in it he made his case for the war , arguing that the presence of Germany 's empire had prevented the progress of anarchist movements throughout Europe , and that the German people were as culpable for the war as the German state was . He also claimed that Russia 's populace would be radicalized and united following victory in the war , preventing the Russian aristocracy from benefiting from the conflict . As such , he claimed that tactics designed to end the war , such as pacifism and general strikes , were unnecessary , and that instead the war should be pursued until Germany was defeated .
The Bolsheviks quickly responded to Kropotkin 's militarism in a bid for political capital . Vladimir Lenin published a 1915 article in The National Pride of the Great Russians , in which he attacked Kropotkin and Russian anarchists en masse for the former 's early pro @-@ war sentiment , and denounced Kropotkin and another political enemy , Georgi Plekhanov , as " chauvinists by opportunism or spinelessness " . In other speeches and essays , Lenin referred to Kropotkin in the early years of the war as a " bourgeoisie " , demoting him in the following months to " petit bourgeoisie " .
Throughout 1915 and 1916 , Kropotkin , who lived in Brighton , England , was often in poor health . He was unable to travel during the winter , having been ordered not to do so by doctors in January 1915 , and underwent two operations to his chest in March . As a result , he was confined to a bed for the majority of 1915 and to a wheeled bath @-@ chair in 1916 . During this time , Kropotkin kept a steady correspondence with other anarchists , including fellow Russian anarchist Marie Goldsmith . Goldsmith and Kropotkin clashed often on their opinions about the World War , the role of internationalism during the conflict , and whether it was possible to advocate antimilitarism during that period ( early 1916 ) . As explained above , Kropotkin took firmly pro @-@ war positions during these communiques , as he was predisposed to frequently criticize the German Empire .
= = = Anarchist response to the War and Kropotkin = = =
Unprepared by what historian Max Nettlau called the " explosive imminence " of the First World War at its outbreak in August 1914 , anarchists resigned themselves to the reality of the situation and , after a time , began themselves to take sides . Like all nationals , the anarchists had been conditioned to react to the political interests of their nations , whose influence left few unaffected . On the climate of the time , Nettlau remarked : " The air was saturated with accepted nations , conventional opinions and the peculiar illusions which people entertained concerning small nationalities and the virtues and defects of certain races . There were all sorts of plausible justifications for imperialism , for financial controls and so on . And , since Tolstoy had been dead since 1910 , no voice of libertarian and moral power was heard in the world : no organisation , large or small , spoke up . " European anarchist activity was restricted both physically and by the internal divisions within the anarchist movement over attitudes towards the war .
The November 1914 issue of Freedom featured articles supporting the Allied cause from anarchists including Kropotkin , Jean Grave , Warlaam Tcherkesoff and Verleben as well as a rebuttal to Kropotkin 's " A Letter to Steffen " , entitled " Anarchists have forgotten their Principles " , by Italian anarchist Errico Malatesta . In the following weeks , numerous letters critical of Kropotkin were sent to Freedom , and in turn published due to the editorial impartiality of the newspaper 's editor , Thomas Keell . Responding to the criticism , Kropotkin became enraged at Keell for not rejecting such letters , denouncing him as a coward unworthy of his role as editor . A meeting was later called by members of Freedom who supported Kropotkin 's pro @-@ war position and called for the paper to be suspended . Keell , the only anti @-@ war anarchist called to attend , rejected the demand , ending the meeting in hostile disagreement . As a result , Kropotkin 's connection with Freedom ended and the paper continued to be published as an organ for the majority of anti @-@ war Freedom members .
By 1916 , the Great War had been ongoing for almost two years , during which anarchists had taken part in anti @-@ war movements across Europe , issuing numerous anti @-@ war statements in anarchist and leftist publications . In February 1916 , a statement was issued by an assembly of anarchists from various regions , including England , Switzerland , Italy , the United States , Russia , France , and the Netherlands . The document was signed by such figures as Domela Nieuwenhuis , Emma Goldman , Alexander Berkman , Luigi Bertoni , Saul Yanovsky , Harry Kelly , Thomas Keell , Lilian Wolfe , Rudolf Rocker , and George Barrett . It was also endorsed by Errico Malatesta and Alexander Schapiro , two of three secretaries elected to their position at the Anarchist International of 1907 . It set out several viewpoints , including that all wars were the result of the current system of society , and therefore not the blame of any particular government ; did not regard a defensive and offensive war as being fundamentally distinctly different ; and encouraged all anarchists to support only class conflict and the liberation of oppressed populaces as a means by which to resolve wars between nation @-@ states .
As a result of their increasing isolation from the majority of anti @-@ war anarchists , George Woodcock notes that Kropotkin and anarchists who supported his position drew closer together in the months that preceded the Manifesto 's creation . Several of these same men would later sign the Manifesto , including Jean Grave , Charles Malato , Paul Reclus , and Christiaan Cornelissen .
= = The Manifesto = =
= = = Conception and publication = = =
As he was unable to travel during 1916 , Kropotkin found himself in frequent correspondence with others , including Jean Grave , who visited Kropotkin from France with his wife . Together , they discussed the war and Kropotkin 's firm support for it . At Kropotkin 's suggestion that he would like to have been a combatant were he younger , Grave suggested publishing a document urging anarchists to support the war effort on the side of the Allied Powers . Initially hesitant , due to his personal inability to sign up for active duty , Kropotkin was eventually persuaded by Grave .
Exactly what part each played in the authorship is unknown . At the time , Grave asserted that he had authored the manifesto and that Kropotkin had revised it . Alternatively , Gregori Maximoff reported that Kropotkin had written the document and that Grave had merely advised minor alterations . George Woodcock noted that the work seems to be highly influenced by Kropotkin 's common concerns and arguments against the German Empire , and so felt that the exact authorship was unimportant .
The Manifesto , which would be given its famous name at a later point , dates from February 28 , 1916 and was first published in La Bataille on March 14 . La Bataille was a controversial socialist periodical known for its support of the war , and was accused of being a front for government propaganda by Marxist groups as a result . The manifesto was later republished in Freedom , in London , on April 14 , 1916 , and in Libre Fédération , May 1916 , in Lausanne , Switzerland . The Libre Fédération version included additional signatories of individuals who supported the document after the initial publication .
= = = Contents = = =
The original statement , ten paragraphs in length , includes philosophical and ideological premises based upon the opinions of Peter Kropotkin .
The essay begins by declaring that anarchists had correctly resisted the war from its inception , and that the authors would prefer a peace brought about by an international conference of European workers . It then submits that German workers would most likely also favor such a conclusion to the war , and presents several reasons why it would be in their best interest to call for an armistice . These reasons were that the citizens , after twenty months of war , would understand that they had been deceived into believing they were taking part in a defensive war ; that they would recognize that the German state had long prepared for such a conflict , and as such it would be inevitably at fault ; that the German Empire could not logistically support an occupation of the territory it had captured ; and that the individuals living in the occupied territories were free to choose whether or not they would like to be annexed .
Several paragraphs outline potential conditions for an armistice , rejecting any notion that the German Empire has any place in dictating the terms of peace . The authors also insist that the German populace must accept some blame for having not resisted the march to war on the part of the German government . The authors maintain that immediate calls for negotiation would not be favorable , as the German state would potentially dictate the process from a position of diplomatic and military power . Instead , the manifesto proclaims that the war must be continued so that the German state loses its military strength , and by extension , its ability to negotiate .
The authors proclaim that , due to their anti @-@ government , antimilitarist , and internationalist philosophy , supporting the war was an act of " resistance " to the German Empire . The manifesto then concludes that victory over Germany and the overthrow of the Social Democratic Party of Germany and other ruling parties of the German Empire would advance the anarchist goal of the emancipation of Europe and of the German people , and that the authors are prepared to collaborate with Germans to advance this goal .
= = = Signatories and supporters = = =
The manifesto was signed by some of the most eminent anarchists in Europe . The signatories originally numbered fifteen , with the mistaken sixteenth name , " Hussein Dey " , being the name of the city in which Antoine Orfila lived . As the manifesto 's co @-@ authors , Jean Grave and Peter Kropotkin were among its first signatories .
From France , the anarcho @-@ syndicalists Christiaan Cornelissen and François Le Levé were signatories ; Cornelissen was a supporter of the union sacrée , a truce between the French government and trade unions during the First World War , and wrote several anti @-@ German brochures , while the thirty @-@ two @-@ year @-@ old Le Levé later joined the French Resistance during the Second World War . Another French signatory was Paul Reclus , brother of renowned anarchist Élisée Reclus , whose endorsement of the war and manifesto convinced Japanese anarchist Sanshirō Ishikawa ( who was staying with Reclus ) to sign . Ishikawa signed the paper as " Tchikawa " .
Varlam Cherkezishvili ( who signed in the Russian manner as " Warlaam Tcherkesoff " ) , a Georgian anarchist , Marxist critic , and journalist was another noteworthy signatory . The remaining signatories of the initial publication of the document were Henri Fuss , Jacques Guérin , Charles @-@ Ange Laisant , Charles Malato , Jules Moineau , Antoine Orfila , Marc Pierrot and Ph. Richard . James Guillaume , although a supporter of the war , was for reasons unknown not an initial signatory . The manifesto was countersigned by approximately one hundred other anarchists , half of whom were Italian anarchists .
= = Impact and legacy = =
The publication of the Manifesto was met with great disapproval by the international anarchist movement , and in considering its impact , George Woodcock stated that it " merely confirmed the split which existed in the anarchist movement . " The signatories of the Manifesto saw the First World War as a battle between German imperialism and the international working class . In contrast , most anarchists of the time , including Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman , saw the war as being that of different capitalist @-@ imperialist states at the expense of the working class . The number of supporters of Kropotkin 's position peaked at perhaps 100 or so , while the overwhelming majority of anarchists embraced Goldman 's and Berkman 's views .
Alongside the reprinted manifesto in the letter columns of Freedom in April 1916 was a prepared response by Errico Malatesta . Malatesta 's response , titled " Governmental Anarchists " , recognized the " good faith and good intentions " of the signatories but accused them of having betrayed anarchist principles . Malatesta was soon joined in denunciation by others , including Luigi Fabbri , Sébastien Faure , and Emma Goldman :
As a result of his firm support of the war , Kropotkin 's popularity dwindled , and many former friends cut ties with him . Two exceptions included Rudolf Rocker and Alexander Schapiro , but both were serving prison sentences at the time . As a result , Kropotkin became increasingly isolated during his final years in London prior to his return to Russia . In Peter Kropotkin : His Federalist Ideas ( 1922 ) , an overview of Kropotkin 's writings by Camillo Berneri , the author interjected criticism of the former 's militarism . Berneri wrote , " with his pro @-@ war attitude Kropotkin separated himself from anarchism , " and asserted that the Manifesto of the Sixteen " marks the culmination of incoherence in the pro @-@ war anarchists ; [ Kropotkin ] also supported Kerensky in Russia on the question of prosecuting the war . " Anarchist scholar Vernon Richards speculates that were it not for the desire of Freedom editor Thomas Keell ( himself staunchly anti @-@ war ) to give the supporters of the war a fair hearing from the start , they might have found themselves politically isolated far earlier .
= = = Russia = = =
Historian Paul Avrich describes the fallout over the support for the war an " almost fatal " division in the Russian anarchist movement . Muscovite anarchists split into two groups , with the larger faction supporting Kropotkin and his " defensist " associates ; the smaller anti @-@ war faction responded by abandoning Kropotkinite anarchist communism for anarcho @-@ syndicalism . In spite of this , the anarchist movement in Russia continued to gain strength . In an article published in a December 1916 issue of The State and Revolution , Bolshevik leader Lenin accused the vast majority of Russian anarchists of following Kropotkin and Grave , and denounced them as " anarcho @-@ chauvinists " . Similar remarks were made by other Bolsheviks , such as Joseph Stalin , who wrote in a letter to a Communist leader , " I have recently read Kropotkin 's articles — the old fool must have completely lost his mind " . Lenin protégé Leon Trotsky cited Kropotkin 's support for the war and his manifesto while further denouncing anarchism :
The superannuated anarchist Kropotkin , who had a weakness ever since youth for the Narodniks , made use of the war to disavow everything he had been teaching for almost half a century . This denouncer of the State supported the Entente , and if he denounced the double power in Russia , it was not in the name of anarchy , but in the name of a single power of the bourgeoisie .
Historian George Woodcock characterized these criticisms as acceptable insofar as they focused on Kropotkin 's militarism . However , he found the criticisms of Russian anarchists to be " unjustified " , and regarding accusations that Russian anarchists embraced Kropotkin and Grave 's message , Woodcock stated , " nothing of the kind happened ; only about a hundred anarchists signed the various pronouncements in support of the war ; the majority in all countries maintained the anti @-@ militarist position as consistently as the Bolsheviks . "
= = = Switzerland and Spain = = =
In Geneva , an angry group of " internationalists " – Grossman @-@ Roštšin , Alexander Ghe and Kropotkin 's disciple K. Orgeiani among them – labeled the anarchist champions of the war " Anarcho @-@ Patriots " . They maintained that the only form of war acceptable to true anarchists was the social revolution that would overthrow the bourgeoisie and their oppressive institutions . Jean Wintsch , founder of the Ferrer School of Lausanne and editor of La libre fédération , was isolated from the Swiss anarchist movement when he aligned himself with the Manifesto and its signatories .
The Spanish anarcho @-@ syndicalists , who opposed the war out of doctrinaire cynicism and a belief that neither faction were on the workers ' side , angrily repudiated their former idols ( including Kropotkin , Malato and Grave ) after discovering they had authored the manifesto . A small number of anarchists in Galicia and Asturias dissented and were heatedly denounced by the majority of Catalonian anarcho @-@ syndicalists ( who prevailed in the anarchist union Confederación Nacional del Trabajo ) .
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= Whitetip reef shark =
The whitetip reef shark ( Triaenodon obesus ) is a species of requiem shark , in the family Carcharhinidae , and the only member of its genus . A small shark usually not exceeding 1 @.@ 6 m ( 5 @.@ 2 ft ) in length , this species is easily recognizable by its slender body and short but broad head , as well as tubular skin flaps beside the nostrils , oval eyes with vertical pupils , and white @-@ tipped dorsal and caudal fins . One of the most common sharks found on Indo @-@ Pacific coral reefs , the whitetip reef shark occurs as far east as South Africa and as far west as Central America . It is typically found on or near the bottom in clear water , at a depth of 8 – 40 m ( 26 – 131 ft ) .
During the day , whitetip reef sharks spend much of their time resting inside caves . Unlike other requiem sharks , which rely on ram ventilation and must constantly swim to breathe , this shark can pump water over its gills and lie still on the bottom . At night , whitetip reef sharks emerge to hunt bony fishes , crustaceans , and octopus in groups , their elongate bodies allowing them to force their way into crevices and holes to extract hidden prey . Individuals may stay within a particular area of the reef for months to years , time and again returning to the same shelter . This species is viviparous , in which the developing embryos are sustained by a placental connection to their mother . One of the few sharks in which mating has been observed in the wild , receptive female whitetip reef sharks are followed by prospective males , which attempt to grasp her pectoral fin and maneuver the two of them into positions suitable for copulation . Females give birth to one to six pups every other year , after a gestation period of 10 – 13 months .
Whitetip reef sharks are rarely aggressive towards humans , though they may investigate swimmers closely . However , spear fishers are at risk of being bitten by one attempting to steal their catch . This species is caught for food , though ciguatera poisoning resulting from its consumption has been reported . The IUCN has assessed the whitetip reef shark as Near Threatened , noting its numbers are dwindling due to increasing levels of unregulated fishing activity across its range . The slow reproductive rate and limited habitat preferences of this species renders its populations vulnerable to overfishing .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The whitetip reef shark was first described by the German naturalist Eduard Rüppell as Carcharias obesus , in the 1837 Fische des Rothen Meeres ( Fishes of the Red Sea ) . His choice of the specific epithet obesus was curious , given that this shark is actually quite slender . Later in 1837 , Johannes Müller and Friedrich Henle moved this species into its own genus Triaenodon , from the Greek triaena meaning " trident " , and odon meaning " tooth " . As Rüppell did not originally designate a holotype , in 1960 a 31 @-@ cm @-@ long specimen caught off Jeddah , Saudi Arabia , was made the species lectotype . Other common names for this shark include blunthead shark , light @-@ tip shark , reef whitetip shark , and whitetip shark .
Once placed in the family Triakidae , the whitetip reef shark is now recognized by most authors as belonging to the family Carcharhinidae on the basis of morphological characters , such as a full nictitating membrane , well @-@ developed precaudal pit , strong lower caudal fin lobe , and scroll @-@ like intestinal valves . Morphological and molecular phylogenetic analyses suggest the whitetip reef shark is grouped with the lemon sharks ( Negaprion ) and the sliteye shark ( Loxodon ) in occupying an intermediate position on the carcharhinid evolutionary tree , between most basal genera ( Galeocerdo , Rhizoprionodon , and Scoliodon ) and the most derived ( Carcharhinus and Sphyrna ) .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Whitetip Reef Shark is distributed widely across the entire Indo @-@ Pacific region . It was once thought to have formerly existed in the Atlantic Ocean , based on fossil teeth found in North Carolina dating to the Miocene epoch . However , more recent research indicates that the teeth belonged to a mackerel shark , and that this species has never colonized the Atlantic . In the Indian Ocean , it occurs from northern KwaZulu @-@ Natal , South Africa to the Red Sea and the Indian subcontinent , including Madagascar , Mauritius , the Comoros , the Aldabra Group , the Seychelles , Sri Lanka , and the Chagos Archipelago . In the western and central Pacific , it occurs from off southern China , Taiwan , and the Ryukyu Islands , to the Philippines , Southeast Asia , and Indonesia , to northern Australia , and is also found around numerous islands in Melanesia , Micronesia , and Polynesia , as far as Hawaii to the north and the Pitcairn Islands to the southeast . In the eastern Pacific , it occurs from Costa Rica to Panama , and off the Galápagos Islands .
Associated almost exclusively with coral reef habitats , whitetip reef sharks are most often encountered around coral heads and ledges with high vertical relief , and additionally over sandy flats , in lagoons , and near drop @-@ offs to deeper water . They prefer very clear water and rarely swim far from the bottom . This species is most common at a depth of 8 – 40 m ( 26 – 131 ft ) . On occasion , they may enter water less than 1 m deep , and there is an exceptional record of a whitetip reef shark being captured from a depth of 330 m ( 1 @,@ 080 ft ) in the Ryukyu Islands .
= = Description = =
A relatively small species , few whitetip reef sharks are longer than 1 @.@ 6 m ( 5 @.@ 2 ft ) . The maximum length this species attains is often given as 2 @.@ 1 m ( 6 @.@ 9 ft ) , though this was originally based on visual observations and may be dubious . The maximum reported weight is 18 @.@ 3 kg ( 40 lb ) . The whitetip reef shark has a slim body and a short , broad head . The snout is flattened and blunt , with large flaps of skin in front of the nares that are furled into tubes . The eyes are small and oval with vertical pupils and prominent ridges above , and are often followed by a small notch . The mouth has a distinct downward slant ( imparting a disgruntled expression to the shark ) , with short furrows at the corners . There are 42 – 50 tooth rows in the upper jaw and 42 – 48 tooth rows in the lower jaw . Each tooth has a single narrow , smooth @-@ edged cusp at the center , flanked by a pair of much smaller cusplets .
The first dorsal fin is positioned well back on the body , closer to the pelvic than the pectoral fins . The second dorsal and anal fins are large , about half to three @-@ quarters as high as the first dorsal fin . The broad , triangular pectoral fins originate at or slightly before the level of the fifth gill slit . There is no ridge between the first and second dorsal fins . The lower lobe of the caudal fin is half the length of the upper , which has a strong notch near the tip . The dermal denticles are small and overlapping , usually with 7 horizontal ridges , giving the skin a smooth feel . The coloration is grayish to brownish above and white below , with a pattern of scattered small , dark spots unique to each individual . The tips of the first dorsal fin and upper caudal fin lobe , and sometimes also the second dorsal fin and lower caudal fin lobe , are bright white .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The whitetip reef shark is one of the three most common sharks inhabiting the reefs of the Indo @-@ Pacific , the other two being the blacktip reef shark ( Carcharhinus melanopterus ) and the grey reef shark ( Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos ) . The habitat preferences of this species overlap those of the other two , though it does not tend to frequent very shallow water like the blacktip reef shark , nor the outer reef like the grey reef shark . The whitetip reef shark swims with strong undulations of its body , and unlike other requiem sharks can lie motionless on the bottom and actively pump water over its gills for respiration . This species is most active at night or during slack tide , and spends much of the day resting inside caves singly or in small groups , arranged in parallel or stacked atop one another . Off Hawaii , these sharks may be found sheltering inside underwater lava tubes , while off Costa Rica they are often seen lying in the open on sandy flats .
Whitetip reef sharks generally remain within a highly localized area ; only rarely do they undertake long movements , wandering for a while before settling down somewhere new . One study at Johnston Atoll found that none of the sharks examined had moved more than 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) away from their original capture location over periods of up to a year . Another study at Rangiroa Atoll in French Polynesia found that , after more than three years , around 40 % of the originally tagged sharks were still present on the same reef where they were first captured . An individual shark may rest inside the same cave for months to years . The daytime home range of a whitetip reef shark is limited to approximately 0 @.@ 05 km2 ( 0 @.@ 019 sq mi ) ; at night this range increases to 1 km2 ( 0 @.@ 39 sq mi ) . These sharks are not territorial and share their home ranges with others of their species ; they do not perform threat displays .
Important predators of the whitetip reef shark include tiger sharks ( Galeocerdo cuvier ) , Galapagos sharks ( Carcharhinus galapagensis ) , and possibly also silvertip sharks ( Carcharhinus albimarginatus ) , though they usually occur at depths greater than those favored by whitetip reef sharks . An 80 cm ( 31 in ) long whitetip reef shark has also been found in the stomach of a giant grouper ( Epinephelus lanceolatus ) , though these groupers are unlikely to be significant predators of this species due to their rarity . Known parasites of the whitetip reef shark include the copepod Paralebion elongatus and the praniza ( parasitic ) larvae of the isopod Gnathia grandilaris . While resting during the day , these sharks have been observed being cleaned by the wrasse Bodianus diplotaenia and the goby Elacatinus puncticulatus . Unusually , there is also a report of seven whitetip reef sharks adopting a cleaning posture ( mouth agape and gills flared ) in the midst of a swarm of non @-@ cleaning hyperiid amphipods ; the mechanical stimulation from the moving amphipods are thought to have evoked this behavior through their similarity to actual cleaner organisms .
= = = Feeding = = =
With its slender , lithe body , the whitetip reef shark specializes in wriggling into narrow crevices and holes in the reef and extracting prey inaccessible to other reef sharks . Alternatively , it is rather clumsy when attempting to take food suspended in open water . This species feeds mainly on bony fishes , including eels , squirrelfishes , snappers , damselfishes , parrotfishes , surgeonfishes , triggerfishes , and goatfishes , as well as octopus , spiny lobsters , and crabs . The whitetip reef shark is highly responsive to the olfactory , acoustic , and electrical cues given off by potential prey , while its visual system is attuned more to movement and / or contrast than to object details . It is especially sensitive to natural and artificial low @-@ frequency sounds in the 25 – 100 Hz range , which evoke struggling fish .
Whitetip reef sharks hunt primarily at night , when many fishes are asleep and easily taken . After dusk , groups of sharks methodically scour the reef , often breaking off pieces of coral in their vigorous pursuit of prey . Multiple sharks may target the same prey item , covering every exit route from a particular coral head . Each shark hunts for itself and in competition with the others in its group . Unlike blacktip reef sharks and grey reef sharks , whitetip reef sharks do not become more excited when feeding in groups and are unlikely to be stirred into a feeding frenzy . Despite their nocturnal habits , whitetip reef sharks will hunt opportunistically in daytime . Off Borneo , this species gathers around reef drop @-@ offs to feed on food brought up by the rising current . Off Hawaii , they follow Hawaiian monk seals ( Monachus schauinslandi ) and attempt to steal their catches . A whitetip reef shark can survive for six weeks without food .
= = = Life history = = =
Like other members of its family , the whitetip reef shark is viviparous ; once the developing embryos exhaust their supply of yolk , the yolk sac is converted into a placental connection through which the mother delivers nourishment for the remainder of gestation . Mature females have a single functional ovary , on the left side , and two functional uteruses . The reproductive cycle is biennial .
Mating is initiated when up to five males follow closely behind a female and bite at her fins and body , possibly cued by pheromones indicating the female 's readiness . Each male attempts to seize the female by engulfing one of her pectoral fins ; at times two males might grasp a female on both sides simultaneously . Once engaged , the sharks sink to the bottom , whereupon the male ( or males ) rotates one of his claspers forward , inflates the associated siphon sac ( a subcutaneous abdominal organ that takes in seawater that is used to flush sperm into the female ) , and attempts to make contact with the female 's vent . In many cases , the female resists by pressing her belly against the bottom and arching her tail ; this may reflect mate choice on her part . The male has a limited time in which to achieve copulation , as while he is holding the female 's pectoral fin in his mouth he is being deprived of oxygen . On the other hand , if the female is willing , the pair settles side @-@ by @-@ side with their heads pressed against the bottom and their bodies at an upward angle .
After a gestation period of 10 – 13 months , females give birth to litters of 1 – 6 ( usually 2 – 3 ) pups . The number of offspring is not correlated with female size ; each female produces an estimated average of 12 pups over her entire lifetime . Parturition occurs from May to August ( autumn and winter ) in French Polynesia , in July ( summer ) off Enewetak Atoll , and in October ( summer ) off Australia . Females give birth while swimming , making violent twists and turns of their bodies ; each pup takes under an hour to fully emerge . The newborns measure 52 – 60 cm ( 20 – 24 in ) long and have relatively longer caudal fins than adults . This shark develops slowly compared to other requiem sharks ; newborns grow at a rate of 16 cm ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) per year while adults grow as a rate of 2 – 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 – 1 @.@ 57 in ) per year . Sexual maturity is reached at a length of around 1 @.@ 1 m ( 3 @.@ 6 ft ) and an age of 8 – 9 years , though mature males as small as 95 cm ( 37 in ) long have been recorded from the Maldives , suggesting regional variation in maturation size . On the Great Barrier Reef , males live to 14 years and females to 19 years ; the maximum lifespan of this shark may be upwards of 25 years . In 2008 , a whitetip reef shark produced a single pup through possibly asexual means at the Nyiregyhaza Centre in Hungary ; previous instances of asexual reproduction in sharks have been reported in the bonnethead ( Sphyrna tiburo ) and the blacktip shark ( Carcharhinus limbatus ) .
= = Human interactions = =
Unlike its Oceanic cousin , the white tip reef shark is more harmless and is seldom aggressive unless provoked . They are also fearless and curious , as the whitetip reef sharks may approach swimmers closely to investigate . However , these sharks readily attempt , and quite boldly , to steal catches from spear fishers , which has resulted in several people being bitten in the process . In some places , local whitetip reef sharks have learned to associate the sound of a speargun discharge or a boat dropping anchor with food and respond within seconds . As of 2008 , the International Shark Attack File lists two provoked and three unprovoked attacks to this species . Whitetip reef sharks are well @-@ suited to ecotourism diving , and with conditioning they can be hand @-@ fed by divers . In Hawaiian mythology , the fidelity ( i.e. " loyalty " ) of whitetip reef sharks to certain areas of the reef for years at a time may have inspired belief in ʻaumākua , the spirits of family ancestors that take animal form and protect their descendants .
The whitetip reef shark is taken by fisheries operating off Pakistan , India , Sri Lanka , Madagascar , and likely elsewhere , using longlines , gillnets , and trawls . The meat and liver are eaten , though sharks from certain areas present a substantial risk of ciguatera poisoning ( especially the liver , which contains a much higher concentration of the toxin than the meat ) . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed this species as Near Threatened , as its numbers have dropped in recent decades due to increasing , and thus far unregulated , fishing pressure in the tropics . Its restricted habitat , low dispersal , and slow reproduction are factors that limit this shark 's capacity for recovering from overfishing . On the Great Barrier Reef , populations of whitetip reef sharks in fishing zones have been reduced by 80 % relative to no @-@ entry zones . Furthermore , populations in no @-@ take zones , where boats are allowed but fishing prohibited , exhibit levels of depletion comparable to fishing zones due to poaching . Demographic models indicate that these depleted populations will continue to decline by 6 @.@ 6 – 8 @.@ 3 % per year without additional conservation measures .
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= PlayOnline =
PlayOnline is an online gaming service created by Square Co . ( now Square Enix ) in January 28 , 2000 , and has been the launcher application and Internet service for many of the online PC , PlayStation 2 and Xbox 360 games the company publishes . Games hosted included Front Mission Online , Fantasy Earth : The Ring of Dominion , Tetra Master , and the Japanese releases of EverQuest II , Dirge of Cerberus : Final Fantasy VII and JongHoLo .
The service hosted hundreds of thousands of players at its peak , and was one of the first cross @-@ platform gaming services . It was shutdown during the 2011 earthquake in Japan for twelve days . The platform was also subjected to denial of service attacks and players attempting to cheat who were subsequently banned .
Starting with Final Fantasy XIV , Square Enix began moving their online games off of the service , and many of the social networking features the game was released with failed to catch on , with the service being described as " clunky " . The termination date of service for Final Fantasy XI and PlayOnline for PlayStation 2 and Xbox 360 was March 2016 , with only the PC version of Final Fantasy XI still supported .
= = History = =
= = = Launch = = =
PlayOnline was originally conceived as an all @-@ in @-@ one solution to house multiple types of game content . At the " Square Millennium " event in Japan on January 28 , 2000 , Square announced three Final Fantasy games , including Final Fantasy XI , to be released in the summer of 2001 , and that Square had been working on an online portal called " PlayOnline " with Japanese telecom company NTT Communications , and would feature online games , chat , email , online comics , Internet browsing , online shopping , sports , and instant messaging . The service was first announced as costing ¥ 500 for monthly membership and a ¥ 1000 monthly user fee . Final Fantasy XI , then nicknamed " Final Fantasy Online " , was the first game to use the online service . The WonderSwan Color portable gaming system was also planned to be able to connect to PlayOnline through an adapter connected to one of the PlayStation 2 's USB ports . PlayOnline opened on June 6 , 2000 to both Japanese and English speaking countries with news about upcoming software titles , interviews , and wallpapers . The site 's merchandise included pieces from Parasite Eve , Vagrant Story , Chocobo Racing , Front Mission , Chrono Cross , and Final Fantasy .
= = = Service = = =
PlayOnline was seen as part of Sony 's strategy to turn the PlayStation 2 into an Internet set @-@ top box . Accordingly , Sony brought broadband equipment and a hard drive to the PlayStation 2 . The quality of the browser was noted in its " clean " graphics , excellent page layouts , and " high quality sound " . The browser was not a general purpose Internet tool , but only accessed Square content , such as news about Square products and a comic @-@ strip walkthrough of Final Fantasy XI .
Porting Final Fantasy XI to the Xbox proved difficult due to compatibility issues greater than was hoped for between Xbox Live and PlayOnline , likely because the latter was designed first . After negotiation , Xbox 360 players were able to play the game through PlayOnline 's servers exclusively , despite Microsoft 's initial wish that Square Enix would use its own platform . Downloadable content was also not available on the platform since the game played through PlayOnline . It was hoped that content would eventually be offered through the Xbox Live Marketplace . Final Fantasy XII started out as a game designed for the PlayOnline game platform .
= = = Security and Outages = = =
In February 2005 , 800 players were banned from the card game Tetra Master and from Final Fantasy XI for monopolizing areas where high level items and monsters would spawn , making it impossible for other players to become stronger . In March 2009 , Square Enix announced a new security system for players beginning April 6 , 2009 , involving a security token players could purchase for $ 9 @.@ 99 and including an in @-@ game bonus called a " Mog Satchel " . On April 9 , 2005 , a distributed denial of service attack against PlayOnline 's servers shut down Final Fantasy XI access for players in North America and Europe for three hours : the attack continued for over a week , leading Square Enix to involve law enforcement . At the time , Square Enix did not reveal if the Japanese server which hosted Front Mission Online , Fantasy Earth , and Japanese players of EverQuest II were affected .
After Japan 's 2011 earthquake , Square @-@ Enix , Co . Ltd. voluntarily disabled servers to conserve energy due to the incapacitated state of the region 's nuclear power plant . This led to a temporary halt of the Final Fantasy XIV , Final Fantasy XI , and PlayOnline games and services from March 13 to 25 . During the power shortage , air conditioning and lighting was reduced , and the subscription fees for Final Fantasy XI were waived for the month of April .
= = = Decline = = =
In June 2009 , Square Enix announced they had decided not to use PlayOnline for Final Fantasy XIV due to the marked decrease of content on the service . Instead , they would migrate to a new service that still allowed cross @-@ platform gameplay , including the use of a universal Square Enix ID that would allow players to play from wherever they left off . In June 2011 , Square Enix announced that they would merge the account management portion of the PlayOnline service into Square Enix accounts from July 2011 and culminate on August 31 , 2011 . However , PlayOnline is still required in order to actually play Final Fantasy XI . Square Enix replicated the idea of the friends list from Final Fantasy XI in Final Fantasy XIV . The termination date of service for Final Fantasy XI and PlayOnline for PlayStation 2 and Xbox 360 was March 2016 .
= = Reception = =
In December 2001 , Square Enix projected it would have 250 @,@ 000 users by the end of 2001 , and 400 @,@ 000 by year end 2002 : the service charged $ 10 per person , and thus needed 200 @,@ 000 participants to break even .
On January 7 , 2004 , Square Enix announced they had more than 500 @,@ 000 registered users on the PlayOnline gaming service , and slightly under one million active players . In September 2004 , Square Enix stated they had 1 @.@ 2 million characters , with most players having two to three characters . In May 2005 , Front Mission Online became the second game to utilize the service , retailing at ¥ 7 @,@ 140 with a monthly subscription price of ¥ 1 @,@ 344 . In June 2009 , a San Francisco , California resident sued Square Enix for " deceptive advertising , unfair competition , and unjust enrichment " from Final Fantasy XI , and sought a $ 5 million settlement .
Composer Nobuo Uematsu stated that Square 's efforts to push forward with online gaming was important to the video game industry 's development . The PlayOnline Viewer was criticized as being nothing more than a longer way to get to Final Fantasy XI 's content . The game also had unmoderated chat rooms that ended up with explicit content . The interface was also described as " clunky " , with " strange functional restrictions " .
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= County Route 149 ( Sullivan County , New York ) =
County Route 149 ( CR 149 ) is a 8 @.@ 69 @-@ mile ( 13 @.@ 99 km ) county route in northern Sullivan County , New York , in the United States . The route runs from an intersection with New York State Route 52 ( NY 52 ) in the Callicoon community of Youngsville to an intersection with CR 178 in the Rockland community of Livingston Manor . CR 149 was originally designated as New York State Route 284 during the 1930s .
= = Route description = =
CR 149 begins at an intersection with NY 52 in the community of Youngsville . The route progresses northward , passing and paralleling Tremper Road , a dead @-@ end road . CR 149 passes by several residential homes in Youngsville , along with one local commercial building . After leaving the community , CR 149 continues to the north as Shandelee Road , passing through the residential surroundings . After passing by a few more residences , Shandelee Road makes a bend to the northwest , and into more dense woodlands in the area . About a mile north of Youngsville , CR 149 continues its way northward , passing by a local residence , and intersects with Stump Pond Road , which heads westward from the main highway . Shandalee Road makes another bend , this time to the north , passing through moderate development for about another mile . A short distance into the bend , the woodlands that were surrounding the highway clear and the highway becomes surrounded by fields and residential homes .
After a short gap in the clearing , CR 149 intersects with Hardenburg Road , a local road , in another clearing . After Hardenburg Road , Shandelee Road begins to bend in different directions , several times to the west and several times to the east , intersecting with Meyer Road at a fork . CR 149 , which continues to the left at the fork , heads to the northwest , paralleling Meyer Road to the west . The residences begin to disappear and CR 149 continues into a more wooded area , where it intersects with Whittendale Road , a local dead @-@ end road . A short distance from Whittendale Road , CR 149 makes a sharp bend to the northeast , intersecting with the northern termini of Stump Pond Road and Meyer Road . Near the intersection with Gilda Lane , CR 149 passes the Sand Pond , and intersects with a series of short local roads . Paralleling the shores of Sand Pond for a short distance , Shandelee Road begins to enter the community of Shandelee . There , the highway intersects with Shandelee Lake Road , a short connector highway in the area . CR 149 makes a curve to the east , following Shandelee Road for a distance , making several winds in direction until the alignment turns towards the northeast . Shandelee Road continues to the northeast , passing through local woodlands and fields . As CR 149 nears Livingston Manor , the name changes from Shandelee Road to Main Street .
After a curve to the northeast , CR 149 passes under some power lines , intersecting with Cattall Road . There the highway turns to the north , and soon to the northeast , entering Livingston Manor . Immediately after entering the community , CR 149 becomes more developed , with residential homes and commercial buildings now surrounding highway . After an intersection with Creamery Road , CR 149 continues to the northeast through downtown Livingston Manor , ending at an intersection with CR 178 ( a former alignment of NY 17 ) . Interchange 98 on Route 17 ( the Quickway ) , is not far to the north and is accessible via CR 178 and CR 81 .
= = History = =
In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , the New York State Department of Public Works renumbered several routes assigned during the 1920s and assigned route numbers to hundreds of state highways that had yet to receive a designation . By the following year , the current alignment of CR 149 , then a state highway , was designated as NY 284 . The NY 284 designation was short @-@ lived , however , as it was removed c . 1939 . The former alignment of NY 284 was designated as CR 149 by the Sullivan County Highway Department by 1995 . The NY 284 designation is now assigned to a road in nearby Orange County .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Sullivan County .
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= Tennis for Two =
Tennis For Two is a sports video game developed in 1958 which simulates a game of tennis , and was one of the first games developed in the early history of video games . American physicist William Higinbotham designed the game for display at the Brookhaven National Laboratory 's annual public exhibition after learning that the government research institution 's Donner Model 30 analog computer could simulate trajectories with wind resistance . He designed the game , displayed on an oscilloscope and played with two custom aluminum controllers , in a few hours , after which he and technician Robert V. Dvorak built it over three weeks . The game 's visuals show a representation of a tennis court viewed from the side , and players adjust the angle of their shots with a knob on their controller and try to hit the ball over the net by pressing a button .
The game was very popular during the three @-@ day exhibition , with players lining up to see the game , especially high school students . It was shown again the following year with a larger oscilloscope screen and more a complicated design that could simulate different gravity levels . It was then dismantled and largely forgotten until the late 1970s , when Higinbotham testified in court about the game during lawsuits between Magnavox and Ralph H. Baer over video game patents . Since then , it has been celebrated as one of the earliest video games , and Brookhaven has made recreations of the original device . Under some definitions Tennis for Two is considered the first video game , as while it did not include any technological innovations over prior games , it was the first computer game to be created purely as an entertainment product rather than for academic research or commercial technology promotion .
= = Development = =
In 1958 , American physicist William Higinbotham worked in the Brookhaven National Laboratory in Upton , New York as the head of the instrumentation division . Higinbotham had a bachelor 's degree in physics from Williams College , and had previously worked as technician in the physics department at Cornell University while unsuccessfully pursuing a PhD there . He served as the head of the electronics division of the Manhattan Project from 1943 to 1945 , and began working at Brookhaven in 1947 , which focused on researching peaceful uses of atomic power . Once a year , the government research facility held an exhibition for the public , with one day each for high school students , college students , and the general public . The exhibition largely consisted of tours and static displays , with some attempts at making displays with " action " , so for the 1958 exhibition Higinbotham decided to make an interactive display to entertain the visitors . While reading the instruction manual for one of Brookhaven 's computers , a Donner Model 30 analog computer , he learned that the computer could calculate ballistic missile trajectories or a bouncing ball with wind resistance , and he decided to use this ability to form the foundation of a game . He later recalled his intentions were that " it might liven up the place to have a game that people could play , and which could convey the message that our scientific endeavors have relevance for society . "
Higinbotham designed a game that used an oscilloscope to display the path of a simulated ball on a tennis court viewed from the side . The attached computer calculated the path of the ball and reversed its path when it hit the ground . The game also simulated the ball hitting the net if it did not achieve a high enough arc as well as changes in velocity due to drag from air resistance . Two aluminum controllers were attached to the computer , each consisting of a button and a knob . Pressing the button hit the ball , and turning a knob controlled the angle of the shot . Originally , Higinbotham considered having a second knob to control the velocity of the shot , but decided it would make the controller too complicated . The device was designed in a few hours with the help of colleague Dave Potter and was assembled over three weeks with the help of technician Robert V. Dvorak . While most of the circuitry was based on vacuum tubes and relays , the circuits to display the graphics on the oscilloscope used transistors , then beginning to replace vacuum tubes in the electronics industry . Excluding the oscilloscope and controller , the game 's circuitry approximately took up the space of a microwave oven .
= = Presentation = =
Tennis for Two was first shown on October 18 , 1958 . The game was rendered as a horizontal line , representing the tennis court , and a short vertical line in the center , representing the tennis net . The first player would press the button on their controller to send the ball , a point of light , over the net , and it would either hit the net , reach the other side of the court , or fly out of bounds . The second player could then hit the ball back with their controller while it was on their side , either before or after it bounced on the ground . Hundreds of visitors lined up to play the new game during its debut . Higinbotham claimed later that " the high schoolers liked it best , you couldn 't pull them away from it . " Due to the game 's popularity , an upgraded version was shown the following year , with enhancements including a larger screen and different levels of simulated gravity . Players could set the game to simulate the gravity levels of the Moon or Jupiter . Higinbotham referred to the game as Tennis for Two , though a placard attached to the 1959 version titled it " Computer Tennis " . After the 1959 exhibition , the game was dismantled so its components could be put to other uses .
= = Legacy = =
After being dismantled , Tennis for Two was largely forgotten . It remained virtually unknown until the late 1970s and early 1980s when Higinbotham was called on to testify in court cases for defendants sued by Magnavox over the video game patents of Ralph H. Baer . Having discovered the game , the lawyers for the defense unsuccessfully attempted to have the game declared prior art to invalidate Baer 's patents on television video games , resulting in attention being given to the nearly 20 year old game as possibly the first video game . It received further attention as the subject of articles in Creative Computing and Video Replay in 1982 and 1983 highlighting its possible status as the first video game ; the editor of Creative Computing , David H. Ahl , had played Tennis for Two at Brookhaven in 1958 , and dubbed Higinbotham the " Grandfather of Video Games " . Higinbotham himself felt that the game was an obvious extension of the Donner Model 30 's bouncing ball program and therefore not worthy of patenting or a large part of his legacy ; he preferred to be remembered for his post @-@ World War II nuclear nonproliferation work .
In 1997 , a team at Brookhaven recreated the game for Brookhaven 's 50th anniversary . The reconstruction took about three months , partially because the parts were not readily available . This recreation was also displayed at the 2008 celebration of the 50th Anniversary of the original game . The replica implemented an analog computer using solid @-@ state operational amplifier devices instead of vacuum tubes as the original Donner Model 30 did . In 2010 , it was replaced with a restored Donner Model 3400 analog computer . In 2011 , Stony Brook University founded the William A. Higinbotham Game Studies Collection , dedicated to " documenting the material culture of screen @-@ based game media " , and " collecting and preserving the texts , ephemera , and artifacts that document the history and work of early game innovator and Brookhaven National Laboratory scientist William A. Higinbotham , who in 1958 invented the first interactive analog computer game , Tennis for Two . "
Tennis for Two is considered under some definitions to be the first video game . Other candidates with stronger candidacies from a technological standpoint include the 1947 cathode @-@ ray tube amusement device , the earliest known interactive electronic game , though it did not run on a computing device ; the 1950 Bertie the Brain , the earliest known game to run on a computer , though it used lightbulbs for a display ; and OXO and a draughts game by Christopher Strachey in 1952 , the earliest digital computer games to display visuals on an electronic screen . Tennis for Two , though it contained no technological developments to separate it from earlier games , has the distinction of being the earliest known computer game with visuals created purely for entertainment purposes . Prior games were created primarily for academic research purposes or to demonstrate the computing power of the underlying machine , with the exception of the non @-@ computer based cathode @-@ ray tube amusement device . This , therefore , makes Tennis for Two the first video game under some definitions from a philosophical viewpoint rather than a technical one and a distinctive moment in the early history of video games .
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= SR Q class =
The Q Class , is a type of 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 steam locomotive designed by Richard Maunsell of the Southern Railway and constructed immediately prior to the Second World War , for use on medium @-@ distance freight trains throughout network . Twenty locomotives were built by Maunsell 's successor , Oliver Bulleid , in 1938 . The design was relatively old @-@ fashioned and the class was soon afterwards eclipsed by Bulleid 's own more powerful Q1 class . Nevertheless the locomotives performed adequately and reliably on the tasks for which they were designed until their withdrawal in 1965 . Only one has survived , and is preserved on the Bluebell Railway .
= = Background = =
The Southern Railway was primarily a passenger @-@ carrying railway which used most of its resources to extend its electrified lines . There was a continuing need for steam freight locomotives however , although the Traffic Department preferred mixed traffic designs which could also haul passenger trains on the remaining non @-@ electrified lines at peak periods . By the late 1930s the Southern Railway was adequately served with powerful mixed traffic locomotives of the S15 and N and N1 classes , but there was a need for a smaller freight locomotive with high route availability that could also undertake light passenger duties . This role had been performed by the ex @-@ LSWR ' Jubilee ' A12 0 @-@ 4 @-@ 2 , which were approaching the end of their useful lives . During his last year as the Chief Mechanical Engineer ( CME ) of the Southern Railway Richard Maunsell decided on an inside @-@ cylinder 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 tender locomotive to undertake this role , in what was to become the Q Class of 1938 . This was a relatively ‘ old @-@ fashioned ’ design for the late 1930s , although each of Britain ’ s major railways built locomotives of this pattern until the 1940s . The class nevertheless contained several ‘ modern ’ features such as a Belpaire firebox , superheater , and a side @-@ widow cab . It was the last Southern steam locomotive design before the Second World War , and represented the final design of Maunsell 's career , as he retired due to ill @-@ health in 1937 .
= = Construction history = =
Maunsell ’ ' s successor , Oliver Bulleid , oversaw the building of twenty members of the class at Eastleigh railway works between January 1938 and September 1939 . Bulleid is reported to have found the Q Class uninspiring , having been manufactured to traditional Victorian principles of locomotive design , and is said to have stated that the order for the Q Class would have been cancelled if he had been appointed CME earlier . However , Bulleid had ample opportunity either to cancel the order or to build and test a single prototype , without incurring the expense of building twenty members of the class , if this was the case .
The class performed adequately and reliably on the tasks for which they were designed , but were less versatile than might have been hoped . When the requirement for modern freight locomotives on the Southern increased during the Second World War , Bulleid was faced with the options of continuing the production of the Q Class , or to design a completely new locomotive . Taking the latter option , Bulleid designed what was to become the highly utilitarian SR Class Q1 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 locomotives .
= = = Modifications = = =
In common with most Maunsell designs , the Q class locomotives were reliable , but there were complaints of poor steaming when used on main @-@ line trains ( for which they were never designed ) . In 1940 Bulleid fitted one member of the class with a Lemaître blast pipe in an attempt to improve their efficiency . This proved to be successful and the remainder of the class were so fitted between 1946 and 1949 . During the 1950s further experiments were carried out by the fitting of a British Railways Standard Class 4 plain blast pipe and small stovepipe chimney to no . 30549 in 1955 , resulting in further improvements in both steaming and fuel consumption ; in 1958 – 61 , six more received the same blast pipe with a BR Standard Class 4 chimney .
= = Operational details and preservation = =
The locomotives were adequate and reliable on secondary services throughout their working lives , their utility compounded by their light weight and steady handling . They were however disappointing on main line traffic until the draughting was improved after the war . They were fitted with steam carriage heating , and despite being primarily a freight design , they periodically deputised in this duty .
British Railways was responsible for the class from 1948 and gave it a 4F power classification , F denoting a freight locomotive in power class 4 . Withdrawals from service began during 1962 and were completed by 1965 .
= = Preservation = =
The class was not considered sufficiently important for official preservation and had it not been for Woodham Brothers 's scrapyard in Barry , South Wales , no examples would have survived . Only one , number 541 ( BR No. 30541 ) , was rescued , and has operated on the Bluebell Railway in Sussex . It is operational in BR Black after returning to service in April 2015 .
= = Livery and numbering = =
= = = Southern Railway = = =
Due to its primary role as a freight locomotive , the Q Class carried the Southern Black livery . Locomotive number and " Southern " were located on the tender , and were painted in Sunshine Yellow . The numbering of the locomotives under the Southern Railway ranged from 530 – 549 . Even though they were built under the tenure of Bulleid , the locomotives never followed his adaptation of the UIC classification system which refers to the number of leading , trailing and driving axles – in this case three . Under this system , this class would have had the prefix " C " before the numbers , such as C30 . In the event , this form of numbering was granted to Bulleid 's Q1 Class locomotives of 1942 .
= = = Post @-@ 1948 ( nationalisation ) = = =
Early livery included the temporary retention of the Southern number , and remained black , although in certain cases " British Railways " was applied to the tender in place of " Southern " , in Sunshine Yellow . Under British Railways , the class was granted the power classification 4F . Immediately after nationalisation , the Q Class was given a temporary " S " prefix to the original Southern Railway number . As overhauls and re @-@ paints became due , the class was eventually re @-@ numbered within the British Railways standard numbering system and the livery was changed to British Railways goods plain black with the crest on the tender and numbering on the side of the cab . These locomotive numbers ranged between 30530 and 30549 .
= = Locomotive Summary = =
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= 2009 Mediterranean Games =
The 2009 Mediterranean Games , officially the XVI Mediterranean Games ( Italian : XVI Giochi del Mediterraneo ) and commonly known as Pescara 2009 , was a multi @-@ sport event held in Pescara , Italy , from 26 June to 5 July 2009 . It was governed by the International Committee of Mediterranean Games ( ICMG ) ( French : Comité international des Jeux méditerranéens ) . A total of 3 @,@ 368 athletes ( 2 @,@ 183 men and 1 @,@ 185 women ) from 23 National Olympic Committees ( NOCs ) participated in the Games . Montenegro participated for the first time at the Mediterranean Games , after their independence in 2006 . The program included competitions in 24 different sports , including three non @-@ Olympic sports – bocce , karate , and water skiing – and golf , which will be reinstated as an official Olympic sport in 2016 Summer Olympics . Water skiing was introduced as a demonstration sport . Two disabled sports , athletics and swimming , were also contested in the Games . Italy became the first nation to host the Mediterranean Games three times , having previously hosted them in Naples ( 1963 ) and Bari ( 1997 ) .
Pescara was awarded the Games on 18 October 2003 in Almeria , Spain , which was the host of 2005 Mediterranean Games , defeating bids from Rijeka and Patras . The organising committee of the Games , Comitato Organizzatore dei XVI Giochi del Mediterraneo ( COJM ) , was created in 2006 to oversee the staging of the Games . A total of 33 venues were used to host the events , including Stadio Adriatico — main stadium of the Pescara Games , hosted both the opening and closing ceremonies , as well as the athletics competition and football final . Many events took place in several different cities . The official logo of the 2009 Mediterranean Games featured simple graphical illustrations of mountains and sea of the Abruzzo region , and the Marsican brown bear was chosen as the mascot of the Games .
Athletes from 21 countries won medals , leaving two countries without a medal ; 18 of them won at least one gold medal . A total of 782 medals — 243 gold , 244 silver and 295 bronze — were awarded . Competitors from the host nation , Italy , led the medal table for the eleventh time in the history of the Games , with 64 gold medals . Italian swimmer Federica Pellegrini and Spanish swimmer Aschwin Wildeboer Faber set new world records in their respective events .
= = Background = =
The Mediterranean Games is a multi @-@ sport event , much like the Summer Olympics ( albeit on a much smaller scale ) , with participation exclusively from countries around the Mediterranean Sea where Europe , Africa , and Asia meet . The Games started in 1951 and are held every four years . The idea of holding the Mediterranean Games originated with Muhammed Taher Pasha , who was the chairman of the Egyptian Olympic Committee and the vice @-@ president of the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) , at a meeting during the 1948 London Olympics . The Games " were designed specifically to bring together the Muslim and European countries surrounding the Mediterranean basin " to promote understanding through sporting competition .
The first edition of the Mediterranean Games was held in the Egyptian city of Alexandria in 1951 , attracting 734 competitors from 10 nations . Female athletes were not allowed to compete . Italy hosted the Games for the first time in 1963 in Naples — the fourth edition of the Games . Naples was the second in Europe ( following Barcelona in 1955 ) to host the Games . Thirty @-@ four years later , another Italian city , Bari , hosted the Games .
= = Organisation = =
= = = Selection of host city = = =
Pescara was elected as the host city for the 2009 Mediterranean Games on 18 October 2003 in Almeria , Spain , defeating bids from Rijeka and Patras . The decision for the host city was made after the voting by members of the International Committee of Mediterranean Games , held in Almeria , host of the 2005 Mediterranean Games . Croatia 's bidding city , Rijeka , was the first city to be eliminated , followed by Patras , Greece 's biding city . This was the third time that any Italian city hosted this multi @-@ sport event .
Croatian delegates were outraged by the final decision , particularly as this was their third bid in recent years ; Croatia made bids in 1995 and 1999 for the 1997 and 2001 Mediterranean Games , respectively . Former Prime Minister of Croatia and the president of the Croatian Olympic Committee Zlatko Mateša expressed his disappointment , " it just shows , once again , that small countries have no chance of competing with the big ones . " The Croatian bid was supported by the president and CEO of Formula One Management and Formula One Administration Bernie Ecclestone , 1992 Olympic bronze medallist in tennis Goran Ivanišević and 1998 FIFA World Cup Golden Shoe Award winner Davor Suker .
= = = Organising committee = = =
The Comitato Organizzatore dei XVI Giochi del Mediterraneo – Pescara 2009 ( English : Organizing Committee of the XVI Mediterranean Games – Pescara 2009 ; abbreviated as COJM ) was created in 2006 to oversee the staging of the Games . The committee was in charge of implementing and staging the Games , and to maintain the infrastructure and provide other services . The committee 's board of directors consisted of politicians , IOC members from Italy , and presidents of the various Italian sports governing bodies . Mario Pescante was appointed as the Commissioner Extraordinary of the Games in 2008 by the Italian Government . He had held the same office during the 2006 Winter Olympic , held in Turin .
A few weeks before the Games on 18 May 2009 , Sabatino Aracu resigned from his post of the president of the organising committee in order to allow its dissolution , which according to him was " incapable of taking urgent measures . " Aracu 's decision was reportedly motivated by the bureaucratic reasons . He was later appointed Honorary President of the Games .
= = = Logo and mascot = = =
The official logo of this edition of the Mediterranean Games featured simple graphical illustrations of mountains and sea of the Abruzzo region . Pescara is the capital of Province of Pescara which is situated in the Abruzzo region . The official mascot was a Marsican brown bear wearing a diving mask and flip @-@ flops with swimfins in his hands . The Marsican brown bear is a highly threatened , unrecognised subspecies of the Brown bear , with a range restricted to the Abruzzo National Park . The mascot was unveiled by the Mediterranean Games Executive Committee during their meeting in Pescara from 24 to 28 March 2008 .
= = = Medals = = =
The medals of the Games were designed and produced by the Italian company , Coinart , specialising in the manufacture of medals , jewellery , badges , plaques , and trophies . The medals were made up of brass , bronze , and gold . The obverse features the Games logo , stylised shape of an athlete posed to plunge into the waves , with the inscription " Pescara 2009 " and XVI Jeux méditerranéens in French and the ICMG logo at bottom — three interlocking rings , representing Africa , Asia and Europe . The reverse features the Warrior of Capestrano ( Italian : Guerriero di Capestrano ) , a fourth @-@ century BC statue , measures more than two metres in height . The statue was discovered in 1934 in Capestrano , Province of L 'Aquila , Abruzzo region . It is widely considered to be an archaeological evidence of the pre @-@ Roman settlements in Abruzzo .
= = = Venues = = =
The main stadium of the 2009 Mediterranean Games was Stadio Adriatico . The stadium received major renovations and upgrades at a cost of about € 10 million . It hosted both the opening and closing ceremonies as well as the athletics competition and football final . A total of 33 venues were used to host the events during the Games . Many events took place in several different cities .
The Mediterranean Village provided accommodation and training for athletes of the Games . It was designed by the Italian architect Paolo Desideri , and the total cost of the project was € 150 million . It was located in the municipality of Chieti and was spread over an area of 18 acres ( 7 @.@ 3 ha ; 0 @.@ 028 sq mi ) , including a 7 acres ( 2 @.@ 8 ha ; 0 @.@ 011 sq mi ) public park . More than 450 apartments accommodated athletes and team officials .
The village was designed according to modern architecture and was said to have adopted green features like solar water heating . Key facilities such as a restaurant , medical centre , and a conference hall with a seating capacity of 800 people were hosted there . Rhythmic gymnast Fabrizia D 'Ottavio was appointed the mayor of the village .
= = Calendar = =
In the following calendar for the 2009 Mediterranean Games , each blue box represents an event competition , such as a qualification round , on that day . The yellow boxes represent days during which medal @-@ awarding finals for a sport were held . On the left the calendar lists each sport with events held during the Games . There is a key at the top of the calendar to aid the reader .
Although , the Games officially began on 26 June 2009 , the first football games were held on 25 June . Opening ceremony was held on 26 June , and on the same day Tunisian weightlifter Khalil El @-@ Maaoui won the first gold medal of the Games in the men 's 56 kg event .
= = Games = =
= = = Opening ceremony = = =
The opening ceremony officially began at 9 : 00 pm Central European Summer Time ( UTC + 02 : 00 ) on 26 June 2009 in the Stadio Adriatico . Italian entrepreneur Marco Balich , who coordinated the opening ceremony of the 2006 Winter Olympics , held in Turin , was its producer and director , with " music moments and stage actions " were developed by the choreography director Doug Jack . K @-@ events ( now Filmmaster Events ) , subsidiary of the Italian holding company Filmmaster Group , was responsible for the organisation of the opening and closing ceremonies .
The ceremony , among other dignitaries and guests , included the president of the International Olympic Committee Jacques Rogge , president of the ICMG Amar Addadi , Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi , Albert II , Prince of Monaco , Commissioner Extraordinary of the Games Mario Pescante , president of the Pescara Games organising committee Sabatino Aracu , European Olympic Committee ( EOC ) president Patrick Hickey , president of the Italian National Olympic Committee ( Italian : Comitato Olimpico Nazionale Italiano ( CONI ) ) Gianni Petrucci and the EOC and CONI secretary general Raffaele Pagnozzi .
The cultures of Abruzzi Region and Mediterranean were highlighted in the two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours long opening ceremony . The stadium was full to its 25 @,@ 000 capacity . A special tribute was presented to the victims of the 2009 L 'Aquila earthquake , occurred in the region of Abruzzo on 6 April 2009 ; Italian flag was carried by the Italian Special Forces , " who were the first to arrive in L ’ Aquila " . The ceremony featured a special performance by the Italian Air Force . Italian musician and singer @-@ songwriter Eros Ramazzotti sang " L 'orizzonte " from his 2009 studio album Ali e radici . The main attraction of the ceremony was the " Water Ceremony " . The " water journey " took place through the villages most stricken by the earthquake and ended at the stadium .
= = = Sports = = =
The programme for the Pescara Games included 24 sports and 245 events . Two disabled sports – athletics and swimming – were also held , each comprising two events . Three sports were open only to men – boxing , football and water polo – while rhythmic gymnastics and two events of fencing ( foil and sabre ) were open only to women . Equestrian was the only sport in which men and women competed together . Water skiing was added as a demonstration sport .
Numbers in parentheses indicate the number of medal events contested in each sport .
= = = Closing ceremony = = =
The 2009 Mediterranean Games closing ceremony concluded the Pescara Games on 5 July 2009 . It began at 9 : 00 pm Central European Summer Time ( UTC + 2 : 00 ) , and took place on the streets of the city . The " main element " of the ceremony was white , and spectators were asked by the organisers to wear white clothing . The event was directed by Marco Balich and organised by K @-@ events .
The ceremony included the handover of the Games from Pescara to Volos , co @-@ host of the 2013 Mediterranean Games with Larissa . The Italian army 's brass band played the Italian national anthem , Il Canto degli Italiani . The Mayor of Pescara , Luigi Albore Mascia , then handed the Mediterranean Games flag to the president of the International Committee for the Mediterranean Games , Amar Addadi , who in turn passed it to Aleksandros Voulgaris , the Mayor of Volos . The closing act of the ceremony was the romanza of Mario Cavaradossi " E lucevan le stelle " , performed by local pop singer Piero Mazzocchetti , who was specially chosen for this purpose by the president of the organising committee Sabatino Aracu .
= = = Medal count = = =
Athletes from 21 countries won medals , leaving two countries without a medal , and 18 of them won at least one gold medal . Andorra and Lebanon did not win any medal . Athens Olympics silver medallist in 200 metre freestyle , Federica Pellegrini of Italy made a new world record in the 400 metres freestyle event . Spanish swimmer Aschwin Wildeboer Faber set a new world record in 100 metres backstroke .
Key
* Host nation
= = Participation = =
A total of 3 @,@ 368 athletes ( 2 @,@ 183 men and 1 @,@ 185 women ) from 23 member nations of the International Committee of Mediterranean Games participated ( ICMG ) in the Games . The number of participating countries was the greatest in Mediterranean Games history ( equivalent to Tunis 2005 ) . The total number of female athletes was an all @-@ time high . Women took part in the Games for the first time in 1967 . Italy and Greece had the largest teams , with 452 athletes for Italy and 391 for Greece . Andorra sent the smallest delegation of 13 members .
All but one of the 24 National Olympic Committees that were member of the ICMG , as of 2009 , participated in the Pescara Games , the exception being Republic of Macedonia . Montenegro , after their independence in 2006 , participated for the first time at the Mediterranean Games . The states of Serbia and Montenegro , which participated at the 2005 Mediterranean Games jointly as Serbia and Montenegro , competed separately . The Montenegrin Olympic Committee was accepted as a new National Olympic Committee by the International Olympic Committee in 2007 .
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= Edwin Thumboo =
Edwin Nadason Thumboo B.B.M. ( born 22 November 1933 ) is a Singaporean poet and academic who is regarded as one of the pioneers of English literature in Singapore .
Thumboo graduated in English from the University of Malaya in 1956 . Although he applied for a position at the university , he was rejected as few locals held academic posts at that time . He therefore worked in the civil service for about nine years before finally joining the university , then renamed the University of Singapore , in 1966 following Singapore 's independence . He received a Ph.D. from the university in 1970 . Thumboo rose to the position of full professor in the Department of English Language and Literature , heading the department between 1977 and 1993 . After the merger of the University of Singapore and Nanyang University in 1980 to form the National University of Singapore ( NUS ) , he was the Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences from 1980 to 1991 , NUS 's longest @-@ serving dean . Thumboo was the first Chairman and Director of the university 's Centre for the Arts from 1993 to 2005 , and continues to be associated with the university as an emeritus professor , a position he has held since retiring from full @-@ time teaching in September 1997 .
Thumboo 's poetry is inspired by myth and history , and he is often dubbed Singapore 's unofficial poet laureate because of his poems with nationalistic themes . A pioneer of local English literature , he compiled and edited some of the first anthologies of English poetry and fiction from Singapore and Malaysia . His own collections of poetry include Rib of Earth ( 1956 ) , Ulysses by the Merlion ( 1979 ) and A Third Map ( 1993 ) . His latest anthology Still Travelling , consisting of almost 50 poems , was published in 2008 . Thumboo has won the National Book Development Council of Singapore Book Awards for Poetry three times , in 1978 , 1980 and 1994 . He has also received the inaugural S.E.A. Write Award ( 1979 ) , the first Cultural Medallion for Literature ( 1979 ) , the Association of Southeast Asian Nations ( ASEAN ) Cultural and Communication Award ( Literature ) ( 1987 ) , and the Raja Rao Award ( 2002 ) . He was conferred a Bintang Bakti Masyarakat ( Public Service Star ) in 1981 with an additional Bar in 1991 , and the Pingat Jasa Gemilang ( Meritorious Services Medal ) in 2006 . He conceived the first National Poetry Festival for Singapore in 2015 .
= = Early years = =
Edwin Thumboo , born in Singapore on 22 November 1933 , was the eldest of eight children of a Tamil schoolteacher and a Teochew Chinese @-@ Peranakan housewife from a Singaporean merchant family . He and his siblings grew up speaking English and Teochew . The family was financially comfortable ; their home in Mandai was the only one in the neighbourhood with electricity . Because of his mixed parentage , as a child he was sometimes called names and marginalized . This was said to have fostered determination and self @-@ respect in him . He completed his primary education at Pasir Panjang Primary School in 1940 . During the Japanese occupation of Singapore ( 1942 – 1945 ) , he helped his family by selling cakes , tending goats , and working as a salesboy . Following the war , he studied at Monk 's Hill Secondary School ( finishing there in 1946 ) and Victoria School ( 1948 ) . It was at the latter place that he began writing poetry at the age of 17 years , encouraged by the senior English master Shamus Frazer . Thumboo considers Frazer his spiritual father , and later dedicated Rib of Earth ( 1956 ) , his first collection of poetry published while an undergraduate , to him . At this time , Thumboo was also a member of the Youth Poetry Circle , which counted among its members other early literary pioneers of Singapore such as Goh Sin Tub and Lim Thean Soo .
= = Education and career = =
Thumboo majored in English literature and history at the University of Malaya . As a freshman , he was a member of the editorial board of Fajar ( Dawn in Malay ) , a radical leftist journal published by the University Socialist Club . The seventh issue of Fajar which appeared in May 1954 contained an editorial entitled " Aggression in Asia " which advocated independence from the United Kingdom . Three days later , Chinese middle school students clashed with the police . As a result , after two weeks Thumboo was arrested by the British colonial government together with seven other students and put on trial for sedition . Minister Mentor and former Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew , who was the Club 's legal adviser and a Fajar subscriber , arranged for British Queen 's Counsel D. N. Pritt to act in their defence , with Lee himself as junior counsel . The students were acquitted of the charge by District Judge F. A. Chua .
Thumboo graduated with a Bachelor of Arts with honours ( B.A. ( Hons . ) ) in English in 1956 . Hoping to teach and pursue a further degree , he applied for a position at the university but was rejected as few locals held academic posts at that time . He therefore entered the civil service , working for the Income Tax Department ( 1957 – 1961 ) , Central Provident Fund Board ( 1961 – 1965 ) , and the Singapore Telephone Board ( 1965 – 1966 ) where he was an assistant secretary . In 1966 , the year following Singapore 's independence , he joined the University of Singapore as an assistant lecturer . Conducting doctoral research into African poetry in English , he received his Ph.D. from the university in 1970 . He became a full professor in the Department of English Language and Literature , heading the department between 1977 and 1993 . The University of Singapore and Nanyang University merged in 1980 to form the National University of Singapore ( NUS ) , and he was the Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences from 1980 to 1991 , NUS 's longest @-@ serving dean .
As an academic , he taught Elizabethan and Jacobean drama , the Romantic poets , Malaysian and Singaporean literatures , and creative writing , among other subjects . His research interests included the modern novel ( E. M. Forster , D. H. Lawrence and Joseph Conrad ) and the novels of Empire ( such as Rudyard Kipling ) , Commonwealth literature ( including Botswana writer Bessie Head ) , and William Shakespeare 's Roman plays . When he headed the English Department , it introduced the study of Commonwealth / New Literatures in English , and of English language as a major so that graduates would be better equipped to teach English in schools and junior colleges . Thumboo was appointed a Professorial Fellow by NUS in 1995 and continues to be associated with the university as an emeritus professor , a position he has held since he retired from full @-@ time teaching in September 1997 . He served as the first Chairman and Director of the university 's Centre for the Arts from 1993 to 2005 .
Thumboo also held visiting professorships and fellowships at universities in Australia , the UK and the US . He was Fulbright @-@ Hayes Visiting Professor at Pennsylvania State University ( 1979 – 1980 ) ; Chairman of the Association for Commonwealth Literature and Language Studies , VII Triennium ( 1983 – 1986 ) ; Writer @-@ in @-@ Residence at the Institute of Culture and Communication , Hawaii ( 1985 ) ; Ida Beam Professor at the University of Iowa in 1986 ; a member of the International Advisory Panel at the East @-@ West Centre , Hawaii ( 1987 ) ; Honorary Research Fellow at University College , University of London ( 1987 ) ; a member of the Committee of Jurors for the Neustadt International Prize for Literature in Oklahoma , USA ( 1988 ) ; CAS – Miller Visiting Professor at the University of Illinois at Urbana @-@ Champaign ( 1998 ) , Visiting Professor and Writer @-@ in @-@ Residence at University of Wollongong in New South Wales ( 1989 ) ; and Visiting Fellow at the Department of English , Australian Defence Force Academy ( 1993 ) . In 1991 , Thumboo worked with the Ministry of Education to help establish the Creative Arts Programme for secondary school and junior college students in Singapore . He continues to mentor young poets under the programme .
= = Poetry and influence = =
In the 1950s , Thumboo wrote mostly lyrical poetry based on personal experiences . Displaying the influence of the English literary tradition on him , they dealt with aesthetic and metaphysical themes . By the mid @-@ 1970s , he had shifted his focus to the public sphere , believing that poets of post @-@ independence Singapore should work towards creating a national literature . Singapore 's national life was a key subject of his collection of poetry Gods Can Die ( 1977 ) , and it has been said that the subsequent anthologies Ulysses by the Merlion ( 1979 ) and A Third Map ( 1993 ) " established his reputation as a national poet committed to articulating a cultural vision for a multicultural Singapore " . Thumboo is often dubbed Singapore 's unofficial poet laureate because of his poems with nationalistic themes , notably 9 August – II ( 1977 ) , and Ulysses by the Merlion ( 1979 ) which was published in the anthology of the same name , as well as his role in promoting Singapore literature , for example , through his work as General Editor of the literary journal Singa . Ulysses , which references an iconic statue of a beast with the upper body of a lion and the tail of a fish called the Merlion that faces Marina Bay , was inspired by the use of Irish mythology and history by W. B. Yeats . The Irish poet has asserted a significant influence on Thumboo , as Thumboo recognizes parallels between Ireland 's nationalistic struggle and Singapore 's breakaway from colonialism . He describes himself as a myth @-@ inspired poet , and sees myths as ancient narratives and structures which provide a stable point of reference for a multicultural society . Ulysses has prompted other Singaporean poets such as Alfian Sa 'at , Vernon Chan , David Leo , Felix Cheong , Gwee Li Sui , Koh Buck Song , Lee Tzu Pheng , Alvin Pang and Daren Shiau to write their own Merlion @-@ themed verses ; it is often joked that one cannot be regarded as a true Singapore poet until one has written a " Merlion poem " . A copy of Ulysses is installed on a plaque near the statue .
History also features strongly in Thumboo 's poetry . He has said :
... History enters my writing , as it ought to enter the writing of others , because of its importance in our lives . I go back to this point about the historical moments we occupy . As a former colony , a multi @-@ racial one , created by the British , we need history for a sense of things ; to re @-@ inscribe ourselves ; discover and , in certain areas , define ourselves as individuals , as groups in a multi @-@ racial society . They give you a sense of their belonging , which also happens to be mine . They give you an inherited identity that you put together by being conscious of what you have absorbed , or taken . I live in Singapore ; I have likes and dislikes , a set of interests , a set of values , a set of responsibilities and so on . History I see as fully inclusive , fully in terms of one 's personal limits . And it includes beliefs , and anything of significance ... nothing is irrelevant .
In August 2008 , The Straits Times said that Thumboo 's " most powerful legacy " was " spearheading the creation of a Singapore literature in English " , although Thumboo himself downplayed his pioneering role by commenting : " There were not that many people writing in 1965 , so you had the feeling that you had to create something . But you don 't stand there and say , ' Look , I am a pioneer ' . There is a need to do something , to help go about creating something , and you do it . " He compiled and edited some of the first anthologies of English poetry from Singapore and Malaysia , including The Flowering Tree ( 1970 ) , Seven Poets ( 1973 ) and The Second Tongue ( 1979 ) . He was also the general editor of two multilingual anthologies sponsored by the Association of Southeast Asian Nations ( ASEAN ) Committee of Culture and Information entitled The Poetry of Singapore ( 1985 ) and The Fiction of Singapore ( 1990 ) . In addition to the collections of poetry already mentioned , he has published two volumes of poetry for children called Child 's Delight ( 1972 ) , and another collection called Friend : Poems ( 2003 ) . Still Travelling , an anthology consisting of almost 50 poems , was published in 2008 .
On 29 October 2001 , at the launch of a book entitled Ariels : Departures and Returns – Essays for Edwin Thumboo at the Singapore Art Museum , Associate Professor Robbie Goh said :
... Edwin Thumboo ’ s dual discourses – the analytical and theoretical discourse of the scholar , and the emotive and associative discourse of the poet – enable him to capture the flow of our experience , and to present it in a variety of different ways , accessible to a variety of individuals . ...
I 've come to see that Edwin Thumboo writes incessantly , because he is driven to communicate something of a better world ; he rolls his sleeves up to act , because he is impatient with waiting for this world to change ; and he forges friendships , because these represent the hope for a better world even within this imperfect one . His impact cannot be measured by words alone , but words – the tools of his own trade – may capture the " covenant " of his ideas and values .
In 2015 , Gods Can Die was selected by The Business Times as one of the Top 10 English Singapore books from 1965 – 2015 , alongside titles by Goh Poh Seng , Daren Shiau and Amanda Lee Koe .
= = Awards = =
Thumboo has won the National Book Development Council of Singapore Book Awards for Poetry three times , in 1978 for Gods Can Die ( 1977 ) , in 1980 for Ulysses by the Merlion ( 1979 ) , and again in 1994 for A Third Map ( 1993 ) . He also received the inaugural S.E.A. Write Award in 1979 , the first Cultural Medallion for Literature in 1979 , and the ASEAN Cultural and Communication Award ( Literature ) in 1987 . In October 2002 , he presented the keynote address at the biennial meeting of the International Association of World Englishes at the University of Illinois at Urbana @-@ Champaign . There , he was presented with the Raja Rao Award for his contributions to the literature of the Indian diaspora .
Thumboo was conferred a Bintang Bakti Masyarakat ( Public Service Star ) in 1981 with an additional Bar in 1991 , and the Pingat Jasa Gemilang ( Meritorious Services Medal ) as Distinguished Poet and Literary Scholar in 2006 .
= = Select bibliography = =
A fuller list of works by and about Thumboo may be viewed at Articles & papers by Edwin Thumboo , Centre for the Arts , National University of Singapore , 11 July 2005 , archived from the original on 15 April 2007 , retrieved 13 August 2008 . The bibliography edited by R. Ramachandran and Phan Ming Yen provides the most comprehensive listing of works by him and on him .
A selection of his poems is available at Poems , Centre for the Arts , National University of Singapore , 11 July 2005 , archived from the original on 18 April 2007 , retrieved 13 August 2008 .
= = = Poetry collections = = =
Rib of Earth , Singapore : L. Fernando , 1956 , OCLC 63867626 .
Child 's Delight , Vol . 1 , Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia : Federal Publications , 1972 , OCLC 416905228 and Child 's Delight , Vol . 2 , Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia : Federal Publications , 1972 , OCLC 416905241 .
Gods Can Die , Singapore : Heinemann Educational Books ( Asia ) , 1977 , OCLC 3729008 .
Ulysses by the Merlion , Singapore : Heinemann Educational Books , 1979 , OCLC 8183888 .
A Third Map , Singapore : UniPress , 1993 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 00 @-@ 4403 @-@ 9 .
Friend : Poems , Singapore : Landmark Books ; National University of Singapore , 2003 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 3065 @-@ 72 @-@ 7 .
Still Travelling , Singapore : Ethos Books , 2008 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 08 @-@ 1000 @-@ 9 .
The Best of Edwin Thumboo , Singapore : Epigram Books , 2012 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 07 @-@ 1839 @-@ 8 .
= = = Edited poetry anthologies = = =
Thumboo , Edwin , comp . ( 1970 ) , The Flowering Tree : Selected Writings from Singapore / Malaysia , Singapore : Educational Publications Bureau , OCLC 2317731 .
Thumboo , Edwin , comp . ( 1973 ) , Seven Poets , Singapore and Malaysia , Singapore : Singapore University Press , OCLC 1615607 .
Thumboo , Edwin , comp . ( 1979 ) , The Second Tongue : An Anthology of Poetry from Malaysia and Singapore , Singapore : Heinemann Educational Books ( Asia ) , OCLC 558156724 .
Thumboo , Edwin [ et al . ] , eds . ( 1985 ) , The Poetry of Singapore [ Anthology of ASEAN Literatures ; v. 1 ] , Singapore : Published under the sponsorship of the ASEAN Committee on Culture and Information , ISBN 978 @-@ 9971 @-@ 88 @-@ 089 @-@ 7 .
Thumboo , Edwin , gen. ed . ( 1990 ) , The Fiction of Singapore , [ S.l. ] : Published under the sponsorship of the ASEAN Committee on Culture and Information , ISBN 978 @-@ 9971882488 ( v. 2 ) , ISBN 978 @-@ 9971 @-@ 88 @-@ 249 @-@ 5 ( v. 2a ) , ISBN 978 @-@ 9971 @-@ 88 @-@ 250 @-@ 1 ( v. 3 ) .
Thumboo , Edwin [ et al . ] , eds . ( 1995 ) , Journeys : Words , Home and Nation : Anthology of Singapore Poetry ( 1984 – 1995 ) , Singapore : UniPress , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 00 @-@ 6910 @-@ 0 .
Thumboo , Edwin , comp . ( 2009 ) , 35 for Gothenburg , Singapore : Ethos Books , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 08 @-@ 4018 @-@ 1 .
Thumboo , Edwin , comp . ( 2010 ) , & Words : Poems Singapore and Beyond , Singapore : Ethos Books , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 08 @-@ 6321 @-@ 0 .
= = = Other works = = =
Thumboo , Edwin , ed . ( 1988 ) , Literature and Liberation : Five Essays from Southeast Asia , Manila , Philippines : Solidaridad Pub . House , OCLC 19124535 .
Thumboo , Edwin [ et al . ] , ed . ( 1990 ) , Words for the 25th : Readings by Singapore Writers , Singapore : UniPress , ISBN 978 @-@ 9971 @-@ 62 @-@ 259 @-@ 6 .
Thumboo , Edwin , ed . ( 1991 ) , Perceiving Other Worlds , Singapore : Times Academic Press [ for ] Unipress , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 2100 @-@ 10 @-@ 8 .
Thumboo , Edwin ( 1993 ) , " Singapore Writing in English : A Need for Commitment " , in Bruce Bennett [ et al . ] , Westerly Looks to Asia : A Selection from Westerly 1956 – 1992 , Nedlands , W.A. : Indian Ocean Centre for Peace Studies , University of Western Australia , pp. 84 – 92 , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 86342 @-@ 193 @-@ 5 .
Thumboo , Edwin ; Kandiah , Thiru , eds . ( 1995 ) , The Writer as Historical Witness : Studies in Commonwealth Literature , Singapore : UniPress , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 0044 @-@ 54 @-@ 1 .
Thumboo , Edwin , ed . ( 1996 ) , Cultures in ASEAN and the 21st Century , Singapore : UniPress for ASEAN @-@ COCI , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 00 @-@ 8174 @-@ 4 .
Thumboo , Edwin , ed . ( 2001 ) , The Three Circles of English : Language Specialists Talk about the English Language , Singapore : UniPress , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 04 @-@ 2563 @-@ 0 .
Thumboo , Edwin , ed . ( 2005 ) , Frankie Sionil José : A Tribute , Singapore : Marshall Cavendish , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 210 @-@ 425 @-@ 0 .
Thumboo , Edwin ( 2006 ) , " Literary Creativity in World Englishes " , in Braj B. Kachru ; Yamuna Kachru ; Cecil L. Nelson , The Handbook of World Englishes , Malden , Mass . : Blackwell Publishing , pp. 405 – 427 , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4051 @-@ 1185 @-@ 0 .
Thumboo , Edwin ; Sayson , Rex Ian , eds . ( 2007 ) , Writing Asia : The Literatures in Englishes . Vol . 1 , From the Inside : Asia Pacific Literatures in Englishes , Singapore : Ethos Books , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 05 @-@ 9314 @-@ 8 .
Thumboo , Edwin , series ed . ; Quayum , Mohammad A. ; Wong , Phui Nam , eds . ( 2009 ) , Writing Asia : The Literatures in Englishes . Vol . 2 , Studies in Contemporary Singaporean @-@ Malaysian Literature I , Singapore : Ethos Books , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 08 @-@ 3911 @-@ 6 .
Thumboo , Edwin , series ed . ; Gwee , Li Sui , ed . ( 2009 ) , Writing Asia : The Literatures in Englishes . Vol . 2 , Studies in Contemporary Singaporean @-@ Malaysian Literature II , Singapore : Ethos Books , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 08 @-@ 3913 @-@ 0 .
= = Personal life = =
Some of Thumboo 's poems have biblical themes , reflecting the fact that he was born into a Protestant Christian family and baptized as an adult . Thumboo and his wife Yeo Swee Ching live in Bukit Panjang , a suburban area in the central northwestern part of Singapore . They have a son Julian , the head of rheumatology at the Singapore General Hospital ; a daughter Claire , who is a physician ; and seven grandchildren to whom he dedicated Still Travelling ( 2008 ) .
= = = Articles = = =
Sankaran , Chitra ( 30 June 2002 ) , " Edwin Thumboo " , The Literary Encyclopedia , retrieved 13 August 2008 .
Thumboo , Edwin ; Nazareth , Peter [ interviewer ] ( 1979 ) , " Edwin Thumboo Interviewed by Peter Nazareth " , World Literature Written in English 18 ( 1 ) : 151 – 171 .
Mohammad A. Quayum , " An Interview with Edwin Thumboo . " Peninsular Muse : Interviews with Modern Malaysian and Singaporean Poets , Novelists and Dramatists . Oxford , UK : Peter Lang , 2007 .
= = = Books = = =
Bennett , Bruce ( 1999 ) , " Edwin Thumboo : The Poet as Traveller " , in Kirpal Singh , Poetry , Singapore : Ethos Books , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 04 @-@ 0881 @-@ 7
Ee , Tiang Hong ( 1997 ) , Leong Liew Geok , ed . , Responsibility and Commitment : The Poetry of Edwin Thumboo , Singapore : Singapore University Press , ISBN 978 @-@ 9971 @-@ 69 @-@ 204 @-@ 9
Koh , Buck Song ( 1993 ) , " Edwin Thumboo " , in Nelson , Emmanuel S [ ampath ] , ed . , Writers of the Indian Diaspora : A Bio @-@ bibliographical Critical Sourcebook , Westport , Conn . : Greenwood Press , pp. 439 – 444 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 313 @-@ 27904 @-@ 1 .
Koh , Buck Song ( 1994 ) , " Thumboo , Edwin Nadason ( 1933 – ) " , in Hamilton , Ian , ed . , The Oxford Companion to Twentieth @-@ century Poetry in English , Oxford : Oxford University Press , p . 542 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 866147 @-@ 4 .
Leong , Liew Geok ( 1999 ) , " ' We Must Make a People ' : The Lyric Enterprise of Edwin Thumboo " , in Kirpal Singh , Poetry , Singapore : Ethos Books , ISBN 981 @-@ 04 @-@ 0881 @-@ 1
Nazareth , Peter ( 2008 ) , Edwin Thumboo : Creating a Nation through Poetry , Singapore : Ethos Books , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 05 @-@ 9424 @-@ 4 .
Thumboo , Edwin ( 1979 ) , " Introduction " , The Second Tongue : An Anthology of Poetry from Malaysia and Singapore , Singapore : Heinemann Educational Books ( Asia ) , OCLC 66358021 , archived from the original on 19 April 2007 .
Tong , Chee Kiong [ et al . ] , eds . ( 2001 ) , Ariels : Departures & Returns : Essays for Edwin Thumboo , Singapore : Oxford University Press , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 588743 @-@ 3 .
Webster , Jonathan J. , ed . ( 2009 ) , Essays on Edwin Thumboo , Singapore : Ethos Books , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 08 @-@ 4337 @-@ 3 .
= = = News reports = = =
Koh , Buck Song ( 22 May 1993 ) , " Down to earth [ review of A Third Map : New and Selected Poems by Edwin Thumboo ] " , The Straits Times ( Life ! ) , p . 12 .
Koh , Buck Song ( 22 May 1993 ) , " The return of Edwin Thumboo " , The Straits Times , p . 2 .
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= Russell T Davies =
Stephen Russell Davies , OBE ( born 27 April 1963 ) , better known by his pen name Russell T Davies , is a Welsh television producer and screenwriter whose works include Queer as Folk , Bob & Rose , The Second Coming , Casanova , the 2005 revival of the classic British science fiction series Doctor Who , and the trilogy Cucumber , Tofu , and Banana .
Born in Swansea , Davies aspired to work as a comic artist in his adult life , until a careers advisor at Olchfa School suggested that he study English literature ; he consequently focused on a career of play- and screen @-@ writing . After he graduated from Oxford University , Davies joined the BBC 's children 's department in 1985 on a part @-@ time basis and worked in varying positions , including writing and producing two series , Dark Season and Century Falls . He left the BBC in the early 1990s to work for Granada Television and later became a freelance writer .
Davies moved into writing adult television dramas in 1994 . His early scripts generally explored concepts of religion and sexuality among various backdrops : Revelations was a soap opera about organised religion and featured a lesbian vicar ; Springhill was a soap drama about a Catholic family in contemporary Liverpool ; The Grand explored society 's opinion of subjects such as prostitution , abortion and homosexuality during the interwar period ; and Queer as Folk , his first prolific series , recreated his experiences in the Manchester gay scene . His later series include Bob & Rose , which portrayed a gay man who fell in love with a woman ; The Second Coming , which focused on the second coming and deicide of Jesus Christ from a mostly non @-@ religious point of view ; Mine All Mine , a comedy about a family who discover they own the entire city of Swansea ; and Casanova , an adaptation of the Venetian lover 's complete memoirs .
He revived and ran Doctor Who after a sixteen @-@ year hiatus , with Christopher Eccleston , and later David Tennant , in the title role . Davies 's tenure as executive producer of the show oversaw a surge in popularity that led to the production of two spin @-@ off series , Torchwood and The Sarah Jane Adventures , and the revival of the Saturday prime @-@ time dramas as a profitable venture for production companies . Davies was appointed an OBE in 2008 for services to drama , which coincided with his announcement that he would step down from Doctor Who as the show 's executive producer with his final script , The End of Time ( 2009 – 10 ) . Davies moved to Los Angeles , California in 2009 , where he oversaw production of Torchwood : Miracle Day and the fifth and final series of The Sarah Jane Adventures .
After his partner developed cancer in late 2011 , Davies returned to the UK , and co @-@ created a new drama for CBBC , Wizards vs Aliens . His current projects are Cucumber , a Channel 4 series about middle @-@ aged gay men in the Manchester gay scene ; Banana , an E4 series about young LGBT people in the Cucumber universe ; and Tofu , an online documentary series available on 4oD discussing issues which have arisen in the sister series , modern sex and sexuality with the cast and public .
= = Early life and youth career = =
Stephen Russell Davies was born on 27 April 1963 in Mount Pleasant Hospital , Swansea , Glamorgan . His father , Vivian Davies ( died 2015 ) , and his mother , Barbara ( died 1999 ) , were teachers . Davies was the youngest of three children and their only son . Because he was born by cæsarean section , his mother was placed on a morphine drip and was institutionalised after an overdose resulted in a psychotic episode . He described his mother 's experience as " literally ... like science fiction " and an early inspiration for his writing career .
As a child , Davies was almost always referred to by his middle name . He grew up in a household that " never switched the TV off " until after closedown , and he subsequently became immersed in dramas such as I , Claudius and Doctor Who ; one of his first memories , at the age of three , was the dénouement of the 1966 Doctor Who serial The Tenth Planet . He was also an avid cartoonist and comics enthusiast and purchased series such as Asterix and Peanuts .
Davies attended the local Tycoch Primary School in Sketty and enrolled at Olchfa Comprehensive School aged eleven . In his first year , the main school buildings were closed off for renovation after inspectors discovered the cement used in construction caused other public buildings to collapse . Lessons were held in portable buildings instead , which influenced his imagination to create mystery , science @-@ fiction , and conspiracy thriller stories about the main building . He also immersed himself in books such as Sons and Lovers by D. H. Lawrence and The Crystal Mouse by Babs H Deal ; the latter influenced him so much he could " see it echoing in anything " he wrote . At age 14 , he auditioned for and joined the newly formed West Glamorgan Youth Theatre Company ( WGYTC ) . The group 's founder and director , Godfrey Evans , considered him to be " a total all @-@ rounder " who was talented and popular with the other students . Working with the group allowed him to define his sexual identity : he embarked on a several @-@ month relationship with fellow youth thespian Rhian Morgan , and later came out as homosexual in his teenage years .
In 1979 , Davies completed his O @-@ Levels and stayed at Olchfa with the ambition to study English literature at the University of Oxford ; he abandoned his aspirations of becoming a comic artist after a careers advisor convinced him his colour @-@ blindness would make that path unlikely . During his studies , he participated in the WGYTC 's assignments to create Welsh language drama to be performed at the National Eisteddfod of Wales , including Pair Dadeni , a play based on the Mabinogion myth cycle , and Perthyn , a drama about community belonging and identity in early @-@ 1980s West Glamorgan . In 1981 , he was accepted by Worcester College , Oxford to study English literature . At Oxford , he realised that he was enamoured with the narrative aspect of fiction , especially nineteenth @-@ century literature such as Charles Dickens .
Davies continued to submit scripts to the WGYT during his studies at Oxford : Box , a play about the influence of television that Evans noted contained Davies ' penchants for misdirecting the audience and mixing comedy and drama ; In Her Element , which centred on the animation of still objects , and Hothouse , an Alan Bennett @-@ inspired piece about internal politics in an advertising office . In 1984 , he made his final performance for the WGYT and signed up for a course in Theatre Studies at Cardiff University after graduating from Oxford . He worked sporadically for the Sherman Theatre 's publicity department and claimed unemployment benefit in the interim . In 1985 , Davies began his professional television career after a friend suggested that he should talk to a television producer who was seeking a temporary graphic artist for the children 's show Why Don 't You ?
= = Children 's television career = =
Davies was taken on as a member of the BBC Wales children 's department in 1985 and given one @-@ day contracts and commissions , such as illustrating for Why Don 't You ? As he was only given three days of work per month by the BBC , he continued to freelance and volunteer for the Sherman Theatre . In 1986 , he was approached by the Sunday Sport before its launch to provide a football @-@ themed daily strip ; he declined because he was concerned about the pornographic content of the newspaper . He submitted a script for Crossroads in response to an appeal for new writers ; it was not used because the show was cancelled in 1987 . He ultimately abandoned his graphic art career entirely when he realised in his early twenties that he enjoyed writing the dialogue of a comic more than creating the art .
On 1 June 1987 , Davies made his first and only appearance as a television presenter on Play School alongside regular presenter Chloë Ashcroft . Why Don 't You ? line producer Peter Charlton suggested that he would " be good on camera " and advised him to take his career public . Davies was granted the opportunity for sporadic appearances over a period of six months ; he hosted only one episode as a storytelling illustrator before he walked off the set and commented he was " not doing that again " . The appearance remains an in @-@ joke in the industry , and the recordings were invariably requested for wrap parties Davies attended .
On Why Don 't You ? , Davies took on varying jobs , including researcher , director , illustrator , assistant floor manager and unofficial publicist for fan @-@ mail . He was offered his first professional scriptwriting job in 1986 by show producer Dave Evans ; he had entered Evans 's office to collect his wages and was offered an extra £ 100 to write a replacement script . Davies 's script was positively reviewed in the department and led to increasingly larger roles that culminated in a six @-@ month contract to write for the show after it relocated to Manchester in 1988 . He worked for the show for two more years and eventually became the show 's producer . He oversaw an increase in drama which tripled its audience — despite the fact BBC Manchester was not permitted by the corporation to create children 's dramas — which reached its climax with his last episode : a drama where the Why Don 't You ? protagonists , led by the show 's longest running presenter Ben Slade , were trapped in a café by a supercomputer that tried to kill them .
While producing Why Don 't You ? , Davies branched out within the children 's department at BBC Manchester : he attended directors ' courses ; wrote for older audiences with his contributions to DEF II and On the Waterfront ; and accompanied Keith Chegwin to Norway to assist in the production of a children 's documentary about politics . The head of the children 's department , Ed Pugh , offered him the chance to produce Breakfast Serials , a new series scheduled for an 8 : 00 am slot . Breakfast Serials incorporated elements of non @-@ sequitur comedy and popular culture references aimed at older pupils , such as a parody of Land of the Giants . He decided to leave the children 's department and the BBC during the production of Breakfast Serials : a friend called him after the first episode was transmitted and observed that he had " broadcast a joke about the juvenilia of Emily Brontë at eight o 'clock in the morning " ; the conversation caused him to reflect that he was writing for the wrong audience . Davies produced three more children 's series while he pursued an adult drama career : Dark Season , Century Falls , and Children 's Ward .
= = = Dark Season and Century Falls = = =
During his tenure on Why Don 't You ? , Davies oversaw the production of a story that took place in Loch Ness . The story was the precursor for his first freelance children 's project : Dark Season . The show , originally called The Adventuresome Three , would feature the Why Don 't You ? characters in a purely dramatic setting that was influenced by his childhood . He submitted the script to the head of the BBC 's Children 's department , Anna Home , and Granada Television . Both companies were interested in producing the show with minor changes : Granada wished to produce it as one six @-@ part serial , as opposed to Davies ' plan of two three @-@ part serials ; and Home was interested in accepting the show on the condition it included a new cast of characters . He accepted Home 's offer , and the show was allocated the budget and timeslot of Maid Marian and her Merry Men , which had been put on hiatus the year before .
The first three episodes of Dark Season feature three young teenagers in a contemporary secondary school , Reet ( Kate Winslet ) , Marcie ( Victoria Lambert ) , and Tom ( Ben Chandler ) , who discover a plot by the villain Mr Eldritch ( Grant Parsons ) to take over the world using school computers . Eldritch is eventually defeated by Marcie and the computer expert Professor Polzinsky ( Rosalie Crutchley ) . The next three episodes focus on a new villain : the archaeologist Miss Pendragon ( Jacqueline Pearce ) , later described by Davies as a " devil worshipping Nazi lesbian " , who becomes a part of the ancient supercomputer Behemoth . The two distinct plot elements converge at the end of the fifth episode , when Pendragon crashes through the school stage as Eldritch walks into the auditorium .
Dark Season uses concepts seen in his tenure as executive producer of Doctor Who : " School Reunion " , written by Toby Whithouse , shares its concept of the antagonist using computers in a comprehensive school to take over the world ; " Army of Ghosts " unexpectedly brings together the series ' two major villains for the final episode ; and the characters of Marcie and her friends are similar , albeit unintentionally , to the structure of the Doctor and his companions . Dark Season was the first series that he was credited as " Russell T Davies " — the initial arbitrarily chosen to distinguish himself from the BBC Radio 4 presenter — and the first series that he was commissioned to write a novelisation : it features a more ambiguous climax and foreshadows a sequel set in an arcade similar to the one featured in The Sarah Jane Adventures serial , Warriors of Kudlak .
Davies started planning a second series for Dark Season that followed a similar structure . The first half of the series would take part in the arcade mentioned in the novelisation , and the second would feature the appearance of psychic twins and the re @-@ emergence of the villain Eldritch . The concepts were transferred to its spiritual successor , Century Falls , which was produced in 1993 at the request of Dark Season director Colin Cant . The series primarily used the " psychic twins " concept and was set in an isolated village based on those in the Yorkshire Dales and the North York Moors .
The plot of Century Falls is driven by a legend that no children had been born in the eponymous village for more than forty years . The lead protagonist , Tess Hunter ( Catherine Sanderson ) , is an overweight teenager who moves to the village with her mother at the beginning of the serial . She quickly befriends the psychic Ben Naismith ( Simon Fenton ) and his twin sister Carey ( Emma Jane Lavin ) . The three teenagers examine the waterfall that gave Ben his powers and the disaster that caused the legendary infertility . The serial climaxes in a confrontation between Tess and the deity Century , who is attempting to fuse with Tess 's unborn sister .
Century Falls is conceptually much darker than its predecessor Dark Season and his later work , which Davies attributed to a trend that inexperienced writers " get off on the dark stuff " : in a BAFTA interview with Davies , Home recalled that she " very nearly got into trouble because it did actually push at the boundaries which some of the powers @-@ that @-@ be would rather not have been pushed " ; and a Daily Mail review of the series considered the show 's themes of arson , black magic , and communal fear as being " on a scale normally reserved for peak @-@ time adult viewing " . The series offered a sense of realism in its protagonist , who is not heroic and aspirational , has poor social skills , and is bluntly described by Ben as a " fat girl " , a practice that the Daily Mail praised as " something that defies the Thought Police " . Century Falls was the last script he wrote for the BBC 's children 's department for fourteen years . He had begun to formulate another successor : The Heat of the Sun , a series set over Christmas 1999 and New Year 's Day 2000 that would have included the concepts of psychic powers and world domination .
= = = Children 's Ward = = =
While he was writing Dark Season and Century Falls , Davies sought freelance projects elsewhere , including three scripts for the BBC children 's comedy ChuckleVision . One venture in 1991 led him to Granada Television , where he edited scripts for the ITV children 's medical drama Children 's Ward under the supervision of eventual Coronation Street producer Tony Wood and his former boss Ed Pugh . By 1992 , he had been promoted to producer and oversaw an increase in discussion of larger contemporary issues . In 1993 , he wrote a script featuring a teenage boy who had been infected with HIV via a blood transfusion , which challenged the prevalent assumption that only gay people contracted HIV :
Jason Lloyd
You must be a poof if you 've got AIDS .
Richard Higgs
I 'm not gay , and I haven 't got AIDS ; I 'm HIV positive . But just for the sake of an argument let 's say I was homosexual . Would it matter ? What difference would it make ?
Jason
[ You 'd ] fancy me , wouldn 't you ?
Richard
There 's not a boy , girl , man , or woman alive who could possibly fancy you . Look around . Where 's this queue of people dying to ask you out ? They don 't exist , Jason , because you 're stupid , you 're bigoted , and you don 't matter one little bit .
Davies left the role of producer in 1994 , but continued to write for the series on occasion . Notably , he was requested to write the 100th episode of the series , by then called The Ward , which aired in October 1996 . Instead of celebrating the milestone , he wrote a script about a recently emerging threat : paedophiles in online chat @-@ rooms . The episode was about an X @-@ Files fan who was drawn in by a paedophile 's offer of a rare magazine . In the dénouement of the episode , the child recounts the tale of his near abduction and describes his attacker as " just a man like any other man " . The episode earned Davies his first BAFTA award : the 1997 Children 's BAFTA for Best Drama .
= = Adult television career ( 1994 – 2004 ) = =
During his production tenure on Children 's Ward , Davies continued to seek other freelance writing jobs , particularly for soap operas ; his intention was to eventually work on the popular and long @-@ running Granada soap Coronation Street . In pursuit of this career plan , he storylined soaps such as Families and wrote scripts for shows such as Cluedo , a game show based on the board game of the same name , and Do the Right Thing , a localised version of the Brazilian panel show Você Decide with Terry Wogan as presenter and Frank Skinner as a regular panellist . One writing job , for The House of Windsor , a soap opera about footmen in Buckingham Palace , was so poorly received that his other scripts for the show would be written under the pseudonym Leo Vaughn .
In 1994 , Davies quit all of his producing jobs , and was offered a scriptwriting role on the late @-@ night soap opera Revelations , created by him , Tony Wood , and Brian B. Thompson . The series was a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek deconstruction of organised religion , and featured his first overtly homosexual character : a lesbian vicar portrayed by Sue Holderness , who came out of the closet in a two @-@ hander episode with Carole Nimmons .
Davies attributes the revelation about Holderness 's character as a consequence of both the " pressure cooker nature " of the show and the recent ordination of female vicars in the Church of England . He let his contract with Granada expire and pitched a new early @-@ evening soap opera to Channel 4 , RU , with its creator Bill Moffat , Sandra Hastie , a producer on Moffat 's previous series Press Gang , and co @-@ writer Paul Cornell . Although the slot was eventually taken by Hollyoaks , he and Cornell mutually benefited from the pitch : Davies introduced Cornell to the Children 's Ward producers and established contact with Moffat 's son Steven , and Cornell introduced Davies to Virgin Publishing . Davies wrote one Doctor Who Virgin New Adventures novel , Damaged Goods , in which the Doctor tracks a Class A drug tainted by Time Lord technology across several galaxies . The book includes several themes that Davies would intersperse in his later works — including a family called " Tyler " and companion Chris Cwej participating in casual homosexual sex — and a subplot formed the inspiration for The Mother War , a proposed but never produced thriller for Granada about a woman , Eva Jericho , and a calcified foetus in her uterus .
Davies continued to propose dramas to Channel 4 , including Springhill , an apocalyptic soap @-@ opera , co @-@ created by Frank Cottrell Boyce and Paul Abbott , which aired simultaneously on Sky One and Channel 4 in 1996 – 1997 . Set in suburban Liverpool , the series focuses on the devoutly Catholic Freeman family and their encounter and conflict with Eva Morrigan ( Katharine Rogers ) .
He storylined for the second series , but submitted fewer scripts ; Granada had commissioned him to write for their soap The Grand , temporarily storyline for Coronation Street , and write the straight @-@ to @-@ video special , Coronation Street : Viva Las Vegas ! . The second series of Springhill continued his penchant for symbolism ; in particular , it depicted Marion Freeman ( Judy Holt ) and Eva as personifications of good and evil , and climaxed with a finale set in an ultra @-@ liberal dystopian future where premarital sex and homosexuality are embraced by the Church . Boyce later commented that without Davies 's input , the show would have been a " dry run " for Abbott 's hit show Shameless .
= = = The Grand = = =
Davies 's next project was The Grand , a period soap drama set in a Manchester hotel during the interwar period . It was designed to be a valuable show in a ratings war with the BBC and was scheduled at 9 pm on a Friday night . After the original writer abandoned the series , Granada approached him to write the entire show . His scripts for the first series reflect the pessimism of the period ; each episode added its own emotional trauma on the staff , including a soldier 's execution for desertion , a destitute maid who threatens to illegally abort her unborn child to survive , and a multi @-@ episode storyline centred on the chambermaid , Monica Jones ( Jane Danson ) , who kills her rapist in self @-@ defence , is arrested , and eventually hanged for murder . The show was renewed for a second series despite the first 's dark tone .
The second series had a lighter tone and greater emphasis on character development , which Davies attributed to his friend Sally , who had previously warned him of the adult humour in Breakfast Serials ; she told him that his show was too bleak to be compared to real life . He highlighted the sixth and eighth episodes of the second series as a time of maturity as a writer : for the sixth , he utilised then @-@ unconventional narrative devices such as flashbacks to explore the hotel barman 's closeted homosexuality and the societal attitudes towards sexuality in the 1920s ; and he highlighted the eighth as when he allowed the series to " take on its own life " by deliberately inserting plot devices such as McGuffins to enhance the comic relief of the series .
Although well received , the series ' ratings were not high enough to warrant a third series . After its cancellation in September 1997 , Davies had an existential crisis after almost dying from an accidental overdose ; the experience persuaded him to detoxify and make a name for himself by producing a series that celebrated his homosexuality .
= = = Queer as Folk = = =
After his near @-@ death experience , Davies started to develop a series for Channel 4 which reflected the " hedonistic lifestyle " of the gay quarter of Manchester he was leaving behind . Encouraged by ex @-@ Granada executives Catriona MacKenzie and Gub Neil to " go gay " , the series focused on a group of friends in Manchester 's gay scene , tentatively titled The Other End of the Ballroom , and later , Queer as Fuck .
By February 1998 , when he completed the first draft for the series première , the series was known under its eventual title Queer as Folk . The series emulates dramas such as Band of Gold in presenting realistic discussion on sexuality , as opposed to " one @-@ sided " gay characters in soap operas such as EastEnders , and eschews " heavy @-@ handed discussion " of issues such as HIV , instead focusing on the party scene on Canal Street .
After he wrote the pilot , he approached actors for the main characters . Christopher Eccleston was Davies 's first choice for the role of Stuart Jones ; Eccleston declined because of his age and suggested his friend Aidan Gillen instead . The roles of Vince Tyler and Nathan Maloney were quickly given to Craig Kelly and Charlie Hunnam , and the secondary character Alexander Perry , originally written for the television producer Phil Collinson during his brief acting career , was portrayed by Antony Cotton , who later played the gay character Sean Tully in Coronation Street . The series was allocated a £ 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 budget , and was produced by Red Productions , owned by his friend and former colleague Nicola Shindler , and filmed by Cracker and Hillsborough director Charles McDougall and The Grand director Sarah Hardin on location in Manchester . The eight 40 @-@ minute episodes emulated experiences from his social life and includes an episode where the minor character Phil Delaney ( Jason Merrells ) dies of a cocaine overdose , unnoticed by his social circle .
The series was transmitted in early 1999 , when Parliament were discussing LGBT equality ; the series première aired on the day the House of Lords was discussing the Sexual Offences Bill 1999 , which eventually reduced the age of consent for homosexual couples to 16 . The première was controversial , in particular because it depicted the character Nathan , aged 15 , in sexual intercourse with an older man ; the broadcasting watchdog Ofcom received 136 complaints and the series received criticism from Hunnam 's parents and from activist Mary Whitehouse . The controversy was amplified when the sponsor Beck 's withdrew after several episodes and homosexual activists complained that the series was not representative of gay culture . Nevertheless , the show garnered 3 @.@ 5 million viewers per episode and a generally positive reaction from fans , and was renewed for a two @-@ episode special due for the following year .
Queer as Folk 2 was broadcast in February 2000 and was driven by the plot element of Vince 's half @-@ sister 's wedding . The specials place emphasis on Vince and Stuart 's relationship , and ends with their departure for another gay scene in a pastiche of Grease , as Nathan took the role as the leader of the Manchester scene 's next generation . On the heels of the special , Davies pitched the spin @-@ off Misfits , a late @-@ night soap opera set in a boarding house owned by Vince 's mother , Hazel , and The Second Coming , a series that depicted the Second Coming of Christ in contemporary Manchester . Misfits was rejected in December 2000 and The Second Coming was initially approved by Channel 4 but later rejected after a change of executive personnel . Instead of contesting the cancellation of The Second Coming , he left Channel 4 and vowed to not work with them again .
= = = Bob & Rose = = =
Shindler continued to pitch The Second Coming to other television networks while Davies sought other ventures . His next series was based on a gay friend who married a woman and fathered a child . He saw the relationship as a promising concept for an unconventional love story and asked the couple about their relationship to develop the show . After developing the series around the prejudice that he and his gay friends had shown , he realised he was creating caricatures for the purpose of exposing them , and instead focused on telling a traditional love story and gave the couple the traditionally British names of Bob Gossage and Rose Cooper .
To simulate a classic love story , the plot required antagonists , in the form of Bob 's best friend and fellow teacher Holly Vance and Rose 's boyfriend Andy Lewis ( Daniel Ryan ) . While Andy , named after Davies 's boyfriend Andrew Smith , was a minor character and departed in the third episode , Holly featured throughout the entirety of the series . Bob & Rose thus followed a similar format to Queer as Folk , in particular , the triumvirate of main characters composed of a couple and an outsider who lived in contemporary Manchester , and inverted the traditional " coming out " story by focusing on Bob 's uncharacteristic attraction to Rose ; Bob describes his sexual life by simply speaking the line " I fancy men . And her . " The series was similar to the Kevin Smith film Chasing Amy ( 1997 ) , as they both portrayed a romance between a straight character and gay character and the resulting ostracism from the couple 's social circles , much like The Second Coming shared its concept with Smith 's 1999 film Dogma .
Like Queer as Folk , Bob & Rose contributed to the contemporary political debate regarding LGBT rights : a subplot involves the fictional pressure group Parents Against Homphobia ( PAH ) , led by Bob 's mother Monica ( Penelope Wilton ) , an ardent gay rights activist , and their campaign to repeal Section 28 of the Local Government Act 1988 , which prohibited local authorities from " intentionally promot [ ing ] " homosexuality . The subplot climaxes in the fourth episode , when Monica and Bob lead a rally into direct action by handcuffing themselves to a bus run by a company whose management donated millions to keeping the law on the books ; the scene directly parallels protests against the transport company Stagecoach due to their founder Brian Souter 's financial and political support of Section 28 — at one point , Davies intended to explicitly name Stagecoach in the script — and is inspired by earlier protests undertaken by the LGBT rights pressure group OutRage ! .
After successfully pitching the show to ITV , Red Productions joined Davies in casting the show and initially approached Jonathan Creek star Alan Davies to portray Bob . Although he was not gay , Alan Davies accepted the role and spent several weeks researching first @-@ hand Manchester 's gay scene with series director Joe Wright . His only objection to the role was Bob being a fan of Manchester United F.C. , the team Shindler had named Red Productions for , because of his prolific support of Arsenal F.C. The part of Rose was given to Lesley Sharp , her first leading role after her portrayal of secondary characters in past Red shows Playing the Field and Clocking Off , and Jessica Stevenson was cast as Holly by ITV Head of Drama Nick Elliott on the basis of her performance in the Channel 4 comedy Spaced .
The series was filmed in the southern suburbs of Manchester between March and June 2001 and often used Davies 's own home as a green room . The series was the only Red – Davies collaboration not to be scored by future Doctor Who composer Murray Gold ; the soundtrack was a Martin Phipps composition inspired by Hans Zimmer 's work on the 1993 film True Romance . It aired on Monday nights in September and October 2001 . Although critically acclaimed , and eventually won two British Comedy Awards and a British Academy Television Award nomination , the series had lower viewing figures than expected and was moved to a later timeslot for the final two episodes . Although the series was not as successful as he hoped , the show helped Davies rekindle his relationship with his mother shortly before her death , just after the transmission of the fourth episode , which he sees as " possibly the best thing [ he has ] ever written " .
= = = The Second Coming = = =
Shortly after the transmission of Bob & Rose , Davies was approached by Abbott to write for his new BBC show Linda Green . He accepted the offer and wrote an episode where the titular character ( portrayed by Liza Tarbuck ) and her friends attend a schoolmate 's funeral and become psychologically haunted by the deceased woman 's solitary life . His first work for the BBC in eight years prompted them to approach him with additional concepts for period dramas , which he invariably declined as his sole intent was to revive Doctor Who , which had then been on hiatus for over a decade .
In 2002 , he met with the BBC to discuss the revival of the show and producing The Second Coming ; the BBC were unable to commit to either , and he again declined to work for them . After the BBC rejected The Second Coming , Shindler proposed that the series should be pitched to ITV . Despite the story 's controversial message , the critical success of Bob & Rose encouraged the channel to commission the series for broadcast .
The Second Coming had been several years in the making and endured many rewrites from the first draft presented to Channel 4 in 2000 , but retained its key concept of a depiction of the Second Coming of Christ with a humanity @-@ centred deity . A major removal from the script , due to time constraints , was a long sequence titled " Night of the Demons " : the main character , a shop assistant , Stephen Baxter , who discovers his divine lineage , takes over a hotel with his disciples and eventually encounters several of the hotel 's employees that have been possessed by the Devil . Several similar sequences were removed to create a thriller set in the days before Judgement Day .
An experienced actor was required to portray Stephen ; Davies approached Christopher Eccleston , who had previously been approached for the role of Stuart in Queer as Folk , based on his performance as Nicky Hutchinson in the drama Our Friends in the North . Eccleston accepted the role and helped Davies make the character more human after he observed that " Baxter was getting lost amid his loftier pronouncements " . The character of Judith , who would represent the fall of God , was given to Lesley Sharp after her performance in Bob & Rose , and the role of the Devil was given to Mark Benton .
The Second Coming was controversial from its conception . When it was a Channel 4 project , it was the subject of a Sunday Express article a year before its original projected transmission date of late @-@ 2001 . The series would again receive criticism when it was rumoured it would be broadcast over the Easter weekend of 2003 . The series was eventually broadcast over consecutive nights on 9 – 10 February 2003 to 6 @.@ 3 million and 5 @.@ 4 million viewers respectively , and received mixed reactions from the audience : Davies reportedly received death threats for its atheistic message and criticism for its anticlimactic ending , as well as two nominations for Television Awards and one for a Royal Television Society Award .
= = = Mine All Mine = = =
In the time near his mother 's death , Davies returned to Swansea several times and reflected on the role of family . During one visit , he realised that he had not yet written a series set in Wales ; hence , he started creating a series about a family who discovers that they own the entire city of Swansea . The Vivaldi Inheritance , later renamed Mine All Mine , was based on the tale of the Welsh pirate Robert Edwards and his descendants ' claim to 77 acres ( 310 @,@ 000 m2 ) of real estate in Lower Manhattan , New York City . The series was a departure from his trend of experimental social commentary ; it was instead designed to be a mainstream comedy that utilised Welsh actors : Davies and Red Productions even planned a cameo appearance by Academy Award @-@ winning Swansea @-@ born Catherine Zeta @-@ Jones .
Because the series was centred on an entire family , Red Productions was given the task of casting eleven principal characters : the role of family patriarch Max Vivaldi was given to Griff Rhys Jones , at the request of ITV for prolific actors ; Rhian Morgan , Davies ' ex @-@ girlfriend from the WGYT , was cast as Max 's wife Val ; Sharon Morgan as Max 's sister Stella ; Joanna Page as Candy Vivaldi ; Matthew Barry and Siwan Morris as the Vivaldi siblings Loe and Maria ; Hi @-@ de @-@ Hi ! actress Ruth Madoc as Val 's sister Myrtle Jones ; and Jason Hughes as Maria 's boyfriend Gethin . The series , specifically the family 's composition of two daughters and a gay son , mirrored his own upbringing to the point where Davies and his boyfriend referred to the show as " The Private Joke " .
The series was originally written in six parts , but Davies excised a large portion of the fifth episode because the crew expressed concerns with its pacing . The series was filmed in late 2003 under the direction of Sheree Folkson and Tim Whitby , and utilised many areas of Swansea that Davies was familiar with since his childhood . It aired as four @-@ hour @-@ long episodes and a ninety @-@ minute finale on Thursday nights preceding Christmas 2003 . Eventually , Mine All Mine would be his least successful series and ended its run with just over two million viewers , which he later blamed on the series ' high eccentricity .
= = = Casanova = = =
Shortly after the transmission of Mine All Mine , the BBC commissioned Davies to produce the revival of Doctor Who , which completed his decade @-@ long quest to return the series to the airwaves . At the time , he was developing two scripts : the first , a cinematic adaptation of the Charles Ingram @-@ Who Wants to Be a Millionaire ? scandal , was cancelled after he accepted the Doctor Who job ; and the second , a dramatisation of the life of the Venetian adventurer and lover Giacomo Casanova , was his next show with Red Productions .
Davies 's association with Casanova began when London Weekend Television producers Julie Gardner , Michele Buck , and Damien Timmer approached him to write a 21st @-@ century adaptation of Casanova 's memoirs . He accepted to script the series because it was " the best subject in the world " and , after reading the memoirs , sought to create a realistic depiction of Casanova instead of further perpetuating the stereotype of a hypersexual lover . The series was originally written for ITV , but was turned down after he could not agree on the length of the serial . Shortly after ITV declined to produce Casanova , Gardner took up a position as Head of Drama at BBC Wales and brought the concept with her . The BBC agreed to fund the series , but could only release the money required if a regionally based independent company produced the series . Davies turned to Shindler , who agreed to become the serial 's fifth executive producer .
Davies 's script takes place in two distinct time frames and required two different actors for the eponymous role : the older Casanova was portrayed by Peter O 'Toole , and the younger Casanova was portrayed by David Tennant . The serial takes place primarily during Casanova 's early adulthood and depicts his life among three women : his mother ( Dervla Kirwan ) , his lover Henriette ( Laura Fraser ) , and his consort Bellino ( Nina Sosanya ) . The script takes a different approach to Dennis Potter 's 1971 dramatisation ; instead of Potter 's focus on sex and misogyny , the 2005 serial focuses on Casanova 's compassion and respect for women .
Casanova was filmed alongside the first few episodes of the new series of Doctor Who , which meant producers common to both projects , including Davies and Gardner , made daily journeys between the former 's production in Lancashire and Cheshire and the latter 's production in Cardiff . Red Productions also filmed on location overseas in a stately home in Dubrovnik , and alongside production of the identically titled 2005 Lasse Hallström film in Venice . The two production teams shared resources and were given the unofficial names of " Little Casanova " and " Big Casanova " respectively . When it premièred on BBC Three in March 2005 , the first episode attracted 940 @,@ 000 viewers , a record for a first @-@ run drama on the channel , but was overshadowed on BBC One by the return of Doctor Who in the same month .
= = Doctor Who ( 2005 – 2010 ) and beyond = =
Since he watched the First Doctor 's ( William Hartnell ) regeneration into the Second Doctor ( Patrick Troughton ) at the end of the 1966 serial The Tenth Planet , Davies had " fallen in love " with the show and , by the mid @-@ 1970s , he was regularly writing reviews of broadcast serials in his diary . His favourite writer and childhood hero was Robert Holmes ; during his career , he has complimented the creative use of BBC studios to create " terror and claustrophobia " for Holmes 's 1975 script The Ark in Space — his favourite serial from the original series — and has opined that the first episode of The Talons of Weng @-@ Chiang ( 1977 ) featured " the best dialogue ever written ; it 's up there with Dennis Potter " . His screenwriting career also began with a Doctor Who submission ; in 1987 , he submitted a spec script set on an intergalactic news aggregator and broadcaster , which was rejected by script editor Andrew Cartmel , who suggested that he should write a more prosaic story about " a man who is worried about his mortgage , his marriage , [ and ] his dog " . The script was eventually retooled and transmitted as " The Long Game " in 2005 .
During the late 1990s , Davies lobbied the BBC to revive the show from its hiatus and reached the discussion stages in late 1998 and early 2002 . His proposals would update the show to be better suited for a 21st @-@ century audience : the series would be recorded on film instead of videotape ; the length of each episode would double from twenty @-@ five minutes to fifty ; episodes would primarily take place on Earth , in the style of the Third Doctor ( Jon Pertwee ) UNIT episodes ; and Davies would remove " excess baggage " from the mythology such as Gallifrey and the Time Lords . His pitch competed against three others : Dan Freedman 's fantasy retelling , Matthew Graham 's Gothic @-@ styled pitch , and Mark Gatiss 's reboot , which made the Doctor the audience surrogate character , instead of his companions . Davies also took cues from American fantasy television series such as Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Smallville , most notably Buffy 's concepts of series @-@ long story arcs and the " Big Bad " .
In August 2003 , the BBC had resolved legal issues over production rights that had surfaced as a result of the jointly produced Universal Studios – BBC – FOX 1996 Doctor Who film , and the Controller of BBC One Lorraine Heggessey and Controller of Drama Commissioning Jane Tranter approached Gardner and Davies to create a revival of the series to air in a primetime slot on Saturday nights , as part of their plan to devolve production to its regional bases . By mid @-@ September , they accepted the deal to produce the series alongside Casanova .
Davies 's pitch for Doctor Who was the first one he wrote voluntarily ; previously , he opted to outline concepts of shows to commissioning executives and offer to write the pilot episode because he felt that a pitch made him " feel like [ he 's ] killing the work " . The fifteen @-@ page pitch outlined a Doctor who was " your best friend ; someone you want to be with all the time " , the 19 @-@ year @-@ old Rose Tyler ( Billie Piper ) as a " perfect match " for the new Doctor , avoidance of the 40 @-@ year back story " except for the good bits " , the retention of the TARDIS , sonic screwdriver , and Daleks , removal of the Time Lords , and a greater focus on humanity . His pitch was submitted for the first production meeting in December 2003 and a series of thirteen episodes was obtained by pressure from BBC Worldwide and a workable budget from Julie Gardner .
The first new series of Doctor Who featured eight scripts by Davies ; the remainder were allocated to experienced dramatists and writers for the show 's ancillary releases : Steven Moffat penned a two @-@ episode story , and Mark Gatiss , Robert Shearman , and Paul Cornell each wrote one script . Davies also approached his old friend Paul Abbott and Harry Potter author J. K. Rowling to write for the series ; both declined due to existing commitments . Shortly after he secured writers for the show , Davies stated that he had no intention of approaching writers from the old series ; the only writer he would have wished to work with was Holmes , who died in May 1986 .
By early 2004 , the show had settled into a regular production cycle . Davies , Gardner , and BBC Controller of Continuing Drama Series Mal Young took posts as executive producers , and Phil Collinson , his old colleague from Granada , took the role of producer . Davies 's official position as showrunner combined the roles of head writer and executive producer and consisted of laying a skeletal plot for the entire series , holding " tone meetings " to correctly identify the tone of an episode , often described in one word — for example , the " tone word " for Moffat 's " The Empty Child " was " romantic " — and overseeing all aspects of production .
The production team was also tasked with finding a suitable actor for the role of the Doctor . Most notably , they approached film actor Hugh Grant and comedian Rowan Atkinson for the role . By the time Young suggested The Second Coming and Our Friends in the North actor Christopher Eccleston to Davies , Eccleston was one of three left in the running for the role : the other candidates are rumoured to have been Alan Davies and Bill Nighy . Eccleston created his own characteristics of his rendition of the Doctor based on Davies 's life , most notably , his catchphrase " Fantastic ! " :
[ The central message of the show is ] seize life , it 's brief , enjoy it . The Doctor is always saying " isn 't it fantastic ? " , which is one of Russell 's favourite words . " Look at that blue alien , isn 't it fantastic ? Oh , it 's trying to kill me . Never mind , let 's solve it . "
Filming for the show started in July 2004 on location in Cardiff for " Rose " . The start of filming created stress among the production team because of unseen circumstances : several scenes from the first block had to be re @-@ shot because the original footage was unusable ; the Slitheen prosthetics for " Aliens of London " , " World War Three " , and " Boom Town " were noticeably different from their computer @-@ generated counterparts ; and the BBC came to a gridlock in negotiations with the Terry Nation estate to secure the Daleks for the sixth episode of the series ; Davies and episode writer Rob Shearman were forced to rework the script to feature another race , until Gardner was able to secure the rights a month later . After the first production block , which he described as " hitting a brick wall " , the show 's production was markedly eased as the crew familiarised themselves .
The first episode of the revived Doctor Who , " Rose " , aired on 26 March 2005 and received 10 @.@ 8 million viewers and favourable critical reception . Four days after the transmission of " Rose " , Tranter approved a Christmas special and a second series . The press release was overshadowed by a leaked announcement that Christopher Eccleston would leave the role after one series ; in response , David Tennant was announced as Eccleston 's replacement .
Tennant had been offered the role when he was watching a pre @-@ transmission copy of Doctor Who with Davies and Gardner . Tennant initially believed the offer was a joke , but after he realised they were serious , he accepted the role and made his first appearance in the dénouement of " The Parting of the Ways " , the final episode of the first series . Doctor Who continued to be one of BBC 's flagship programmes throughout Davies ' tenure , and resulted in record sales of the show 's official magazine , an increase in spin @-@ off novels , and the launch of the children 's magazine Doctor Who Adventures and toy sonic screwdrivers and Daleks . The show 's popularity ultimately led to a resurgence in family @-@ orientated Saturday night drama ; the ITV science @-@ fiction series Primeval and the BBC historical dramas Robin Hood and Merlin were specifically designed for an early Saturday evening timeslot . Davies was also approached by the BBC to produce several spin @-@ off series , eventually creating two : Torchwood and The Sarah Jane Adventures .
= = = Torchwood and The Sarah Jane Adventures = = =
In October 2005 , BBC Three Controller Stuart Murphy invited Davies to create a post @-@ watershed Doctor Who spin @-@ off in the wake of the parent series ' popularity . Torchwood — named after an anagrammatic title ruse used to prevent leaks of Doctor Who 's first series — incorporated elements from an abandoned Davies project titled Excalibur and featured the pansexual 51st century time @-@ traveler Jack Harkness ( John Barrowman ) and a team of alien hunters in Cardiff . The show began production in April 2006 and was marketed through foreshadowing in the main story arc of Doctor Who 's second series , which portrayed Torchwood as a covert quasi @-@ governmental organisation that monitors , exploits , and suppresses the existence of extraterrestrial life and technology . Upon its transmission , Torchwood was one of BBC Three 's most popular shows ; however , it received criticism for " adolescent " use of sexual and violent themes . This led the production team to alter the format to be subtler in its portrayal of adult themes .
Concurrently , he was approached to produce a CBBC show which was described as Young Doctor Who . Davies was reluctant to diminish the mystery of the Doctor 's character and instead pitched a show with Elisabeth Sladen as the once @-@ popular companion Sarah Jane Smith : The Sarah Jane Adventures , which follows Sarah Jane and local schoolchildren as they investigate extraterrestrial events in the London Borough of Ealing . The show was given a backdoor pilot as the Doctor Who episode " School Reunion " and premièred in its own right with " Invasion of the Bane " on 1 January 2007 . The show was more successful than its 1981 predecessor K @-@ 9 and Company ; it received more favourable reviews than Torchwood and a significant periphery demographic that compared the show to 1970s Doctor Who episodes .
The workload of managing three separate shows prompted Davies to delegate writing tasks for Torchwood and The Sarah Jane Adventures to other writers so he could focus on writing Doctor Who . After Billie Piper 's departure as Rose Tyler in the second series finale " Doomsday " , he suggested a third spin @-@ off , Rose Tyler : Earth Defence , a compilation of annual bank holiday specials featuring Rose in a parallel universe version of Torchwood . He later reneged on his idea , as he believed that Rose should stay off screen , and abandoned the idea even though it had been budgeted .
= = = The Writer 's Tale , and writing the fourth series = = =
In September 2008 , BBC Books , an imprint of Random House Publishing , published The Writer 's Tale , a collection of emails between Davies and Radio Times and Doctor Who Magazine journalist Benjamin Cook . Dubbed the " Great Correspondence " by Davies and Cook , The Writer 's Tale covers a period between February 2007 and March 2008 and explores his writing processes and the development of his scripts for the fourth series of Doctor Who : " Voyage of the Damned " , " Partners in Crime " , " Midnight " , " Turn Left " , " The Stolen Earth " , and " Journey 's End " . The book 's first chapter focuses on Cook 's " big questions " on Davies ' writing style , character development — using the Doctor Who character Donna Noble ( Catherine Tate ) and the Skins character Tony Stonem ( Nicholas Hoult ) as contrasting examples — , how he formulated ideas for stories , and the question " why do you write ? " . After several weeks , Cook assumes an unofficial advisory role to the scriptwriting and the development of the series . The book 's epilogue consists of a short exchange between Davies and Cook : Cook changes from his role as " Invisible Ben " to " Visible Ben " and strongly advises to vastly alter the denouement to " Journey 's End " from a cliffhanger that led into " The Next Doctor " — which had occurred in the previous three series finales , " The Parting of the Ways " , " Doomsday " , and " Last of the Time Lords " — to a melancholy ending that showed the Doctor alone in the TARDIS . After three days of deliberation , Davies accepts Cook 's suggestion and thanks him for improving both episodes .
After its release , the pair embarked on a five @-@ stop signing tour to promote the book in October 2008 at Waterstone 's branches in London , Birmingham , Manchester , Bristol , and Cardiff . The book received positive reviews : Veronica Horwell of The Guardian wrote that Davies was the " Scheherazade of Cardiff Bay " and opined that the book should have been twice the published length ; Ian Berriman of science fiction magazine SFX gave the book five stars and commented that it was the only book about " new Who " that a reader needed ; television critic Charlie Brooker was inspired by the book to devote an entire episode of his BBC Four show Screenwipe to interviewing television writers ; and chat show couple Richard and Judy selected the book as a recommended Christmas present in the " Serious Non @-@ Fiction " category of their book club . A second edition of the book , The Writer 's Tale : The Final Chapter , was released in January 2010 by BBC Books . The second edition added 350 pages of correspondence — before excising draft scripts included in the first edition — and covered Davies ' final months as executive producer of Doctor Who as he co @-@ wrote the five @-@ part BBC One Torchwood miniseries Children of Earth , planned David Tennant 's departure and Matt Smith 's arrival as the Doctor , and moved to the United States .
= = = Move to California and Wizards vs. Aliens = = =
Davies departed from producing the show in 2009 along with Gardner and Collinson , and finished his tenure with four special length episodes . His departure from the show was announced in May 2008 , alongside a press release that named Steven Moffat as his successor . His role in late 2008 was split between writing the 2009 specials and preparing for the transition between his and Moffat 's production team ; one chapter of The Writer 's Tale : The Final Chapter discusses plans between him , Gardner , and Tennant to announce Tennant 's departure live during ITV 's National Television Awards in October 2008 . His final full script for Doctor Who was finished in the early morning of 4 March 2009 , and filming of the episode closed on 20 May 2009 .
Davies moved with Gardner and Jane Tranter to the United States in June 2009 , residing in Los Angeles , California . He continued to oversee production of Torchwood and The Sarah Jane Adventures ; he wrote one story for the 2010 series of The Sarah Jane Adventures , Death of the Doctor , which included Matt Smith as the Doctor and Katy Manning as the Doctor 's former companion Jo Grant , and was the executive producer and author of the premiere ( " The New World " ) and finale ( " The Blood Line " ) of Torchwood : Miracle Day , the fourth series of Torchwood . He additionally gave informal assistance to and later served as creative consultant of ex @-@ Doctor Who script editor Helen Raynor 's and playwright Gary Owen 's BBC Cymru Wales drama , Baker Boys .
At the time of his departure to the United States , Davies planned to return to art by writing a graphic novel , and was approached by Lucasfilm to write for the proposed Star Wars live @-@ action television series but refused the commission . Davies ' residence in California ended in August 2011 after his boyfriend Andrew Smith was diagnosed with a brain tumour , which prompted Davies to postpone current projects and move back to Manchester with Smith so his partner could undergo treatment closer to their respective families . Davies ' move back to the United Kingdom enabled him to develop a replacement series for The Sarah Jane Adventures with prolific series writer Phil Ford after the former series ended due to Elisabeth Sladen 's death . Wizards vs Aliens , a CBBC drama about a teenage wizard and his scientist friend and their conflict with the alien Nekross who wish to destroy Earth , was formed to create a " genre clash " between science fiction and supernatural fantasy , as opposed to " culture clashes " such as Cowboys vs. Aliens . Davies additionally made his first contribution to CBeebies , with two scripts for Old Jack 's Boat , which stars Doctor Who alumni Bernard Cribbins and Freema Agyeman as retired fisherman Jack and his neighbour Shelley .
= = = Cucumber and Banana = = =
Davies ' next project after Doctor Who , codenamed More Gay Men , was a spiritual successor to Queer as Folk and would have focused on middle @-@ aged gay men in the Manchester gay scene . The show 's genesis dates back from 2001 , when his friend Carl Austin asked him " why are gay men so glad when we split up ? " . The show was due to enter into production in 2006 , but was indefinitely postponed due to the success of Doctor Who . Davies continued to develop ideas for the show , and explained a pivotal scene in the premiere to Cook in 2007 :
I can imagine a man who is so enraged by something tiny — the fact that his boyfriend won 't learn to swim — that he goes into a rage so great that , in one night , his entire life falls apart . It 's not about the learning to swim at all , of course , it 's about the way that your mind can fix on something small and use it as a gateway to a whole world of anger and pain ... If I write the Learn To Swim scene well — and it could be the spine of the whole drama — then I will be saying something about gay men , about couples , about communications , about anger . "
In 2011 , the series had entered into pre @-@ production , with American cable network Showtime contracted for transmission and BBC Worldwide for distribution . Showtime had reached the point of casting before Davies moved back to Manchester , at which point the series was picked up by Channel 4 to be produced with Nicola Shindler and the Red Production Company . The commission by Channel 4 marked Davies ' first collaboration with the channel since Queer as Folk and Shindler and Red since Casanova . Davies was convinced to return to the channel by Head of Drama and former Doctor Who executive producer Piers Wenger , who described the show as a " political piece of writing " that creates a " radical approach " to sexuality .
Cucumber focuses on the life of the middle @-@ aged Henry Best ( Vincent Franklin ) and the fallout from a disastrous date with his boyfriend of nine years , and is accompanied with Banana , an E4 anthology series featuring younger characters across the LGBT spectrum on the periphery of the Cucumber narrative , and Tofu , an online documentary series available on 4oD discussing modern sex , sexuality and issues arisen during the show with the cast and public . The three names reference a urological scale categorising the male erection by hardness from tofu to cucumber , and are used to symbolise differences in sexual attitudes and behaviour between the two generations . Although Cucumber is designed as a self @-@ contained serial focusing on the life of one man , Davies envisions Banana as open @-@ ended and believes it could continue after its sister series finishes .
Davies ' next project after Cucumber and Banana will be The Boys , a Channel 4 series about the HIV / AIDS crisis during the 1980s . The Boys will be a dramatised retrospective of the crisis which focuses on the men " living in the bedsits " during the 1980s as opposed to films such as Pride which focus on gay activists ; Davies notes that the stories regarding the politics of the crisis and the virus itself has been told , but not those regarding the early victims of the virus itself . Davies describes The Boys as a way of " coming to terms " with his own actions during the 1980s , when the shock of the crisis prevented him from properly mourning the deaths of his close friends . After The Boys , Davies plans to write a series about sextortion that draws inspiration from real @-@ life incidents of blackmail that resulted in suicide .
= = Writing style = =
Davies is an admitted procrastinator and often waits hours or days for concepts to form before he commits them to the script . In The Writer 's Tale , he describes his procrastination by discussing his early career : at the time , his method of dealing with the pressures of delivering a script was to " go out drinking " instead . On one occasion in the mid @-@ 1990s , he was at the Manchester gay club Cruz 101 when he thought of the climax to the first series of The Grand . As his career progressed , he instead spent entire nights " just thinking of plot , character , pace , etc " and waited until 2 : 00 am , " when the clubs used to shut " , to overcome the urge of procrastination . Davies described the sense of anxiety he experiences in an email to Cook in April 2007 , in response to Cook 's question of " how do you know when to start writing ? " :
I leave it till the last minute . And then I leave it some more . Eventually , I leave it till I 'm desperate . ... I always think , I 'm not ready to write it , I don 't know what I 'm doing , it 's just a jumble of thoughts in a state of flux , there 's no story , I don 't know how A connects to B , I don 't know anything ! I get myself into a genuine state of panic . ... Normally , I 'll leave it till the deadline , and I haven 't even started writing . This has become , over the years , a week beyond the deadline , or even more . It can be a week — or weeks — past the delivery date , and I haven 't started writing . In fact , I don 't have delivery dates any more . I go by the start @-@ of @-@ preproduction date . I consider that to be my real deadline . And then I miss that . It 's a cycle that I cannot break . I simply can 't help it . It makes my life miserable .
He expanded on his email two weeks later in response to Cook 's query about the supposed link between major depressive disorder and creativity . He explained that his anxiety and melancholy during the scriptwriting period still allowed him to keep on top of his work ; on the other hand , he thought " Depression with a capital D [ didn 't provide ] any such luxury " .
Davies explained in length his writing process to Cook in The Writer 's Tale . When he creates characters , he initially assigns a character a name and fits attributes around it . In the case of Rose Tyler ( Billie Piper ) in his inaugural series of Doctor Who , he chose the name because he considered it a " good luck charm " after he used it for Lesley Sharp 's character in Bob & Rose . He presented his desire to make the show " essentially British " as another justification : he considered Rose to be " the most British name in the world " and feminine enough to subvert the then @-@ current trend of female companions and their " boyish " names , such as Benny , Charley , and Ace . While he was writing for The Grand , the executive producer requested that he change the female lead character 's name , a decision that led to the " character never [ feeling ] right from that moment on " . The surname " Harkness " , most notably given to Torchwood lead Captain Jack Harkness , is a similar charm , first used in 1993 for the Harkness family in Century Falls , and ultimately derived from the Marvel Universe supporting character Agatha Harkness , and the surname " Tyler " is similarly used because of his affection for how the surname is spelled and pronounced .
Davies also attempts to channel his writing by using music that fits the theme of the series as a source of inspiration : Doctor Who was typically written while he listened to action @-@ adventure film scores ; Queer as Folk was written to Hi @-@ NRG music " to catch [ the ] sheer clubland drive " ; Bob & Rose was written to the Moby album Play , because the two works shared an " urban , sexy , full of lonely hearts at night " image ; and The Second Coming shared the concepts of " experimental [ ity ] , anguish , dark [ ness ] , [ and ] pain " of Radiohead albums . More specifically , he wrote the early drafts of the fourth series Doctor Who episode " Partners in Crime " while he was listening to Mika 's Life in Cartoon Motion , and singled out the song " Any Other World " as a " Doctor Who companion song " with lyrics that matched Penny , the planned companion for the fourth series .
When he creates new scripts , Davies considers the dénouement of a story to be representative of the work . He often formulates both the scene and its emotional impact early in the process , but writes the scenes last due to his belief that " [ later scenes ] can 't exist if they aren 't informed by where they 've come from " . Davies is a strong advocate for the continued use of the cliffhanger ending and opposes advertising that sacrifices the impact of storytelling . In pursuit of his quest , he instructs editors to remove scenes from press copies of episodes he writes ; cliffhangers were removed from the review copies of the Doctor Who episodes " Army of Ghosts " , " The Stolen Earth " , and the first part of The End of Time , and Rose Tyler 's unadvertised appearance in " Partners in Crime " was excised . His most noted cliffhanger was in the script of " The Stolen Earth " , which created a public sense of " Doctor Who fever " in the week preceding its conclusion . In an interview with BBC News shortly after the episode 's transmission , he argued that the success of a popular television series is linked to how well producers can keep secrets and create a " live experience " :
It 's exciting when you get kids in playground talking about your story , about who 's going to live or die , then I consider that a job well done , because that 's interactive television , that 's what it 's all about : it 's debate and fun and chat . It 's playing a game with the country and I think that 's wonderful .
Davies attempts to both create imagery and to provide a social commentary in his scripts ; for example , he uses camera directions in his scripts more frequently than newer screenwriters to ensure that anyone who reads the script , especially the director , is able to " feel ... the pace , the speed , the atmosphere , the mood , the gags , [ and ] the dread " . His stage directions also create an atmosphere by their formatting and avoidance of the first person . Although the basis of several of his scripts derive from previous concepts , he claims that most concepts for storytelling have been already used , and instead tries to tell a relatively new and entertaining plot ; for example , the Doctor Who episode " Turn Left " shares its concept most notably with the 1998 film Sliding Doors . Like how Sliding Doors examines two timelines based on whether Helen Quilley ( Gwyneth Paltrow ) catches a London Underground train , Davies uses the choice of the Doctor 's companion to turn left or right at a road intersection to depict either a world with the Doctor , as seen throughout the rest of the fourth series , or an alternate world without the Doctor , examined in its entirety within the episode . The world without the Doctor creates a dystopia which he uses to provide a commentary on Nazi @-@ esque fascism . Davies generally tries to make his scripts " quite detailed , but very succinct " , and eschews the long character and set descriptions ; instead , he limits himself to only three adjectives to describe a character and two lines to describe a set to allow the dialogue to describe the story instead .
Davies also uses his scripts to examine and debate on large issues such as sexuality and religion , especially from a homosexual or atheist perspective . He refrains from a dependence on " cheap , easy lines " that provide little deeper insight ; his mantra during his early adult drama career was " no boring issues " . Queer as Folk is the primary vehicle for his social commentary of homosexuality and advocation of greater acceptance . He used the series to challenge the " primal ... gut instinct " of homophobia by introducing homosexual imagery in contrast to the heterosexual " fundamental image of life , of family , of childhood , [ and ] of survival " . His next series , Bob & Rose , examined the issue of a gay man who falls in love with a woman , and the reaction of the couple 's respective social circles . Torchwood , in Davies 's own words , is " a very bisexual programme " , and demonstrates a fluid approach to both gender and sexuality " almost from its opening moments " : for example , the lead character Captain Jack Harkness nonchalantly mentions he was once pregnant ; and later , the other lead characters discuss Jack 's sexuality . The gay website AfterElton opined that Torchwood 's biggest breakthrough could be " queer representation " by showing Captain Jack as a character whose bisexuality is explored but not his only character trait .
His most notable commentaries of religion and atheism are The Second Coming and his 2007 Doctor Who episode " Gridlock " . The Second Coming 's depiction of a contemporary and realistic Second Coming of Jesus Christ eschews the use of religious iconography in favour of a love story underlined by the male lead 's " awakening as the Son of God " . In contrast , " Gridlock " takes a more pro @-@ active role in debating religion : the episode depicts the unity of the supporting cast in singing the Christian hymns " Abide with Me " and " The Old Rugged Cross " as a positive aspect of faith , but depicts the Doctor as an atheistic hero which shows the faith as misguided because " there is no higher authority " . He also includes his commentary as an undertone in other stories ; he described the sub @-@ plot of the differing belief systems of the Doctor and Queen Victoria in " Tooth and Claw " as a conflict between " Rational Man versus Head of the Church " .
Like other scriptwriters during Doctor Who 's original tenure , several of Davies scripts are influenced by his personal politics . Marc Edward DiPaolo of Oklahoma City University observes that Davies usually espouses a " left @-@ leaning " view through his scripts . Beyond religion and sexuality , Davies most notably satirises the United States under George W. Bush on Doctor Who : the Slitheen in " Aliens of London " and " World War Three " and Henry van Statten in " Dalek " were portrayed as sociopathic capitalists ; the Daleks under his tenure echoed contemporary American conservatives in their appearances , from religious fundamentalists in " The Parting of the Ways " to imperialists in " Daleks in Manhattan " and " Evolution of the Daleks " ; and in " The Sound of Drums " , a parody of Bush is murdered by the Master ( John Simm ) , who was presented in the story as a Prime Minister reminiscent of Tony Blair . Other targets of satire in his Doctor Who scripts include Fox News , News Corporation , and the 24 @-@ hour news cycle in " The Long Game " , plastic surgery and consumer culture in " The End of the World " , obesity and alternative medicine in " Partners in Crime " , and racism and paranoia in " Midnight " .
= = Recognition = =
Saving it from extinction .
Davies has received recognition for his work since his career as a children 's television writer . Davies ' first BAFTA award nominations came in 1993 when he was nominated for the " Best Children 's Programme ( Fiction ) " Television Award for his work on Children 's Ward . Children 's Ward was nominated for the Children 's Drama award in 1996 and won the same award 1997 . His next critically successful series was Bob & Rose ; it was nominated for a Television Award for Best Drama Serial and won two British Comedy Awards for Best Comedy Drama and Writer of the Year . The Second Coming was nominated for the same Television Award in 2004 . His work on The Second Coming earned him a nomination for a Royal Television Society award .
Most of Davies 's recognition came as a result of his work on Doctor Who . In 2005 , Doctor Who won two Television Awards — Best Drama Series and the Pioneer Audience Award — and he was awarded the honorary Dennis Potter Award for writing . He also received that year 's BAFTA Cymru Siân Phillips Award for Outstanding Contribution to Network Television . In 2006 , he was awarded the accolade of " Industry Player of the Year " at the Edinburgh International Television Festival .
In 2007 , Davies was nominated for the " Best Soap / Series " Writers ' Guild of Great Britain Award — along with Chris Chibnall , Paul Cornell , Stephen Greenhorn , Steven Moffat , Helen Raynor , and Gareth Roberts — for their work on the third series of Doctor Who . He was again nominated for two BAFTA Awards in 2009 : a Television Award for his work on Doctor Who , and the Television Craft Award for Best Writer , for the episode " Midnight " . Under his tenure , Doctor Who won five consecutive National Television Awards between 2005 and 2010 . He has also been nominated for three Hugo Awards , all in the category of " Best Dramatic Presentation , Short Form " : in 2007 , the story comprising " Army of Ghosts " and " Doomsday " was defeated by Steven Moffat 's " The Girl in the Fireplace " ; in 2009 , the episode " Turn Left " was defeated by Joss Whedon 's Dr. Horrible 's Sing @-@ Along Blog ; and in 2010 , all three of his scripts which were eligible for the award , " The Next Doctor " , the Davies – Roberts collaboration " Planet of the Dead " , and the Davies – Ford collaboration " The Waters of Mars " , were nominated : the award was won by " The Waters of Mars " and the other episodes took second and third place .
During Davies ' tenure as executive producer , only Steven Moffat 's " Silence in the Library " , which was scheduled against the final of the second series of Britain 's Got Talent , failed to win in its time slot . The show 's viewing figures were consistently high enough that the only broadcasts to have consistently rivalled Doctor Who for viewers in the Broadcasters ' Audience Research Board 's weekly charts were EastEnders , Coronation Street , Britain 's Got Talent , and international football matches . Two of his scripts , " Voyage of the Damned " and " The Stolen Earth " , broke audience records for the show by being declared the second most viewed broadcasts of their respective weeks , and " Journey 's End " became the first episode to be the most viewed broadcast of the week . The show enjoyed consistently high Appreciation Index ratings : " Love & Monsters " , regarded by Doctor Who fans as his worst script , gained a rating of 76 , just short of the 2006 average rating of 77 ; and the episodes " The Stolen Earth " and " Journey 's End " share the highest rating Doctor Who has received , at 91 .
Among Doctor Who fans , his contribution to the show ranks as high as the show 's co @-@ creator Verity Lambert : in a 2009 poll of 6 @,@ 700 Doctor Who Magazine readers , he won the " Greatest Contribution " award with 22 @.@ 62 % of the votes against Lambert 's 22 @.@ 49 % share , in addition to winning the magazine 's 2005 , 2006 , and 2008 awards for the best writer of each series . Ian Farrington , who commented on the 2009 " Greatest Contribution " poll , attributed Davies ' popularity to his range of writing styles , from the epic " Doomsday " to the minimalistic " Midnight " , and his ability to market the show to appeal to a wide audience .
Davies 's work on Doctor Who has led to accolades out of the television industry . Between 2005 and 2008 , he was included in The Guardian 's " Media 100 " : in 2005 , he was ranked the 14th most influential man in the media ; in 2006 , the 28th ; in 2007 , the 15th ; and in 2008 , the 31st . The Independent on Sunday recognised his contributions to the public by including him on seven consecutive Pink Lists , which chronicle the achievements of gay and lesbian personalities : in 2005 , he was ranked the 73rd most influential gay person ; in 2006 , the 18th ; in 2007 , the most influential gay person ; in 2008 , the 2nd ; in 2009 , the 14th ; in 2010 , the 64th ; in 2011 , the 47th ; in 2012 , the 56th ; and in 2013 , was listed as a permanent member of the List 's " national treasures " . He was awarded an OBE in the Queen 's 2008 Birthday Honours list for services to drama , and an honorary fellowship by Cardiff University in July 2008 .
= = Personal life = =
Davies is openly gay and has been with his partner , customs officer Andrew Smith , since 1999 . The pair married on 1 December 2012 after Smith was diagnosed with a brain tumour from which he was given only a 3 per cent chance of recovering .
= = Production credits = =
= = = Doctor Who franchise writing credits = = =
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= Barely Legal ( Family Guy ) =
" Barely Legal " is the eighth episode of season five of Family Guy . The episode originally broadcast on December 17 , 2006 . The plot sees Meg developing an obsession with Brian after he accompanies her as her date for the Junior Prom , eventually leading to her kidnapping Brian in order to engage in sex with him . Meanwhile , Peter and his friends join the Quahog Police Department to assist Joe with his work , but find being a police officer is not always about action .
The episode was written by Kirker Butler and directed by Zac Moncrief . It received mostly positive reviews from critics for its storyline and many cultural references , in addition from receiving criticism from the Parents Television Council . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 8 @.@ 48 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Drew Barrymore , Barclay DeVeau , Phil LaMarr , Kerrigan Mahan , Natasha Melnick , Garrett Morris , Tamera Mowry and Lisa Wilhoit . The episode won an Annie Award for " Writing in an Animated Television Production . "
= = Plot = =
Mayor Adam West deploys the entire Quahog Police Department to Cartagena , Colombia to search for Elaine Wilder ( a fictional character from the film Romancing the Stone which he was watching ) , leaving Joe behind ( as he was not deployed due to his disability and the fact that parts of Cartagena aren 't wheelchair @-@ accessible ) with the police station 's skeleton crew . Peter , Cleveland and Quagmire join the department to assist Joe .
Meanwhile , Meg threatens to commit suicide because she does not have a date for her Junior Prom . Even her backup boy turned her down by shooting his little brother and having to attend his funeral . As a last resort , Brian agrees to take her to the prom . He gets drunk there , defends Meg by insulting Connie D 'Amico about her inevitable future , and the two make out . After the dance , Meg begins to think Brian is her boyfriend , despite Brian saying he has no feelings for her and citing his already existing relationship with Jillian . Meg develops an obsession with Brian , even baking him a pie and using her hair as one of the ingredients . Stewie arrives and sits next to Brian and asks if he can have some pie . He then asks for the " Cool Hwhip " ( this is the first in a series of occasions where Stewie puts emphasis on the " h " sound in a word starting with " wh " ) . Brian soon works up the courage to tell Lois that he and Meg kissed . Lois gets angry at the news , and orders Brian to dump Meg .
Later on , Meg knocks Brian out , puts him in the trunk of his car and drives away . Chris tells Lois that he saw this , so Lois , Peter , Cleveland , Joe and Quagmire track them down at the Barrington Hotel . When they arrive , they see Meg has tied Brian up with packaging tape and is about to rape Brian . Lois tells Meg that she is not thinking right , although Meg insists that she has never been more sure of anything in her life . Lois struggles to explain and says Meg does not know what she needs , and then Quagmire says ( in an erotic tone ) " I know what she needs ... Bring her by my house around 8 : 30 tonight I 'll take care of her . " This implies that he will try to take advantage of Meg and when she arrives at Quagmire 's house , it seems even more likely ; he tells her to sit down and says " Soon it 'll all become clear " , puts on seductive music , dims the lights , strips down to a speedo and sits down beside her ; but suddenly , Quagmire ( uncharacteristically ) begins to have a serious heart @-@ to @-@ heart talk with Meg , telling her that her entire life is still ahead of her and she should not be in such a hurry to grow up before assuring her that she will find the right person one day . To help Meg , Quagmire gives her his copy of The Missing Piece to help give her a better perception of things , and sends her away feeling much better . He then walks into his bedroom , where two of his one @-@ night stands await with an array of sex toys , and it turns out that all of Quagmire 's seemingly erotic antics were actually in preparation for this tryst . One of the women asks Quagmire if he has the " hwhip " ( with emphasis on the " h " ) and Quagmire responds with disbelief .
During the credits , Tom Tucker reports that the Quahog Police have called off the search for Elaine Wilder and are heading back to Quahog .
= = Production = =
A scene shows Cleveland falling out of the bathtub and subsequently out of his house . This is the second time the show has used this gag ( as indicated when Cleveland comments that " I gotta stop taking baths during Peter 's shenanigans " ) , the first one being " Hell Comes to Quahog " , where Peter blew up Cleveland 's house with a tank . This gag occurred three more times in the seventh season episodes " Tales of a Third Grade Nothing " and " Family Gay " , the season eight episodes " Spies Reminiscent of Us " , " Brian 's Got a Brand New Bag " , and the Cleveland Show pilot . It took several attempts to animate it correctly . The gag of Meg 's Junior Prom date killing his brother in order to escape from their planned date was included in the first draft for the episode , as made by Kirker Butler .
A scene featuring Peter , Cleveland , Mort and Quagmire drinking coffee in the booth , waiting for one of them to act irrationally due to Joe adding a substance into their drink , was cut from the broadcast for timing purposes . A deleted scene had been made for the episode , which showed one of the characters present in the booth after Joe added a substance into their drink , turning into a lizard @-@ like creature from Jurassic Park , but the gag was never used . When Brian is explaining the situation with Meg to Lois in the uncensored version he says " this morning she made me eat the hair in her pie " Broadcast standards objected to this and it was changed for air to " hair pie " . On the DVD commentary MacFarlane remarked he thought the latter sounded more offensive . American actor and comedian Garrett Morris guest @-@ starred on the episode , portraying the headmaster of the " New York School for the Hard @-@ of @-@ Hearing " , which was once a regular Weekend Update piece on the 1970s episodes of Saturday Night Live . When Peter and everybody else discover Meg attempting to seduce Brian in the hotel , Peter uses the term " Chinaman " ; this was changed for the television broadcast to " oriental guy " , as " Chinaman " is deemed to be an offensive word .
In addition to the regular cast , actress Drew Barrymore , voice actor Barclay DeVeau , voice actor Phil LaMarr , voice actor Kerrigan Mahan , actress Natasha Melnick , comedian and actor Garrett Morris , actress Tamera Mowry and actress Lisa Wilhoit guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Lori Alan , actress Alex Breckenridge , voice actor John G. Brennan , writer Chris Sheridan , writer Alec Sulkin and writer John Viener made minor appearances . Recurring guest voice actors Patrick Warburton and Adam West made appearances as well .
= = Cultural references = =
The movie Mayor West is watching on the television is Romancing the Stone . The music played in the background during the black people 's parade is taken almost verbatim from the film adaptation of the 1975 musical The Wiz where , in the final number of the film , they sing " Brand New Day " when it came to the absence of most of the Quahog Police Department . The two songs playing in the background at the junior prom are " Hold On to the Nights " by Richard Marx and " Why " by Annie Lennox . The music used in the background and the academy 's logo when Peter , Quagmire and Cleveland are entering the police training grounds is a reference to that used in the Police Academy . The scene where Meg plays Madame Butterfly while turning the lamp on and off and the line " I will not be ignored , Brian " is a reference to 1987 thriller Fatal Attraction . The entire scene in the hotel where Meg is discovered attempting to seduce Brian is a reference to The King of Comedy , which MacFarlane notes as one of his favorite movies . When Peter Griffin steals a giraffe from the zoo , he names the giraffe Allison Janney . Garrett Morris reprises his role as Headmaster of the New York School for the Hard of Hearing from the first season of Saturday Night Live .
= = Reception = =
In a significant decrease from the previous week , the episode was viewed in 8 @.@ 48 million homes in its original airing , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode also acquired a 3 @.@ 0 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , slightly being edged out by The Simpsons , while still winning over American Dad ! .
This episode was written Kirker Butler , who was nominated at the 34th Annie Awards under the category of " Writing in an Animated Television Production " , and Mila Kunis , who voices Meg , was also nominated for her work on this episode under the category of " Voice Acting in an Animated Television Production " . In his review of the episode , Dan Iverson of IGN wrote : " After a couple more episodes like the one that Family Guy had on Sunday night , we could officially and unequivocally call the show the best animated program to air on the weekend " , adding " we are completely willing to raise the once hit @-@ or @-@ miss comedy of Family Guy to the level of most consistently funny comedy on FOX Sunday nights — and that is thanks to great stories and hilarious comedy like that of this week 's episode " Barely Legal . " In a review of Family Guy , Volume five , Nancy Basile regarded " Airport ' 07 " , " Prick Up Your Ears " , and " Barely Legal " as " gem episodes " . Brett Love of TV Squad commented : " It seemed like more of a cohesive story than we have seen in a while as the whole family was tied in to the same storyline " , later adding " I liked the story of Meg 's infatuation with Brian " , concluding with " overall , I 'd call this one a really good episode . "
However , the Parents Television Council , a media watchdog group and frequent critic , named " Barely Legal " the " Worst TV Show of the Week " ending the week of December 28 , 2006 . PTC member and writer Joey Bozell commented , " It 's becoming more and more obvious that these writers ' missions is to provide the most offensive content they can imagine and in turn proves they don 't have an ounce of respect for the families watching at home . "
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= Nativity ( Christus ) =
The Nativity is a devotional mid @-@ 1450s oil @-@ on @-@ wood panel painting by the Early Netherlandish painter Petrus Christus . It shows a nativity scene with grisaille archways and trompe @-@ l 'œil sculptured reliefs . Christus was influenced by the first generation of Netherlandish artists , especially Jan van Eyck and Rogier van der Weyden , and the panel is characteristic of the simplicity and naturalism of art of that period . Placing archways as a framing device is a typical van der Weyden device , and here likely borrowed from that artist 's Altar of Saint John and Miraflores Altarpiece . Yet Christus adapts these painterly motifs to a uniquely mid @-@ 15th century sensibility , and the unusually large panel – perhaps painted as a central altarpiece panel for a triptych – is nuanced and visually complex . It shows his usual harmonious composition and employment of one @-@ point @-@ perspective , especially evident in the geometric forms of the shed 's roof , and his bold use of color . It is one of Christus 's most important works . Max Friedländer definitely attributed the panel to Christus in 1930 , concluding that " in scope and importance , [ it ] is superior to all other known creations of this master . "
The overall atmosphere is one of simplicity , serenity and understated sophistication . It is reflective of the 14th @-@ century Devotio Moderna movement , and contains complex Christian symbolism , subtly juxtaposing Old and New Testament iconography . The sculpted figures in the archway depict biblical scenes of sin and punishment , signaling the advent of Christ 's sacrifice , with an over @-@ reaching message of the " Fall and Redemption of humankind " . Inside the archway , surrounded by four angels , is the Holy Family ; beyond , a landscape extends into the far background .
Art historians have suggested completion dates ranging from the early 1440s to the early 1460s , with c . 1455 seen as probable . The panel was acquired by Andrew Mellon in the 1930s , and was one of several hundreds from his personal collection donated to the National Gallery of Art in Washington . It has suffered damage and was restored in the early 1990s for an exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum of Art .
= = Description = =
The panel measures 127 @.@ 6 cm × 94 @.@ 9 cm ( 50 @.@ 2 in × 37 @.@ 4 in ) , unusually large for a 15th @-@ century Early Netherlandish single @-@ panel painting . It covers four oak boards . Although there is no evidence of missing wing panels , its size suggests it was a central altarpiece of a large triptych . Art historian Joel Upton writes that with its size , style , tone and composition , Christus painted " an Andachtsbild , given monumental , ciboriumlike dimensions " . The distinction between the figures and the space around them is characteristic of Christus , as is its one @-@ point perspective . The background landscape is typically serene , as are what Upton describes as the " charming , almost doll @-@ like figures who make up the cast of characters . "
The panel is set in a shed enclosed by two pillars and an archway , rendered in sculpture @-@ like grisaille . Each pillar is supported by a relief hunched figure ( atlante ) at the base , holding the weight on its shoulders . On each pillar stand statues of Adam and Eve – Adam on the left and Eve to the right . A marble threshold connects the two structures . On the top corners of the arch are two spandrels ; the archivolts contain six biblical scenes in relief from the Book of Genesis , depicting the Fall of Man . Two are of Adam and Eve ; their expulsion from paradise and Adam tilling the soil . The others are of Cain and Abel : their sacrifice to God ; Cain slaying Abel ; God appearing to Abel ; Cain expelled to the Land of Nod .
In the shed Mary and Joseph share an intensely private moment before the Annunciation to the shepherds of the Christ child 's birth to the shepherds . They are rendered in bright colors . Mary wears a long flowing blue robe , Joseph a green @-@ lined red cape over a brown robe . He holds his hat in hand , and his pattens are respectfully removed , left lying on the ground . They gaze reverently at the newborn figure of Jesus who lies on Mary 's robe . Mary 's features have a softness and sweetness more characteristic of Christus 's later paintings and remarkably similar to his Madonna of the Dry Tree , according to Maryan Ainsworth . Kneeling in adoration to either side are four small angels .
Animals are visible in stalls . Behind them is a crumbling wall with three low Romanesque windows . Four shepherds in contemporary 15th @-@ century clothing are chatting amiably , leaning against the wall , looking into the shed . Two are positioned to the left and two to the right ; in each pair one is dressed in red and an other in blue . Behind the shed is a small hill where two shepherds herd sheep along a pathway , and beyond is a Netherlandish town with two domed structures in its center , symbolizing Jerusalem and Christ 's Passion . The large domed building is based on the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem , a replica of which the Adornes family built in Bruges in 1427 , called the Jerusalem chapel . A flock of geese is visible high in the sky through the roof 's trusses .
Light shines into the shed from outside through the low windows . The shadows cast suggest the dawn of a new day . The four onlookers in the rear are in light and shadow , especially noticeable on the face of the man second from the right . Here Christus borrows an optical device from the work of his predecessors Jan van Eyck and Rogier van der Weyden , but is bolder and more accomplished with his use of light , which art professor Lola Gellman describes as having " no counterpoint in previous art . "
= = Iconography = =
The panel is rich in Christian iconography , which reflects the shift in religious attitudes to a more meditative and solitary devotion in the 14th century , exemplified by the Devotio Moderna movement . The painting is devotional ; its iconography clearly juxtaposes Old and New Testament imagery , conveying themes of punishment and redemption , against the belief that a second chance is available through the birth of Christ .
Depictions of the Nativity changed significantly in European art following St Bridget 's visions of the event . According to Upton , the scene " became a source of emotional reward for one 's faith , a private vision in response to one 's contemplation . " In Bridget 's version of the event , Mary does not lie in a bed while giving birth . The event occurs in a cave , where , dressed in white , Mary kneels or stands in devotion before the infant lying on the ground . Joseph holds a candle to illuminate the birth . Robert Campin 's c . 1420 Nativity is representative of Bridget 's narrative ; the cave has been substituted by a shed with animals , Mary 's handmaidens are present , while angels and shepherds rejoice . Christus simplified the narrative : removing the handmaidens and relegating the animals to the background . Mary 's white dress is replaced with a deep @-@ blue robe . His Nativity is somber and subdued , an embodiment of the " austere calm of timeless worship . "
The Nativity conveys both the Old Testament themes of sin and punishment and the New Testament doctrine of sacrifice and redemption . Although Adam and Eve to either side of the arch are suggestive of those in van Eyck 's Ghent Altarpiece , they differ significantly . Here they are painted as grisaille statues in contrast to van Eyck 's lifelike versions ; and , unlike van Eyck 's , here Adam and Eve stand in shame hiding their nudity . Earthly sin and strife , anger and revenge , are represented in the warriors in the corner spandrels , and signify that which Christ 's birth would bring to an end .
Themes of punishment and redemption are further explored in the six scenes on the arch , where the reliefs show the events from Genesis 4 : 1 – 16 ( from left to right ) : The angel of God expelling Adam and Eve from the Garden of Eden ; post @-@ Expulsion life " when Adam delved and Eve spun " ; the sacrifices of Cain and Abel ; Cain killing Abel ; ( top ) God banishing Cain ; Cain saying farewell to his parents , or possibly his brother Seth leaving to find the Tree of Life , a Jewish legend from The Apocalypse of Moses , a pseudepigraphical work from antiquity .
The two uppermost reliefs on the arch , which have a central focus and function as keystones , bring attention to the juxtaposition of Old and New Testament themes . The relief to the left shows Cain and Abel sacrificing to God ; on the right Cain commits the sin of murder , which God punishes . The two reliefs also function as a temporal device , leading the viewer directly to the moment of Christ 's birth and mankind 's redemption , which occurs below in the shed . The viewer is reminded that mankind must sacrifice to Christ , who lies directly below , or risk punishment and expulsion from the church , just as God expelled Cain . The Fall of man acted out on the archway reminds the viewer of the " necessity of Christ 's sacrifice " .
The semicircle of rock inside the doorsill remind the viewer to abandon sin . The viewer is reminded to reach a full understanding of the significance of the event , achieved with the two groupings of shepherds at the rear of the shed . Two of the four are active and two are passive . The man dressed in blue on the left is listening ; the man in blue to the right is seeing , while their counterparts in red do neither . Although actively looking and listening , the two men in blue do not appear to have a full understanding of the event . Upton explains the medieval viewer would have understood that in the iconography Christus presented " man who would listen without hearing , and look without seeing . " The viewer is reminded to comprehend the painting 's vision and iconography , to fully recognize the significance of Christ 's coming , to hear and see the word of God , and to obey God 's wishes .
The tuft of grass sprouting from the roof 's central truss above the figures conveys multiple meanings . Although the shrub is naturally rendered , Christus almost certainly placed it there for its symbolic value ; its positioning suggests he followed a program of disguised iconography . The most obvious meaning is of new life and new beginnings . On a secular level , the shrub may have indicated Christus 's membership in the Confraternity of the Dry Tree , which he joined sometime around 1462 – 63 . The confraternity was prestigious , including among its ranks Burgundian nobility , such as Philip the Good and his wife Isabella , wealthy foreign merchants and members from Bruges 's upper classes . The tuft of grass also symbolizes the tree of life , and Upton theorizes that by placing it there , Christus " has given expression to the legend " of Adam 's third son , Seth , whose quest for a branch was a popular legend in the medieval period . Furthermore , alludes to Moses and the burning bush . According to Upton , in Christus 's Nativity Joseph assumes Moses 's role of protector and law @-@ bringer ; just as Joseph has removed his pattens in the presence of Christ , Moses removed his shoes in the presence of the bush .
The setting represents the Mass – the angels are clothed in Eucharistic vestments , with those on the far right dressed in a deacon 's cope . None wear the celebrant 's chasuble , suggesting Christ is the priest . The shed roof is a ciborium over an altar . A later addition to the painting , added perhaps in the 17th century , and since removed , was a gold paten on which the infant lay , clearly showing Jesus as the Eucharistic host . Mary , Joseph and the angels are the first to worship the infant Christ and the shed " becomes the altar of the first mass " . Upton explains that when viewed in the context of the first mass the iconography is more clearly defined .
= = Composition = =
Christus was the first Netherlandish painter to achieve proficiency in strict mathematical compositional rules with his use of orthogonals , creating a unified perspective . The concept of compositions " based on unitary perspective " was largely a pioneering effort on Christus 's part , although he borrowed from the earlier masters . Compositionally , the Nativity is one of Christus 's most complex and important works , which Ainsworth says is masterfully integrated with the use of color . X @-@ radiography reveals sketched orthogonal lines on the underpainting , used to indicate where the horizontal and vertical axis should meet at the main figures ' heads , and that he used a compass to sketch the spandrels .
The painting contains several geometric constructions . The roof of the shed 's trusses form series of triangles connecting lines joining the base of the pedestals and the crossbeams . These surround the gathering of the Holy Family , who form an inverse pattern . According to art historian Lawrence Steefel , " the detail participates in an almost emblematic pattern of repeated triangles which establish a rhyme scheme above and below , of roof structure and figure disposition . " Upton writes that a " clearly defined diamond " is visible within the apex in the roof . From there it extends down to Eve , and the bottom apex is formed where the infant lies on the ground . It then extends up to Adam and back up to the roof . " This diamond shape , " he writes , " supplemented by the rectangle within it , formed by the shed supports , the base of the triangle and the ground line in the shed , circumscribes the main event of the painting . "
Spatial and temporal borders separating the earthly and heavenly spheres are often seen in Netherlandish art , usually in the form of frames or arches . A boundary is achieved here with the grisaille archway , strongly reminiscent of van der Weyden 's work . Art historians speculate Christus may have imitated his c . 1455 Altar of Saint John . Instead of merely imitating , Christus innovated and extended the use of van der Weyden 's arch motif ; his arch is meant to be an opening , or a screen , for the viewer to see into the holy space , instead of a simple framing device in which figures are placed directly in @-@ line or under the arch . The multi @-@ hued threshold stones at the bottom emphasize its function says Upton , who writes : " it is an opening through which one passes : a true frame or doorway to the picture ... Yet , since this arch is painted in grisaille , distinct from the rest of the panel , it must also be seen as a separate entity , much like an elaborate border around an illuminated manuscript page . " The shadows cast by the grisaille figures stress " its function as a diaphragm between real and illusory space " .
A very similar archway is found in Dieric Bouts 's c . 1445 Mary Altarpiece , including spandrels with warriors . Art historians are unsure which was painted earlier – Christus 's Nativity or Bouts 's altarpiece . Equally , van der Weyden 's arched triptychs were executed at roughly the same period , but art historians are more certain Rogier 's archivolt design set the precedent . Unlike Bouts and van der Weyden , Christus appears to have used the device to encompass a single scene , incorporating all the main characters within the arch , instead of a linked series of scenes with separate archways .
The arch is only a prelude to the complex divisions beyond . The space inhabited by the Holy Family is holy ground . Mary , Joseph , the Christ child and the four surrounding angels occupy a space partitioned in the front by the archway and by the wall at the rear . A semicircle of figures is positioned around Christ , echoed in the semicircle of rocks placed directly inside the doorsill . Mary and Joseph are echoed by the colorful vertical porphyry columns on the sides , and by the statues of Adam and Eve . The rear of the shed where the four men stand , the small valley with the shepherds , the town , and the background landscape are also spatially discrete areas , which create a " steady , measured movement into space in place of the more abrupt jumping from foreground to distant background common to Flemish painting . " They also function to surround the Holy Family while simultaneously preventing its isolation from the world . Ainsworth writes that the " message of the painting quietly emerges from the strict , perspectively correct space constructed to engage the viewer . " Upton agrees , explaining that the use of geometric devices emphasize the focal point , which " falls well below the horizon in the exact center of the panel " , a perspective that would have given the 15th center viewer , kneeling in front of the panel , a " sense of physical relationship between the actual and ideal act of worship . "
= = Dating and condition = =
The Nativity 's dating has long been a source of debate among scholars . Estimations range from the mid @-@ 1440s to the mid @-@ 1450s ; early in Christus 's career to about the time van der Weyden painted his c . 1455 Altar of St John . Generally the mid @-@ 1450s seems the most accepted . Ainsworth considers it , along with Christus 's Holy Family ( currently in Kansas City ) , one of the most important attributed to him and believes it belongs in his later oeuvre , possibly as late as the mid @-@ 1460s . Evidence such as when Christus joined the Confraternity of the Dry Tree ( c. early 1460s ) points to it as a later work along with the Portrait of a Young Girl . Its use of perspective and assimilation of van Eyck 's and van der Weyden 's earlier influences also suggest a later date . Furthermore , the softer facial types utilized in the Nativity are typical of Christus 's later work , and suggest a date around the mid @-@ 1450s . Technical analysis ( dendrochronological evidence ) suggests a date of c . 1458 , based on the tree felling date . Christus painted two other versions of the Nativity : one in Bruges and the other in Berlin . The Bruges Nativity is dated 1452 – whether the date was added by Christus or during a restoration is unknown – and technical analysis of the brushstrokes suggests it to be earlier than the Washington Nativity .
Determining the execution date relies on stylistic analysis , and the degree of van der Weyden 's influence . The dating of the work to the 1440s is based on the notion that Christus borrowed heavily from the immediate influence of van der Weyden and Bouts . Although some of the similarities are undeniably striking and might be attributed to following a template , the degree of sophistication in the Nativity far surpasses the other two painters , according to Ainsworth . She writes that Bouts and van der Weyden " merely expand the narrative " in their use of the archway motif , whereas Christus shows a strong cause and effect between sin and redemption , innovations which almost certainly evolved later in his career , placing the date no earlier than the mid @-@ 1450s .
The underdrawing is visible through modern technical analysis , revealing the main group of figures and contour lines in the folds and drape of the clothing . The angels ' wings to Mary 's left are visible , but not those to the right , probably because of later overpainting . In the underdrawing Mary 's gown extends far to the left of the angel , but Christus apparently changed his mind about its execution .
The work has suffered damage : cracking where three wood panels are joined , paint loss to parts of the crackle pattern , and discoloration of varnishes . The largest area of paint loss occurred on Joseph 's shoulder . Mary 's robe has been completely restored and overpainted . Some paint loss is barely discernible in the areas around her hair . In many areas the paint layers and underlying support are in good condition .
The Nativity was one of 13 works hung at the Metropolitan Museum of Art 's 1994 exhibition , " Petrus Christus : Renaissance Master of Bruges " . It underwent significant restoration in preparation . Technicians removed over @-@ paint probably dating to its Spanish provenance . The addition included the gold paten on Mary 's robe , pigment under the Christ child , and the halos above Mary and Jesus . As early as 1916 , Friedländer questioned the presence of halos in Christus 's work , rarely seen in mid @-@ 15th century Netherlandish painting . When the halos were carefully examined they were found to be later additions ; before the exhibition they were removed from several paintings , including the Portrait of a Carthusian .
= = Provenance = =
The painting is today in the National Gallery of Art in Washington , D.C. , which was conceived by Pittsburgh financier Andrew Mellon in the late 1930s . It was one of 126 paintings from his personal collection donated to the gallery and was on display at the museum opening in March 1941 – three years after his death .
It belonged to Señora O. Yturbe of Madrid , who sold it in 1930 to Franz M. Zatzenstein , founder of the Matthiesen Gallery in Berlin . That April , the Duveen Brothers , less affected by the 1929 stock market crash than other dealers , paid Zatzenstein £ 30 @,@ 000 , in cash , for the painting and sold it immediately to Mellon . A dealer usually had to go through the lengthy process of sending photographs of a painting via trans @-@ Atlantic ship to an American buyer and then wait for a reply ; the transaction for the Nativity is exceptional because it is the first painting of which the photograph was wired via Marconi cable from England to America . To avoid the export fees due if the painting been sent directly to New York , the Duveens took a circuitous route – from Madrid to Germany , then to Paris and America . In 1936 it was acquired by the A.W. Mellon Educational and Charitable Trust , and gifted to the National Gallery a year later .
Given its size and orientation , the panel was probably meant to stand alone , but may have been conceived as the wing of triptych altarpiece . Who commissioned the piece or how it came to be in the possession of a Spanish owner is unknown . At least half of Christus 's known patrons were Italian or Spanish , and he often changed his style to suit their desire . Around eight of his paintings – only about 25 are extant – have come from either Italy or Spain , giving credence to speculation that he spent time there . Yet the existence of the thriving export market in early Netherlandish panel painting suggests equally that it could have been painted in Bruges and transported south .
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= Odell Waller =
Odell Waller ( 1917 – July 2 , 1942 ) was an African American sharecropper from Gretna , Virginia executed for the fatal shooting of his white landlord , Oscar Wheldon Davis , on July 15 , 1940 . Waller unsuccessfully maintained at his trial that the killing had been in self @-@ defense , but was convicted of a jury of white citizens who had paid the poll tax , a measure that effectively barred blacks and poor whites from jury service .
The Workers ' Defense League , a socialist labor rights organization , began a national campaign calling for the commutation of Waller 's sentence , and was supported in its efforts by novelist Pearl S. Buck , philosopher John Dewey , and First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt . President Franklin D. Roosevelt also made a private appeal on Waller 's behalf to Virginia Governor Colgate Darden . Though the campaign won several postponements of the sentence , Waller was finally executed on July 2 , 1942 . The case failed to overturn the poll tax , but led to reform of Virginia 's penal system and motivated Pauli Murray to begin her career in civil rights law .
= = Killing of Oscar Davis = =
= = = Background = = =
Odell Waller was born in 1917 to Dollie Jones and an unknown father , who died shortly after his birth . Jones gave the boy to her sister Annie Waller and Annie 's husband , Willis Waller , to adopt , and Odell considered Annie his mother . Odell completed three years of high school , but was later forced to leave school to work on the farm . From 1935 to 1938 , he was convicted of seven offenses , including assault , reckless driving , bootlegging , and carrying a concealed razor . In January 1939 , he married a woman named Mollie .
During the Great Depression , the Wallers fell behind on the mortgage for their farm , and after Willis died in 1938 , the bank foreclosed . Annie and Odell then agreed to become sharecroppers for a white landlord , Oscar Davis . The relationship quickly soured . Davis was also a sharecropper , and when his own landlord reduced Davis ' land allotment , Davis reduced that of the Wallers to only 2 acres ( 0 @.@ 81 ha ; 0 @.@ 0031 sq mi ) . The Wallers accused Davis of failing to pay Annie an agreed $ 7 @.@ 50 for taking care of Davis ' ill wife for three weeks ; when the Wallers subsequently refused to work in Davis ' fields , Davis evicted them . Following the eviction , someone on the Davis farm mutilated one of the Wallers ' dogs . After Annie 's cousin Robert helped her harvest the farm 's wheat , Davis took the whole crop rather than give the Wallers their share . In April 1940 , Odell had taken a job constructing electrical lines in Maryland , but he returned on the weekend of July 13 – 14 to investigate the worsening situation .
= = = The shooting = = =
At 6 : 30 AM on July 15 , 1940 , Odell drove to Davis 's farm to get the wheat with Annie , relatives Archie Waller and Thomas Younger , and a friend named Buck Fitzgerald . He brought a .32 caliber pistol .
The subsequent events remain in dispute . Henry Davis , a teenage black employee of Oscar Davis , maintained that Odell Waller had fired at Oscar Davis without provocation or warning , hitting him four times . Oscar Davis 's sons testified that their father had stated before he died that Waller had shot him without cause . One son added that Davis had said Waller had continued to shoot after Davis had already fallen to the ground . The testimony of other witnesses , including Waller 's relatives , was inconclusive , as they were too distant to hear the conversation between Waller and Davis . Waller stated that Davis had refused to let him take the Waller family share of the wheat , and had reached for his pocket as if to draw a gun ; Waller then fired on Davis .
Davis escaped through the cornfield after being shot and was taken to the hospital , where he died of his wounds on July 17 . Afraid he would be lynched , Waller fled to Columbus , Ohio , but was arrested there at the home of an uncle on July 24 after a manhunt involving police and the Federal Bureau of Investigation .
= = Trial = =
During Waller 's trial , which began on September 19 , 1940 , he was represented by Thomas H. Stone of the small communist splinter organization Revolutionary Workers League ( RWL ) . The RWL 's members had been expelled from the Communist Party USA in 1934 for their Trotskyist beliefs , and the organization was unpopular due to its opposition to World War II . The group compared the trial to that of the Scottsboro Boys , nine African @-@ American young men accused of rape in Alabama under suspicious circumstances , and began to criticize the racism and economic conditions of Waller 's rural Virginia county . Historian Richard B. Sherman argues that the group brought negative publicity to Waller 's trial from the start by creating the perception that " radical outsiders " were behind his defense . A socialist labor rights organization , the Workers ' Defense League ( WDL ) , offered to take over the defense and public campaign to avoid the stigma of communism from influencing Waller 's case , but was rebuffed by the RWL .
Stone and another defense attorney , J. Byron Hopkins , were given only three days to prepare Waller 's defense . After an all @-@ white jury was selected , composed only of citizens that could pay the poll tax , Stone moved that the case be dismissed on the grounds that Waller was " deprived of a trial by a jury of his peers " . However , Stone failed to submit evidence that this was the case , a factor that would prove crucial in later unsuccessful appeals . The judge dismissed the motion , as well as a tactically questionable motion by Stone that the judge himself was prejudiced in the case and should withdraw .
The testimony of Henry Davis and Oscar Davis 's sons proved damning , and several witnesses also testified that they had heard Waller declare he would come home with his wheat or kill Oscar Davis . In an analysis of the transcript , Sherman proposes that the phrasing of these witnesses was so similar that they may have been coached by prosecutors , but the defense counsel did not pursue this possibility . On September 27 , 1940 , after less than an hour 's deliberation , the jury found Waller guilty of first degree murder and sentenced him to death , a verdict praised by the Virginia press covering the trial . His execution was scheduled for December 27 of that year .
= = Campaign for commutation = =
After the trial , the RWL agreed to pass responsibility for the public campaign and legal appeals to the WDL , provided that the case continue to be handled " on a class struggle basis " , with attention to national issues as well as Waller 's specific situation . Eager to help Waller , the WDL reluctantly agreed to the terms . The organization assumed control of the case in November 1940 and immediately began fundraising on Waller 's behalf . Pauli Murray , a young woman new to the organization , was dispatched on a national fundraising tour , accompanied at times by Annie Waller .
The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) joined the case the same month , as did the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters , giving the case national publicity . The groups hoped that the case would lead the US Supreme Court to rule that the poll tax was unconstitutional . In December , Virginia Governor James H. Price granted Waller his first stay of execution , this one for three months , giving the new defense additional time to study the case .
On March 28 , 1941 , philosopher John Dewey joined the cause , sending Murray $ 5 @.@ 00 for Waller 's defense and giving permission to use his name in further fundraising . Dewey later co @-@ signed an open letter comparing Waller to Dred Scott , a slave who had unsuccessfully sued for his freedom before the US Supreme Court . One of Dewey 's letters to the New York Times about the case caught the attention of Nobel Prize for Literature laureate Pearl S. Buck , who also became involved in the case . She wrote in an open letter of her own that Waller " has ceased to be an individual , he has become a personification of all those to whom democracy is denied in our country " .
US First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt also worked on Waller 's behalf . Historian Richard B. Sherman states that she became involved after receiving a letter from Murray , which prompted her to write Governor Price requesting that he investigate whether Waller had received a fair trial and delay the execution . Roosevelt biographer Doris Kearns Goodwin , in contrast , holds that the First Lady intervened after receiving a handwritten note from Waller himself saying " I have heard lots of people speak of what a nice lady you are and what I can hear is that you believe in helping the poor ... Please write to the Governor and get him to have mercy on me and allow me a chance . " Whatever its beginnings , Roosevelt 's involvement in the case caused her to be widely criticized in the white Southern press .
= = Execution = =
On June 1 , 1942 , the US Supreme Court denied two of Waller 's petitions for appeal , and the defense was soon left without further legal options . In a final attempt to win a pardon or commutation from the governor , activists staged events around the country , including a two @-@ hour blackout of the lights in the primarily African @-@ American neighborhood of Harlem in New York City . Governor Price 's successor , Colgate Darden , received over seventeen thousand letters about the case .
On the eve of Waller 's execution , Eleanor Roosevelt appealed to her husband , President Franklin D. Roosevelt ; Franklin agreed , sending a private letter to Darden urging that the sentence be commuted to life imprisonment , signing it , " an old friend who just happens to be president " . Darden held a ten @-@ hour clemency hearing and , after hearing arguments from both sides , decided to proceed with the execution . Pauli Murray , the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters ' A. Philip Randolph , and the NAACP 's Walter White traveled to Washington in an attempt to lobby the president personally , unaware that he had already secretly appealed on their behalf . The president 's apparent refusal to act damaged his relationship with civil rights leaders ; Murray , in an open letter on behalf of the movement , called it a " stab in the back " . Murray and Eleanor Roosevelt , however , would remain friends until the latter 's death two decades later .
Waller wrote a ten @-@ page " Dying Statement " before his execution , admitting he had made mistakes but insisting that he had acted in self @-@ defense :
I haven 't lived so upright and I have asked God to forgive me and I feel he has ... I accidentally fell and some good people tried to help me ... In my case I worked hard from sun up to sun down trying to make a living for my family and it ended up in death for me . You take big people , as the presidents , governors , judges , their children don 't never have to suffer , they has plenty money . Born in a mention nothing ever to worry about . I am glad that some people are lucky . The penitentiary all over the United States are full of people ho was pore tried to work and have something , and couldn 't so that maid them steel and rob .
He was executed by electric chair on the morning of July 2 , 1942 . At the time of his execution , Waller had been on death row for 630 days , then the longest death row stay in the state 's history . His funeral was held on July 5 and was attended by 2 @,@ 500 people . Only one white person , WDL Secretary Morris Milgram , attended . Other whites had been asked not to come ; a reporter wrote of the exclusion that " [ the black community ] did not want ' Odell Waller 's murderers ' to look on his face in death " .
= = Impact of the case = =
Despite the uproar over the poll tax as a factor in jury selection , the tax remained in Virginia until the ratification of the Twenty @-@ fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution outlawed it in 1964 . Pauli Murray was deeply affected by her experience working on the case and was inspired to pursue her career in civil rights law . Governor Darden , influenced by the popular sentiment that the case had evoked , began a reform of the Virginia penal system , including the creation of an official Pardon and Parole Board with the authority to commute sentences .
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= U.S. Route 4 in New York =
U.S. Route 4 ( US 4 ) is a part of the U.S. Highway System that runs from East Greenbush , New York , to Portsmouth , New Hampshire . In the U.S. state of New York , US 4 extends 79 @.@ 75 miles ( 128 @.@ 35 km ) from an intersection with US 9 and US 20 in East Greenbush to the Vermont state line northeast of Whitehall . While the remainder of US 4 east of New York is an east – west route , US 4 in New York is signed north – south due to the alignment the route takes through the state . The portion of the route between Waterford and Whitehall is part of the Lakes to Locks Passage , an All @-@ American Road .
The route runs along the Hudson River from Troy to Hudson Falls and the Champlain Canal from Fort Ann to Whitehall . It passes through several riverside and canalside communities , including two cities ( Troy and Mechanicville ) and seven villages . US 4 crosses several major east – west highways as it proceeds north , such as Interstate 90 ( I @-@ 90 ) in East Greenbush , New York State Route 7 ( NY 7 ) in Troy , NY 29 in Schuylerville , and NY 149 in Fort Ann . It also overlaps with the north – south NY 22 for 6 miles ( 10 km ) from Comstock to Whitehall and with NY 32 for a total of 16 miles ( 26 km ) between Waterford and Bemis Heights and from Schuylerville to Northumberland .
US 4 was assigned in 1926 and initially extended from Glens Falls to the Vermont border near Whitehall by way of Hudson Falls . The route utilized part of NY 6 and NY 30 , two highways assigned in 1924 . US 4 was extended southward to its present terminus in East Greenbush as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . Much of US 4 south of Hudson Falls initially overlapped with other routes ; most of the overlaps were gradually eliminated during the 1940s and 1950s as the concurrent routes were eliminated or truncated . At one time , US 4 overlapped with NY 32 from Waterford to Northumberland with no interruption in between . The concurrency was split into two shorter overlaps when US 4 was realigned in the 1950s to follow its current alignment between Bemis Heights and Schuylerville .
= = Route description = =
The portion of US 4 between NY 32 in Waterford and NY 22 in Whitehall is the southernmost part of the Lakes to Locks Passage , an All @-@ American Road that begins in Waterford and heads north through eastern New York to Rouses Point . Additionally , the segment of US 4 between the northern city line of Mechanicville and the eastern village line of Whitehall is designated as the Turning Point Trail .
Most of the route is maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) ; however , two sections are maintained by local highway departments . The first lies within the city of Troy , where US 4 is completely city @-@ maintained . The other is in the city of Mechanicville , where local maintenance extends from Frances Street ( four blocks south of NY 67 ) to the northern city line .
= = = East Greenbush to Schuylerville = = =
US 4 begins at the concurrency of US 9 and US 20 in East Greenbush . Heading northward , it has an interchange with I @-@ 90 , continuing northward into Troy . In Troy , it passes by Hudson Valley Community College as well as the headquarters of the 42nd Infantry Division . US 4 then heads downhill , passing the historic South End Tavern as Burden Avenue , named for the historic Burden Iron Works . Later , US 4 assumes Fourth Street , which splits into parallel one @-@ way streets ( Third Street handles southbound traffic from downtown ) . At Congress Street , in the middle of the Central Troy Historic District with St. Paul 's Episcopal Church on the corner , it intersects NY 2 . Once through downtown , the streets meet and pass by the Green Island Bridge , later passing under the Collar City Bridge and onto Second Avenue in Lansingburgh .
After Lansingburgh , US 4 turns left to cross the Hudson River on the Troy – Waterford Bridge , entering Waterford , joining with NY 32 to head north together west of the Hudson . They run along the riverbank for 7 miles ( 11 km ) to the city of Mechanicville , where the routes cross over Anthony Kill and intersect NY 67 in the central business district . US 4 and NY 32 continue on , passing through the nearby village of Stillwater before splitting at Bemis Heights , a small community 5 miles ( 8 km ) northeast of Mechanicville . While NY 32 follows a more inland routing along the western edge of Saratoga National Historical Park , US 4 continues to follow the riverbank , running along the eastern boundary of the park . Past the park , the route passes by the Saratoga National Cemetery before rejoining NY 32 at the southern edge of the village of Schuylerville .
= = = Schuylerville to Vermont line = = =
US 4 begins to run along the Champlain Canal after Schuylerville , passing through the hamlets of Northumberland and Starks Knob . At a crossing over the Hudson River , US 4 and the concurrent NY 32 split in different directions . US 4 , which is now on the other side of the Hudson , continues northward through Fort Miller , and crosses the River once more . The route then enters Fort Edward , where it becomes concurrent with NY 197 .
With the Hudson River to its west , US 4 heads northward once again , leaving NY 197 behind . Not far after Fort Edward , the highway enters Hudson Falls , where it turns into a local road . There , it heads through downtown , intersecting with NY 196 , and soon afterwards , NY 254 . US 4 makes a sudden curve to the northeast , heading through the rural regions for the rest of its length .
There is one final intersection with NY 32 , but they do not become concurrent and US 4 heads to the northeast . The route passes through Kingsbury and soon after , becomes concurrent with NY 149 . The two routes head into Fort Ann , where they split , with NY 149 heading westward . After passing Battle Hill , NY 22 merges in from Comstock . There are several hills before the intersection where the two roads split in Whitehall . US 4 continues along its final stretch after NY 22 , passing fields and such to the state line , where it continues into Vermont .
= = History = =
= = = Origins and assignment = = =
In 1911 , the New York State Legislature created Route 43 , an unsigned legislative route extending from the southern village line of Stillwater to the western village line of Schuylerville via the hamlet of Quaker Springs . On March 1 , 1921 , Route 43 was renumbered to Route 44 to eliminate numerical duplication with another legislative Route 43 in western New York . At the same time , Route 44 was extended southwest from Stillwater to Clifton Park via Mechanicville and west from Schuylerville to Saratoga Springs .
The first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 . Two of the routes assigned at this time were NY 6 , a north – south route extending from the New York City line to the Canadian border , and NY 30 , another north – south route connecting NY 6 in Mechanicville to the Vermont state line west of Fair Haven . NY 6 left Albany on modern NY 32 and followed it to Mechanicville , where NY 6 veered westward on what is now NY 67 and NY 30 picked up the current alignment of NY 32 . NY 30 continued north on modern NY 32 to Glens Falls , at which point it went east to Hudson Falls via Warren and River streets . It headed northward from there to Vermont on modern US 4 . From Mechanicville to Schuylerville , NY 30 utilized the alignment of legislative Route 44 . By 1926 , NY 30 was rerouted north of Whitehall to continue north toward the Canadian border . The old alignment of NY 30 between Whitehall and Vermont was not assigned a new number . Meanwhile , an alternate route of NY 6 on the east side of the Hudson River between NY 5 ( now US 20 ) in East Greenbush and NY 6 in Waterford was designated as NY 6B by 1926 .
In the original plans for the U.S. Highway System , the north – south highway along the western bank of the Hudson River was designated as US 9 while the highway on the eastern bank was assigned US 109 . The two routes were concurrent from Albany to Mechanicville , where US 9 went west to follow NY 6 while US 109 continued north on NY 30 . The designations met again south of Glens Falls , where US 109 ended at US 9 . Also in the original plans was US 4 , which was assigned to all of NY 30 's original alignment between Glens Falls and the Vermont state line . In the final system alignment approved on November 11 , 1926 , the routing of US 9 was altered to follow its modern alignment between Albany and Glens Falls while US 109 was reconfigured to use NY 6B between East Greenbush and Waterford .
= = = Southward extension and overlaps = = =
When U.S. Highways were first posted in New York in 1927 , US 9 was restored to its originally planned alignment between Albany and Glens Falls ( via Waterford and Mechanicville ) while the US 109 designation went unassigned . The portion of US 109 's alignment south of Waterford became US 9E instead . US 4 was assigned as planned in 1926 , overlapping NY 30 between Glens Falls and Whitehall . The NY 6 designation was completely removed at this time . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , US 9 was realigned to follow its modern routing between Albany and Round Lake . The portion of US 9 's former routing between Waterford and Mechanicville as well as all of US 9E north of US 20 became a southward extension of US 4 , which left its original alignment in Hudson Falls and followed a previously unnumbered riverside highway south to Northumberland . In between Northumberland and Mechanicville , it utilized the former routing of NY 30 , which was reassigned to another highway as part of the renumbering .
Virtually all of US 4 south of Hudson Falls initially overlapped other routes , all of which were assigned as part of the renumbering . In between Hudson Falls and Northumberland , US 4 overlapped NY 32B , which began in Glens Falls and followed US 4 's former routing east to Hudson Falls . From Northumberland to Schuylerville and from Bemis Heights to Waterford , US 4 was part of NY 32 . The segment from Schuylerville to Bemis Heights was designated NY 32A . Lastly , the part of US 4 south of Northern Drive ( then @-@ NY 40 ) in Troy was concurrent to NY 40 . By 1932 , NY 40 was rerouted through Troy to follow a more easterly alignment through the city . The realignment moved the northern end of the overlap southward to the junction of US 4 and Winter Street in North Greenbush .
Most of the overlaps were eliminated as time went on . In the early 1940s , NY 32A was reassigned to another highway in the Catskill Mountains while NY 32B was truncated to end in Hudson Falls . The former routing of NY 32A became a realignment of NY 32 , creating an uninterrupted overlap between US 4 and NY 32 from Waterford to Northumberland . In the mid @-@ 1950s , work began on a project to upgrade a pre @-@ existing riverside highway between Bemis Heights and Schuylerville . The project was completed by 1958 , at which time the roadway became part of a realigned US 4 . The overlap with NY 40 was eliminated in the late 1950s when NY 40 was truncated to begin at the junction of US 4 and Winter Street .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Haim ( band ) =
Haim ( pronounced HY @-@ əm , / ˈhaɪ.əm / , Hebrew : חיים Life and stylized as HAIM ) is an American pop rock band from Los Angeles . The band consists of sisters Este , Danielle and Alana Haim , and drummer Dash Hutton . The group 's pop sound on their studio work stands in contrast to the more rock @-@ based music of their live shows .
The sisters grew up in a musical family , and began playing instruments from an early age in cover bands with their parents . They began performing as Haim in 2007 , but did not seriously consider a professional career for some years . Este graduated with a degree in Ethnomusicology , while Danielle became a successful touring guitarist with Jenny Lewis and The Strokes ' frontman , Julian Casablancas , on his solo tours . This led to Haim resuming as a full @-@ time operation in 2012 .
The group 's first release , Forever ( an EP released on a limited @-@ time download ) , combined with positive reception at the South by Southwest festival , led to a deal with Polydor Records and a management deal with Jay Z 's Roc Nation group in mid @-@ 2012 . The band began recording material for their first album , Days Are Gone , in between touring , including appearances at the Glastonbury Festival . The album charted in the top ten in several countries , including the number one @-@ spot in the UK , and the group had won several " best of " awards by the end of 2013 . The group was nominated for Best New Artist at the 57th Annual Grammy Awards and is recording a second album .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
The three sisters , Este Arielle Haim ( b . March 14 , 1986 ) , Danielle Sari Haim ( b . February 16 , 1989 ) and Alana Mychal Haim ( b . December 15 , 1991 ) were born and raised in the San Fernando Valley , California . Their father Mordechai ( " Moti " ) was born in Israel and is of Bulgarian Jewish descent , while their mother Donna is of Polish descent . Both have been musicians ; though he had been a professional soccer player in Israel , Moti also played drums , while Donna won a contest on The Gong Show in the 1970s singing a Bonnie Raitt song . While Danielle showed an aptitude for the guitar at a young age , Moti made the decision that Este would be more suited to the bass , buying her a second hand Fender for $ 50 . The siblings were encouraged to listen to their parents ' 1970s classic rock and Americana records and , during their childhood , the family formed a band called Rockinhaim to play cover versions at local charity fairs , with Moti on drums and Donna on guitar . The group played typical wedding band material , including the Beatles ' " Get Back " , Billy Joel 's " You May Be Right " and Van Morrison 's " Brown Eyed Girl " , but only did free community and benefit gigs at churches , schools and hospitals .
Danielle and Este were members of the pop @-@ rock group the Valli Girls , and appeared on the soundtrack to the 2005 film The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants . Their song " Valli Nation " by the " SoCal teen prodigies " appeared on the 2005 Nickelodeon Kids ' Choice Awards soundtrack alongside established musicians Avril Lavigne , Alicia Keys , Simple Plan and Good Charlotte .
As they grew older , the sisters became more interested in incorporating pop and contemporary R & B into their music , and in 2007 they decided to form their own band . For their first gig , the trio played at a Jewish deli in Hollywood and were paid in matzah ball soup . Early gigs were sparsely populated ; Danielle recalled " we were bottom of the bill at 50 capacity venues and no @-@ one would show up " .
For the next five years , Haim played local venues but did not consider music as a professional career , since all three sisters were busy with other projects . Este was studying at UCLA and graduated in 2010 with a degree in Ethnomusicology ( completed in just two years instead of the normal five ) , specializing in Bulgarian and Brazilian music .
= = = Danielle Haim 's guest appearances = = =
After graduating from high school , Danielle was spotted by musician Jenny Lewis at a jam session in Laurel Canyon , which led to Danielle joining Lewis ' touring band . The Strokes ' singer Julian Casablancas came to see one of Lewis 's shows on tour , and he in turn asked Danielle to play guitar and percussion on his own solo tour . Danielle rehearsed with Casablancas ' band every day for two months , which she later described as " an eye @-@ opening experience " . Following working with Casablancas , she toured as part of Scarlet Fever , the all @-@ female backing band for CeeLo Green .
While Danielle enjoyed touring , she decided she would prefer to perform her own music alongside her sisters , turning down a lucrative tour deal with Green . Casablancas advised Danielle to write stronger material and focus on recording , as it would improve their online presence .
= = = 2012 – 13 : Forever and commercial success = = =
After playing shows supporting Edward Sharpe and the Magnetic Zeros , The Henry Clay People and Kesha , Haim released the three song EP Forever in February 2012 as a time @-@ limited free download on their website . Dash Hutton officially joined as drummer at the EP 's release party at the Los Angeles Bootleg Theatre . He is the son of Three Dog Night 's Danny Hutton and knew Este socially after she had seen his old band , Wires on Fire . The EP received attention from the music industry following a successful series of shows at the South by Southwest festival in March . Danielle recalled the first show was " maybe a disaster " , but the remainder of the shows attracted more attention . The band subsequently signed a deal with Polydor Records in the UK in June .
In July , independent record label National Anthem re @-@ released the Forever EP on 10 " vinyl , containing the original three songs along with a fourth track , a remix of " Forever " by Dan Lissvik . Following dates supporting Mumford & Sons on their Gentlemen of the Road tour in the US in August , Haim toured the UK for the first time in November 2012 and then supported Florence and the Machine on their UK and Ireland tour in December .
British music magazine New Musical Express made the title track of the Forever EP its number 4 track of 2012 . On January 4 , 2013 the BBC announced that Haim had topped their annual Sound of 2013 music industry poll to find the most promising new musical acts for the coming year . The group also signed a management contract with the conglomerate Roc Nation , returned to South by SouthWest in March 2013 and earned their own " At Your Request " video feature on Idolator . In early 2013 , they were featured on American recording artist Kid Cudi 's third studio album Indicud , on the song titled " Red Eye " . Danielle Haim appeared on the first track , " You 're No Good " , from Major Lazer 's second album , Free the Universe , alongside Santigold , Vybz Kartel and Yasmin .
= = = 2013 – 14 : Days Are Gone = = =
The group spent a year recording their first album , Days Are Gone in sessions between live shows . The group experimented with drum machines and the music program GarageBand , adding hip hop and R & B influences to their existing sound . Polydor recommended producers Ariel Rechtshaid and James Ford to help with the album , who suggested further use of synthesizers , bringing the album closer to a straighforward pop style . Several of the drum tracks were recorded with gated reverb , made famous by Phil Collins . In June 2013 , the group performed at Glastonbury Festival , and in addition to their own set , the band appeared with Primal Scream performing background vocals on " It 's Alright , It 's OK " , " Rocks " and " Come Together " . The band returned for a repeat performance at Glastonbury in 2014 .
The single " The Wire " was released on July 29 and the album followed on 30 September . The album reached number one in the UK and has since sold 200 @,@ 000 copies there . To promote the album , the group performed " The Wire " on the BBC 's The Andrew Marr Show , with Este dedicating the song to the British Prime Minister David Cameron , also a guest on the show . The move was criticised as being ill @-@ judged by Johnny Marr , who stated that “ It ’ s really simple : they made themselves look like idiots . It ’ s ridiculous . No @-@ one put a gun to their head . The Conservatives tried to do the same thing with The Smiths , to re @-@ appropriate us in a false way , to be cool by association . ” Haim did not respond .
Haim subsequently toured Europe throughout the remainder of 2013 , recruiting touring keyboardist Tommy King , as well as performing as the musical guest on Saturday Night Live on November 23 with host Josh Hutcherson . The group performed " The Wire " and " Don 't Save Me " and Este considered this performance particularly poignant as a high school drama teacher had once told her " You 're never going to be on Saturday Night Live . " The main US tour followed in April 2014 and continued into May .
= = = 2014 – present : Second album = = =
In 2014 , Haim were awarded the NME " Best International Band " award . In August , the band released the video for " My Song 5 " in a remixed version , featuring American rapper , A $ AP Ferg . This is the sixth single taken from Days Are Gone . Haim and Jon Heder made an appearance for the music video of Chromeo 's " Old 45 's " . In October , the group recorded a cover of Fleetwood Mac 's " Rhiannon " with Stevie Nicks . As of October 2014 , the group are recording their second album , having written a bulk of new material while on tour over the year . The band is also featured on the original soundtrack of The Hunger Games : Mockingjay – Part 1 and The Divergent Series : Insurgent . In November , the group contributed their vocals to the track " Pray to God " on Calvin Harris ' fourth studio album Motion .
The group have become friends with singer @-@ songwriter Taylor Swift , and together they have visited Catalina and Maui , Hawaii . In the summer of 2015 , Haim opened for Taylor Swift at select dates on The 1989 World Tour . The group were nominated for Best New Artist at the 57th Annual Grammy Awards . Danielle was injured in an accident just before the awards , but shortly afterwards tweeted that she was recovering .
On March 29 , 2016 , Haim released a teaser announcing new music and a new tour coming in summer 2016 to their Instagram page .
= = Musical style = =
Haim has been compared to the 1970s soft @-@ rock band Fleetwood Mac , though the group say they are " squeamish " about this comparison and insist they are influenced by more recent music . According to Metro , their music sounds like folk @-@ rock " with a few R & B / hip @-@ hop stylings thrown in for good measure " . The group are fans of , and have been influenced by Beyoncé , covering her song " XO " on BBC Radio 1 's " Live Lounge " , and described " My Song 5 " as " ripping off " Justin Timberlake .
The group have rejected the " girl band " label , preferring to be respected as musicians on their individual merits . Alana stated , " When people call us a girl band , I take it as an insult – being a girl in a band shouldn ’ t be a thing . ” All three sisters are proficient on more than one instrument : Este plays both guitar and bass , Danielle plays guitar and drums , and Alana plays guitar , keyboards and percussion . For live performances , Este plays bass , Danielle plays lead guitar and sings lead vocals , and Alana plays rhythm guitar along with keyboards and percussion . All three sisters contribute three part vocal harmony .
The band 's live sound is different to that in the studio . Writing for NME , Hazel Sheffield said that Days Are Gone " may confuse those won over by their raw , rocking live shows . " Recordings demonstrate the group 's vocal pop style , while the group play typical rock material such as Fleetwood Mac 's " Oh Well " in concert . The group 's background in wedding bands from their days as Rockinhaim has led them to cover many different songs live and for radio sessions , including Miley Cyrus ' " Wrecking Ball " , Sheryl Crow 's " Strong Enough " and the Strokes ' " I 'll Try Anything Once " ( an early version of " You Only Live Once " ) . Este acts as the group 's MC onstage , announcing most of the songs . Many of her on stage antics , such as her blunt and coarse banter with the audience , frequent illeism and her amusing facial expressions ( the " bass face " ) while playing are staples of the band 's live shows and to a lesser extent , the band 's public image .
Hutton has said that Este is his favourite bassist to play with . Though he declines to appear in press and publicity photos , he is nevertheless a full @-@ time member of the band .
= = Reception = =
Critical reaction to Haim has been positive . PopMatters ' Matt James wrote " It 'd be hard to truly dislike Haim . They 're an eminently likeable , albeit slightly kooky , trio whose story already bears the frisson of legend . " Writing for The Guardian , Alexis Petridis praised the band 's songwriting abilities , saying it " has a certain kind of glossily depthless pop perfection down pat " . The band 's sound has been described as " nu @-@ folk @-@ meets @-@ nineties @-@ R & B " and " music that sounds like it was written on a lakeside retreat attended by Stevie Nicks , John Waite and En Vogue " .
In her survey of pop music in 2013 , Observer critic Kitty Empire praised the band for " using the vector of harmonies to splice R & B with 1970s soft rock . They laid waste , too , to a herd of ghastly old hobby horses about guitar bands being unmarketable and record sales only being tied to women 's state of undress . "
= = Discography = =
Days Are Gone ( 2013 )
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= Columbia Slough =
The Columbia Slough is a narrow waterway , about 19 miles ( 31 km ) long , in the floodplain of the Columbia River in the U.S. state of Oregon . From its source in the Portland suburb of Fairview , the Columbia Slough meanders west through Gresham and Portland to the Willamette River , about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the Willamette 's confluence with the Columbia . It is a remnant of the historic wetlands between the mouths of the Sandy River to the east and the Willamette River to the west . Levees surround much of the main slough as well as many side sloughs , detached sloughs , and nearby lakes . Drainage district employees control water flows with pumps and floodgates . Tidal fluctuations cause reverse flow on the lower slough .
The Columbia floodplain , formed by geologic processes including lava flows , volcanic eruptions , and the Missoula Floods , is part of the Portland Basin , which extends across the Columbia River from Multnomah County , Oregon , into Clark County , Washington . Five percent of Oregon 's population , about 158 @,@ 000 people , live in the slough watershed of about 51 square miles ( 130 km2 ) . Municipal wells near the upper slough provide supplemental drinking water to Portland and nearby cities . The cities , the drainage districts , the county , and a regional government , Metro , have overlapping jurisdictions in the watershed . A regional agency operates Portland International Airport along the middle slough and marine terminals near the lower slough . The Oregon Department of Environmental Quality ( DEQ ) and the city 's Bureau of Environmental Services ( BES ) deal with environmental issues .
Long before non @-@ indigenous people explored the region , tribes of Native Americans fished and hunted along the slough . In the early 19th century fur trappers and explorers including Lewis and Clark visited the area before large migrations of settlers began arriving from the east . The newcomers farmed , cut timber , built houses , and by the early 20th century established cities , shipping ports , roads , rail lines and industries near the slough . Increased investment in the floodplain led to larger losses during floods , and these losses prompted levee building that greatly altered the area . A flood pouring through a levee break in 1948 destroyed the city of Vanport , which was never rebuilt .
Used as a waste repository during the first half of the 20th century and cut off from the Columbia River by levees , the slough became one of Oregon 's most polluted waterways . Early attempts to mitigate the pollution , which included raw sewage and industrial waste , were unsuccessful . However , in 1952 Portland began sewage treatment , and over the next six decades the federal Clean Water Act and similar legislation mandated further cleanup . State and local governments , often assisted by community volunteers , undertook projects related to public health , natural resources , and recreation in a region with many homes , industries , businesses , and roads . The businesses and industries in the watershed employ about 57 @,@ 000 people , which is also frequented by more than 150 bird species and 26 fish species and animals including otters , beaver , and coyotes . One of the nation 's largest freshwater urban wetlands , Smith and Bybee Wetlands Natural Area , shares the lower slough watershed with a sewage treatment plant , marine terminals , a golf course , and a car racetrack . Watercraft able to portage over culverts and levees can travel the entire length of the slough . The 40 Mile Loop and other hiking and biking trails follow the waterways and connect the parks .
= = Name = =
Slough usually rhymes with shoe in the U.S. except in New England , where it usually rhymes with now , the preferred British pronunciation . Slough may mean a place of deep mud or mire , a swamp , a river inlet or backwater , or a creek in a marsh or tide flat . The Columbia Slough is classified as a " stream " in the Geographic Names Information System ( GNIS ) of the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) . The slough takes its name from the Columbia River , of which it was historically a side channel or anabranch . Robert Gray , a Boston fur trader and whaler who sailed partway up the Columbia River in 1792 , named the river after his ship , Columbia Rediviva . The Columbia part of the ship 's name belonged to the tradition of naming things after explorer Christopher Columbus .
= = Course = =
The Columbia Slough flows roughly parallel to and about 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 7 miles ( 0 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 7 km ) south of the Columbia River in Multnomah County . It begins at Fairview Lake in the city of Fairview and immediately enters the city of Gresham . Less than 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) later , it enters the city of Portland and continues generally westward for about another 18 miles ( 29 km ) to its confluence with the Willamette River . Throughout its course , the slough is nearly level , 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) above sea level at the source and 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) at the mouth . Semidiurnal tides cause reverse currents on the lower 8 @.@ 5 miles ( 13 @.@ 7 km ) of the slough .
Running slightly north of and parallel to U.S. Route 30 ( Sandy Boulevard ) , the slough flows by Zimmerman Heritage Farm on the left bank ( south ) about 17 @.@ 5 miles ( 28 @.@ 2 km ) from the mouth , Big Four Corners Wetlands on the right bank shortly thereafter , and receives Wilkes Creek on the left shortly after that . At about river mile ( RM ) 15 @.@ 5 or river kilometer ( RK ) 24 @.@ 9 , it passes through a gated levee that separates the upper slough from the middle slough . Soon it passes Prison Pond Wetlands near Inverness Jail and connects to Johnson Lake Slough , all on the left . Shortly thereafter , it flows under Interstate 205 . From here and for most of the rest of its course , the slough runs parallel to and slightly north of Columbia Boulevard . Passing Johnson Lake on the left , it crosses the Colwood National Golf Course and flows by Portland International Airport and an Oregon Air National Guard base on the right . On the left is Whitaker Ponds Natural Area . Shortly thereafter , it receives Whitaker Slough on the left and crosses the Broadmoor Golf Course . Between 9 and 8 miles ( 14 and 13 km ) from the mouth , it receives Buffalo Slough from the left and passes by the defunct Peninsula Drainage Canal ( City Canal ) , which lies to the slough 's right . At this point , it passes through a second gated levee that separates the middle slough from the lower slough and its tidal flow reversals .
In the next stretch , the Columbia Slough flows by Portland Meadows horse racing track on the right and crosses under Interstate 5 at about RM 7 ( RK 11 ) . Beyond the interstate , to the slough 's north lies Delta Park , Portland International Raceway , and the Heron Lakes Golf Course . Until flooding destroyed it in 1948 , the city of Vanport occupied this site . To the south is the Columbia Boulevard Wastewater Treatment Plant .
The slough flows through the Wapato Wetland and by the Smith and Bybee Wetlands Natural Area , including the former St. Johns Landfill , on the right at about RM 3 ( RK 4 @.@ 8 ) from the Willamette River , and by Pier Park on the left . Shortly thereafter , it turns sharply north for the rest of its course . It receives North Slough , connected to Bybee Lake , on the right , and passes through the Ramsey Lake Wetlands and Kelley Point Park before entering the Willamette River about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from its confluence with the Columbia River . The mouth of the Columbia River is about 101 miles ( 163 km ) further downstream at Astoria on the Pacific Ocean .
= = = Discharge = = =
Since 1989 , the USGS has monitored the flow of the Columbia Slough at a stream gauge 0 @.@ 6 miles ( 1 @.@ 0 km ) from the mouth . The average flow recorded at this gauge is 93 @.@ 8 cubic feet per second ( 3 m3 / s ) from a drainage area of undetermined size . The maximum flow was 2 @,@ 400 cubic feet per second ( 68 m3 / s ) on December 5 , 1995 , and the minimum flow ( biggest reverse flow ) was − 6 @,@ 700 cubic feet per second ( − 190 m3 / s ) on February 7 , 1996 , which coincided with a flood on the Columbia and Willamette rivers .
= = Watershed = =
Draining about 51 square miles ( 130 km2 ) , the Columbia Slough watershed lies in the floodplain of the Columbia River between the mouths of the Sandy River to the east and the Willamette River . Parts of Portland , Fairview , Gresham , Maywood Park , Wood Village , and unincorporated Multnomah County lie within the drainage basin ( watershed ) . As of 2005 , about 158 @,@ 000 people , 5 percent of Oregon 's population , lived in the basin .
The watershed includes residential neighborhoods , agriculture , the airport , open spaces , 54 schools , interstate highways , railways , commercial businesses , and heavy and light industry . In general , the northern part is industrial and commercial ; the southern part is residential , and agricultural areas lie to the east . As of 2001 , single @-@ family residential zones covered 33 percent of the watershed , and mixed @-@ use zones accounted for another 33 percent . The other zones were 12 percent industrial , 12 percent parks or open space ; 6 percent multi @-@ family residential , 3 percent commercial , and 2 percent were for farming or forests . As of 2005 , about 3 @,@ 900 businesses operated in the watershed and employed about 57 @,@ 000 people .
Adjacent to the Columbia Slough basin are the watersheds of the Sandy River to the east , Johnson Creek to the south , the Willamette to the south and west , and the Columbia to the north . Lying slightly north of the watershed , large islands in the Columbia River include , from east to west , McGuire Island , Government Island , Lemon Island , and Tomahawk Island , which is connected to Hayden Island . Bordered by the Columbia and two arms of the Willamette , Sauvie Island lies just west of the mouth of the slough .
= = = Jurisdiction = = =
Many governmental entities share responsibility for the slough and its drainage basin . Decisions by the municipal governments of Portland , Fairview , Gresham , Maywood Park , and Wood Village , and the government of Multnomah County affect the slough . Metro , the regional governmental agency for the Oregon portion of the Portland metropolitan area , is involved in acquiring and protecting wildlife habitat in places like Big Four Corners Wetlands and Smith and Bybee Wetlands Natural Area , acquiring property to close gaps in the 40 Mile Loop and other trails , and creating additional water access along the slough . The United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) has designated the Oregon Department of Environmental Quality ( DEQ ) to regulate the slough under provisions of the federal Clean Water Act . The Port of Portland , a regional agency run by commissioners appointed by the Oregon governor , owns and manages about 11 percent of the land in the slough watershed . Three drainage districts that manage water flows in the slough floodplain overlap parts of these other jurisdictions .
= = = Annual report card = = =
In 2015 , Portland 's Bureau of Environmental Services ( BES ) began issuing annual " report cards " for watersheds or fractions thereof that lie within the city . BES assigns grades for each of four categories : hydrology , water quality , habitat , and fish and wildlife . Hydrology grades depend on the amount of pavement and other impervious surfaces in the watershed and to what degree its streams flow freely , not dammed or diverted . Water @-@ quality grades are based on measurements of dissolved oxygen , E @-@ coli bacteria , temperature , suspended solids , and substances such as mercury and phosphorus . Habitat ranking depends on the condition of stream banks and floodplains , riparian zones , tree canopies , and other variables . The fish and wildlife assessment includes birds , fish , and macroinvertebrates . In 2015 , the BES grades for the Columbia Slough are hydrology , B − ; water quality , B − ; habitat , D − , and fish and wildlife , F.
= = Geology = =
The Columbia Slough is part of the roughly 770 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 2 @,@ 000 km2 ) Portland Basin , which lies at the northern end of the Willamette Valley of Oregon and extends north into Clark County in the state of Washington . The region is underlain by solidified lavas of the Columbia River Basalt Group that are up to 16 million years old . Covered by later alluvial deposits , the basalts lie more than 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) below the surface within the basin . About 10 million years ago , eruptions of Cascade Range volcanoes to the east sent flows of mud , ash , and eroded volcanic debris into the Columbia , which was powerful enough to carry the material downstream . Deposited above the basalt during the Miocene and early Pliocene , these loose sands and gravels formed part of what is known as the Troutdale Formation . Extending to the Tualatin River Valley to the south and into Clark County on the north , the formation is an aquifer that is the primary source of drinking water for Vancouver in Washington and an auxiliary source for Portland .
The Portland Basin is being pulled slowly apart between faults in the Tualatin Mountains ( West Hills ) on the west side of Portland , the East Bank fault along the east side of the Willamette River , and other fault systems near Gresham further east . About 3 million years ago , many small volcanoes and cinder cones erupted through the thin , stretched crust of the basin and in the Cascade foothills to the southeast . Ash , cinders , and debris from these Boring Lava Field volcanoes added another layer of sediment to the Troutdale formation .
About 15 @,@ 000 years ago , cataclysmic ice age events known as the Missoula Floods or Bretz Floods originating in the Clark Fork region of northern Idaho inundated the Columbia River basin many times . These floods deposited huge amounts of debris and sediment . Water filled the entire Columbia Gorge to overflowing and turned the Willamette Valley into a lake 100 miles ( 160 km ) long , 60 miles ( 100 km ) wide and 300 feet ( 90 m ) deep . The floodwaters ripped the face off Rocky Butte in Portland and deposited a 5 @-@ mile ( 8 km ) gravel bar , Alameda Ridge , that runs parallel to and slightly south of the Columbia Slough .
Faults associated with the expanding Portland Basin are capable of producing significant earthquakes . More than a thousand earthquakes , many too small to be felt , have been recorded in the basin since 1841 . The stronger ones reached about magnitude 5 on the Richter scale . In 1892 , one estimated at magnitude 5 shook downtown Portland for about 30 seconds . In 1962 , one centered about 7 miles ( 11 km ) north of Portland was estimated at between magnitude 4 @.@ 9 and 5 @.@ 2 .
= = Hydrology = =
= = = Rainfall and runoff = = =
Based on records from 1961 to 1990 , the watershed 's average annual precipitation , as measured at Portland International Airport , is about 36 inches ( 910 mm ) . About 21 inches ( 530 mm ) falls from November through February and only about 4 inches ( 100 mm ) from June through September . Since temperatures are normally below freezing fewer than 30 days a year , most of this precipitation reaches the ground as rain .
Historically , most rain falling on the watershed was taken up by vegetation , flowed into wetlands , soaked into the ground , or evaporated . Heavy rain in the winter months recharged the groundwater and provided baseflows to the slough during dry summers . Urban development , which replaced vegetation and water @-@ absorbing soils with airport runways , house roofs , highways , warehouses , parking lots , and other hard surfaces , interrupted this cycle . In 1999 , a study estimated that impervious surfaces covered 54 percent of the watershed . Storm runoff that might have taken days to reach the historic slough reaches the developed slough in hours .
= = = Main channel = = =
Until the 20th century , the slough and its side channels and associated ponds and lakes were part of the active Columbia River floodplain . When the historic river was high , the slough received water from it near Big Four Corners , about 17 miles ( 27 km ) from the slough 's mouth . In 1917 , landowners formed three drainage districts — Peninsula Drainage District No. 1 ( Pen 1 ) , Peninsula Drainage District No. 2 ( Pen 2 ) , and Multnomah County Drainage District No. 1 ( MCDD ) — to control flooding . A fourth district , the Sandy Drainage Improvement Company ( SDIC ) , manages water flow at the upper end of the slough 's basin in Fairview and Troutdale . By 2008 , the districts maintained 30 miles ( 48 km ) of levees as well as water pumps , floodgates and other water control devices .
The upper slough extends from the slough 's source at Fairview Lake , roughly 18 @.@ 5 miles ( 30 km ) from the mouth , to a gated levee known as the mid @-@ dike levee about 3 miles ( 5 km ) downstream . This sector , managed by MCDD , covers 2 @,@ 650 acres ( 1 @,@ 070 ha ) completely surrounded by levees . A northern side channel extends from the mid @-@ dike levee to MCDD Pump Station No. 4 on the Columbia River ( Marine Drive ) levee near Big Four Corners . Water usually exits this sector through the open gates of the mid @-@ dike levee , but to control threatening flows the MCDD can close the gate and pump water from the northern side channel directly into the Columbia . The pump 's maximum capacity is 275 @,@ 000 U.S. gallons per minute ( 17 @,@ 300 L / s ) .
The middle slough , also managed by MCDD , lies between the mid @-@ dike levee and the Pen 2 levee , 8 @.@ 5 miles ( 13 @.@ 7 km ) from the mouth . This sector covers 6 @,@ 848 acres ( 2 @,@ 771 ha ) , is completely surrounded by levees , and contains many side sloughs , ponds , small lakes , and springs . Pump Station No. 1 rests on the Pen 2 levee , which is gated across the course of the slough . To control flows , MCDD can open or close the gates , and it can pump water from the middle slough to the lower slough when its flow is reversed by the tide or when gravity flow is insufficient . The pump 's capacity is 250 @,@ 000 US gallons per minute ( 16 m3 / s ) .
Water levels in the lower slough , managed by Pen 2 and Pen 1 , depend more on Willamette River conditions than on pumping by MCDD . Incoming tides cause a variation in water surface elevation of between 12 inches ( 30 cm ) and 24 inches ( 61 cm ) roughly twice per day along the entire lower slough . Flow direction varies with the tide . Pen 2 and Pen 1 , separated by Interstate 5 , border the north side of the lower slough . Pen 2 manages 1 @,@ 475 acres ( 597 ha ) east of the highway , and Pen 1 manages 901 acres ( 365 ha ) to the west ( downstream ) . Multiple pump stations move water from lesser sloughs in both districts into the main slough . Parts of this subwatershed are unprotected by levees and are vulnerable to 100 @-@ year floods .
= = = Creeks and lakes = = =
Historically Fairview Creek flowed north into the Columbia River through a wetlands slightly upstream of Big Four Corners . In the early 20th century , water managers dug an artificial channel connecting the Fairview Creek wetlands to the slough . In 1960 , they built a dam on the west side of the wetlands to create Fairview Lake for water storage and recreation . It covers about 100 acres ( 40 ha ) and is 5 to 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 to 1 @.@ 8 m ) deep . Fairview Creek forms in a wetland near Grant Butte and flows north for 5 miles ( 8 km ) through the cities of Gresham and Fairview to reach the lake . Fairview Creek has two named tributaries , No Name Creek , and Clear Creek . A smaller stream , Osborn Creek , also flows into the lake , which empties through a weir and culvert system into the upper slough .
With one exception , the streams feeding Fairview Lake are the watershed 's only remaining creeks , although springs also reach the surface . Wilkes Creek , the slough 's only free flowing tributary , is about 2 miles ( 3 km ) long and enters the upper slough from the south . Dozens of similar streams that once flowed into the slough from the south have all been piped or filled . Many bodies of water in addition to the main slough channel lie within the drainage basin . The area around the middle slough contains several slough arms and small lakes , including Buffalo Slough , Whitaker Slough , Johnson Lake , Whitaker Ponds , and Prison Pond . In the lower slough , Smith and Bybee Wetlands Natural Area at 2 @,@ 000 acres ( 810 ha ) is one of the largest urban freshwater wetlands in the United States . A 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) side slough called North Slough connects Bybee Lake and the main slough channel . A water control structure at the outlet from Bybee Lake to the North Slough regulates the lakes ' levels .
= = = Aquifers and wells = = =
Groundwater discharges from an aquifer near the surface supply an estimated flow between 50 and 100 cubic feet per second ( 1 @.@ 4 and 2 @.@ 8 m3 / s ) to the middle and upper sloughs . Rain infiltration and artificial sumps recharge this shallow aquifer . Geologists have identified four other major aquifers separated by relatively impermeable clays or other strata at various levels below the surface aquifer . The City of Portland 's water bureau manages the Columbia South Shore Well Field that taps the deeper aquifers . As of 2004 , 25 active wells drawing from depths ranging from 60 to 600 feet ( 18 to 183 m ) could produce up to 100 million US gallons ( 380 @,@ 000 m3 ) a day from the field . These were drilled between 1976 and 2003 to supplement the city 's main water supply from the Bull Run Watershed during droughts or emergencies . The Rockwood Water People 's Utility District ( PUD ) and the City of Fairview have also drilled three wells near the upper slough .
= = History = =
= = = Early inhabitants = = =
Archeological evidence suggests that Native Americans lived along the lower Columbia River as early as 10 @,@ 000 years ago , including near what later became The Dalles , on the Columbia River about 70 miles ( 110 km ) east of the Columbia Slough . By 2 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 000 years ago , the Clackamas Indians had settled along the Clackamas River , which empties into the Willamette River about 25 miles ( 40 km ) south of the slough . The Clackamas tribe was a subgroup of the Chinookan speakers who lived in the Columbia River Valley from Celilo Falls to the Pacific Ocean . Clackamas lands included the lower Willamette River from Willamette Falls , at what later became Oregon City , to the Willamette 's confluence with the Columbia River . The Columbia River floodplain near the mouth of the Willamette contained many stream channels , lakes , and wetlands that flooded annually . Chinookan tribes hunted and fished there and traveled between the two big rivers via the protected waters of the slough . Their main food sources were salmon , sturgeon , and camas .
In 1792 , Lieutenant William Broughton , a British explorer , led the first trip by non @-@ natives as far up the Columbia River as the mouth of the Sandy River . He and his men camped on Sauvie Island , which lies between the Willamette and Columbia rivers directly opposite the mouth of the slough . Broughton encountered many Chinookans while exploring and mapping geographic features including Hayden Island and other islands in the Columbia just north of the slough . When Lewis and Clark visited the area in 1806 , the Clackamas tribe consisted of about 1 @,@ 800 people living in 11 villages . The explorers estimated that 800 people of the Multnomah tribe of Chinookans lived in five villages on Sauvie Island .
In 1825 , the Hudson 's Bay Company established its western administrative headquarters at Fort Vancouver , across the Columbia River from the slough . The British fort became the center for fur trading and other commerce throughout the Pacific Northwest , including what would later become the state of Oregon . By the 1830s , smallpox , malaria , measles and other diseases carried by non @-@ indigenous explorers and traders had reduced the native population by up to 90 percent throughout the lower Columbia basin . The United States gained control over the Oregon Territory — including Fort Vancouver , the Portland Basin , and the slough — by treaty with Great Britain in 1846 . By 1851 , the Clackamas tribe 's population had fallen to 88 , and in 1855 the tribe signed a treaty surrendering its lands to the U.S.
= = = Farming , commerce , and industry = = =
By 1850 , White settlers established donation land claims in the Columbia Slough watershed . One settler , Lewis Love , became wealthy by cutting timber in the watershed and using the slough as part of a shipping route to downtown Portland . Other settlers logged the forests near the slough and built sawmills , fished , and farmed . In 1852 , James John operated a ferry based on the peninsula of land between the Columbia and the Willamette River . The community of St. Johns , platted in the same year on the peninsula , is named after him . Legislation creating the Port of Portland in 1891 improved St. Johns ' prospects as a Willamette River port . In 1902 , the U.S. Congress passed a Reclamation Act that encouraged irrigation , flood control , and wetland development in places like the peninsula . In 1907 , the Spokane , Portland and Seattle Railway began work on a rail line across the peninsula . The railway and the port improvements led to high expectations . " St. Johns , the City of Destiny " , a 1909 editorial appearing in a booster publication called The Peninsula , said :
Nature has been more than lavish in her gifts to St. Johns . Travel as many miles as you like and go where you will , it is highly improbable that you will find a spot with so many magnificent nature advantages as has St. Johns . The fine stretch of level land on which the city is located , the deep water of the two rivers , the navigable sloughs and the superb scenery which nature has painted with a master hand , makes the location an ideal one in every respect either for industries or residences .
= = = Open sewer = = =
As Portland grew , it annexed St. Johns and expanded into the peninsula and other parts of the watershed . East of St. Johns , the Swift Meatpacking Company bought 3 @,@ 400 acres ( 1 @,@ 400 ha ) in 1906 and established the community of Kenton . Other companies built packing plants and slaughterhouses along the slough , and by 1911 Portland had become the main livestock market for the Pacific Northwest . These and other early 20th century businesses , including stockyards , a dairy farm , a shingle company , and a lumber mill , flushed waste products into the slough . Starting in 1910 , north Portland 's residential sewage also poured into the slough through pipes laid for the purpose . In 1917 , landowners along the slough had formed three drainage districts to control floods . They dug ditches , deepened existing water channels , and built levees to keep the rivers and the slough from flooding agricultural , industrial , and commercial property . Hoping to flush the slough with clean water from the river , city engineers created the crosscutting Peninsula Canal . The project largely failed because daily tides reversed the slough 's flow and because both ends of the canal were at nearly the same elevation .
Over the next 30 years , more lumber and wood products companies opened along the slough , and tugboats moved log rafts up and down the waterway . Truck freight and other transportation companies built in the watershed . The city created the St. Johns Landfill on wetlands and small channels off the lower slough and built a new Portland Airport on land along the middle slough . Activists and civic leaders , concerned about pollution on the Willamette River , led cleanup campaigns , but voters declined to pay for sewage treatment . Pollution eventually grew so bad on the slough that mill workers refused to handle logs that had been stored in its water .
= = = World War II and after = = =
After the start of the war with Japan , President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed an order for internment of all the people of Japanese ancestry who lived on the West Coast . About 1 @,@ 700 of them lived in Portland , and some had farms or businesses near the slough . When the government removed them from their homes in 1942 , it housed them temporarily in the Livestock Exposition Center ( Expo Center ) in Kenton before sending them to internment camps further inland . They were not allowed to return until 1945 .
In 1942 , Kaiser Shipbuilding Company began making ships for the war at three huge installations near the lower slough , one in St. Johns , one on Swan Island in Portland 's Overlook neighborhood , and one in Vancouver , Washington . St. Johns and Vancouver made Liberty ships , while Swan Island made tankers . The St. Johns shipyard became the nation 's leading producer of Liberty ships . To house shipyard workers and their families , Henry J. Kaiser bought 650 acres ( 260 ha ) of former marsh , pasture , and farmland in the lower slough watershed surrounded on all sides by dikes between 15 and 25 feet ( 5 and 8 m ) high . Here he built a new city , at first called Kaiserville and later Vanport . By 1943 , Vanport 's population of 39 @,@ 000 made it the second largest city in Oregon and the largest wartime housing project in the U.S. After the war , the population fell to about 18 @,@ 500 . This was roughly the number of people living there on May 30 , 1948 , when a flood broke through Vanport 's western levee . The break occurred during the afternoon of a day with mild weather . The first rush of water soon became a " creeping inundation " , slowed in its advance for 35 to 40 minutes by water @-@ absorbing sloughs . The water 's gradual rise within the city allowed most of the residents to escape drowning . The county coroner 's official list of bodies recovered was set at fifteen , and seven people on a list of missing people were never found . The flood destroyed the city , which was never rebuilt .
The Vanport flood induced changes to the slough 's system of levees , which were rebuilt and in some cases fortified to withstand a 100 @-@ year flood . Instead of repairing the levee along the Peninsula Canal , the city plugged it at both ends . The disaster also affected Oregon 's system of higher education . After floodwaters destroyed the Vanport Extension Center , set up in 1946 , the Oregon Board of Higher Education reestablished the school in downtown Portland , where it eventually became Portland State University .
Debate about how to use the slough and its watershed continued through the rest of the century . In 1964 , the Port of Portland , interested in industrial development , began to fill Smith , Bybee , and Ramsey lakes with dredge sands from the Columbia . In the 1970s , the Oregon Legislature passed a law against filling Smith or Bybee lakes below a contour line 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) above mean sea level except to enhance fish and wildlife habitat . Plans for a Willamette River Greenway project proposed by Oregon Governor Tom McCall in the late 1960s called for park and recreation areas along the Willamette and many of its tributaries but ignored the slough . Some planners argued that the slough was so filthy that more industry was all it was good for . They portrayed cleanup as a lofty but impractical goal .
At Oregon 's request , the U.S. Congress stripped the slough of its navigable status in 1978 . This ended channel dredging on the slough , which could then be used for recreation . Other laws affecting the slough in the 1970s and beyond were the federal Clean Water Act and the Oregon Comprehensive Land Use Planning Act . In 1986 , a business association began promoting commercial development along the upper slough , and the city later used urban renewal funds to support industrial projects near the airport . In 1996 the city acquired the Whitaker Ponds Natural Area , where it began a slough watershed education program for children .
= = Pollution = =
After years of piping raw sewage directly into the waterway , Portland built its first sewage treatment plant next to the lower slough in 1952 . The Columbia Boulevard Wastewater Treatment Plant handled a combination of raw sewage and storm runoff that flowed into the sanitary sewer system from all over the city and piped the treated water into the Columbia River . When runoff exceeded the plant 's capacity during heavy rains , sewage still entered the slough from combined sewer overflows ( CSO ) s at 13 outfalls .
The city closed the St. Johns Landfill , adjacent to the lower slough , in 1991 . Pressed by citizen action groups , it agreed in 1993 to establish a 50 @-@ foot ( 15 m ) environmental conservation zone along the slough . In response to a threatened lawsuit , the city began a comprehensive cleanup of the slough in 1994 , and a year later it received a $ 10 million grant from the EPA for the purpose .
Of the streams monitored in the lower Willamette basin by the Oregon Department of Environmental Quality ( DEQ ) between 1986 and 1995 , the Columbia Slough had the worst pollution scores . DEQ 's measurements came from the slough at Landfill Road , 2 @.@ 6 miles ( 4 @.@ 2 km ) from the mouth . On the Oregon Water Quality Index ( OWQI ) used by DEQ , water quality scores can vary from 10 ( worst ) to 100 ( ideal ) . The average for the Columbia Slough was 22 , or " very poor " . By comparison , the average in the Willamette River at the Hawthorne Bridge in downtown Portland was 74 during the same years . Measurements of water quality at the Landfill Road site during the years covered by the DEQ report showed high concentrations of phosphates , ammonia and nitrates , fecal coliform bacteria , and suspended solids , and a high biochemical oxygen demand . High temperatures enhanced extreme eutrophication in the summer .
The Port of Portland began efforts in 1997 to reduce the flow of aircraft deicing chemicals from the airport into the waterway , though it still diverted concentrated chemicals ( mostly glycol ) directly into the slough during rare times of reservoir overflow . By 2012 , the Port had completed work on an enhanced system that collects , stores , and treats the chemicals , and is more likely to direct runoff to the Columbia River than the slough .
By 2000 the City of Portland had spent about $ 200 million to nearly eliminate CSOs from entering the slough . It also replaced septic tank and cesspool systems near the middle and upper slough with sanitary sewers . BES analysis of water samples taken between 1995 and 2002 showed that by the end of this period DEQ water quality standards for Escherichia coli , the indicator organism for fecal contamination , were nearly always being met in the upper and middle sloughs and generally being met in the lower slough . Despite these and other improvements in water quality , the slough is not a safe source of edible fish . The Multnomah County Health Department and other agencies have advised people to avoid or greatly reduce consumption of fish and crayfish from the slough because they contain polychlorinated biphenyls ( PCB ) and pesticides .
= = Biology = =
= = = Habitat = = =
Development since 1850 has greatly altered the places in the watershed where plants and animals can thrive . In a report published in 2005 , the Portland Bureau of Environmental Services ( BES ) , using data from an early General Land Office survey , compared the watershed of 1851 with that of 2003 . The study showed that all of the watershed provided plant and wildlife habitat in 1851 , but by 2003 only 33 percent provided habitat . In 1851 , water covered 10 percent of the watershed but that had been cut in half by 2003 . Marshes and other wetlands that had comprised 22 percent of the earlier watershed dwindled to 1 percent by 2003 , while the percentage of land devoted to industry , commerce , and homes rose from 0 to 34 . In addition , habitat remaining in 2003 was greatly disturbed , dominated by Himalayan blackberry and other invasive species and fragmented by roads . The riparian zone along the slough was generally narrow or nonexistent and devoid of trees and shrubs in places , including along the levees .
In 2002 the city , the MCDD , and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers began a project to improve habitat by creating 7 miles ( 11 km ) of stream meanders and wetland terraces along the slough . Through its Watershed Revegetation Program , begun in 1996 , the city worked with property owners to plant native vegetation and to remove invasive weeds . Through 2005 , participants had replanted more than 500 acres ( 200 ha ) along nearly 40 miles ( 64 km ) of riparian corridors in the slough watershed . Other strategies pursued by the city , Metro , and other interest groups include connecting separated habitats with a continuous riparian corridor , removing wildlife corridor barriers , restoring hydrological connections to the slough , and restoring the floodplain where feasible .
= = = Fish and wildlife = = =
Although reduced and altered , habitats in the watershed support a wide range of wildlife , some of which is found nowhere else in Portland . Many species that used the slough in 1850 still use it . This includes more than 150 species of birds , 26 species of fish of which 12 species are native several kinds of amphibians , western pond turtles , beaver , muskrat , river otter , and black @-@ tailed deer . Juvenile salmon enter the lower slough as well as Smith and Bybee Lakes . Coastal cutthroat trout inhabit Fairview Creek and Osborn Creek . Three species of native freshwater mussel live in the slough and in Smith and Bybee Lakes . Crayfish have been found throughout the slough . Bald eagles are among the resident birds , and great blue herons have established rookeries in the watershed . Migrants that visit the slough include more than a dozen species of ducks , geese , swans , and raptors , as well as neotropical shorebirds and songbirds . Invasive species adapted to the slough include the nutria , common carp , bullfrog , and European starling .
= = = Vegetation = = =
The slough watershed lies in the Portland / Vancouver Basin ecoregion , part of the Willamette Valley ecoregion designated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Black cottonwood , red osier dogwood , willow , Oregon white oak , and Oregon ash grow in scattered locations throughout the watershed , while wapato and Columbia sedge thrive in a few places . In the slough itself , macrophytes and algae sometimes restrict water flow and reduce water quality . Golf courses and athletic fields near the slough consist mainly of non @-@ native grasses . Developed plots with houses or businesses often have deciduous street trees , grasses , occasional conifers , and a variety of native and non @-@ native shrubs . Invasive plants include Himalayan blackberry , English ivy , reed canarygrass , purple loosestrife , and Japanese knotweed .
= = Recreation = =
= = = Public parks and wetlands = = =
At the upper end of the slough , the City of Fairview manages Lakeshore Park , 5 @.@ 2 acres ( 2 @.@ 1 ha ) on the south edge of Fairview Lake . Slightly further north is Blue Lake Regional Park , a 101 @-@ acre ( 41 ha ) recreational park with a 64 @-@ acre ( 26 ha ) lake , both managed by Metro . To the northeast is Chinook Landing Marine Park , also managed by Metro . At about 67 acres ( 27 ha ) , it is Oregon 's largest public boating park on the Columbia River .
Big Four Corners Wetlands , managed by the Portland Parks & Recreation Department ( PPR ) , includes about 165 acres ( 67 ha ) of wetlands and forests about 17 miles ( 27 km ) from the slough 's confluence with the Willamette River . Providing habitat for deer , coyotes , and river otter as well as birds and amphibians , it is the fourth largest natural area in the city . Further downstream , a consortium of interest groups is restoring a natural area of about 15 acres ( 6 @.@ 1 ha ) at Johnson Lake . Whitaker Ponds Nature Park , at about RM 10 ( RK 16 ) , is a 25 @-@ acre ( 10 ha ) site with a walking trail , canoe launch , garden , and wildflower meadow . West of Whitaker Ponds , the Columbia Children 's Arboretum , with every state tree , lies on a 29 @-@ acre ( 12 ha ) property managed by PPR .
Delta Park is a large municipal park complex that straddles Interstate 5 between the slough and the Columbia River at the former Vanport site . East Delta Park , covering about 85 acres ( 34 ha ) , has a sports complex and a street @-@ tree arboretum . Portland International Raceway , for car , motorcycle , and bicycle racing , occupies about 292 acres ( 118 ha ) of West Delta Park . Adjacent to the raceway is the Heron Lakes Golf Course , 340 acres ( 140 ha ) . The grounds include wetlands and interpretive signs about Vanport . Smith and Bybee Wetlands Natural Area , a public park and nature reserve managed by Metro , lies just west of Delta Park . At about 2 @,@ 000 acres ( 810 ha ) , it is one of the largest urban freshwater wetlands in the United States . Kelley Point Park covers 104 acres ( 42 ha ) at the tip of the peninsula between the Willamette and Columbia rivers .
= = = Trails = = =
Next to Columbia River , long segments of the 40 Mile Loop skirt the north edge of the slough watershed , while other segments such as the north – south I @-@ 205 Bike Path cross it or , as in the case of the largely unfinished Columbia Slough Trail , run through it generally along an east – west axis . The 40 Mile Loop is a partly completed greenway trail around and through Portland and other parts of Multnomah County . Originally proposed by the Olmsted Brothers , architects involved in the planning for Portland 's Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition of 1905 , it has expanded to a projected 140 miles ( 230 km ) , encircling the city and connecting parks along the Columbia , Sandy , and Willamette rivers and Johnson Creek . The parks and other public spaces in the watershed have their own pedestrian paths , some of which are also bicycle paths that connect to the 40 Mile Loop . Many gaps lie between completed trail segments .
Along the east side of the slough watershed , the City of Gresham has opened a 1 @.@ 24 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 00 km ) segment of the Gresham @-@ Fairview Trail , a planned 5 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 4 km ) , north – south hiking and biking route between the Springwater Corridor along Johnson Creek and the 40 Mile Loop along the Columbia River . On the west side of the watershed , the Peninsula Crossing Trail connects Willamette Cove on the Willamette River in St. Johns with the 40 Mile Loop along the Columbia River . This 3 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) linear hiking and biking trail crosses the lower slough and passes between Smith Lake and Heron Lakes Golf Course . The trail is level and accessible by wheelchair . Amenities include a picnic area , seats carved from basalt , and art installations .
= = = Boating = = =
Accessible to canoers and kayakers of all skill levels , the slough is essentially flat . A trip from source to mouth is possible via the main channel but requires portages around levees and other obstacles . BES estimates the time required for a canoe trip of roughly 18 miles ( 29 km ) along the main channel to be at least nine hours . Trips along the lower 8 @.@ 5 miles ( 13 @.@ 7 km ) must be timed with the tides to allow paddling with the current . Eight launch sites , including one just below Fairview Lake at the headwaters and another at Kelley Point Park near the mouth , have been established along the slough .
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= London Necropolis Company =
The London Necropolis Company ( LNC ) , formally the London Necropolis & National Mausoleum Company until 1927 , was a cemetery operator established by Act of Parliament in 1852 in reaction to the crisis caused by the closure of London 's graveyards in 1851 . The LNC intended to establish a single cemetery large enough to accommodate all of London 's future burials in perpetuity . The company 's founders recognised that the recently invented technology of the railway provided the ability to conduct burials a long distance from populated areas , mitigating concerns over public health risks from living near burial sites . Accordingly , the company bought a very large tract of land in Brookwood , Surrey , around 25 miles ( 40 km ) from London , and converted a portion of it into Brookwood Cemetery . A dedicated railway line , the London Necropolis Railway , linked the new cemetery to the city .
Financial mismanagement and internal disputes led to delays in the project . By the time Brookwood Cemetery opened in late 1854 , a number of other cemeteries had opened nearer to London or were in the process of opening . While some parishes in London did arrange for the LNC to handle the burials of their dead , many preferred to use nearer cemeteries . The LNC had anticipated handling between 10 @,@ 000 and 50 @,@ 000 burials per year , but the number never rose above 4 @,@ 100 per year , and in its first 150 years of operations only 231 @,@ 730 burials had been conducted . Buying the land for Brookwood Cemetery and building the cemetery and railway had been very expensive , and by the time the cemetery opened the LNC was already on the verge of bankruptcy . The LNC remained solvent by selling surplus parts of its land , but as the land had been chosen in the first place for its remoteness , sales were low .
From the 1880s the LNC began a more aggressive programme to maximise its income . The process for the sale of surplus land was improved , resulting in increased income . The LNC redeveloped its lands at Hook Heath , Woking into housing and a golf course , creating a new suburb of Woking and providing a steady income from rentals . After an 1884 ruling that cremation was lawful in England the LNC also took advantage of its proximity to Woking Crematorium by providing transport for bodies and mourners on its railway line and after 1910 by interring ashes in a dedicated columbarium . The LNC also provided the land for a number of significant military cemeteries and memorials at Brookwood after both of the World Wars . In 1941 London Necropolis railway station , the LNC 's London railway terminus , was badly damaged by bombing , and the London Necropolis Railway was abandoned .
Rising property prices in Surrey in the 1940s and 1950s made the LNC increasingly valuable , but also made it a target for property speculators . In 1959 a hostile takeover succeeded , and LNC 's independence came to an end . From 1959 to 1985 a succession of owners stripped the profitable parts of the business from the company , leaving a rump residual company operating the increasingly derelict cemetery . In 1985 what remained of the company came into the ownership of Ramadan Güney , who set about reviving what remained . Links were formed with London 's Muslim communities in an effort to encourage new burials , and a slow programme of clearing and restoring the derelict sections of the cemetery commenced . Although it was never as successful as planned , the LNC was very influential on both the funeral industry and the development of the area around Woking , and Brookwood Cemetery remains the largest cemetery in the United Kingdom .
= = Background = =
Since the conversion of London to Christianity in the early 7th century , the city 's dead had been buried in and around the local churches . With a limited amount of space for burials , the oldest graves were regularly exhumed to free space for new burials , and the remains of the previous occupants transferred to charnel houses for storage . From the 14th century onwards the charnel houses themselves were overwhelmed , and exhumed bones were scattered where they had been dug up or reburied in pits . Despite this practice , by the mid 17th century the city was running seriously short of burial space . A proposal by Christopher Wren to use the reconstruction following the 1666 Great Fire of London as an opportunity to cease burials in the churchyards and establish new cemeteries outside the city was approved by the King and Parliament but vetoed by the Corporation of London , and burials continued at the newly rebuilt churches .
In the first half of the 19th century the population of London more than doubled , from a little under a million people in 1801 to almost two and a half million in 1851 . Despite this rapid growth in population , the amount of land set aside for use as graveyards remained unchanged at approximately 300 acres ( 0 @.@ 47 sq mi ; 1 @.@ 2 km2 ) , spread across around 200 small sites . The difficulty of digging without disturbing existing graves led to bodies often simply being stacked on top of each other to fit the available space and covered with a layer of earth . In more crowded areas even relatively fresh graves had to be exhumed to free up space for new burials , their contents being unearthed and scattered to free up space . In some cases large pits were dug on existing burial grounds , unearthing the previous burials , and fresh corpses crammed into the available space . Intact material from burials was sold on a thriving market in second hand coffin furniture , coffin wood was burned as household fuel , and exhumed bones were shipped in bulk to the north of England to be sold as fertiliser . Decaying corpses contaminated the water supply and the city suffered regular epidemics of cholera , smallpox , measles and typhoid ; in 1842 the mean working life of a London professional man was 30 years and of a London labourer just 17 years .
Public health policy at this time was shaped by the miasma theory ( the belief that airborne particles released by decaying flesh were the primary factor in the spread of contagious illness ) , and the bad smells and risks of disease caused by piled bodies and exhumed rotting corpses caused great public concern . A Royal Commission established in 1842 to investigate the problem concluded that London 's burial grounds had become so overcrowded that it was impossible to dig a new grave without cutting through an existing one . Commissioner and sanitation campaigner Edwin Chadwick testified that each year , 20 @,@ 000 adults and 30 @,@ 000 children were being buried in less than 218 acres ( 0 @.@ 34 sq mi ; 0 @.@ 88 km2 ) of already full burial grounds ; the Commission heard that one cemetery , Spa Fields in Clerkenwell , designed to hold 1 @,@ 000 bodies , contained 80 @,@ 000 graves , and that gravediggers throughout London were obliged to shred bodies in order to cram the remains into available grave space . In 1848 – 49 a cholera epidemic killed 14 @,@ 601 people in London and overwhelmed the burial system completely . Bodies were left stacked in heaps awaiting burial , and even relatively recent graves were exhumed to make way for new burials .
= = = Proposed solutions to the burial crisis = = =
In the wake of public concerns following the cholera epidemic and the findings of the Royal Commission , the Act to Amend the Laws Concerning the Burial of the Dead in the Metropolis ( Burials Act ) was passed in 1851 . Under the Burials Act , new burials were prohibited in what were then the built @-@ up areas of London . Seven large cemeteries had recently opened a short distance from London or were in the process of opening , and temporarily became London 's main burial grounds . A proposal by Francis Seymour Haden to ship the bodies of London 's dead to the Thames Estuary for use in land reclamation met with little approval , and the government sought alternative means to prevent the constantly increasing number of deaths in London from overwhelming the new cemeteries in the same manner in which it had overwhelmed the traditional burial grounds .
The new suburban cemeteries had a combined size of just 282 acres ( 0 @.@ 44 sq mi ; 1 @.@ 1 km2 ) , and the Board of Health did not consider any of them suitable for long @-@ term use . As a long term solution to the crisis , Edwin Chadwick proposed the closure of all existing burial grounds in the vicinity of London other than the privately owned Kensal Green Cemetery in west London . Kensal Green Cemetery was to be nationalised and greatly enlarged to provide a single burial ground for west London . A large tract of land on the Thames around 9 miles ( 14 km ) southeast of London in Abbey Wood ( on the site of present @-@ day Thamesmead ) was to become a single burial ground for east London . All bodies would be shipped by river and canal to the new cemeteries , bringing an end to burials in London itself .
The Treasury was sceptical that Chadwick 's scheme would ever be financially viable . It also met with widespread public concerns about the impact of monopoly control of the burial industry , and about the government taking control of an industry previously controlled by religious bodies and private entrepreneurs . The process of decomposition was still poorly understood and it was generally believed that 12 ⁄ 13 ( 92 % ) of a decaying corpse was dispersed as gas ; local authorities in the vicinity of the proposed new cemeteries were horrified at the prospect of an estimated 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic feet ( 85 @,@ 000 m3 ) per year of miasma ( disease @-@ carrying vapour ) spreading from the cemeteries across surrounding areas . Although the Metropolitan Interments Act 1850 authorised Chadwick 's scheme to proceed , the Metropolitan Interment Amendment Act 1852 repealed the authorisation .
= = Richard Broun and Richard Sprye = =
An area of ground so distant as to be beyond any possible future extension of the Capital , sufficiently large to allow of its sub @-@ division , not only into spacious distinct portions for the burial of each sect of the Christian Public , but also , if desired and deemed expedient , into as many separate compartments as there are parishes within London and its suburbs … [ and ] a Mausoleum Church , with funeral chapels , private mausolea , vaults , and catacombs , large enough to contain , not only the thousands of coffins now lying within our numerous Metropolitan Churches , but also the coffins of all such dying in London , in this and future generations ... [ A ] grand and befitting gathering place for the metropolitan mortality of a mighty nation ; a last home and bed of rest where the ashes of the high and low , the mighty and the weak , the learned and the ignorant , the wicked and the good , the idle and the industrious , in one vast co @-@ mingled heap may repose together .
While the negotiations over the state taking control of burials were ongoing , an alternative proposal was being drawn up by Richard Broun and Richard Sprye . Broun and Sprye intended to use the emerging technology of mechanised land transport to provide a final solution to the problem of London 's dead . They envisaged buying a single very large tract of land around 23 miles ( 37 km ) from London in Brookwood near Woking , Surrey , to be called Brookwood Cemetery or the London Necropolis . At this distance , the land would be far beyond the maximum projected size of the city 's growth , greatly reducing any potential hazards from miasma . In the 18th century this land had been nicknamed " the Waste of Woking " , and with poor quality gravel soil it was of little use in farming and thus available very cheaply . The London and South Western Railway ( LSWR ) — which had connected London to Woking in 1838 — would enable bodies and mourners to be shipped from London to the site easily and cheaply . Broun envisaged dedicated coffin trains , each carrying 50 – 60 bodies , travelling from London to the new Necropolis in the early morning or late at night , and the coffins being stored on the cemetery site until the time of the funeral . Mourners would then be carried to the appropriate part of the cemetery by a dedicated passenger train during the day .
Broun calculated that a 1 @,@ 500 @-@ acre ( 2 @.@ 3 sq mi ; 6 @.@ 1 km2 ) site would accommodate a total of 5 @,@ 830 @,@ 500 individual graves in a single layer . The legislation authorising Brookwood Cemetery did not permit mass graves at the site , and burials were restricted to one family per grave . If the practice of only burying a single family in each grave were abandoned and the traditional practice for pauper burials of ten burials per grave were adopted , the site was capable of accommodating 28 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 bodies . Assuming 50 @,@ 000 deaths per year and presuming that families would often choose to share a grave , Broun calculated that even with the prohibition of mass graves it would take over 350 years to fill a single layer of the cemetery . Although the Brookwood site was a long distance from London , Broun and Sprye argued that the railway made it both quicker and cheaper to reach than the seven existing cemeteries , all of which required a slow and expensive horse @-@ drawn hearse to carry the body and mourners from London to the burial site .
= = = Opposition = = =
Shareholders in the LSWR were concerned at the impact the cemetery scheme would have on the normal operations of the railway . At a shareholders ' meeting in August 1852 concerns were raised about the impact of funeral trains on normal traffic and of the secrecy in which negotiations between the LSWR and the promoters of the cemetery were conducted . The LSWR management pledged that no concessions would be made to the cemetery operators , other than promising them the use of one train each day . Charles Blomfield , Bishop of London was hostile in general to railway funeral schemes , arguing that the noise and speed of the railways was incompatible with the solemnity of the Christian burial service . Blomfield also considered it inappropriate that the families of people from very different backgrounds would potentially have to share a train , and felt that it demeaned the dignity of the deceased for the bodies of respectable members of the community to be carried on a train also carrying the bodies and relatives of those who had led immoral lives . Meanwhile , Henry Drummond , Member of Parliament for the West Surrey constituency which covered the Brookwood site , James Mangles , MP for the nearby constituency of Guildford , and labour reform campaigner Lord Ashley ( later Lord Shaftesbury ) lobbied against the proposal . Drummond considered the scheme a front for land speculation , believing that the promoters only intended to use 400 acres ( 0 @.@ 63 sq mi ; 1 @.@ 6 km2 ) for the cemetery and to develop the remaining 80 % for building ; Mangles felt that the people of Woking were not being fairly compensated for the loss of their historic rights to use the common lands ; Ashley felt that the Metropolitan Interments Act 1850 had been a victory for the campaign to end private profiteering from death and that the new scheme would reverse these gains , and was also concerned about the health implications of diseased bodies being transported to and stored at the London terminus in large numbers while awaiting trains to Brookwood .
= = Formation of the London Necropolis Company = =
Despite the opposition , on 30 June 1852 the London Necropolis & National Mausoleum Act 1852 was passed , giving the Brookwood scheme Parliamentary consent to proceed . The former Woking Common at Brookwood , owned by the Earl of Onslow , was chosen as the site for the new cemetery . To prevent the LSWR from exploiting its monopoly on access to the cemetery , the private Act of Parliament authorising the scheme bound the LSWR to carry corpses and mourners to the cemetery in perpetuity and set a maximum tariff which could be levied on funeral traffic , but did not specify details of how the funeral trains were to operate .
By this time , Broun and Sprye had lost control of the scheme . On 1 April 1851 a group of trustees led by Poor Law Commissioner William Voules purchased the rights to the scheme from Broun and Sprye for £ 20 @,@ 000 ( about £ 1 @.@ 69 million in terms of 2016 consumer spending power ) and , once the Act of Parliament had been passed , founded the London Necropolis & National Mausoleum Company on their own without regard to their agreement with the original promoters . These trustees proved inept , wasting large sums of money ; meanwhile Richard Broun lobbied vigorously against the " misrepresentations and ambiguous assertions " of the new trustees . With financiers sceptical of the scheme 's viability Voules and his trustees were unable to raise the funds to buy the proposed site from Lord Onslow . In early 1853 , amid widespread allegations of voting irregularities and with the company unable to pay promised dividends , a number of the directors resigned , including Voules , and the remaining public confidence in the scheme collapsed .
Broun 's scheme had envisaged the cemetery running along both sides of the LSWR main line and divided by religion , with separate private railway halts on the main line , each incorporating a chapel , to serve each religion 's section . The new consulting engineer to the company , William Cubitt , rejected this idea and recommended a single site to the south of the railway line , served by a private branch line through the cemetery . The company also considered Broun 's plan for dedicated coffin trains unrealistic , arguing that relatives would not want the coffins to be shipped separately from the deceased 's family .
= = Brookwood Cemetery = =
In September 1853 a Committee of Enquiry into the mismanagement of the company recommended the expulsion of the four remaining trustees and the reform of the company under a new board of directors . This was unanimously approved by the shareholders , and work finally began on the scheme . A 2 @,@ 200 @-@ acre ( 3 @.@ 4 sq mi ; 8 @.@ 9 km2 ) tract of land stretching from Woking to Brookwood was purchased from Lord Onslow . The westernmost 400 acres ( 0 @.@ 62 sq mi ; 1 @.@ 6 km2 ) , at the Brookwood end , were designated the initial cemetery site , and a branch railway line was built from the LSWR main line into this section . A plot of land between Westminster Bridge Road and York Street ( now Leake Street ) was chosen as the site for the London railway terminus . Architect William Tite and engineer William Cubitt drew up a design for a station , which was approved in June 1854 , and completed in October 1854 . In July 1854 work began on the drainage of the marshlands designated as the initial cemetery site , and on the construction of the embankment carrying the railway branch into the cemetery .
With the ambition to become London 's sole burial site in perpetuity , the LNC were aware that if their plans were successful , their Necropolis would become a site of major national importance . As a consequence , the cemetery was designed with attractiveness in mind , in contrast to the squalid and congested London burial grounds and the newer suburban cemeteries which were already becoming crowded . The LNC aimed to create an atmosphere of perpetual spring in the cemetery , and chose the plants for the cemetery accordingly . It had already been noted that evergreen plants from North America thrived in the local soil . Robert Donald , the owner of an arboretum near Woking , was contracted to supply the trees and shrubs for the cemetery . The railway line through the cemetery and the major roads and paths within the cemetery were lined with giant sequoia trees , the first significant planting of these trees ( only introduced to Europe in 1853 ) in Britain . As well as the giant sequoias , the grounds were heavily planted with magnolia , rhododendron , coastal redwood , azalea , andromeda and monkeypuzzle , with the intention of creating perpetual greenery with large numbers of flowers and a strong floral scent throughout the cemetery .
On 7 November 1854 the new cemetery opened and the southern Anglican section was consecrated by Charles Sumner , Bishop of Winchester . At the time it was the largest cemetery in the world . On 13 November the first scheduled train left the new London Necropolis railway station for the cemetery , and the first burial ( that of the stillborn twins of a Mr and Mrs Hore of Ewer Street , Borough ) took place .
A very few years ago , the idea of founding a cemetery for the metropolis which should be more than 20 miles distant from it would have been looked upon as an absurdity . Yesterday , however , saw the practical embodiment of this idea … A short distance beyond the Woking station , the country , without varying from its general character of sterility and hardness of outline , becomes gently undulating and offers features which , with some assistance from art , might be made more than pleasing . Here is the London Necropolis , which certainly throws into the shade any previous attempts at extramural interments .
It was fitting enough that the largest city in the world should have , as it will now have , the largest cemetery in the world .
= = Cemetery railway line = =
As the Brookwood site had been intentionally chosen for its distance from London , at the time of its opening the only practical way to reach the cemetery was by railway . William Cubitt decided that the terrain of the initial cemetery site was best suited to a railway branch from the LSWR at the west of the cemetery , and work began on the earthworks and rails for the new branch in early September 1854 . The single @-@ track branch was completed in time for the opening two months later . The junction with the LSWR , known as Necropolis Junction , was west @-@ facing , meaning that trains to and from London were obliged to reverse in and out of the branch to the two stations in the cemetery . The poor quality gravel soil , which had been the initial reason for the site 's cheapness and its selection as the site for the cemetery , was poorly suited as a railway trackbed . The rails , and in particular the sleepers , deteriorated rapidly and needed constantly to be replaced .
= = = London rail stations = = =
A site for the London terminus near Waterloo had been suggested by Richard Broun . Its proximity to the Thames meant that bodies could be cheaply transported to the terminus by water from much of London , while being situated near three major Thames bridges the area was easily accessed from both north and south of the river . The arches of the huge brick viaduct carrying the LSWR into Waterloo Bridge station ( now London Waterloo station ) were easily converted into mortuaries . Broun also felt that the journey out of London from Waterloo Bridge would be less distressing for mourners ; while most of the rail routes out of London ran through tunnels and deep cuttings or through densely populated areas , at this time the urban development of what is now south London had not taken place and the LSWR route ran almost entirely through parkland and countryside . In March 1854 the LNC purchased a plot of land between Westminster Bridge Road and York Street ( now Leake Street ) . Architect William Tite and engineer William Cubitt drew up a design for a station , which was approved in June 1854 and completed in October of that year .
As the station abutted the arches of the LSWR 's viaduct , it acted as an obstacle to any increase in the number of lines serving Waterloo station ( renamed from Waterloo Bridge station in 1886 ) . Urban growth in the area of what is now south west London , through which trains from Waterloo ran , led to congestion at the station and in 1896 the LSWR formally presented the LNC with a proposal to provide the LNC with a new station in return for the existing station . The LNC agreed to the proposals , in return for the LSWR granting the LNC control of the design of the new station and leasing the new station to the LNC for a token rent in perpetuity , providing new rolling stock , removing any limit on the number of passengers using the Necropolis service , and providing the free carriage of machinery and equipment to be used in the cemetery . Although the LSWR was extremely unhappy at what they considered excessive demands , in May 1899 the companies signed an agreement , in which the LSWR gave in to every LNC demand . In addition the LSWR paid £ 12 @,@ 000 compensation ( about £ 1 @.@ 22 million in terms of 2016 consumer spending power ) for the inconvenience of relocating the LNC station and offices , and agreed that mourners returning from the cemetery could travel on any LSWR train to Waterloo , Vauxhall or Clapham Junction . A site for the replacement terminus was bought by the LSWR in 1899 , south of the existing site and on the opposite side of Westminster Bridge Road . The new station was completed on 8 February 1902 , and the LSWR viaduct was widened to serve a greatly enlarged Waterloo station , destroying all traces of the original LNC terminus .
= = = Cemetery rail stations = = =
The two stations in the cemetery were very similar in design . North station served the Nonconformist section of the cemetery , and South station served the Anglican section . On William Cubitt 's advice the two stations in the cemetery were built as temporary structures , in the expectation that they would need to be rebuilt once the railway was operational and the issues with operating a railway of this unique nature became clearer . Other than brick platform faces , chimneys and foundations , the stations were built entirely of wood . Each station held first class and ordinary reception rooms for mourners , a first class and an ordinary refreshment room , and a set of apartments for LNC staff . To provide an attractive first view of the cemetery for visitors arriving at the stations , the areas around the stations and their associated chapels were planted with groves of bay , Cedar of Lebanon , rhododendron and Portuguese laurel .
At the time the cemetery opened , the nearest railway station other than those on the cemetery branch was Woking railway station , 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) away . As only one train per day ran from London to the cemetery stations and back , and even that ran only when funerals were due to take place , access to the cemetery was difficult for mourners and LNC staff . Although in the negotiations leading to the creation of the cemetery the LSWR had told the LNC that they planned to build a main line station near the cemetery , they had not done so . On 1 June 1864 the LSWR finally opened Brookwood railway station on their main line , immediately adjacent to the cemetery . A substantial commuter village grew around the northern ( i.e. non @-@ cemetery ) side of the new station .
= = Burials = =
As the corpses brought to either of the reception @-@ houses by the funeral tender are now taken each one its separate way , followed by its mourning @-@ group , and by paths where privacy is unbroken , and none but soothing and religious influences around , — when amidst this scene , the clergyman or minister , unharassed by other duties , reads reverently the prayers for the dead , — when all which is this taking place tends to raise the dignity and self @-@ respect of human nature , and create a sublime ideal of the great mystery of the grave , we perceive by contrast , more and more , what the evils of city and suburban burials have been , and what an educative process lies within even this portional one of their reformation …
Hither the wealthy and respectable are removing the remains of relatives from the graves and vaults of the metropolis , and hither the Nonconformists are bringing the long @-@ interred dead from even the once @-@ sacred place of Bunhill Fields … but it is a law that moral and social advantages permeate as surely down through the strata of society as water finds its level . In spite of little knowledge , in spite of ignorant opposition from those interested in a different state of things , the middle and working classes of the metropolis will not be slow in perceiving the advantages of extramural burial , conjointly with a management that frees them from extortion …
To merely provide decency of sepulchre was not , and is not , all . [ The LNC ] perceived that if it was to work out with any efficiency the problem of extramural burial , it must be its own undertaker , and provide a reception @-@ house , as well as railway transit . This it has done accordingly .
The London Necropolis Company offered three classes of funerals :
A first class funeral allowed its buyer to select the grave site of their choice anywhere in the cemetery ; at the time of opening prices began at £ 2 10s ( about £ 212 in 2016 terms ) for a basic 9 @-@ by @-@ 4 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m × 1 @.@ 2 m ) with no special coffin specifications . It was expected by the LNC that those using first class graves would erect a permanent memorial of some kind in due course following the funeral .
Second class funerals cost £ 1 ( about £ 85 in 2016 terms ) and allowed some control over the burial location . The right to erect a permanent memorial cost an additional 10 shillings ( about £ 42 in 2016 terms ) ; if a permanent memorial was not erected the LNC reserved the right to re @-@ use the grave in future .
Third class funerals were reserved for pauper funerals ; those buried at parish expense in the section of the cemetery designated for that parish . Although the LNC was forbidden from using mass graves ( other than the burial of next of kin in the same grave ) and thus even the lowest class of funeral provided a separate grave for the deceased , third class funerals were not granted the right to erect a permanent memorial on the site . ( The families of those buried could pay afterwards to upgrade a third class grave to a higher class if they later wanted to erect a memorial , but this practice was rare . ) Despite this , Brookwood 's pauper graves granted more dignity to the deceased than did other graveyards and cemeteries of the period , all of which other than Brookwood continued the practice of mass graves for the poor .
Brookwood was one of the few cemeteries to permit burials on Sundays , which made it a popular choice with the poor as it allowed people to attend funerals without the need to take a day off work . As theatrical performances were banned on Sundays at this time , it also made Brookwood a popular choice for the burial of actors for the same reason , to the extent that actors were provided with a dedicated section of the cemetery near the station entrance .
While the majority of burials conducted by the LNC ( around 80 % ) were pauper funerals on behalf of London parishes , the LNC also reached agreement with a number of societies , guilds , religious bodies and similar organisations . The LNC provided dedicated sections of the cemetery for these groups , on the basis that those who had lived or worked together in life could remain together after death . Although the LNC was never able to gain the domination of London 's funeral industry for which its founders had hoped , it was very successful at targeting specialist groups of artisans and trades , to the extent that it became nicknamed " the Westminster Abbey of the middle classes " . A large number of these dedicated plots were established , ranging from Chelsea Pensioners and the Ancient Order of Foresters to the Corps of Commissionaires and the LSWR . The Nonconformist cemetery also includes a Parsee burial ground established in 1862 , which as of 2011 remains the only Zoroastrian burial ground in Europe . Dedicated sections in the Anglican cemetery were also reserved for burials from those parishes which had made burial arrangements with the LNC .
Immediately after its foundation the LNC used existing firms of London undertakers to arrange funerals , but over time took over all aspects of the arrangements from coffin @-@ making to masonry . LNC funerals were intentionally kept as similar as possible to those of traditional undertakers , with the exception that a railway carriage was used in place of a hearse . On being commissioned to provide a funeral , invitations would be sent out either by the deceased 's family or from the LNC offices . These letters specified the waiting room to be used , the time of the train to Brookwood , and the expected return time to London . If the funeral was to be held in London , a traditional hearse and carriage would take the deceased to their parish church for the service , and then on to the London railway terminus ; if the funeral was to take place in the terminus or in Brookwood , the procession would come directly to the terminus .
= = = Funerals = = =
On arrival at the terminus the mourners would be led either to one of the dedicated first class waiting rooms ( for first and second class funerals ) or to the communal third class waiting room . The coffin would be discreetly unloaded from the hearse and sent to the platform level by lift . Those attending first and second class funerals would be permitted to watch the coffins being loaded onto the train if they so wished . ( After the relocation to the new London terminus in 1902 , some funeral services would be held in a Chapelle Ardente on platform level , for those cases where mourners were unable to make the journey to Brookwood . ) Each door of the waiting train would be labelled with the name of the deceased , to ensure all passengers travelled with the correct funeral party ; the names of the deceased being carried on the train would be called in turn , and that person 's mourners would board the train .
At the time the service was inaugurated , the LNC 's trains were divided both by class and by religion , with separate Anglican and Nonconformist sections of the train . This distinction applied to both living and dead passengers . Intended to prevent persons from different social background from mixing and potentially distressing mourners and to prevent bodies of persons from different social classes being carried in the same compartment rather than to provide different facilities , the carriages intended for all classes and religions were very similar in design , and the primary difference was different ornamentation on the compartment doors .
At 11 @.@ 35 am ( 11 @.@ 20 am on Sundays ) the train would leave London for Brookwood , arriving at Necropolis Junction at 12 @.@ 25 pm ( 12 @.@ 20 pm on Sundays ) .
On arrival at North or South station coffins would usually be unloaded onto a hand @-@ drawn bier and pulled by LNC staff to the appropriate chapel . While this was taking place the mourners were escorted to the waiting rooms at the station . On arrival at the chapels first and second class funerals would generally have a brief service ( third class funerals had a single service in the appropriate chapel for all those being buried ) . For those burials where the funeral service had already been held at either a parish church or the LNC 's London terminus the coffins would be taken directly from the train to the grave .
The return trains to London generally left South station at 2 @.@ 15 pm and Necropolis Junction at 2 @.@ 30 pm ; the return journey initially took around an hour owing to the need to stop to refill the engine with water , but following the construction of the water tower in the cemetery this fell to around 40 minutes . An 1854 agreement between the LNC and LSWR gave consent for the LNC to operate two or three funeral trains each day if demand warranted it , but traffic levels never rose to a sufficient level to activate this clause .
The train only ran if there was a coffin or passengers at the London terminus waiting to use it , and both the journey from London to Brookwood and the later return would be cancelled if nobody was due to leave London that morning . It would not run if there was only a single third or second class coffin to be carried , and in these cases the coffin and funeral party would be held until the next service . Generally the trains ran direct from London to the cemetery , other than occasional stops to take on water . Between 1890 and 1910 the trains also sometimes stopped at Vauxhall and Clapham Junction for the benefit of mourners from south west London who did not want to travel via Waterloo , but these intermediate stops were discontinued and never reinstated . After 1 October 1900 the Sunday trains were discontinued , and from 1902 the daily train service was ended and trains ran only as required . On some occasions where there were very large numbers of mourners the LSWR would provide special passenger trains from Waterloo to their own station at Brookwood to carry additional mourners to the vicinity of the cemetery .
As well as intending to conduct those burials which would previously have taken place in London 's now @-@ closed graveyards , the LNC also envisaged the physical relocation of the closed burial grounds to their Necropolis , to provide a final solution to the problems caused by burials in built @-@ up areas . The massive London civil engineering projects of the mid @-@ 19th century — the railways , the sewer system and from the 1860s the precursors to the London Underground — often necessitated the demolition of existing churchyards . The first major relocation took place in 1862 , when the construction of Charing Cross railway station and the routes into it necessitated the demolition of the burial ground of Cure 's College in Southwark . Around 5 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 3 @,@ 800 m3 ) of earth was displaced , uncovering at least 7 @,@ 950 bodies . These were packed into 220 large containers , each containing 26 adults plus children , and shipped on the London Necropolis Railway to Brookwood for reburial , along with at least some of the existing headstones from the cemetery , at a cost of around 3 shillings per body . At least 21 London burial grounds were relocated to Brookwood via the railway , along with numerous others relocated by road following the railway 's closure . The LNC 's exhumation and relocation business , split from the LNC in 1973 and renamed " Necropolis " , continued to operate until 2002 .
= = Developments and difficulties = =
The success of the LNC relied on taking over all , or at least a significant portion , of the burials of London 's dead . However , while the Metropolitan Interment Amendment Act 1852 had repealed Chadwick 's scheme for two very large cemeteries near London , it had also permitted London 's parishes to make their own arrangements for the burial of their dead . Each parish could make arrangements with the cemetery of its choosing , or use money from the rates to create their own cemeteries . The financial mismanagement and internal disputes within the LNC had delayed the opening of Brookwood Cemetery by 18 months , and during this period new cemeteries nearer London had opened or were nearing completion . While some parishes did choose Brookwood as their burial site , many preferred either to make arrangements with less distant cemeteries , or to buy land on the outskirts of London and open their own suburban cemeteries . Concerns over the financial irregularities and the viability of the scheme had led to only 15 @,@ 000 of the 25 @,@ 000 LNC shares being sold , severely limiting the company 's working capital and forcing it to take out large loans . Buying the land from Lord Onslow , compensating local residents for the loss of rights over Woking Common , draining and landscaping the portion to be used for the initial cemetery , and building the railway lines and stations were all expensive undertakings . With far fewer burial contracts with London parishes than had been anticipated , by the time Brookwood Cemetery opened in November 1854 the LNC was on the verge of bankruptcy .
Recognising their financial predicament , the LNC lobbied Parliament for a new Act of Parliament to allow the venture to survive . On 23 July 1855 the London Necropolis & National Mausoleum Amendment Act 1855 received Royal Assent . This Act released the LNC from those compulsory purchases of land which had been mandated by the 1852 Act but had not yet been completed , easing the immediate financial burden . It also allowed a ten @-@ year window for the LNC to sell certain parts of the land bought from Lord Onslow which were not required for the cemetery , to provide a source of income .
Although the 1855 Act permitted the LNC to sell land , this proved difficult . Of the 2 @,@ 200 @-@ acre ( 3 @.@ 4 sq mi ; 8 @.@ 9 km2 ) site , around 700 acres ( 1 @.@ 1 sq mi ; 2 @.@ 8 km2 ) were occupied by the initial Necropolis site and the adjacent reserve site , and a further 200 acres ( 0 @.@ 31 sq mi ; 0 @.@ 81 km2 ) retained their common land rights and could not be developed in any way , rendering them worthless to prospective buyers . While this left 1 @,@ 300 acres ( 2 @.@ 0 sq mi ; 5 @.@ 3 km2 ) theoretically able to be sold , the Brookwood site had been chosen for its remoteness and there were few prospective buyers . While 214 acres ( 0 @.@ 33 sq mi ; 0 @.@ 87 km2 ) were bought by the government as sites for prisons and a lunatic asylum , the LNC struggled to sell the remainder . By the time the ten @-@ year window for land sales expired in 1865 , only 346 acres ( 0 @.@ 54 sq mi ; 1 @.@ 4 km2 ) had been sold .
With the majority of the surplus lands still unsold , as the ten @-@ year window expired the LNC successfully petitioned for a further five @-@ year extension . The LNC was by this time in serious financial difficulties , and dependent on loans from its own directors to settle outstanding debts . The business had been established on the basis that the cemetery would handle between 10 @,@ 000 and 50 @,@ 000 burials per year , but the number never exceeded 4 @,@ 100 and over its first 20 years of operations averaged just 3 @,@ 200 . As the five @-@ year extension expired the financial difficulties remained , and under pressure from shareholders the London Necropolis & National Mausoleum Amendment Act 1869 was passed . This removed all restrictions on land sales , other than within the existing cemetery and the adjacent reserve site . Despite the releasing of restrictions in the 1869 Act , land sales remained disappointing . By 1887 less than half the surplus land had been sold , much of it at very low prices .
= = = Cremation = = =
In 1878 the Cremation Society of Great Britain bought an isolated piece of the LNC 's Brookwood land and built Woking Crematorium on the site . The crematorium was completed in 1879 but Richard Cross , the Home Secretary , bowed to strong protests from local residents and threatened to prosecute if any cremations were conducted . As a consequence the crematorium was not used other than for the experimental incineration of livestock . The 1884 trial of William Price established that human cremation was not unlawful in England , and on 26 March 1885 the first human cremation took place at Woking . Although the LNC was hostile to the idea of cremation , Woking Crematorium was the only operational crematorium in the country . Since the Necropolis Railway provided the easiest way to transport bodies and mourners from London to the Woking area , transport to and from Woking Crematorium soon began to provide a significant source of revenue for the LNC .
Cremation remained unusual and very expensive ; the cost of a cremation at Woking was £ 6 , not including transport and funeral costs , more than twice the £ 2 10s cost of a first class burial at Brookwood . By 1891 only 177 people had been cremated at Woking . Cyril Tubbs recognised that a potential increase in cremations once the practice became accepted represented an opportunity for the LNC . In July 1891 he proposed that the LNC build its own crematorium and columbarium ( building for the storage of cremated remains ) within the cemetery , with the ultimate goal of taking over all funeral arrangements for the Cremation Society . The Cremation Society were keen to prevent a competitor to Woking Crematorium , and sought to cooperate with the LNC . The fares for the transport of mourners and coffins on the London Necropolis Railway had been fixed by Parliament in 1852 at 6s for a living first class passenger and £ 1 for a first class coffin ( in 1891 worth about £ 30 and £ 98 respectively in 2016 consumer terms ) . Rival firms of undertakers were not permitted to use the LNC 's trains to Brookwood Cemetery and had to pay the much more expensive LSWR fares to transport coffins and mourners from Waterloo to Woking , giving the LNC a significant advantage in carriage to the crematorium . While the LNC never built its own crematorium , in 1910 Lord Cadogan decided he no longer wanted to be interred in the mausoleum he had commissioned at Brookwood . This building , the largest mausoleum in the cemetery , was bought by the LNC , fitted with shelves and niches to hold urns , and used as a dedicated columbarium from then on .
= = = Cyril Tubbs = = =
In December 1887 the LNC appointed Cyril Tubbs to supervise the LNC estate . Tubbs was given a broad remit to " advance the company 's interests " , including buying and selling land , supervising the railway stations , advertising the cemetery and liaising with the LSWR . Tubbs set about restructuring the design of Brookwood Cemetery to make it more appealing to mourners and visitors . The cemetery was divided into numbered sections , separated by an expanded network of avenues . These avenues were all named , and signposts were erected along them , to allow visitors easily to find their way around the sprawling Brookwood site , and to locate particular graves ; the naming and numbering system devised by Tubbs has remained in use ever since .
Tubbs established a masonry works and showroom near the centre of the cemetery , allowing the LNC to provide grave markers without the difficulty of shipping them from London , and opened a LNC @-@ owned nursery in the grounds for the sale of plants and wreaths . This increased the practice of mourners planting flowers and shrubs around graves , which was in turn used by the LNC in their promotional material to promote Brookwood as a " Garden of Sleep " . In around 1904 the masonry works was expanded and equipped with a siding from the railway branch line , allowing the LNC to sell its gravestones and funerary art to cemeteries nationwide .
Tubbs also oversaw a restructuring of the ailing programme to sell the LNC 's surplus lands . The estate was partitioned into three sections , and separate estate agents appointed to oversee the disposal of each . Many of the lands near Woking railway station and around Brookwood were sold , at much higher prices than the LNC disposals had previously fetched . No suitable agent could be found to oversee the sale of the third portion of LNC land , Hook Heath , and as a consequence Tubbs kept it under LNC control and oversaw its development himself . Over the 1890s the site was subdivided into plots for large detached houses , and a golf course was built to attract residents and visitors .
In August 1914 , on the outbreak of the First World War , the LNC offered to donate to the War Office 1 acre ( 4 @,@ 000 m2 ) of land " for the free interment of soldiers and sailors who have returned from the front wounded and may subsequently die " . The offer was not taken up until 1917 , when a section of the cemetery was set aside as Brookwood Military Cemetery , used for the burials of service personnel who died in the London District . In 1921 this area was sold to the Imperial War Graves Commission ( later the Commonwealth War Graves Commission ) , and since then the military cemeteries have been administered and maintained by the IWGC / CWGC and its equivalents for other nations whose military are buried there . In September 1922 the LNC sold an area adjacent to the Military Cemetery to the US government . The LNC was hired by the US government to landscape this area and build a chapel , creating the American Military Cemetery ( later the Brookwood American Cemetery and Memorial ) , the only burial ground in Britain for US casualties of the First World War . Although built by the LNC , since 1923 the American Military Cemetery has been administered by the American Battle Monuments Commission . After the Second World War the military cemeteries were extended to include dedicated sections for many of the Allied nations , and in 1958 the Brookwood Memorial , commemorating 3 @,@ 500 Commonwealth casualties of the Second World War with no known grave , was dedicated at the site . Between them , the military cemeteries occupy around 37 acres ( 150 @,@ 000 m2 ) of the site .
= = Closure of the London Necropolis Railway = =
On 13 April 1927 Cyril Tubbs died , after almost 40 years as surveyor , general manager and later a director of the LNC . Shortly afterwards , during meetings of the LNC 's shareholders on 16 June and 14 July 1927 , the words " National Mausoleum " were formally dropped from the LNC 's name , the company being officially renamed the London Necropolis Company . On 28 December 1927 George Barratt , who had worked for the LNC for 63 years and been Superintendent of Brookwood Cemetery for 41 years , also died . Although the number of burials was gradually declining , it remained relatively steady . However , by this time mechanical hearses had begun to affect the numbers of people using the London Necropolis Railway . Trains still ran to the cemetery when there was demand , but the service which had previously operated almost every day was now generally only running around twice a week . By now the trees planted by the LNC in its early years of operations were mature , and Brookwood Cemetery was becoming a tourist attraction in its own right , often featuring in excursion guides of the 1920s and 1930s .
During the Second World War Waterloo station and the nearby Thames bridges were a significant target for bombing , and there were several near @-@ misses on the station during the London Blitz of 1940 – 41 . Although there were several interruptions to the Necropolis train service owing to enemy action elsewhere on the line , the Necropolis station was undamaged during the early stages of the bombing campaign . During the night of 16 – 17 April 1941 , in one of the last major air raids on London , this good fortune came to an end . As bombs repeatedly fell on the Waterloo area , the rolling stock parked in the Necropolis siding was burned , and the railway arch connecting the main line to the Necropolis terminus was badly damaged . Multiple incendiary devices and high explosive bombs struck the central section of the terminus building . While the LNC 's office building and the station platforms survived , the central section of the station was reduced to rubble . On 11 May 1941 the station was officially declared closed .
The Southern Railway ( SR ) , which had absorbed the LSWR in 1923 , offered the LNC the temporary use of Waterloo station to allow the Necropolis Railway service to be continued , but refused to allow the LNC to continue to sell cheap tickets to visitors travelling to and from the cemetery stations other than those involved in a funeral that day , meaning those visiting the cemetery had little reason to choose the LNC 's irregular and infrequent trains to the cemetery stations over the SR 's fast and frequent services to Brookwood . The LNC attempted to negotiate a deal by which genuine mourners could still travel cheaply to the cemetery on the 11 @.@ 57 am service to Brookwood ( the SR service closest to the LNC 's traditional departure time ) , but the SR management ( themselves under severe financial pressure owing to wartime constraints and damage ) refused to entertain any compromise . In September 1945 , following the end of hostilities , the directors of the LNC met to consider whether to rebuild the terminus and reopen the London Necropolis Railway . Although the main line from Waterloo to Brookwood had remained in use throughout the war and was in good condition , the branch line from Brookwood into the cemetery had been almost unused since the destruction of the London terminus . With the soil of the cemetery causing the branch to deteriorate even when it had been in use and regularly maintained , the branch line was in extremely poor condition .
Although Richard Broun had calculated that over its first century of operations the cemetery would have seen around five million burials at a rate of 50 @,@ 000 per year , at the time the last train ran on 11 April 1941 only 203 @,@ 041 people had been buried at Brookwood in almost 87 years of operations . Increased use of motorised road transport had damaged the profitability of the railway for the LNC , and faced with the costs of rebuilding the cemetery branch line , building a new London terminus and replacing the rolling stock damaged or destroyed in the air raid , the directors concluded that " past experience and present changed conditions made the running of the Necropolis private train obsolete " . In mid @-@ 1946 the LNC formally informed the SR that the Westminster Bridge Road terminus would not be reopened .
The decision prompted complicated negotiations with the SR over the future of the LNC facilities in London . In December 1946 the directors of the two companies finally reached agreement . The railway @-@ related portions of the LNC site ( the waiting rooms , the caretaker 's flat and the platforms themselves ) would pass into the direct ownership of the SR , while the remaining surviving portions of the site ( the office block on Westminster Bridge Road , the driveway and the ruined central portion of the site ) would pass to the LNC to use or dispose of as they saw fit . The LNC sold the site to the British Humane Association in May 1947 for £ 21 @,@ 000 ( about £ 741 @,@ 000 in terms of 2016 consumer spending power ) , and the offices of the LNC were transferred to the Superintendent 's Office at Brookwood . The SR continued to use the surviving sections of the track as occasional sidings into the 1950s , before clearing what remained of their section of the site .
While most of the LNC 's business was now operated by road , an agreement on 13 May 1946 allowed the LNC to make use of SR services from Waterloo to Brookwood station for funerals , subject to the condition that should the service be heavily used the SR ( British Railways after 1948 ) reserved the right to restrict the number of funeral parties on any given train . Although one of the LNC 's hearse carriages had survived the bombing it is unlikely that this was ever used , and coffins were carried in the luggage space of the SR 's coaches . Coffins would either be shipped to Brookwood ahead of the funeral party and transported by road to one of the mortuaries at the disused cemetery stations , or travel on the same SR train as the funeral party to Brookwood and be transported from Brookwood station to the burial site or chapel by road .
Although the LNC proposed to convert the cemetery branch line into a grand avenue running from Brookwood station through the cemetery , this never took place . The rails and sleepers of the branch were removed in around 1947 , and the trackbed became a dirt road and footpath . The run @-@ around loop and stub of the branch line west of Brookwood station remained operational as sidings , before being dismantled on 30 November 1964 . After the closure of the branch line the buildings of the two cemetery stations remained open as refreshment kiosks , and were renamed North Bar and South Bar . On the retirement in 1956 of a Mr and Mrs Dendy , who operated North Bar from 1948 to 1956 and lived in the station apartment , North station was abandoned , and demolished in the 1960s owing to dry rot . South Bar continued to operate as a refreshment kiosk .
= = End of LNC independence = =
After 1945 cremation , up to that time an uncommon practice , became increasingly popular in Britain . In 1946 the LNC obtained consent to build their own crematorium on a section of the Nonconformist cemetery which had been set aside for pauper burials , but chose not to proceed . Instead , in 1945 the LNC began the construction of the Glades of Remembrance , a wooded area dedicated to the burial of cremated remains . These were dedicated by Henry Campbell , Bishop of Guildford in 1950 . Intentionally designed for informality , traditional gravestones and memorials were prohibited , and burials were marked only by small 2 @-@ to @-@ 3 @-@ inch ( 5 @.@ 1 to 7 @.@ 6 cm ) stones .
Although at its founding the LNC had hoped to handle 50 @,@ 000 burials per year and even without being granted a monopoly on London burials had planned for 10 @,@ 000 per year , Brookwood Cemetery was never as popular as hoped . At the time of the railway 's closure only 203 @,@ 041 burials had been conducted , and the rate was steadily falling ; on the LNC 's 150th anniversary in November 1994 , a total of 231 @,@ 730 burials had been conducted . Even with the unusually large individual 9 @-@ by @-@ 4 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m × 1 @.@ 2 m ) grave sites offered by the LNC for even the cheapest burials , the site had been planned to accommodate 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 burials , and much of the land was empty .
Despite the decline in burials from an already low level , rising land values in the post war years meant that the LNC was a valuable and successful company . In the 1940s it bought out a number of other firms of funeral directors , particularly those catering for the expanding and prosperous suburbs of south west London within easy reach of Brookwood by road . The LNC continued to lobby the SR and its 1948 successor British Railways until the 1950s on the matter of cheap fares for visitors to the cemetery , but were unable to come to any agreement . In 1957 the Southern Region of British Railways considered allowing the LNC to sell discounted fares of 7s 6d ( compared to the standard rate of 9s 4d ) for return tickets for same @-@ day travel from London to Brookwood and back . By this time most visitors to the cemetery were travelling by road . The LNC felt that the relatively minor difference between the fares would not be sufficient to attract visitors back to the railway , and the proposal was abandoned .
Owing to Henry Drummond 's concerns in 1852 that the LNC was a front for land speculation , the sale of LNC @-@ owned land for building had been expressly forbidden by the Act of Parliament establishing the LNC , and consequently much of the land not in use for burials remained undeveloped , aside from the land sold in the 1850s and 1860s , and the areas sold by Cyril Tubbs .
By the 1950s , with the area around Woking by this time heavily populated , rental income from the LNC 's land holdings was an extremely valuable asset , and in May 1955 the Alliance Property Company launched a hostile takeover bid with the aim of using the cemetery 's land for property development . The bid failed , but prompted the LNC to secure the passing of the London Necropolis Act 1956 , allowing the sale of all remaining surplus land . A new company , the Brookwood Estates Realisation Company , was founded to oversee the disposal of the remaining unsold lands as well as the cemetery reserve , finally formally recognising that Brookwood Cemetery would never expand beyond its original boundaries .
The former South station was near the A322 road making it one of the most easily accessed parts of the cemetery once the railway had closed , and the land surrounding it was now redundant . As part of the London Necropolis Act 1956 the LNC obtained Parliamentary consent to convert the disused Anglican chapel of 1854 into a crematorium , using a newer chapel built by Cyril Tubbs in 1908 – 09 for funeral services and the station building for coffin storage and as a refreshment room for those attending cremations . Suffering cash flow problems and distracted by the hostile takeover bid , the LNC management never proceeded with the scheme .
Repeated takeover bids from various companies were unsuccessfully attempted in 1956 and 1957 , until in December 1957 Alliance Property announced that it controlled a majority of the shares of the Brookwood Estates Realisation Company . In January 1959 Alliance Property announced the successful takeover of the London Necropolis Company itself , bringing over a century of independence to an end .
= = = After the takeover = = =
Historically the LNC had invested much of its income from burials and fares , and used the dividends from these investments to pay for cemetery upkeep . Although Alliance Property kept the name " London Necropolis Company " for its funeral business , it was a property developer with no interest in the funeral industry , and saw little reason to spend large amounts maintaining the cemetery , proceeding with the proposed crematorium , or promoting new burials of bodies or cremated remains . The rising popularity of cremation meant the rate of burials was at a historic low , while the Victorian character of the cemetery had fallen out of fashion . The income from burials was insufficient to maintain the cemetery grounds , and the cemetery began to revert to wilderness . Over the course of the 1960s most undertaking work at Brookwood came to an end .
After Alliance Property 's land sales , the London Necropolis Company had been reduced to Brookwood Cemetery itself and Frederick W. Paine , a Kingston @-@ upon @-@ Thames firm of funeral directors which had been bought by the LNC in 1947 . In 1970 Alliance Property sold the LNC to Cornwall Property ( Holdings ) Ltd . The following year Cornwall Property sold it on to the Great Southern Group , the owners of Streatham Park Cemetery , South London Crematorium and a chain of funeral directors in central London .
The Great Southern Group dismantled much of what remained of the company . Frederick W. Paine was detached from the LNC , along with the specialist division overseeing the exhumation and relocation of existing burial grounds to allow property development on formerly consecrated sites . All that remained of the LNC was Brookwood Cemetery itself , by this time moribund and becoming heavily overgrown . Considered virtually worthless , Great Southern sold the LNC to property speculators Maximillian Investments in July 1973 for £ 400 @,@ 000 .
= = Legacy = =
As Alliance Property and the Great Southern Group had between them stripped all assets other than the cemetery itself and development within the cemetery was prohibited , the LNC had little apparent value . However , Maximilian Investments secured passage of the Brookwood Cemetery Act 1975 , authorising them to sell land within the operational area of the cemetery . The former Superintendent 's office housing the LNC 's offices , near the level crossing where the Necropolis Railway had passed between the northern and southern cemeteries , was sold for office development . Following the sale the offices of the LNC , renamed Brookwood Cemetery Ltd at this time , were moved into a small former caretaker 's lodge . With little storage space in the new makeshift offices , the majority of the LNC 's records were destroyed during the move . Tracts of land within the cemetery were sold to various religious groups and to wealthy families for use as private burial grounds , and a tract of unused land south of the Glades of Remembrance was sold to Woking Clay Pigeon Club . The masonry works remained operational until the early 1980s , although not under LNC management after the early 1960s , and were then converted into office buildings and named Stonemason 's Court .
Although the Act of 1975 had specified that a portion of the profits from land sales be used to maintain the remaining cemetery , little restoration work was done and the cemetery continued to revert to wilderness . With the new owners of the land interested only in redeveloping those parts of the cemetery not currently in use , the cemetery itself sank further into neglect .
The last operators of the refreshment kiosk in the former South station retired in the late 1960s and from then on the station building was used as a cemetery storeroom . Around half the building was destroyed by fire in September 1972 . The building was popular with railway and architectural enthusiasts as a distinctive piece of Victorian railway architecture , but despite a lobbying campaign to preserve the surviving sections of the station the remaining buildings ( other than the platform itself ) were demolished shortly afterwards . By the time of its demolition the " temporary " structure was 118 years old . In 1982 as part of the programme of land sales the station site , the two derelict Anglican chapels and 5 acres ( 20 @,@ 000 m2 ) of land around it were sold to the St. Edward Brotherhood , an order of Russian Orthodox monks . The Brotherhood set about restoring the chapels for religious use . The original 1854 chapel is used as a visitor 's centre and living quarters for the monastery , while the larger Anglican chapel built by Cyril Tubbs in 1908 – 09 immediately north of the station is now the Russian Orthodox Church of St. Edward the Martyr , and houses the relics and shrine of Edward the Martyr , king of England from 975 – 978 AD . The main monastery has been built on the site of the former station building , while the platform itself remains intact and now marks the boundary of the monastic enclosure .
In March 1985 the company was bought by Ramadan Güney , whose family owned the cemetery until it was purchased by Woking Borough Council in December 2014 . The Guney family embarked on a programme of building links with London 's mosques to encourage new burials in the cemetery . Guney began a slow programme of clearing the overgrown sections of the cemetery and restoring significant memorials . The Guney family 's efforts to attract new custom have been successful , to the extent that some of the lands sold off in the 1970s have now been repurchased by the cemetery . In June 1989 the cemetery was designated a Conservation Area , and was subsequently declared a Site of Special Scientific Interest . In 1992 the Brookwood Cemetery Society was formed to improve awareness of the cemetery ; the Society holds open days , guided walks and other events , restores damaged memorials , and maintains and improves the signage within the cemetery.It is with these intentions that Woking Borough Council agreed at a Special Council Meeting on 24 November 2014 that it should secure the Cemetery by establishing Woking Necropolis and Mausoleum Limited , as a subsidiary within its Thameswey Group of companies .
While it was never as successful as planned , the London Necropolis Company had a significant impact on the funeral industry , and the principles established by the LNC influenced the design of many other cemeteries worldwide . The village of Brookwood has grown on the northern ( non @-@ cemetery ) side of the LSWR railway line , focused on the 1864 railway station which remains heavily used both by commuters and by visitors to the cemetery . Brookwood Cemetery remains the largest cemetery in the United Kingdom and one of the largest in the world . Although not the world 's only dedicated funeral railway line , the London Necropolis Railway was the first , the longest lasting and by far the best known . While the growth of the part of Surrey around the cemetery was heavily influenced by the LNC , some iron columns in Newnham Terrace SW1 which once supported the Necropolis Railway viaduct and the LNC 's surviving office building at 121 Westminster Bridge Road are the only surviving London Necropolis Company structures in London itself .
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= Milky Way =
The Milky Way is the galaxy that contains our Solar System . Its name " milky " is derived from its appearance as a dim glowing band arching across the night sky whose individual stars cannot be distinguished by the naked eye . The term " Milky Way " is a translation of the Latin via lactea , from the Greek γαλαξίας κύκλος ( galaxías kýklos , " milky circle " ) . From Earth , the Milky Way appears as a band because its disk @-@ shaped structure is viewed from within . Galileo Galilei first resolved the band of light into individual stars with his telescope in 1610 . Until the early 1920s , most astronomers thought that the Milky Way contained all the stars in the Universe . Following the 1920 Great Debate between the astronomers Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis , observations by Edwin Hubble showed that the Milky Way is just one of many galaxies — now estimated to number as many as 200 billion galaxies in the observable universe .
The Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy that has a diameter usually considered to be about 100 @,@ 000 – 120 @,@ 000 light @-@ years but may be 150 @,@ 000 – 180 @,@ 000 light @-@ years . The Milky Way is estimated to contain 100 – 400 billion stars , although this number may be as high as one trillion . There are likely at least 100 billion planets in the Milky Way . The Solar System is located within the disk , about 27 @,@ 000 light @-@ years from the Galactic Center , on the inner edge of one of the spiral @-@ shaped concentrations of gas and dust called the Orion Arm . The stars in the inner ≈ 10 @,@ 000 light @-@ years form a bulge and one or more bars that radiate from the bulge . The very center is marked by an intense radio source , named Sagittarius A * , which is likely to be a supermassive black hole .
Stars and gases at a wide range of distances from the Galactic Center orbit at approximately 220 kilometers per second . The constant rotation speed contradicts the laws of Keplerian dynamics and suggests that much of the mass of the Milky Way does not emit or absorb electromagnetic radiation . This mass has been termed " dark matter " . The rotational period is about 240 million years at the position of the Sun . The Milky Way as a whole is moving at a velocity of approximately 600 km per second with respect to extragalactic frames of reference . The oldest stars in the Milky Way are nearly as old as the Universe itself and thus likely formed shortly after the Dark Ages of the Big Bang .
The Milky Way has several satellite galaxies and is part of the Local Group of galaxies , which is a component of the Virgo Supercluster , which is itself a component of the Laniakea Supercluster .
= = Appearance = =
The " Milky Way " can be seen as a hazy band of white light some 30 degrees wide arcing across the sky . Although all the individual naked @-@ eye stars in the entire sky are part of the Milky Way , the light in this band originates from the accumulation of unresolved stars and other material located in the direction of the galactic plane . Dark regions within the band , such as the Great Rift and the Coalsack , are areas where light from distant stars is blocked by interstellar dust . The area of the sky obscured by the Milky Way is called the Zone of Avoidance .
The Milky Way has a relatively low surface brightness . Its visibility can be greatly reduced by background light such as light pollution or stray light from the Moon . The sky needs to be darker than about 20 @.@ 2 magnitude per square arcsecond in order for the Milky Way to be seen . It should be visible when the limiting magnitude is approximately + 5 @.@ 1 or better and shows a great deal of detail at + 6 @.@ 1 . This makes the Milky Way difficult to see from any brightly lit urban or suburban location , but very prominent when viewed from a rural area when the Moon is below the horizon . The new world atlas of artificial night sky brightness shows that more than one third of Earth population cannot see the Milky Way from their homes due to light pollution .
As viewed from Earth , the visible region of the Milky Way 's Galactic plane occupies an area of the sky that includes 30 constellations . The center of the Galaxy lies in the direction of the constellation Sagittarius ; it is here that the Milky Way is brightest . From Sagittarius , the hazy band of white light appears to pass around to the Galactic anticenter in Auriga . The band then continues the rest of the way around the sky , back to Sagittarius . The band divides the night sky into two roughly equal hemispheres .
The Galactic plane is inclined by about 60 degrees to the ecliptic ( the plane of Earth 's orbit ) . Relative to the celestial equator , it passes as far north as the constellation of Cassiopeia and as far south as the constellation of Crux , indicating the high inclination of Earth ’ s equatorial plane and the plane of the ecliptic , relative to the Galactic plane . The north Galactic pole is situated at right ascension 12h 49m , declination + 27 @.@ 4 ° ( B1950 ) near β Comae Berenices , and the south Galactic pole is near α Sculptoris . Because of this high inclination , depending on the time of night and year , the arc of Milky Way may appear relatively low or relatively high in the sky . For observers from approximately 65 degrees north to 65 degrees south on Earth 's surface , the Milky Way passes directly overhead twice a day .
= = Size and mass = =
The Milky Way is the second @-@ largest galaxy in the Local Group , with its stellar disk approximately 100 @,@ 000 ly ( 30 kpc ) in diameter , and , on average , approximately 1 @,@ 000 ly ( 0 @.@ 3 kpc ) thick . As a guide to the relative physical scale of the Milky Way , if the Solar System out to Neptune were the size of a US quarter ( 25mm ) , the Milky Way would be approximately the size of the continental United States . A ring @-@ like filament of stars wrapping around the Milky Way may actually belong to the Milky Way itself , rippling above and below the relatively flat galactic plane . If so , that would mean a diameter of 150 @,@ 000 – 180 @,@ 000 light @-@ years ( 46 – 55 kpc ) .
Estimates of the mass of the Milky Way vary , depending upon the method and data used . At the low end of the estimate range , the mass of the Milky Way is 5 @.@ 8 × 1011 solar masses ( M ☉ ) , somewhat less than that of the Andromeda Galaxy . Measurements using the Very Long Baseline Array in 2009 found velocities as large as 254 km / s for stars at the outer edge of the Milky Way . Because the orbital velocity depends on the total mass inside the orbital radius , this suggests that the Milky Way is more massive , roughly equaling the mass of Andromeda Galaxy at 7 × 1011 M ☉ within 160 @,@ 000 ly ( 49 kpc ) of its center . In 2010 , a measurement of the radial velocity of halo stars finds that the mass enclosed within 80 kiloparsecs is 7 × 1011 M ☉ . According to a study published in 2014 , the mass of the entire Milky Way is estimated to be 8 @.@ 5 × 1011 M ☉ , which is about half the mass of the Andromeda Galaxy .
Most of the mass of the Milky Way appears to be dark matter , an unknown and invisible form of matter that interacts gravitationally with ordinary matter . A dark matter halo is spread out relatively uniformly to a distance beyond one hundred kiloparsecs from the Galactic Center . Mathematical models of the Milky Way suggest that its total mass is 1 – 1 @.@ 5 × 1012 M ☉ . More @-@ recent studies indicate a mass as large as 4 @.@ 5 × 1012 M ☉ and as small as 0 @.@ 8 × 1012 M ☉ .
The total mass of all the stars in the Milky Way is estimated to be between 4 @.@ 6 × 1010 M ☉ and 6 @.@ 43 × 1010 M ☉ . In addition to the stars , there is also interstellar gas , comprising 90 % hydrogen and 10 % helium by mass , with two thirds of the hydrogen found in the form of atomic form and the remaining one third as molecular hydrogen . The mass of this gas is equal to between 10 % and 15 % of the total mass of the galaxy 's stars . Interstellar dust accounts for an additional 1 % of the total mass of the gas .
= = Contents = =
The Milky Way contains between 200 and 400 billion stars and at least 100 billion planets . The exact figure depends on the number of very @-@ low @-@ mass stars , which are hard to detect , especially at distances of more than 300 ly ( 90 pc ) from the Sun . As a comparison , the neighboring Andromeda Galaxy contains an estimated one trillion ( 1012 ) stars . Filling the space between the stars is a disk of gas and dust called the interstellar medium . This disk has at least a comparable extent in radius to the stars , whereas the thickness of the gas layer ranges from hundreds of light years for the colder gas to thousands of light years for warmer gas .
The disk of stars in the Milky Way does not have a sharp edge beyond which there are no stars . Rather , the concentration of stars decreases with distance from the center of the Milky Way . For reasons that are not understood , beyond a radius of roughly 40 @,@ 000 ly ( 13 kpc ) from the center , the number of stars per cubic parsec drops much faster with radius . Surrounding the galactic disk is a spherical Galactic Halo of stars and globular clusters that extends further outward but is limited in size by the orbits of two Milky Way satellites , the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds , whose closest approach to the Galactic Center is about 180 @,@ 000 ly ( 55 kpc ) . At this distance or beyond , the orbits of most halo objects would be disrupted by the Magellanic Clouds . Hence , such objects would probably be ejected from the vicinity of the Milky Way . The integrated absolute visual magnitude of the Milky Way is estimated to be around − 20 @.@ 9 .
Both gravitational microlensing and planetary transit observations indicate that there may be at least as many planets bound to stars as there are stars in the Milky Way , and microlensing measurements indicate that there are more rogue planets not bound to host stars than there are stars . The Milky Way contains at least one planet per star , resulting in 100 – 400 billion planets , according to a January 2013 study of the five @-@ planet star system Kepler @-@ 32 with the Kepler space observatory . A different January 2013 analysis of Kepler data estimated that at least 17 billion Earth @-@ sized exoplanets reside in the Milky Way . On November 4 , 2013 , astronomers reported , based on Kepler space mission data , that there could be as many as 40 billion Earth @-@ sized planets orbiting in the habitable zones of Sun @-@ like stars and red dwarfs within the Milky Way . 11 billion of these estimated planets may be orbiting Sun @-@ like stars . The nearest such planet may be 12 light @-@ years away , according to scientists . Such Earth @-@ sized planets may be more numerous than gas giants . Besides exoplanets , " exocomets " , comets beyond the Solar System , have also been detected and may be common in the Milky Way .
= = Structure = =
The Milky Way consists of a bar @-@ shaped core region surrounded by a disk of gas , dust and stars . The gas , dust and stars are organized in roughly logarithmic spiral arm structures ( see Spiral arms below ) . The mass distribution within the Milky Way closely resembles the type Sbc in the Hubble classification , which represents spiral galaxies with relatively loosely wound arms . Astronomers first began to suspect that the Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy , rather than an ordinary spiral galaxy , in the 1990s . Their suspicions were confirmed by the Spitzer Space Telescope observations in 2005 that showed the Milky Way 's central bar to be larger than previously thought .
= = = Galactic quadrants = = =
A galactic quadrant , or quadrant of the Milky Way , refers to one of four circular sectors in the division of the Milky Way . In actual astronomical practice , the delineation of the galactic quadrants is based upon the galactic coordinate system , which places the Sun as the origin of the mapping system .
Quadrants are described using ordinals — for example , " 1st galactic quadrant " , " second galactic quadrant " , or " third quadrant of the Milky Way " . Viewing from the north galactic pole with 0 degrees ( ° ) as the ray that runs starting from the Sun and through the Galactic Center , the quadrants are as follows :
1st galactic quadrant – 0 ° ≤ longitude ( ℓ ) ≤ 90 °
2nd galactic quadrant – 90 ° ≤ ℓ ≤ 180 °
3rd galactic quadrant – 180 ° ≤ ℓ ≤ 270 °
4th galactic quadrant – 270 ° ≤ ℓ ≤ 360 ° ( 0 ° )
= = = Galactic Center = = =
The Sun is 26 @,@ 000 – 28 @,@ 000 ly ( 8 @.@ 0 – 8 @.@ 6 kpc ) from the Galactic Center . This value is estimated using geometric @-@ based methods or by measuring selected astronomical objects that serve as standard candles , with different techniques yielding various values within this approximate range . In the inner few kpc ( around 10 @,@ 000 light @-@ years radius ) is a dense concentration of mostly old stars in a roughly spheroidal shape called the bulge . It has been proposed that the Milky Way lacks a bulge formed due to a collision and merger between previous galaxies and that instead has a pseudobulge formed by its central bar .
The Galactic Center is marked by an intense radio source named Sagittarius A * ( pronounced Sagittarius A @-@ star ) . The motion of material around the center indicates that Sagittarius A * harbors a massive , compact object . This concentration of mass is best explained as a supermassive black hole ( SMBH ) with an estimated mass of 4 @.@ 1 – 4 @.@ 5 million times the mass of the Sun . The rate of accretion of the SMBH is consistent with an inactive galactic nucleus , being estimated at around 1 × 10 − 5 M ☉ y − 1 . Observations indicate that there are SMBH located near the center of most normal galaxies .
The nature of the Milky Way 's bar is actively debated , with estimates for its half @-@ length and orientation spanning from 1 to 5 kpc ( 3 @,@ 000 – 16 @,@ 000 ly ) and 10 – 50 degrees relative to the line of sight from Earth to the Galactic Center . Certain authors advocate that the Milky Way features two distinct bars , one nestled within the other . However , RR Lyr variables do not trace a prominent Galactic bar . The bar may be surrounded by a ring called the " 5 @-@ kpc ring " that contains a large fraction of the molecular hydrogen present in the Milky Way , as well as most of the Milky Way 's star @-@ formation activity . Viewed from the Andromeda Galaxy , it would be the brightest feature of the Milky Way . X @-@ ray emission from the core is aligned with the massive stars surrounding the central bar and the Galactic ridge .
In 2010 , two gigantic spherical bubbles of high energy emission were detected to the north and the south of the Milky Way core , using data of the Fermi Gamma @-@ ray Space Telescope . The diameter of each of the bubbles is about 25 @,@ 000 light @-@ years ( 7 @.@ 7 kpc ) ; they stretch up to Grus and to Virgo on the night @-@ sky of the southern hemisphere . Subsequently , observations with the Parkes Telescope at radio frequencies identified polarized emission that is associated with the Fermi bubbles . These observations are best interpreted as a magnetized outflow driven by star formation in the central 640 ly ( 200 pc ) of the Milky Way .
Later , on January 5 , 2015 , NASA reported observing an X @-@ ray flare 400 times brighter than usual , a record @-@ breaker , from Sagittarius A * , a black hole in the center of the Milky Way . The unusual event may have been caused by the breaking apart of an asteroid falling into the black hole or by the entanglement of magnetic field lines within gas flowing into Sagittarius A * , according to astronomers .
= = = Spiral arms = = =
Outside the gravitational influence of the Galactic bars , astronomers generally organize the structure of the interstellar medium and stars in the disk of the Milky Way into four spiral arms . Spiral arms typically contain a higher density of interstellar gas and dust than the Galactic average as well as a greater concentration of star formation , as traced by H II regions and molecular clouds .
The Milky Way 's spiral structure is uncertain and there is currently no consensus on the nature of the Milky Way 's spiral arms . Perfect logarithmic spiral patterns only crudely describe features near the Sun , because galaxies commonly have arms that branch , merge , twist unexpectedly , and feature a degree of irregularity . The possible scenario of the Sun within a spur / Local arm emphasizes that point and indicates that such features are probably not unique , and exist elsewhere in the Milky Way .
As in most spiral galaxies , each spiral arm can be described as a logarithmic spiral . Estimates of the pitch angle of the arms range from about 7 ° to 25 ° . There are thought to be four spiral arms that all start near the Milky Way 's center . These are named as follows , with the positions of the arms shown in the image at right :
Two spiral arms , the Scutum – Centaurus arm and the Carina – Sagittarius arm , have tangent points inside the Sun 's orbit about the center of the Milky Way . If these arms contain an overdensity of stars compared to the average density of stars in the Galactic disk , it would be detectable by counting the stars near the tangent point . Two surveys of near @-@ infrared light , which is sensitive primarily to red giants and not affected by dust extinction , detected the predicted overabundance in the Scutum – Centaurus arm but not in the Carina – Sagittarius arm : the Scutum @-@ Centaurus Arm contains approximately 30 % more red giants than would be expected in the absence of a spiral arm . In 2008 , Robert Benjamin of the University of Wisconsin – Whitewater used this observation to suggest that the Milky Way possesses only two major stellar arms : the Perseus arm and the Scutum – Centaurus arm . The rest of the arms contain excess gas but not excess old stars . In December 2013 , astronomers found that the distribution of young stars and star @-@ forming regions matches the four @-@ arm spiral description of the Milky Way . Thus , the Milky Way appears to have two spiral arms as traced by old stars and four spiral arms as traced by gas and young stars . The explanation for this apparent discrepancy is unclear .
The Near 3 kpc Arm ( also called Expanding 3 kpc Arm or simply 3 kpc Arm ) was discovered in the 1950s by astronomer van Woerden and collaborators through 21 @-@ centimeter radio measurements of HI ( atomic hydrogen ) . It was found to be expanding away from the central bulge at more than 50 km / s . It is located in the fourth galactic quadrant at a distance of about 5 @.@ 2 kpc from the Sun and 3 @.@ 3 kpc from the Galactic Center . The Far 3 kpc Arm was discovered in 2008 by astronomer Tom Dame ( Harvard @-@ Smithsonian CfA ) . It is located in the first galactic quadrant at a distance of 3 kpc ( about 10 @,@ 000 ly ) from the Galactic Center .
A simulation published in 2011 suggested that the Milky Way may have obtained its spiral arm structure as a result of repeated collisions with the Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy .
It has been suggested that the Milky Way contains two different spiral patterns : an inner one , formed by the Sagittarius arm , that rotates fast and an outer one , formed by the Carina and Perseus arms , whose rotation velocity is slower and whose arms are tightly wound . In this scenario , suggested by numerical simulations of the dynamics of the different spiral arms , the outer pattern would form an outer pseudoring and the two patterns would be connected by the Cygnus arm .
Outside of the major spiral arms is the Monoceros Ring ( or Outer Ring ) , a ring of gas and stars torn from other galaxies billions of years ago . However , several members of the scientific community recently restated their position affirming the Monoceros structure is nothing more than an over @-@ density produced by the flared and warped thick disk of the Milky Way .
= = = Halo = = =
The Galactic disk is surrounded by a spheroidal halo of old stars and globular clusters , of which 90 % lie within 100 @,@ 000 light @-@ years ( 30 kpc ) of the Galactic Center . However , a few globular clusters have been found farther , such as PAL 4 and AM1 at more than 200 @,@ 000 light @-@ years from the Galactic Center . About 40 % of the Milky Way 's clusters are on retrograde orbits , which means they move in the opposite direction from the Milky Way rotation . The globular clusters can follow rosette orbits about the Milky Way , in contrast to the elliptical orbit of a planet around a star .
Although the disk contains dust that obscures the view in some wavelengths , the halo component does not . Active star formation takes place in the disk ( especially in the spiral arms , which represent areas of high density ) , but does not take place in the halo , as there is little gas cool enough to collapse into stars . Open clusters are also located primarily in the disk .
Discoveries in the early 21st century have added dimension to the knowledge of the Milky Way 's structure . With the discovery that the disk of the Andromeda Galaxy ( M31 ) extends much further than previously thought , the possibility of the disk of the Milky Way extending further is apparent , and this is supported by evidence from the discovery of the Outer Arm extension of the Cygnus Arm and of a similar extension of the Scutum @-@ Centaurus Arm . With the discovery of the Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy came the discovery of a ribbon of galactic debris as the polar orbit of the dwarf and its interaction with the Milky Way tears it apart . Similarly , with the discovery of the Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy , it was found that a ring of galactic debris from its interaction with the Milky Way encircles the Galactic disk .
On January 9 , 2006 , Mario Jurić and others of Princeton University announced that the Sloan Digital Sky Survey of the northern sky found a huge and diffuse structure ( spread out across an area around 5 @,@ 000 times the size of a full moon ) within the Milky Way that does not seem to fit within current models . The collection of stars rises close to perpendicular to the plane of the spiral arms of the Milky Way . The proposed likely interpretation is that a dwarf galaxy is merging with the Milky Way . This galaxy is tentatively named the Virgo Stellar Stream and is found in the direction of Virgo about 30 @,@ 000 light @-@ years ( 9 kpc ) away .
= = = = Gaseous halo = = = =
In addition to the stellar halo , the Chandra X @-@ ray Observatory , XMM @-@ Newton , and Suzaku have provided evidence that there is a gaseous halo with a large amount of hot gas . The halo extends for hundreds of thousand of light years , much further than the stellar halo and close to the distance of the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds . The mass of this hot halo is nearly equivalent to the mass of the Milky Way itself . The temperature of this halo gas is between 1 million and 2 @.@ 5 million kelvin .
Observations of distant galaxies indicate that the Universe had about one @-@ sixth as much baryonic ( ordinary ) matter as dark matter when it was just a few billion years old . However , only about half of those baryons are accounted for in the modern Universe based on observations of nearby galaxies like the Milky Way . If the finding that the mass of the halo is comparable to the mass of the Milky Way is confirmed , it could be the identity of the missing baryons around the Milky Way .
= = = Sun ’ s location and neighborhood = = =
The Sun is near the inner rim of the Orion Arm , within the Local Fluff of the Local Bubble , and in the Gould Belt , at a distance of 8 @.@ 33 ± 0 @.@ 35 kiloparsecs ( 27 @,@ 200 ± 1 @,@ 100 ly ) from the Galactic Center . The Sun is currently 5 – 30 parsecs ( 16 – 98 ly ) from the central plane of the Galactic disk . The distance between the local arm and the next arm out , the Perseus Arm , is about 2 @,@ 000 parsecs ( 6 @,@ 500 ly ) . The Sun , and thus the Solar System , is located in the Milky Way 's galactic habitable zone .
There are about 208 stars brighter than absolute magnitude 8 @.@ 5 within a sphere with a radius of 15 parsecs ( 49 ly ) from the Sun , giving a density of one star per 69 cubic parsec , or one star per 2 @,@ 360 cubic light @-@ year ( from List of nearest bright stars ) . On the other hand , there are 64 known stars ( of any magnitude , not counting 4 brown dwarfs ) within 5 parsecs ( 16 ly ) of the Sun , giving a density of about one star per 8 @.@ 2 cubic parsec , or one per 284 cubic light @-@ year ( from List of nearest stars ) . This illustrates the fact that there are far more faint stars than bright stars : in the entire sky , there are about 500 stars brighter than apparent magnitude 4 but 15 @.@ 5 million stars brighter than apparent magnitude 14 .
The apex of the Sun 's way , or the solar apex , is the direction that the Sun travels through space in the Milky Way . The general direction of the Sun 's Galactic motion is towards the star Vega near the constellation of Hercules , at an angle of roughly 60 sky degrees to the direction of the Galactic Center . The Sun 's orbit about the Milky Way is expected to be roughly elliptical with the addition of perturbations due to the Galactic spiral arms and non @-@ uniform mass distributions . In addition , the Sun oscillates up and down relative to the Galactic plane approximately 2 @.@ 7 times per orbit . This is very similar to how a simple harmonic oscillator works with no drag force ( damping ) term . These oscillations were until recently thought to coincide with mass lifeform extinction periods on Earth . However , a reanalysis of the effects of the Sun 's transit through the spiral structure based on CO data has failed to find a correlation .
It takes the Solar System about 240 million years to complete one orbit of the Milky Way ( a galactic year ) , so the Sun is thought to have completed 18 – 20 orbits during its lifetime and 1 / 1250 of a revolution since the origin of humans . The orbital speed of the Solar System about the center of the Milky Way is approximately 220 km / s or 0 @.@ 073 % of the speed of light . The Sun moves through the heliosphere at 84 @,@ 000 km / h ( 52 @,@ 000 mph ) . At this speed , it takes around 1 @,@ 400 years for the Solar System to travel a distance of 1 light @-@ year , or 8 days to travel 1 AU ( astronomical unit ) . The Solar System is headed in the direction of the zodiacal constellation Scorpius , which follows the ecliptic .
= = = Galactic rotation = = =
The stars and gas in the Milky Way rotate about its center differentially , meaning that the rotation period varies with location . As is typical for spiral galaxies , the orbital speed of most stars in the Milky Way does not depend strongly on their distance from the center . Away from the central bulge or outer rim , the typical stellar orbital speed is between 210 and 240 km / s . Hence the orbital period of the typical star is directly proportional only to the length of the path traveled . This is unlike the situation within the Solar System , where two @-@ body gravitational dynamics dominate and different orbits have significantly different velocities associated with them . The rotation curve ( shown in the figure ) describes this rotation . Toward the center of the Milky Way the orbit speeds are too low , whereas beyond 7 kpcs the speeds are too high to match what would be expected from the universal law of gravitation .
If the Milky Way contained only the mass observed in stars , gas , and other baryonic ( ordinary ) matter , the rotation speed would decrease with distance from the center . However , the observed curve is relatively flat , indicating that there is additional mass that cannot be detected directly with electromagnetic radiation . This inconsistency is attributed to dark matter . The rotation curve of the Milky Way agrees with the universal rotation curve of spiral galaxies , the best evidence for the existence of dark matter in galaxies . Alternatively , a minority of astronomers propose that a modification of the law of gravity may explain the observed rotation curve .
= = Formation = =
The Milky Way began as one or several small overdensities in the mass distribution in the Universe shortly after the Big Bang . Some of these overdensities were the seeds of globular clusters in which the oldest remaining stars in what is now the Milky Way formed . These stars and clusters now comprise the stellar halo of the Milky Way . Within a few billion years of the birth of the first stars , the mass of the Milky Way was large enough so that it was spinning relatively quickly . Due to conservation of angular momentum , this led the gaseous interstellar medium to collapse from a roughly spheroidal shape to a disk . Therefore , later generations of stars formed in this spiral disk . Most younger stars , including the Sun , are observed to be in the disk .
Since the first stars began to form , the Milky Way has grown through both galaxy mergers ( particularly early in the Milky Way 's growth ) and accretion of gas directly from the Galactic halo . The Milky Way is currently accreting material from two of its nearest satellite galaxies , the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds , through the Magellanic Stream . Direct accretion of gas is observed in high @-@ velocity clouds like the Smith Cloud . However , properties of the Milky Way such as stellar mass , angular momentum , and metallicity in its outermost regions suggest it has undergone no mergers with large galaxies in the last 10 billion years . This lack of recent major mergers is unusual among similar spiral galaxies ; its neighbour the Andromeda Galaxy appears to have a more typical history shaped by more recent mergers with relatively large galaxies .
According to recent studies , the Milky Way as well as Andromeda lie in what in the galaxy color – magnitude diagram is known as the green valley , a region populated by galaxies in transition from the blue cloud ( galaxies actively forming new stars ) to the red sequence ( galaxies that lack star formation ) . Star @-@ formation activity in green valley galaxies is slowing as they run out of star @-@ forming gas in the interstellar medium . In simulated galaxies with similar properties , star formation will typically have been extinguished within about five billion years from now , even accounting for the expected , short @-@ term increase in the rate of star formation due to the collision between both the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy . In fact , measurements of other galaxies similar to the Milky Way suggest it is among the reddest and brightest spiral galaxies that are still forming new stars and it is just slightly bluer than the bluest red sequence galaxies .
= = = Age and cosmological history = = =
Globular clusters are among the oldest objects in the Milky Way , which thus set a lower limit on the age of the Milky Way . The ages of individual stars in the Milky Way can be estimated by measuring the abundance of long @-@ lived radioactive elements such as thorium @-@ 232 and uranium @-@ 238 , then comparing the results to estimates of their original abundance , a technique called nucleocosmochronology . These yield values of about 12 @.@ 5 ± 3 billion years for CS 31082 @-@ 001 and 13 @.@ 8 ± 4 billion years for BD + 17 ° 3248 . Once a white dwarf is formed , it begins to undergo radiative cooling and the surface temperature steadily drops . By measuring the temperatures of the coolest of these white dwarfs and comparing them to their expected initial temperature , an age estimate can be made . With this technique , the age of the globular cluster M4 was estimated as 12 @.@ 7 ± 0 @.@ 7 billion years . Age estimates of the oldest of these clusters gives a best fit estimate of 12 @.@ 6 billion years , and a 95 % confidence upper limit of 16 billion years .
Several individual stars have been found in the Milky Way 's halo with measured ages very close to the 13 @.@ 80 @-@ billion @-@ year age of the Universe . In 2007 , a star in the galactic halo , HE 1523 @-@ 0901 , was estimated to be about 13 @.@ 2 billion years old . As the oldest known object in the Milky Way at that time , this measurement placed a lower limit on the age of the Milky Way . This estimate was made using the UV @-@ Visual Echelle Spectrograph of the Very Large Telescope to measure the relative strengths of spectral lines caused by the presence of thorium and other elements created by the R @-@ process . The line strengths yield abundances of different elemental isotopes , from which an estimate of the age of the star can be derived using nucleocosmochronology . Another star , HD 140283 , is 14 @.@ 5 ± 0 @.@ 7 billion years old and thus formed at least 13 @.@ 8 billion years ago .
The age of stars in the galactic thin disk has also been estimated using nucleocosmochronology . Measurements of thin disk stars yield an estimate that the thin disk formed 8 @.@ 8 ± 1 @.@ 7 billion years ago . These measurements suggest there was a hiatus of almost 5 billion years between the formation of the galactic halo and the thin disk . Recently Misha Hayward and his team at the Paris Observatory , through studying the chemical signatures of thousands of stars , have suggested that stellar formation may have dropped by an order of magnitude between 10 and 8 billion years ago . They suggest that this seems to have occurred at the time of disk formation , suggesting that the disc and barred structure by stirring up the gas made it too hot to form new stars at the same rate as before .
Donald Lynden @-@ Bell at Cambridge University in 1976 showed that the satellite galaxies surrounding the Milky way are not randomly distributed , but seemed to be the result of a break @-@ up of some larger system producing a ring structure 500 @,@ 000 light years in diameter and 50 @,@ 000 light years wide . Close encounters between galaxies , like that expected in 4 billion years with Andromeda rips off huge tails of gas , which , over time can coalesce to form dwarf galaxies in a ring at right angles to the main disc . Pavel Kroupa , and his doctoral student Pawlowski at the University of Bonn , studying the alignment of globular clusters and the whispy tails of the breakup of dwarf galaxies found they too formed part of such rings of matter . In 2013 Rodrigo Ibata of the University of Strasbourg in France , has shown a similar ring structure exists around Andromeda Galaxy , as a part of a coherent rotating structure , suggesting the Milky Way and Andromeda had interacted in the past . But this is impossible even if we take account of the hidden dark matter haloes . A subtle change such as that suggested by the MOND model allows for an interaction between the two galaxies 7 – 11 billion years ago . Justin Koury of the University of Pennsylvania has suggested that if Dark Matter can involve a superfluid Bose @-@ Einstein condensate it mimics the MOND model at certain states .
= = Environment = =
The Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy are a binary system of giant spiral galaxies belonging to a group of 50 closely bound galaxies known as the Local Group , itself being part of the Virgo Supercluster . The Virgo Supercluster forms part of a greater structure , called Laniakea .
Two smaller galaxies and a number of dwarf galaxies in the Local Group orbit the Milky Way . The largest of these is the Large Magellanic Cloud with a diameter of 14 @,@ 000 light @-@ years . It has a close companion , the Small Magellanic Cloud . The Magellanic Stream is a stream of neutral hydrogen gas extending from these two small galaxies across 100 ° of the sky . The stream is thought to have been dragged from the Magellanic Clouds in tidal interactions with the Milky Way . Some of the dwarf galaxies orbiting the Milky Way are Canis Major Dwarf ( the closest ) , Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy , Ursa Minor Dwarf , Sculptor Dwarf , Sextans Dwarf , Fornax Dwarf , and Leo I Dwarf . The smallest dwarf galaxies of the Milky Way are only 500 light @-@ years in diameter . These include Carina Dwarf , Draco Dwarf , and Leo II Dwarf . There may still be undetected dwarf galaxies that are dynamically bound to the Milky Way , which is supported by the detection of nine new satellites of the Milky Way in a relatively small patch of the night sky in 2015 . There are also some dwarf galaxies that have already been absorbed by the Milky Way , such as Omega Centauri .
In 2014 researchers reported that most satellite galaxies of the Milky Way actually lie in a huge disk , with almost all satellite galaxies moving in the same direction within this disk . This came as a surprise : according to standard cosmology , the galaxies should form in halos of dark matter , be widely distributed and should move in random directions . This discrepancy is still not fully explained .
In January 2006 , researchers reported that the heretofore unexplained warp in the disk of the Milky Way has now been mapped and found to be a ripple or vibration set up by the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds as they orbit the Milky Way , causing vibrations when they pass through its edges . Previously , these two galaxies , at around 2 % of the mass of the Milky Way , were considered too small to influence the Milky Way . However , in a computer model , the movement of these two galaxies creates a dark matter wake that amplifies their influence on the larger Milky Way .
Current measurements suggest the Andromeda Galaxy is approaching us at 100 to 140 kilometers per second . In 3 to 4 billion years , there may be an Andromeda – Milky Way collision , depending on the importance of unknown lateral components to the galaxies ' relative motion . If they collide , the chance of individual stars colliding with each other is extremely low , but instead the two galaxies will merge to form a single elliptical galaxy or perhaps a large disk galaxy over the course of about a billion years .
= = Velocity = =
Although special relativity states that there is no " preferred " inertial frame of reference in space with which to compare the Milky Way , the Milky Way does have a velocity with respect to cosmological frames of reference .
One such frame of reference is the Hubble flow , the apparent motions of galaxy clusters due to the expansion of space . Individual galaxies , including the Milky Way , have peculiar velocities relative to the average flow . Thus , to compare the Milky Way to the Hubble flow , one must consider a volume large enough so that the expansion of the Universe dominates over local , random motions . A large enough volume means that the mean motion of galaxies within this volume is equal to the Hubble flow . Astronomers believe the Milky Way is moving at approximately 630 km per second with respect to this local co @-@ moving frame of reference . The Milky Way is moving in the general direction of the Great Attractor and other galaxy clusters , including the Shapley supercluster , behind it . The Local Group ( a cluster of gravitationally bound galaxies containing , among others , the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy ) is part of a supercluster called the Local Supercluster , centered near the Virgo Cluster : although they are moving away from each other at 967 km / s as part of the Hubble flow , this velocity is less than would be expected given the 16 @.@ 8 million pc distance due to the gravitational attraction between the Local Group and the Virgo Cluster .
Another reference frame is provided by the cosmic microwave background ( CMB ) . The Milky Way is moving at 552 ± 6 km / s with respect to the photons of the CMB , toward 10 @.@ 5 right ascension , − 24 ° declination ( J2000 epoch , near the center of Hydra ) . This motion is observed by satellites such as the Cosmic Background Explorer ( COBE ) and the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe ( WMAP ) as a dipole contribution to the CMB , as photons in equilibrium in the CMB frame get blue @-@ shifted in the direction of the motion and red @-@ shifted in the opposite direction .
= = Etymology and mythology = =
In Babylonia , the Milky Way was said to be the tail of Tiamat , set in the sky by Marduk after he had slain the salt water goddess . It is believed this account , from the Enuma Elish had Marduk replace an earlier Sumerian story when Enlil of Nippur had slain the goddess .
In western culture the name " Milky Way " is derived from its appearance as a dim un @-@ resolved " milky " glowing band arching across the night sky . The term is a translation of the Classical Latin via lactea , in turn derived from the Hellenistic Greek γαλαξίας , short for γαλαξίας κύκλος ( galaxías kýklos , " milky circle " ) . The Ancient Greek γαλαξίας ( galaxias ) – from root γαλακτ- , γάλα ( " milk " ) + -ίας ( forming adjectives ) – is also the root of " galaxy " , the name for our , and later all such , collections of stars . In Greek mythology it was supposedly made from the forceful suckling of Heracles , when Hera acted as a wetnurse for the hero .
The Milky Way , or " milk circle " , was just one of 11 " circles " the Greeks identified in the sky , others being the zodiac , the meridian , the horizon , the equator , the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn , Arctic and Antarctic circles , and two colure circles passing through both poles .
= = Astronomical history = =
In Meteorologica ( DK 59 A80 ) , Aristotle ( 384 – 322 BC ) wrote that the Greek philosophers Anaxagoras ( c . 500 – 428 BC ) and Democritus ( 460 – 370 BC ) proposed that the Milky Way might consist of distant stars . However , Aristotle himself believed the Milky Way to be caused by " the ignition of the fiery exhalation of some stars which were large , numerous and close together " and that the " ignition takes place in the upper part of the atmosphere , in the region of the world which is continuous with the heavenly motions . " The Neoplatonist philosopher Olympiodorus the Younger ( c . 495 – 570 A.D. ) criticized this view , arguing that if the Milky Way were sublunary , it should appear different at different times and places on Earth , and that it should have parallax , which it does not . In his view , the Milky Way is celestial . This idea would be influential later in the Islamic world .
The Persian astronomer Abū Rayhān al @-@ Bīrūnī ( 973 – 1048 ) proposed that the Milky Way is " a collection of countless fragments of the nature of nebulous stars " . The Andalusian astronomer Avempace ( d 1138 ) proposed the Milky Way to be made up of many stars but appears to be a continuous image due to the effect of refraction in Earth 's atmosphere , citing his observation of a conjunction of Jupiter and Mars in 1106 or 1107 as evidence . Ibn Qayyim Al @-@ Jawziyya ( 1292 – 1350 ) proposed that the Milky Way is " a myriad of tiny stars packed together in the sphere of the fixed stars " and that these stars are larger than planets .
According to Jamil Ragep , the Persian astronomer Naṣīr al @-@ Dīn al @-@ Ṭūsī ( 1201 – 1274 ) in his Tadhkira writes : " The Milky Way , i.e. the Galaxy , is made up of a very large number of small , tightly clustered stars , which , on account of their concentration and smallness , seem to be cloudy patches . Because of this , it was likened to milk in color . "
Actual proof of the Milky Way consisting of many stars came in 1610 when Galileo Galilei used a telescope to study the Milky Way and discovered that it is composed of a huge number of faint stars . In a treatise in 1755 , Immanuel Kant , drawing on earlier work by Thomas Wright , speculated ( correctly ) that the Milky Way might be a rotating body of a huge number of stars , held together by gravitational forces akin to the Solar System but on much larger scales . The resulting disk of stars would be seen as a band on the sky from our perspective inside the disk . Kant also conjectured that some of the nebulae visible in the night sky might be separate " galaxies " themselves , similar to our own . Kant referred to both the Milky Way and the " extragalactic nebulae " as " island universes " , a term still current up to the 1930s .
The first attempt to describe the shape of the Milky Way and the position of the Sun within it was carried out by William Herschel in 1785 by carefully counting the number of stars in different regions of the visible sky . He produced a diagram of the shape of the Milky Way with the Solar System close to the center .
In 1845 , Lord Rosse constructed a new telescope and was able to distinguish between elliptical and spiral @-@ shaped nebulae . He also managed to make out individual point sources in some of these nebulae , lending credence to Kant 's earlier conjecture .
In 1917 , Heber Curtis had observed the nova S Andromedae within the Great Andromeda Nebula ( Messier object 31 ) . Searching the photographic record , he found 11 more novae . Curtis noticed that these novae were , on average , 10 magnitudes fainter than those that occurred within the Milky Way . As a result , he was able to come up with a distance estimate of 150 @,@ 000 parsecs . He became a proponent of the " island universes " hypothesis , which held that the spiral nebulae were actually independent galaxies . In 1920 the Great Debate took place between Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis , concerning the nature of the Milky Way , spiral nebulae , and the dimensions of the Universe . To support his claim that the Great Andromeda Nebula is an external galaxy , Curtis noted the appearance of dark lanes resembling the dust clouds in the Milky Way , as well as the significant Doppler shift .
The controversy was conclusively settled by Edwin Hubble in the early 1920s using the Mount Wilson observatory 2 @.@ 5 m Hooker telescope . With the light @-@ gathering power of this new telescope he was able to produce astronomical photographs that resolved the outer parts of some spiral nebulae as collections of individual stars . He was also able to identify some Cepheid variables that he could use as a benchmark to estimate the distance to the nebulae . He found that the Andromeda Nebula is 275 @,@ 000 parsecs from the Sun , far too distant to be part of the Milky Way .
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= Grey 's Anatomy ( season 3 ) =
The third season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy , commenced airing on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) on September 21 , 2006 , and concluded on May 17 , 2007 . The season was produced by Touchstone Television , in association with Shondaland Production Company and The Mark Gordon Company , the showrunner being Shonda Rhimes . Actors Ellen Pompeo , Sandra Oh , Katherine Heigl , Justin Chambers , and T.R. Knight reprised their roles as surgical interns Meredith Grey , Cristina Yang , Izzie Stevens , Alex Karev , and George O 'Malley , respectively , continuing their expansive storylines as focal points throughout the season . Previous main cast members Chandra Wilson , James Pickens , Jr . , Kate Walsh , Isaiah Washington , and Patrick Dempsey also returned , while previous guest stars Sara Ramirez and Eric Dane were promoted to series regulars , following the extension of their contracts .
The season followed the continuation of the surgical residency of five young interns , as they experience the demands of the competitive field of medicine , which becomes defining in their personal evolution . Although set in fictional Seattle Grace Hospital , located in Seattle , Washington , filming primarily occurred in Los Angeles , California . Whereas the first season mainly focused on the impact the surgical field has on the main characters , and the second one provided a detailed perspective on the physicians ' private lives , the third season deals with the tough challenges brought by the last phase of the surgeons ' internship , combining the professional motif emphasized in the first season , with the complex personal background used in the second . Through the season , several new storylines are introduced , including the arrival of Dane 's character , Dr. Mark Sloan , conceived and introduced as an antagonizing presence .
In a departure from the previous season , the third season aired in a new competitive time slot of 9 : 00 pm on Thursdays , competing against the heavily promoted and highly rated dramatic television series CSI : Crime Scene Investigation , which simultaneously aired on the CBS Network . Season three of Grey 's Anatomy contained 25 episodes , in addition to two clip shows that were produced to recap the previous events of the show , before the introduction of major new arcs . " Complications of the Heart " aired on the same night as the season premiere , recapping the last episodes of the second season with insights into future episodes in the third , while " Every Moment Counts " aired before the twentieth episode . The season also aired a two @-@ part episode arc , which primarily served as a backdoor pilot for a proposed spin @-@ off , Private Practice , focusing on the departure of Walsh 's character , Dr. Addison Montgomery .
The series ended its third season with an average of 19 @.@ 22 million viewers per episode and a 6 @.@ 8 / 35 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , ranking eighth in the television season , outperformed by CSI . Television critics expressed a mainly negative outlook on the development of the series throughout the season , with the reviews ranging from mixed to unfavorable , as exaggeration and lack of realism have been highlighted as the main issues in the declining quality of the storylines . Despite the negative critical response , the performance of the cast members and the production technique of the crew received outstanding recognition through numerous awards and nominations . Earning major category nominations at the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards and the 65th Golden Globe Awards , the season achieved the series ' highest number of recipients , with Heigl being the most awarded cast member . The series was ranked sixth in USA Today 's " best of television " list , following the conclusion of the season .
= = Cast = =
The third season had twelve roles receiving star billing , with ten of them returning from the previous season , out of whom nine were part of the original cast . All the main characters are physicians in the surgical wing of the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital . Ellen Pompeo portrayed Meredith Grey , both the protagonist and the narrator of the series , whose main goal in achieving a balance between the difficulties of the internship , and the complicated relationships in her private life . Sandra Oh portrayed Cristina Yang , who quickly develops into Meredith 's best friend , despite the continuous competition against the other interns . Katherine Heigl portrayed intern Isobel " Izzie " Stevens , mourning the death of her fiancé as she unexpectedly decides to quit her job after the realization that her personal involvement in each patient 's case is not accepted in medicine . Justin Chambers acted as Alexander " Alex " Karev , whose arrogant attitude develops into a more emotional and sensitive outlook on his career and relationships . T.R. Knight played the role of intern George O 'Malley , who gradually becomes more self @-@ confident after his feelings for Meredith diminish . Chandra Wilson portrayed fifth @-@ year resident in general surgery , Miranda Bailey , the resident in charge of the five interns .
James Pickens , Jr. acted as Seattle Grace Hospital 's Chief of Surgery , Richard Webber , who has to deal with the choice between his career and his marriage . Kate Walsh played Addison Montgomery , obstetrician @-@ gynecologist and neonatal surgeon , who comes to terms with her husband 's desire to divorce , while dealing with the arrival of her former lover . Isaiah Washington played the role of attending physician and cardiothoracic surgeon , Preston Burke , whose long @-@ term relationship with intern Cristina Yang leads to their engagement . Patrick Dempsey portrayed attending neurosurgeon Derek Shepherd , whose relationship with intern Meredith Grey has been the focal point of the series since its inception . Sara Ramirez began receiving star billing in the season premiere , after numerous appearances during the last episodes of the second season . She portrayed orthopedic surgeon and fifth @-@ year resident , Calliope " Callie " Torres , whose relationship with intern George O 'Malley evolves into a sudden marriage with unpleasant repercussions . Eric Dane was also promoted to the series regular status after a guest appearance in the eighteenth episode of the previous season , and an uncredited one in the second episode of this season . He began receiving star billing in the third episode of the season , portraying attending physician , otolaryngologist and plastic surgeon Mark Sloan , whose arc , describing the attempt at resuming his relationship with Addison Montgomery , is heavily developed throughout the season .
Numerous supporting characters have been given expansive and recurring appearances in the progressive storyline . Brooke Smith continues her role as cardiothoracic surgeon Erica Hahn , whose storylines include the rivalry with Preston Burke , her arrival to perform surgery of George O 'Malley 's dying father , and Richard Webber 's decision to hire her in the hospital . Chyler Leigh portrayed Meredith 's half @-@ sister , Lexie Grey , who would eventually enroll in Seattle Grace Hospital 's internship program after her mother 's sudden death . Kate Burton appeared as Meredith Grey 's mother , Ellis Grey , a renowned surgeon suffering from Alzheimer 's disease , who ultimately dies following a heart attack . Veterinary physician Finn Dandrige was portrayed by Chris O 'Donnell and appeared in the first four episodes of the season to resume the storyline of his romantic relationship with Meredith , previously introduced in the second season . Deceased since the second season finale , Jeffrey Dean Morgan 's character Dennsion " Denny " Duquette , Jr. appeared in two episodes of the season , during Meredith 's limbo sequence .
Elizabeth Reaser portrayed recurring character and love interest for Alex Karev , Rebecca " Ava " Pope , a patient suffering from amnesia after being involved in a massive ferry crash . Loretta Devine acted as Adele Webber , Richard 's wife , whose continuous struggle to have a normal marriage culminates in her asking her husband to retire . Other guest stars include Sarah Utterback in the role of nurse Olivia Harper , former love interest of both George O 'Malley and Alex Karev , Kali Rocha portraying fifth @-@ year resident Sydney Heron , who enters a competition against Miranda Bailey and Callie Torres for the position of Chief Resident , Roger Rees in the role of Colin Marlowe , a cardiothoracic surgeon and Cristina Yang 's former professor and lover , Jeff Perry portraying Meredith Grey 's father , Thatcher Grey , Mare Winningham in the role of Susan Grey , Embeth Davidtz playing Derek Shepherd 's sister Nancy Shepherd , who is revealed to have slept with Mark Sloan , Tsai Chin in the role of Helen Yang Rubenstein , Cristina 's mother , and Diahann Carroll portraying Jane Burke , Preston Burke 's over @-@ protective mother . Future Private Practice series regulars Amy Brenneman , Paul Adelstein , Tim Daly , Taye Diggs , Chris Lowell starred in the twenty @-@ second and twenty @-@ third episodes of the season , portraying Violet Turner , Cooper Freedman , Peter Wilder , Sam Bennett and William " Dell " Parker , respectively , in order to make the transition to the proposed spin @-@ off .
= = Episodes = =
= = Production = =
= = = Crew = = =
This season is the last to be produced by ABC Studios under title of Touchstone Television , as the company 's decision to change its name occurred after the conclusion of the season . Shonda Rhimes returned as the series ' showrunner and executive producer . She also continued her position from the first two seasons as one of the most prominent members of the writing staff . Betsy Beers , Mark Gordon and Rob Corn also returned as executive producers , along with Mark Wilding , Peter Horton and Krista Vernoff , who have been in this position since the inception of the series . Allan Heinberg , however , joins the production team at the beginning of the third season as a co @-@ executive producer , before his promotion to an executive . Kent Hodder , Nancy Bordson and Steve Mulholland served as executive producers for four episodes during the season . Horton left the series at the conclusion of the season , whereas James D. Parriott , who previously served a writer and executive producer for the first two seasons , did not continue his work on the show during this season . Joan Rater and Tony Phelan continued to serve as co @-@ executive producers , with Rater being a supervising producer as well . Stacy McKee , who previously served as a producer and writer for the series , was promoted to co @-@ executive producer .
After having written three episodes for the first season and five for the second , Rhimes returned as a writer for six episodes , out of which one was written along with Marti Noxon . Krista Vernoff , Tony Phelan , Stacy McKee and Mark Wilding returned to the series as members of the writing staff , with Vernoff and Phelan writing three episodes and McKee and Wilding producing the script of two episodes . Gabrielle Stanton and Harry Werksman , Jr. worked together for the writing of one episode , after three episodes they have written for the series in the past . The season includes the first episode to be written by Debora Cahn , who would become one of the series ' main writers , as well as a consulting and supervisor producer . Other writers include Kip Koenig , Carolina Paiz , Eric Buchman , Joan Rater and Chris Van Dusen . Rob Corn returned to the series to direct three episodes for the season , after writing two episodes in the second season . Greg Yaitanes is credited for directing two episodes during the season , the only ones to have been directed by him in the series . Other prominent directors were Jeff Melman , Michael Grossman , Julie Anne Robinson and Adam Arkin , each directing two or more episodes during the season . Danny Lux continued his position as the main music composer for the series , while Herbert Davis and Walt Fraser served as the season 's cinematography directors . Susan Vaill and Edward Ornelas resumed their positions as editors , seeing David Greenspan , Matthew Ramsey and Avi Fisher being added to the team . Fisher , however , left the series at the conclusion of the season .
= = = Writing and filming = = =
The season was primarily filmed in Los Angeles , California . Fisher Plaza , which is the headquarters building for the media company Fisher Communications and Fisher 's ABC affiliated Komo radio and television stations for Seattle , is used for some exterior shots of Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital , such as air ambulances landing on the Komo Television newscopter 's helipad . This puts Seattle Grace conveniently close to the Space Needle , which is directly across the street from Fisher Plaza , the Seattle Monorail , and other local landmarks . However , the hospital used for most other exterior and many interior shots is not in Seattle , are shot at the VA Sepulveda Ambulatory Care Center in North Hills , California . Most scenes are primarily taped in Los Feliz , Los Angeles , at the Prospect Studios , and the set occupies two stages , including the hospital pieces , but some outside scenes are shot at the Warren G. Magnuson Park in Seattle . Several props used are genuine medical supplies , including the MRI machine . Before the production of the season officially began , producer Shonda Rhimes stated that she was planning a major development in Ellen Pompeo 's character , Meredith Grey .
" There 's a spirit there that 's just very interesting to me . She was charming and there was something about her so intriguing to watch " , stated Rhimes in response to Pomepo 's portrayal of her character . Executive producer Betsy Beers stated that the writing staff was going to focus on the balance between her vulnerability and her courage , also dealing with changes in the relationship with her friends . Pompeo noted that the uncertainty of her character 's fate is what helped her evolve into a more adaptable actor . Rhimes also disclosed that an episode with Ellis Grey 's unexpected lucidity and eventual death was in plans since the beginning of the series . Rhimes described how Pompeo got through the challenge of sending Meredith in the afterlife : " It was an exciting place to take her . Exciting to watch her find her way back . " In response to Izzie 's arc , Shonda Rhimes discussed the impact Denny Duquette 's death will have on her , noting that Izzie is forced to abandon her idealism , which in turn leads to her letting go of medicine . In the aftermath of Denny 's death , Katherine Heigl came to believe that Izzie was not cut out to be a doctor . Executive producer Betsy Beers explained , however , that Denny 's death served to make Izzie more mature , and Heigl affirmed that " At the beginning of the third season they were trying to show how lost Izzie was . She lost her optimism . She realizes now that life is difficult , but she still tries very hard to see the best in people . "
Creator Shonda Rhimes compared what she deemed the two " most iconic moments of the season " , describing how the season begins with Izzie lying in the prom dress on the bathroom , and ends with Cristina standing motionless in her wedding dress . Cast member Eric Dane described the impact his first scene in the season had on him , stating that it was a spectacular entrance : " It was a brand new towel , which had a hard time staying together . So every time I put it together and let my hands go , it was almost like throwing caution to the wind . " Cast member Sara Ramirez noted that one of the most significant scene in the season was when Izzie and George " have this beautiful moment when neither of them speaks , but they say so much and it was just so rich " , describing how their interaction during the scene determined everything that would be developed for their arc later . Betsy Beers , however , noted that the most " powerful " scene in the season saw Cristina Yang and Preston Burke in the on @-@ call room , talking about the future of their relationship : " It 's fascinating to see how their entire relationship changes and almost disintegrates in this one exchange " . Beers and Rhimes expressed their desire to introduce Patrick Dempsey 's passion of car racing in the series , although this ultimately did not occur during the season . " Patrick loved it . He 's always driving something new , always trying something out " , stated the series creator , regarding Dempsey 's response to the storyline .
Rhimes also described the difficulty she faced in finding an appropriate love interest for the character of Alex Karev : " We kept meeting with people and it wasn 't until we met Elizabeth Reaser and sat down with her , and in two seconds in realized that she was absolutely the one we 'd been looking for . " Reaser explained that when she was cast , there were no definite plans for the development of her character , and that only the intrigue of the ferry accident had been explained to her . She also deemed her character " frustrated and scared " . As for the make up process , Reaser stated : " The prosthetic changes your outlook on yourself . It can be very disorienting . It 's intense . " Beers , however , noted that the focus on Ava was mainly due to her inability to express her feelings through facial expressions , only communicating with her eyes and voice . Executive producer Rob Corn stated that his plan for the original arc was about Jane Doe 's inner life , struggling to get out of the situation she is trapped in . He stated that the main characteristics they had been looking for in the actress for the part were strength and vulnerability . He also called Reaser 's performance " heart @-@ wrenching and wonderful " . Betsy Beers , the show 's supervising executive producer , found Izzie to have been marked for life by Denny 's death , which matured her " in a very sobering way " , but played a major role in making her feel more confident . She also noted the undeniable connection between Izzie and Alex Karev , whose desire to do honorable things has been compared with his " cutting and sarcastic " personality . After Izzie 's continuous efforts to change Alex during their relationship in the previous season , Beers announced the possibility of a relationship between the two of them . She also contrasted the female leads on the show with women in film , explaining how the characters on television are shaped in unique ways .
= = = Spin @-@ off launch = = =
On February 21 , 2007 , The Wall Street Journal reported that ABC was pursuing a spin @-@ off medical drama television series for the series featuring Kate Walsh 's character , Addison Montgomery . Subsequent reports confirmed the decision , stating that an expanded two @-@ hour broadcast of Grey 's Anatomy would serve as a backdoor pilot for the proposed spin @-@ off . The cast was reportedly unhappy about the decision , as all hoped the spin @-@ off would have been given to them . Pompeo commented that she felt , as the star , she should have been consulted , and Heigl , disclosed that she had hoped for a spin @-@ off for Izzie . The backdoor pilot that aired on May 3 , 2007 , sees Addison take " a leave of absence " from Seattle Grace Hospital , to visit her best friend from Los Angeles , Naomi Bennett , a reproductive endocrinology and infertility specialist , in order to get pregnant . While in Los Angeles , she meets Bennett 's colleagues at the Oceanside Wellness Center and even becomes the clinic 's obstetrician @-@ gynecologist for the day . The two @-@ hour broadcast served as the twenty @-@ second and the twenty @-@ third episodes of the third season , and was directed by Michael Grossman , according to Variety . The cast included Amy Brenneman , Paul Adelstein , Tim Daly , Taye Diggs , Chris Lowell and Merrin Dungey . ABC officially picked up Private Practice for its 2007 lineup on May 11 , 2007 . KaDee Strickland 's character , Charlotte King , who would be introduced in the spin @-@ off 's first season premiere , did not appear in the backdoor pilot . Her addition to the main cast was announced on July 11 , 2007 , prior to the commencement of the first season . She did not have to audition for the role , but was cast after a meeting with Rhimes . Also not present in the backdoor pilot was Audra McDonald , due to her character , Bennett , being portrayed by a different actress , Merrin Dungey . However , on June 29 , 2007 , ABC announced that Dungey would be replaced , with no reason given for the change . The premiere episode followed the second part of the season debut of Dancing with the Stars , and provided a lead @-@ in to fellow freshman series , Dirty Sexy Money . Pushing Daisies , a third new series for the evening , rounded out the lineup as a lead @-@ in to Private Practice . The series aired a total of six seasons .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The season received mixed to negative reviews , after two seasons that resulted in heavy critical acclaim . Following a positive outlook on the second season , Christopher Monfette of IGN Entertainment expressed disappointment during the third one , mainly due to the declining quality and lack of realism of the storylines . He noted a growing number of similarities between the season 's arcs and the ones that are developed in soap operas , by stating that " the line which separates primetime television from soap opera is oftentimes razor thin " and admitting that , despite his considering the series " the best drama " , he freely admits that it requires some inherent suspension of disbelief , after it " found itself mired in the annoying and absurd " . Whereas Monfette acknowledged that the fans would consider the problem to have been a simple case of lazy writing , he noted that over @-@ writing played a main role in the series becoming unexpectedly unrealistic . He also noted the senseless intrigues in the Derek / Meredith relationship , by stating that the season would not have achieved high ratings if a functional relationship had been introduced : " The season generally opts to stall out for its vast majority , providing Meredith with some bizarrely under @-@ developed sub @-@ plot about depression and giving Derek a season 's worth of reconsidering to do " .
Monfette criticized the romantic development of the characters throughout the season , by describing Cristina and Burke 's relationship as an excuse for the possibility of a wedding for Meredith , whereas Burke 's unfair behavior towards Cristina is thought to be manipulative , exposing her to his overly romantic notion of an ideal ceremony . The way the doubts regarding the success of their relationship were resolved in the season finale was described as " most obvious and least compelling . " IGN Entertainment was also critical of Alex Karev 's storyline , who is seen falling for a pregnant and badly injured Jane Doe , despite having always been " self @-@ obsessed " . Monfette once again noted the lack of realism in the improvement of Jane Doe 's condition , as she gives birth to her baby and undergoes reconstructive surgery in a short amount of time . However , her incapability and continuous struggle to remember who she is was considered to be " the most affecting and honest plotline of the season " , noting the nuanced and emotionally resonant scenes , which gave the show a " charmingly positive , feel @-@ good foundation " . Monfette considered Izzie 's affair with George as the season 's worst but most significant storyline , criticizing its being " force @-@ red , emotionally incorrect , a mismatch from the beginning and a narrative long @-@ shot " , which does not express love , but lust . He agreed that the essential problem of the season was its reluctance to move , leading to frustration after seeing " the entertaining familiar characters so weighed down by their most annoying of traits " .
In response to the season premiere , Oscar Dahl of Buddytv.com noted the predictability of the series , but expressed hope in its further development , by stating that it has become " a medical chick flick , but a damn good one " with a big and attractive cast . He also praised the interaction between the characters , noting the " smart " dialogue that helps each character evolve . However , Dahl expressed disappointment in the over emotional scenes , describing them as " off @-@ putting " and " not believable " , while comparing them to real life interactions between people who emote in a more subtle manner than displayed on television . " Emotions ran high in the premiere and there was much crying " , stated Dahl , but noted that the dialogue , who he had previously been worried would be " too cutesy " , was not bothering , and rather realistic , noting how the show is " smartly written " . He also described the acting of Ellen Pompeo and Katherine Heigl as " worthy of attention " .
New York Post 's Robert Rorke reviewed the numerous characters with heavy romantic development , noting perpetual " merry @-@ go @-@ round of hookups , breakups and makeup sex " , while describing the lack of sentimental involvement of Katherine Heigl 's character in the first half of the season . However , he deemed Izzie Stevens " the hear and soul " of the " sex @-@ filled series " , due to the season mostly focusing on the events that come to define her as a person . Rorke named her the show 's heroine , and wrote that " Izzie is a welcome , calming presence , despite the devastation she experienced when she failed to save her patient and fiancé Denny Duquette " , considering her to have been more prominent than the title character , Meredith Grey , whose storyline received negative critiques : " She used to be the queen of the romantic dilemmas . But lately , she 's been a little dopey , with that endless McDreamy soliloquies . " He also noted Meredith 's decreasing importance in the ongoing arc , describing how Sandra Oh 's character development was vital to the success of the season , as he compared her " cutthroat exterior " with the emotional side of her personality that evolves throughout the season . New York Post compared Izzie , who is described as having achieved a depth , to Miranda Bailey , noting the maturity they have , which is uncharacteristic to the fellow interns . Robert Rorke positively reviewed Chandra Wilson 's performance by stating that she was " formidable " .
Prior to the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards , Stuart Levine of Variety reviewed the performances of the three cast members nominated in the Outstanding Supporting Actress category . " The ladies of Grey 's Anatomy dominate the category , and it 'd be far from a stretch to say at least two of those women rose to high dramatics last season " , commented Levine , while praising Sandra Oh for her portrayal of Cristina Yang who endured a tumultuous seasoning relationship , seeing her trepidation at spending a life together with the man she loved . He regarded the appearances of Chandra Wilson as more subdued , though " by no means less well @-@ executed " . He deemed Miranda Bailey a rock , being the most level @-@ headed character on the show with a right thing to say in any situation . He expressed admiration towards Chandra Wilson , by describing her as being " flashy and over the top " , which he considers better than being consistently good . Considering Heigl 's chances of winning the Emmy , Levine assessed of her performance , by remarking the slight difficulty she has in reaching each emotional state Izzie Stevens has to go through : " Showrunner Shonda Rhimes puts a lot of pressure on Heigl to carry many intense storylines , and she 's up to the challenge . " However , he also noted that Izzie 's irrational actions during crisis situations may be bothering .
= = = Accolades = = =
The season was one of the most acclaimed of the show , receiving numerous awards and nominations . Several cast and crew members were nominated for their work on the show during its third season at the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards . Chandra Wilson received a nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series for her performance in " Oh , the Guilt " , the season 's fifth episode , whereas Sandra Oh was nominated for the same category for her portrayal of Cristina Yang in " From a Whisper to a Scream " , the season 's ninth episode . However , they both lost to co @-@ star Katherine Heigl , whose portrayal of Izzie Stevens in " Time After Time " , the twentieth episode of the season , resulted in her first Emmy win .
T.R. Knight was also nominated for his performance in the third season in the Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series category , for the two @-@ episode arc " Six Days " , the eleventh and second episodes of the season . Elizabeth Reaser and Kate Burton were nominated for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series , for their performances as Rebecca Pope in " My Favorite Mistake " , the nineteenth episode in the season , and Ellis Grey in " Wishin ' and Hopin ' " , the fourteenth episode . Linda Lowy and John Brace were nominated for Outstanding Casting in a Drama Series , while Norman T. Leavitt , Brigitte Bugayong , Thomas R. Burman and Bari Dreiband @-@ Burman were nominated for Best Prosthetic Make @-@ Up . The production team was acclaimed for the Best Drama Series category , but only received a nomination .
Sara Ramirez was nominated at the 2007 Alma Awards for her portrayal of Callie Torres . At the 65th Golden Globe Awards , the series was nominated for Best Television Drama Series , while Katherine Heigl 's individual performance resulted in a nomination for Best Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role in a Series , Mini @-@ Series or Motion Picture Made for Television . The show 's third season was once again recognized at the 38th National Association for the Advancement of Colored People Awards , when the production team was nominated for Best Drama Series . Also at the 2007 ceremony , Isaiah Washington won Outstanding Actor in a Drama Series for his portrayal of Preston Burke in this season , while Chandra Wilson won Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series .
Several cast members have been awarded at the PRISM Awards in 2007 : Katherine Heigl in the Favorite Female TV Star category for portraying Izzie Stevens , Patrick Dempsey for Favorite Male TV Star in the role of Derek Shepherd , and Chandra Wilson in the Favorite Scene Stealing Star category for her performance of Miranda Bailey . Mark Gordon , Shonda Rhimes , James D. Parriott , Betsy Beers , Peter Horton and Rob Corn have been nominated at the Producers Guild of America 2007 Awards for Television Producer of the Year Award in Episodic Drama for the production of the third season , after winning the award at the 2006 Awards for the second season . At the 2007 Satellite Awards , Ellen Pompeo won the award Best Actress in Drama Series , while T.R. Knight was nominated for Best Supporting Actor in a Series , Miniseries or TV Film and Chandra Wilson for Best Supporting Actress in a Series , Miniseries or TV Film . At the 14th Screen Actors Guild Awards , the series ' regular cast received a nomination for Outstanding Cast in Drama Series . Katherine Heigl and Patrick Dempsey were nominated at the 2007 Teen Choice Awards . Also in 2007 , the female cast and crew of Grey 's Anatomy received the Women in Film Lucy Award , which honors those whose work in television has positively influenced attitudes toward women .
= = = Ratings = = =
The second season of Grey 's Anatomy ended with an average of 19 @.@ 440 million viewers per episode and a 6 @.@ 9 rating share for in the 18 – 49 demographic , determining the series to finish in the fifth place out of all the 100 television shows in the season . Due to its high ratings , the series received a full third season renewal for the fall prime time line up . In response to numerous fan complaints regarding scheduling during the previous seasons , the American Broadcasting Company decided to do major changes in the season . After two seasons of airing as a lead @-@ out to fellow ABC series Desperate Housewives , the network decided to move Grey 's Anatomy to 9 : 00 ET in the Thursday night time slot , dominated by CSI : Crime Scene Investigation , where the series began airing as a lead @-@ in to Ugly Betty , which aired in the time slot from its first season , until the conclusion of the third in 2009 . The show maintained its position as a top ten series and became the eighth most watched program in the season , with an average of 19 @.@ 220 million viewers per episode . The highest @-@ rated episode of the season was the seventeenth , the highly anticipated conclusion of a three story arc , which was watched by 27 @.@ 390 , receiving a 9 @.@ 7 rating , a # 4 ranking in the week and a # 1 ranking in the time slot . The episode outperformed CSI 's " Fallen Idols " , which ranked seventh with a 7 @.@ 7 rating and 21 @.@ 780 million viewers tuning in .
The lowest @-@ rated episode of its ninth , which was watched by 18 @.@ 510 million viewers , ranking third in the week with a 6 @.@ 5 rating , outperforming CSI 's Thanksgiving special episode , " Living Legend " , watched by 17 @.@ 170 million viewers with a 6 @.@ 1 rating and # 4 ranking . The season premiere was watched by 25 @.@ 410 million viewers and received 9 @.@ 0 rating after being ranked # 1 in both the time slot and the week . The number of viewers increased significantly compared to the previous season premiere , which was watched by 18 @.@ 980 million viewers and received a 6 @.@ 8 rating . " Time Has Come Today " also outperformed the previous season finale , which was watched by 22 @.@ 500 million viewers and was rated 8 @.@ 0 . The season finale was watched by 22 @.@ 570 million viewers and received an 8 @.@ 0 rating , ranking third in the week after American Idol . Wayne Firedman of Media Daily News described the move from the Sunday night time slot to Thursdays as " the network 's boldest and biggest move " . He also expressed concerns regarding the tough competition the series will face , due to airing against CBS Network 's CSI . Stephen McPherson of ABC Entertainment explained the reason for the change : " To have all hits on Sunday night doesn 't help us . We wanted to be aggressive " .
= = DVD Release = =
The third season was officially released on DVD in region 1 on September 11 , 2007 , becoming available in both the United States and Canada . It was released two weeks before the fourth season originally began airing . The title of the box set , " Grey 's Anatomy : Season Three – Seriously Extended " is a pun , referring to the success the series had , using the medical term " extension " . Also in the official title is the world " seriously " , who is one frequently used in the series . The box set consists of episodes with Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 surround sound and widescreen format , enhanced for television with a 16 : 9 aspect ratio . It was distributed by Buena Vista Home Entertainment . The same set was released in region 4 on October 31 , 2007 , being made available first in Australia . In region 2 , the season was first released in Romania on August 12 , 2008 , shortly after the season concluded airing on national television . In the United Kingdom , the season was released on September 15 , 2008 , approximately a year after its original release in the United States . Although the season aired in high definition , it has not been released on Blu @-@ ray disc in any region to date .
The box set includes all the original twenty @-@ five episodes that aired on the American Broadcasting Company , being divided into seven discs . Subtitles are available in French , in Spanish and in English for the hearing impaired , whereas the available languages for the character voices are English , French and Spanish . It featured audio commentaries with cast members Kate Walsh , Chandra Wilson , Ellen Pompeo , Kate Burton and Sandra Oh for the first , fourteenth and twenty @-@ first episodes . It also featured the first , seventh , thirteenth and fourteenth episodes as extended episodes , with a longer running time . The bonus features were available on the seventh disc , including interviews with cast members Patrick Dempsey , Ellen Pompeo and Elizabeth Reaser , listed under the titles of " Making Rounds With Patrick Dempsey " , " One on One with Ellen Pompeo " and " Prescription for Success : Making Jane Doe a Star " , respectively . The region 1 release featured footage from behind the scenes , under the title of " In Stitches : Season 3 Outtakes " and unaired scenes from nine episodes , including the season premiere and the finale , under the name of " Dissecting Grey 's Anatomy " . Omnipresent in the bonus material were executive producers Shonda Rhimes and Betsy Beers , providing their outlook on characters , actors and the production process .
Currently ranked 2144th in Movies and Television on Amazon.com and 1713th in Film and Television on Amazon.co.uk , the box set received mixed reviews . Kelly West of Cinema Blend noted that the " seriously extended episodes " were not significantly expanded , only adding a few minutes of extra footage , which don 't influence the storyline . She also noted a " weakness " in the audio commentary provided by four of the actresses , who she deemed to have been fantastic during the series , describing the features as " random chit @-@ chats " . However , she praised Sandra Oh 's commentary , noting that she put the most effort in hers by trying to come up with interest topics , while being " amusing and worth listening to " . She described the bonus features as " mildly entertaining " , emphasizing Dempsey 's interview about his passion for racing cars , which she regarded useless . USA Today had a positive perspective on the box set , by calling it " scintillating " and " addictive " .
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= Randall Made Knives =
Randall Made Knives , usually referred to as Randall , is an American custom handcrafted knife manufacturer founded by Walter Doane " Bo " Randall , Jr. in the U.S. The factory and showroom is located in Orlando , Florida . Randall began making knives as a hobby in 1937 . His son and grandson continue the family trade along with 20 craftsmen producing about 8 @,@ 000 knives per year out of a shop on the South Orange Blossom Trail .
Randall offers 28 models of knives for different applications , each customizable at the factory based on customer specification . Randall hand forges nearly all models of knives instead of factory stamping , one of few manufacturers to do so . Randall uses a 17 @-@ step process for making knives , which usually takes over 8 hours to complete . The waiting list for obtaining a Randall from the factory is typically five years .
Two examples of Randall 's Model 17 " Astro " , designed for the use of astronauts , are on display in the Smithsonian Institution . The company operates its own museum containing more than 7 @,@ 000 knives and other edged weapons , including one of the world 's largest collections of pocket knives .
= = History = =
Bo Randall first became interested in making knives after he purchased a Bill Scagel knife that was being used to scrape paint off of a boat without showing any signs of wear or damage . He made his first knife in his garage at Lake Ivanhoe , Florida using an auto spring .
He founded the company in 1938 . Although Randall originally designed his knives for outdoorsmen and sold them at sporting goods stores , demand from military customers initially provided his biggest boost in business , and launched his company nationally .
In the early 1940s , Randall knives significantly increased in popularity after receiving good publicity during World War II . Several noted war heroes and GIs on all fronts carried Randall knives with them into major battles , including Lieutenant General James M. Gavin , commander of the 82nd Airborne Division during the Normandy invasion . Army Air Force Captain Ronald Reagan , future U.S. President , owned a Randall knife in WWII . Randalls were so popular that GIs from overseas ordered through the mail by simply addressing letters to the " Knife Man , Orlando " .
Shortly after the war , the popularity of Randall knives increased among non @-@ military users , and Randall developed additional models specifically for expanding markets . In 1956 , Randall received a United States design patent for models 14 and 15 . In 1957 , bestselling author James Jones mentioned Randall knives in his book Some Came Running , and subsequently helped Randall to design a diver ’ s knife . In the Vietnam War , General William Westmoreland , Commander of American military operations in Vietnam , was often photographed with a Randall . Pilot Gary Powers of the 1960 U @-@ 2 incident , and herpetologist Ross Allen , carried Randalls . In 1982 , Randall was inducted into the Blade Magazine Cutlery Hall of Fame at the Blade Show in Atlanta , Georgia .
Bo Randall died in 1989 in Orlando , Florida , at 80 years of age . His son , Gary Randall , currently oversees production at Randall made Knives .
Bo Randall was inducted into the Blade magazine Cutlery Hall of Fame at the 1983 Blade Show as an inauguree . In 1997 , Randall was inducted into the American Bladesmith Society Hall of Fame . In 2001 , Randall 's knives were listed as " Best Sheath Knife " as part of Forbes " 50 Best List " .
= = = Randall in space = = =
As the U.S. initiated its space program , NASA needed a survival knife for its astronauts , and Major Gordon Cooper worked with Randall on the design of the Model 17 " Astro " . These first astronauts carried their Randalls into space . After recovering the Liberty Bell 7 Mercury space capsule from the ocean in 1999 , astronaut Gus Grissom ’ s Randall knife was found inside . Despite having spent 40 years at a depth of 15 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) underwater , the knife was still serviceable after a good cleaning . Due to the historical significance of the " Astro " , the Smithsonian Institution displays two at their museum .
= = = Randall in music = = =
Texas musician Guy Clark wrote and sang the original song " The Randall Knife " as an elegy for his father ; the song first appeared on Clark 's 1983 album Better Days . Vince Gill , who sang and played guitar on Clark 's original recording , mentions a Randall knife in an elegy for his own father , " The Key to Life , " from the 1998 album The Key . Steve Earle , a friend and contemporary of Guy Clark , mentions a Randall knife in his song " Taneytown " , from the 1997 album " El Corazon " .
= = Randall Made Knives Museum = =
The Randall Made Knives Museum is located at the shop facility in Orlando , and contains more than 7 @,@ 000 knives and other edged weapons . It has one of the largest collection of pocket knives in the world and home to the world 's largest collection of Bill Scagel 's knives . The museum contains many historical pictures and documents related to Randall knives . Randall plans to move the museum to a larger facility .
= = Models = =
= = = Websites = = =
Randall Made Knives ( official Website )
= = = Web Articles = = =
“ The Randall Story ” , Knife World , April 1999 by Jim Williamson
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= Tessellation =
A tessellation of a flat surface is the tiling of a plane using one or more geometric shapes , called tiles , with no overlaps and no gaps . In mathematics , tessellations can be generalized to higher dimensions and a variety of geometries .
A periodic tiling has a repeating pattern . Some special kinds include regular tilings with regular polygonal tiles all of the same shape , and Semiregular tilings with regular tiles of more than one shape and with every corner identically arranged . The patterns formed by periodic tilings can be categorized into 17 wallpaper groups . A tiling that lacks a repeating pattern is called " non @-@ periodic " . An aperiodic tiling uses a small set of tile shapes that cannot form a repeating pattern . In the geometry of higher dimensions , a space @-@ filling or honeycomb is also called a tessellation of space .
A real physical tessellation is a tiling made of materials such as cemented ceramic squares or hexagons . Such tilings may be decorative patterns , or may have functions such as providing durable and water @-@ resistant pavement , floor or wall coverings . Historically , tessellations were used in Ancient Rome and in Islamic art such as in the decorative tiling of the Alhambra palace . In the twentieth century , the work of M. C. Escher often made use of tessellations , both in ordinary Euclidean geometry and in hyperbolic geometry , for artistic effect . Tessellations are sometimes employed for decorative effect in quilting . Tessellations form a class of patterns in nature , for example in the arrays of hexagonal cells found in honeycombs .
= = History = =
Tessellations were used by the Sumerians ( about 4000 BC ) in building wall decorations formed by patterns of clay tiles .
Decorative mosaic tilings made of small squared blocks called tesserae were widely employed in classical antiquity , sometimes displaying geometric patterns .
In 1619 Johannes Kepler made an early documented study of tessellations . He wrote about regular and semiregular tessellations in his Harmonices Mundi ; he was possibly the first to explore and to explain the hexagonal structures of honeycomb and snowflakes .
Some two hundred years later in 1891 , the Russian crystallographer Yevgraf Fyodorov proved that every periodic tiling of the plane features one of seventeen different groups of isometries . Fyodorov 's work marked the unofficial beginning of the mathematical study of tessellations . Other prominent contributors include Shubnikov and Belov ( 1964 ) , and Heinrich Heesch and Otto Kienzle ( 1963 ) .
= = = Etymology = = =
In Latin , tessella is a small cubical piece of clay , stone or glass used to make mosaics . The word " tessella " means " small square " ( from tessera , square , which in turn is from the Greek word τέσσερα for four ) . It corresponds with the everyday term tiling , which refers to applications of tessellations , often made of glazed clay .
= = Overview = =
Tessellation or tiling in two dimensions is a topic in geometry that studies how shapes , known as tiles , can be arranged to fill a plane without any gaps , according to a given set of rules . These rules can be varied . Common ones are that there must be no gaps between tiles , and that no corner of one tile can lie along the edge of another . The tessellations created by bonded brickwork do not obey this rule . Among those that do , a regular tessellation has both identical regular tiles and identical regular corners or vertices , having the same angle between adjacent edges for every tile . There are only three shapes that can form such regular tessellations : the equilateral triangle , square , and regular hexagon . Any one of these three shapes can be duplicated infinitely to fill a plane with no gaps .
Many other types of tessellation are possible under different constraints . For example , there are eight types of semi @-@ regular tessellation , made with more than one kind of regular polygon but still having the same arrangement of polygons at every corner . Irregular tessellations can also be made from other shapes such as pentagons , polyominoes and in fact almost any kind of geometric shape . The artist M. C. Escher is famous for making tessellations with irregular interlocking tiles , shaped like animals and other natural objects . If suitable contrasting colours are chosen for the tiles of differing shape , striking patterns are formed , and these can be used to decorate physical surfaces such as church floors .
More formally , a tessellation or tiling is a cover of the Euclidean plane by a countable number of closed sets , called tiles , such that the tiles intersect only on their boundaries . These tiles may be polygons or any other shapes . Many tessellations are formed from a finite number of prototiles in which all tiles in the tessellation are congruent to the given prototiles . If a geometric shape can be used as a prototile to create a tessellation , the shape is said to tessellate or to tile the plane . The Conway criterion is a sufficient but not necessary set of rules for deciding if a given shape tiles the plane periodically without reflections : some tiles fail the criterion but still tile the plane . No general rule has been found for determining if a given shape can tile the plane or not , which means there are many unsolved problems concerning tessellations . For example , the types of convex pentagon that can tile the plane remains an unsolved problem .
Mathematically , tessellations can be extended to spaces other than the Euclidean plane . The Swiss geometer Ludwig Schläfli pioneered this by defining polyschemes , which mathematicians nowadays call polytopes . These are the analogues to polygons and polyhedra in spaces with more dimensions . He further defined the Schläfli symbol notation to make it easy to describe polytopes . For example , the Schläfli symbol for an equilateral triangle is { 3 } , while that for a square is { 4 } . The Schläfli notation makes it possible to describe tilings compactly . For example , a tiling of regular hexagons has three six @-@ sided polygons at each vertex , so its Schläfli symbol is { 6 @,@ 3 } .
Other methods also exist for describing polygonal tilings . When the tessellation is made of regular polygons , the most common notation is the vertex configuration , which is simply a list of the number of sides of the polygons around a vertex . The square tiling has a vertex configuration of 4 @.@ 4 @.@ 4 @.@ 4 , or 44 . The tiling of regular hexagons is noted 6 @.@ 6 @.@ 6 , or 63 .
= = In mathematics = =
= = = Introduction to tessellations = = =
Mathematicians use some technical terms when discussing tilings . An edge is the intersection between two bordering tiles ; it is often a straight line . A vertex is the point of intersection of three or more bordering tiles . Using these terms , an isogonal or vertex @-@ transitive tiling is a tiling where every vertex point is identical ; that is , the arrangement of polygons about each vertex is the same . The fundamental region is a shape such as a rectangle that is repeated to form the tessellation . For example , a regular tessellation of the plane with squares has a meeting of four squares at every vertex .
The sides of the polygons are not necessarily identical to the edges of the tiles . An edge @-@ to @-@ edge tiling is any polygonal tessellation where adjacent tiles only share one full side , i.e. , no tile shares a partial side or more than one side with any other tile . In an edge @-@ to @-@ edge tiling , the sides of the polygons and the edges of the tiles are the same . The familiar " brick wall " tiling is not edge @-@ to @-@ edge because the long side of each rectangular brick is shared with two bordering bricks .
A normal tiling is a tessellation for which every tile is topologically equivalent to a disk , the intersection of any two tiles is a single connected set or the empty set , and all tiles are uniformly bounded . This means that a single circumscribing radius and a single inscribing radius can be used for all the tiles in the whole tiling ; the condition disallows tiles that are pathologically long or thin .
A monohedral tiling is a tessellation in which all tiles are congruent ; it has only one prototile . A particularly interesting type of monohedral tessellation is the spiral monohedral tiling . The first spiral monohedral tiling was discovered by Heinz Voderberg in 1936 ; the Voderberg tiling has a unit tile that is a nonconvex enneagon . The Hirschhorn tiling , published by Michael D. Hirschhorn and D. C. Hunt in 1985 , is a pentagon tiling using irregular pentagons : regular pentagons cannot tile the Euclidean plane as the internal angle of a regular pentagon , 3π / 5 , is not a divisor of 2π .
An isohedral tiling is a special variation of a monohedral tiling in which all tiles belong to the same transitivity class , that is , all tiles are transforms of the same prototile under the symmetry group of the tiling . If a prototile admits a tiling , but no such tiling is isohedral , then the prototile is called anisohedral and forms anisohedral tilings .
A regular tessellation is a highly symmetric , edge @-@ to @-@ edge tiling made up of regular polygons , all of the same shape . There are only three regular tessellations : those made up of equilateral triangles , squares , or regular hexagons . All three of these tilings are isogonal and monohedral .
A semi @-@ regular ( or Archimedean ) tessellation uses more than one type of regular polygon in an isogonal arrangement . There are eight semi @-@ regular tilings ( or nine if the mirror @-@ image pair of tilings counts as two ) . These can be described by their vertex configuration ; for example , a semi @-@ regular tiling using squares and regular octagons has the vertex configuration 4 @.@ 82 ( each vertex has one square and two octagons ) . Many non @-@ edge @-@ to @-@ edge tilings of the Euclidean plane are possible , including the family of Pythagorean tilings , tessellations that use two ( parameterised ) sizes of square , each square touching four squares of the other size .
= = = Wallpaper groups = = =
Tilings with translational symmetry in two independent directions can be categorized by wallpaper groups , of which 17 exist . It has been claimed that all seventeen of these groups are represented in the Alhambra palace in Granada , Spain . Though this is disputed , the variety and sophistication of the Alhambra tilings have surprised modern researchers . Of the three regular tilings two are in the p6m wallpaper group and one is in p4m . Tilings in 2D with translational symmetry in just one direction can be categorized by the seven frieze groups describing the possible frieze patterns . Orbifold notation can be used to describe wallpaper groups of the Euclidean plane .
= = = Aperiodic tilings = = =
Penrose tilings , which use two different quadrilaterals , are the best known example of tiles that forcibly create non @-@ periodic patterns . They belong to a general class of aperiodic tilings , which use tiles that cannot tessellate periodically . The recursive process of substitution tiling is a method of generating aperiodic tilings . One class that can be generated in this way is the rep @-@ tiles ; these tilings have surprising self @-@ replicating properties . Pinwheel tilings are non @-@ periodic , using a rep @-@ tile construction ; the tiles appear in infinitely many orientations . It might be thought that a non @-@ periodic pattern would be entirely without symmetry , but this is not so . Aperiodic tilings , while lacking in translational symmetry , do have symmetries of other types , by infinite repetition of any bounded patch of the tiling and in certain finite groups of rotations or reflections of those patches . A substitution rule , such as can be used to generate some Penrose patterns using assemblies of tiles called rhombs , illustrates scaling symmetry . A Fibonacci word can be used to build an aperiodic tiling , and to study quasicrystals , which are structures with aperiodic order .
Wang tiles are squares coloured on each edge , and placed so that abutting edges of adjacent tiles have the same colour ; hence they are sometimes called Wang dominoes . A suitable set of Wang dominoes can tile the plane , but only aperiodically . This is known because any Turing machine can be represented as a set of Wang dominoes that tile the plane if and only if the Turing machine does not halt . Since the halting problem is undecidable , the problem of deciding whether a Wang domino set can tile the plane is also undecidable .
Truchet tiles are square tiles decorated with patterns so they do not have rotational symmetry ; in 1704 , Sébastien Truchet used a square tile split into two triangles of contrasting colours . These can tile the plane either periodically or randomly .
= = = Tessellations and colour = = =
Sometimes the colour of a tile is understood as part of the tiling ; at other times arbitrary colours may be applied later . When discussing a tiling that is displayed in colours , to avoid ambiguity one needs to specify whether the colours are part of the tiling or just part of its illustration . This affects whether tiles with the same shape but different colours are considered identical , which in turn affects questions of symmetry . The four colour theorem states that for every tessellation of a normal Euclidean plane , with a set of four available colours , each tile can be coloured in one colour such that no tiles of equal colour meet at a curve of positive length . The colouring guaranteed by the four @-@ colour theorem does not generally respect the symmetries of the tessellation . To produce a colouring which does , it is necessary to treat the colours as part of the tessellation . Here , as many as seven colours may be needed , as in the picture at right .
= = = Tessellations with polygons = = =
Next to the various tilings by regular polygons , tilings by other polygons have also been studied .
Any triangle or quadrilateral ( even non @-@ convex ) can be used as a prototile to form a monohedral tessellation , often in more than one way . Copies of an arbitrary quadrilateral can form a tessellation with translational symmetry and 2 @-@ fold rotational symmetry with centres at the midpoints of all sides . For an asymmetric quadrilateral this tiling belongs to wallpaper group p2 . As fundamental domain we have the quadrilateral . Equivalently , we can construct a parallelogram subtended by a minimal set of translation vectors , starting from a rotational centre . We can divide this by one diagonal , and take one half ( a triangle ) as fundamental domain . Such a triangle has the same area as the quadrilateral and can be constructed from it by cutting and pasting .
If only one shape of tile is allowed , tilings exists with convex N @-@ gons for N equal to 3 , 4 , 5 and 6 . For N |
= 5 , see Pentagonal tiling and for N =
6 , see Hexagonal tiling .
For results on tiling the plane with polyominoes , see Polyomino § Uses of polyominoes .
= = = Voronoi tilings = = =
Voronoi or Dirichlet tilings are tessellations where each tile is defined as the set of points closest to one of the points in a discrete set of defining points . ( Think of geographical regions where each region is defined as all the points closest to a given city or post office . ) The Voronoi cell for each defining point is a convex polygon . The Delaunay triangulation is a tessellation that is the dual graph of a Voronoi tessellation . Delaunay triangulations are useful in numerical simulation , in part because among all possible triangulations of the defining points , Delaunay triangulations maximize the minimum of the angles formed by the edges . Voronoi tilings with randomly placed points can be used to construct random tilings of the plane .
= = = Tessellations in higher dimensions = = =
Tessellation can be extended to three dimensions . Certain polyhedra can be stacked in a regular crystal pattern to fill ( or tile ) three @-@ dimensional space , including the cube ( the only regular polyhedron to do so ) , the rhombic dodecahedron , and the truncated octahedron . Naturally occurring rhombic dodecahedra are found as crystals of Andradite ( a kind of Garnet ) and Fluorite .
A Schwarz triangle is a spherical triangle that can be used to tile a sphere .
Tessellations in three or more dimensions are called honeycombs . In three dimensions there is just one regular honeycomb , which has eight cubes at each polyhedron vertex . Similarly , in three dimensions there is just one quasiregular honeycomb , which has eight tetrahedra and six octahedra at each polyhedron vertex . However , there are many possible semiregular honeycombs in three dimensions . Uniform polyhedra can be constructed using the Wythoff construction .
The Schmitt @-@ Conway biprism is a convex polyhedron with the property of tiling space only aperiodically .
= = = Tessellations in non @-@ Euclidean geometries = = =
It is possible to tessellate in non @-@ Euclidean geometries such as hyperbolic geometry . A uniform tiling in the hyperbolic plane ( which may be regular , quasiregular or semiregular ) is an edge @-@ to @-@ edge filling of the hyperbolic plane , with regular polygons as faces ; these are vertex @-@ transitive ( transitive on its vertices ) , and isogonal ( there is an isometry mapping any vertex onto any other ) .
A uniform honeycomb in hyperbolic space is a uniform tessellation of uniform polyhedral cells . In 3 @-@ dimensional hyperbolic space there are nine Coxeter group families of compact convex uniform honeycombs , generated as Wythoff constructions , and represented by permutations of rings of the Coxeter diagrams for each family .
= = In art = =
In architecture , tessellations have been used to create decorative motifs since ancient times . Mosaic tilings often had geometric patterns . Later civilisations also used larger tiles , either plain or individually decorated . Some of the most decorative were the Moorish wall tilings of Islamic architecture , using Girih and Zellige tiles in buildings such as the Alhambra and La Mezquita .
Tessellations frequently appeared in the graphic art of M. C. Escher ; he was inspired by the Moorish use of symmetry in places such as the Alhambra when he visited Spain in 1936 . Escher made four " Circle Limit " drawings of tilings that use hyperbolic geometry . For his woodcut " Circle Limit IV " ( 1960 ) , Escher prepared a pencil and ink study showing the required geometry . Escher explained that " No single component of all the series , which from infinitely far away rise like rockets perpendicularly from the limit and are at last lost in it , ever reaches the boundary line . "
Tessellated designs often appear on textiles , whether woven , stitched in or printed . Tessellation patterns have been used to design interlocking motifs of patch shapes in quilts .
Tessellations are also a main genre in origami ( paper folding ) , where pleats are used to connect molecules such as twist folds together in a repeating fashion .
= = In manufacturing = =
Tessellation is used in manufacturing industry to reduce the wastage of material ( yield losses ) such as sheet metal when cutting out shapes for objects like car doors or drinks cans .
= = In nature = =
The honeycomb provides a well @-@ known example of tessellation in nature with its hexagonal cells .
In botany , the term " tessellate " describes a checkered pattern , for example on a flower petal , tree bark , or fruit . Flowers including the Fritillary and some species of Colchicum are characteristically tessellate .
Many patterns in nature are formed by cracks in sheets of materials . These patterns can be described by Gilbert tessellations , also known as random crack networks . The Gilbert tessellation is a mathematical model for the formation of mudcracks , needle @-@ like crystals , and similar structures . The model , named after Edgar Gilbert , allows cracks to form starting from randomly scattered over the plane ; each crack propagates in two opposite directions along a line through the initiation point , its slope chosen at random , creating a tessellation of irregular convex polygons . Basaltic lava flows often display columnar jointing as a result of contraction forces causing cracks as the lava cools . The extensive crack networks that develop often produce hexagonal columns of lava . One example of such an array of columns is the Giant 's Causeway in Northern Ireland . Tessellated pavement , a characteristic example of which is found at Eaglehawk Neck on the Tasman Peninsula of Tasmania , is a rare sedimentary rock formation where the rock has fractured into rectangular blocks .
Other natural patterns occur in foams ; these are packed according to Plateau 's laws , which require minimal surfaces . Such foams present a problem in how to pack cells as tightly as possible : in 1887 , Lord Kelvin proposed a packing using only one solid , the bitruncated cubic honeycomb with very slightly curved faces . In 1993 , Denis Weaire and Robert Phelan proposed the Weaire – Phelan structure , which uses less surface area to separate cells of equal volume than Kelvin 's foam .
= = In puzzles and recreational mathematics = =
Tessellations have given rise to many types of tiling puzzle , from traditional jigsaw puzzles ( with irregular pieces of wood or cardboard ) and the tangram to more modern puzzles which often have a mathematical basis . For example , polyiamonds and polyominoes are figures of regular triangles and squares , often used in tiling puzzles . Authors such as Henry Dudeney and Martin Gardner have made many uses of tessellation in recreational mathematics . For example , Dudeney invented the hinged dissection , while Gardner wrote about the rep @-@ tile , a shape that can be dissected into smaller copies of the same shape . Inspired by Gardner 's articles in Scientific American , the amateur mathematician Marjorie Rice found four new tessellations with pentagons . Squaring the square is the problem of tiling an integral square ( one whose sides have integer length ) using only other integral squares . An extension is squaring the plane , tiling it by squares whose sizes are all natural numbers without repetitions ; James and Frederick Henle proved that this was possible .
= = Examples = =
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= Rise , O Voices of Rhodesia =
" Rise , O Voices of Rhodesia " ( or " Voices of Rhodesia " ) was the national anthem of the unrecognised state of Rhodesia ( renamed Zimbabwe in 1980 ) between 1974 and 1979 . The tune was that of " Ode to Joy " , the Fourth Movement from Ludwig van Beethoven 's Ninth Symphony , which had been adopted as the official European Anthem by the Council of Europe in 1972 ( it remains Europe 's anthem today ) . The music used in Rhodesia was an original sixteen @-@ bar arrangement by Captain Ken MacDonald , the bandmaster of the Rhodesian African Rifles . A national competition was organised by the government to find an appropriate set of lyrics to match the chosen tune , and won by Mary Bloom of Gwelo .
In the fallout from Rhodesia 's Unilateral Declaration of Independence from Britain on 11 November 1965 , the country still claimed loyalty to Queen Elizabeth II as its professed head of state , and so retained " God Save the Queen " as its national anthem . With Rhodesia 's reconstitution in 1970 as a republic , however , the royal anthem was dropped along with many other references to the monarchy . The Republic of Rhodesia lacked a national anthem until it adopted " Rise , O Voices of Rhodesia " in 1974 . The national anthem lost its legal status in December 1979 , when the UK took interim control of the country pending its internationally recognised independence as Zimbabwe five months later . Rhodesia 's use of the well @-@ known Beethoven tune has since caused the playing of " Ode to Joy " to be controversial in modern @-@ day Zimbabwe .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
A dispute over the terms for the granting of full statehood to the self @-@ governing colony of Rhodesia led its predominantly white minority government , headed by Prime Minister Ian Smith , to unilaterally declare independence from Britain on 11 November 1965 . As Whitehall had been insisting on majority rule as a condition for independence , this declaration went unrecognised and caused Britain and the United Nations to impose economic sanctions on Rhodesia . Queen Elizabeth II continued to be the Rhodesian head of state in the eyes of Smith 's administration , which regarded itself as " Her Majesty 's Rhodesian Government " despite its international non @-@ acknowledgement ; " God Save the Queen " therefore remained the Rhodesian national anthem . Though this was intended to demonstrate Rhodesia 's enduring loyalty to the Queen , the retention of a song so associated with Britain in the midst of the Anglo @-@ Rhodesian constitutional struggle soon gave Rhodesian state occasions " a faintly ironic tone " , in the words of the London Times .
= = = Adoption = = =
The Rhodesian government initiated a search for a new anthem around the time of its adoption of a new green @-@ and @-@ white flag in November 1968 , but continued to use " God Save the Queen " until June 1969 , when the mostly white electorate voted in favour of a republican form of government . The royal anthem officially remained in place until the formal declaration of a republic in March 1970 , when it was abandoned along with numerous other overt references to the Crown . Republican Rhodesia was without an anthem for over four years before the chosen music was announced on 28 August 1974 : the Fourth Movement , commonly called " Ode to Joy " , from Ludwig van Beethoven 's Ninth Symphony . The fact that the Council of Europe had adopted this tune as the " Anthem of Europe " in January 1972 apparently did not perturb the Rhodesian government ; John Sutherland and Stephen Fender comment that Rhodesia 's choice proved deeply embarrassing for the British Labour administration , whose leaders now had to respect a melody associated with Rhodesia when attending official European functions . With a tune now in place , the Rhodesian government organised a nationwide competition to write matching lyrics , the winner of which would receive a cash prize of R $ 500 ( equal to about US $ 1 @,@ 000 ) .
The Council of Europe , though less than pleased with Rhodesia 's selection , did not object to it , reasoning that so long as Rhodesia was using " Ode to Joy " in its original form , it could not be subject to reproach as the music was long out of copyright and in the public domain . It did announce , however , that should Rhodesia use the same arrangement as the Council of Europe , then the author of that score , Herbert von Karajan , would have grounds for a plagiarism lawsuit . Such an incident was averted when Rhodesia adopted an original sixteen @-@ bar arrangement by Captain Ken MacDonald , the Rhodesian African Rifles ' bandmaster . The anthem 's inaugural instrumental performance in Salisbury provoked mixed reactions : some were enthusiastic — including a coloured sergeant musician who proudly told the Rhodesia Herald that " it 's just like ' God Save Our Gracious Queen ' " — but many others were disappointed that the government had not commissioned an original tune . Rhys Lewis , music critic for the Herald , wrote that he was " stupefied " by the government 's choice , which he said was not only unoriginal , but also so associated with supranational brotherhood that it risked making internationally isolated Rhodesia the subject of ridicule . Phinias Sithole , who headed the African Trade Union Congress ( a black Rhodesian trade union federation ) , commented that he did not believe most of the country 's blacks would identify with a song chosen while people of their ethnicity remained largely absent from the government 's top levels .
The winning lyricist was confirmed on 24 September 1974 to be Mary Bloom , a company director , music critic and poet from Gwelo , who had moved to Rhodesia from South Africa in 1947 . Bloom titled her work " Voices of Rhodesia " , but the full first line , " Rise , O Voices of Rhodesia " , ultimately entered common parlance as the song 's title .
= = Lyrics = =
The lyrics officially adopted were as follows :
= = Fall from use and legacy = =
" Rise , O Voices of Rhodesia " remained in official usage for the rest of Rhodesia 's history , as well as between June and December 1979 , when Rhodesia was reconstituted as Zimbabwe Rhodesia , a black @-@ ruled version of the same country , which also failed to achieve legitimacy in the eyes of Britain and the UN . Though the anthem remained in place during these six months , a new flag was adopted and Rhodesia 's national holidays , largely based around colonial figures and milestones , were replaced by alternatives intended to be more inclusive : President 's Day , Unity Day and Ancestors Day . The national anthem remained unchanged on 12 December 1979 , when Zimbabwe Rhodesia came under British control for an interim period before internationally recognised independence came in April 1980 , with the country now called Zimbabwe . " Ishe Komborera Africa " , a Shona translation of Enoch Sontonga 's Xhosa hymn " Nkosi Sikelel ' iAfrika " ( " God Bless Africa " in English ) was made Zimbabwe 's first national anthem , and remained in place until 1994 , when it was replaced by the present anthem , " Simudzai Mureza wedu WeZimbabwe " ( " Blessed be the Land of Zimbabwe " ) .
Because of its use by " Rise , O Voices of Rhodesia " , the " Ode to Joy " melody is controversial in Zimbabwe , where its annual playing at foreign embassies on Europe Day initially caused shock to Zimbabwean government officials who , according to historian Josephine Fisher , had not previously been aware of the song 's use by the Council of Europe . During the 1980s , Derek Hudson , the long @-@ time conductor of the Bulawayo Philharmonic Orchestra , had considerable difficulty securing official permission to give the first Zimbabwean performance of Beethoven 's Ninth Symphony . He was eventually able to do so , but only after prolonged negotiations with the authorities . When " Ode to Joy " was included in a fundraising organ recital held by a Harare church at Christmas 1994 , it provoked angry protests from some who attended .
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= Chalk ( TV series ) =
Chalk is a British television sitcom set in a comprehensive school named Galfast High . Two series , both written by Steven Moffat , were broadcast on BBC1 in 1997 . Like Moffat 's earlier sitcom Joking Apart , Chalk was produced by Andre Ptaszynski for Pola Jones .
The series focuses upon deputy headteacher Eric Slatt ( David Bamber ) , permanently stressed over the chaos he creates both by himself and some of his eccentric staff . His wife Janet ( Geraldine Fitzgerald ) and new English teacher Suzy Travis ( Nicola Walker ) attempt to help him solve the problems .
Because of the very good reaction of the studio audience , a second series was commissioned before the first had been broadcast . However , journalists were critical of the show , highlighting stylistic similarities to Fawlty Towers . Some members of the teaching profession and its unions objected to the negative representation of teachers and the comprehensive system . The second series did not receive a stable broadcast slot , with many episodes aired after 10pm . The first series was released on DVD in December 2008 .
= = Production = =
= = = Inception = = =
Steven Moffat left his job as an English teacher at Cowdenknowes High in Greenock to write the BAFTA @-@ award winning show Press Gang . However , its high cost and changes in the executive structure at Central Independent Television meant that the show might not be recommissioned after its second series . As the writer wondered what to do next and was worried about future employment , Bob Spiers , Press Gang 's primary director , suggested that he meet with producer Andre Ptaszynski to discuss writing a sitcom . Inspired by his experience in education ( in addition to his own former career , his father was a headteacher ) , the writer 's initial proposal was similar to what would become Chalk . However , Ptaszynski realised that Moffat was talking more passionately at the meeting at the Groucho Club about his impending divorce and suggested that he write about that instead . That idea became Joking Apart , which received low audience figures but a high rating on the Appreciation Index . In an interview with The Herald , Moffat reflected on the nature of writing from experience : " I don 't think you have an alternative to writing about what you know . You 've no life experience to go on other than your own . Even if you 're writing something you think is entirely remote from you - Star Trek , for instance - you 'll find the finished result is actually very close to your own experience . That 's not a conscious decision a writer makes - it 's an inevitability . "
After the second series of Joking Apart had been transmitted , Ptaszynski revived Moffat 's original idea about a sitcom set in a school . In an article for The Guardian newspaper , writer and comedian Richard Herring observed that Moffat has not used the show " as a soapbox from which to satirise the government ’ s educational policy , preferring to concentrate on being funny ... yet beneath it all is a much more broadly satirical swipe at the implicit pointlessness of the way we are educated . " For this article , Moffat told Herring :
Secondary School is a big waste of time . What are French teachers doing ? None of us can speak French . How much maths can you do ? Do you know any history ? What is the point in training people to do things that none of us can do ? The system seems designed to qualify you for the Indian Civil Service in 1911 . We all leave school unable to drive ! Now that would be quite handy .
Moffat discussed similar institutional and political issues with The Independent :
Staffrooms are funny places , full of articulate , mad people . They have a tremendous sense of black humour , but there 's a layer of dust over them . They are immature because they 're in a children 's environment all the time . They have a strange perspective ; because they spend all day with kids , they are more aware of kids ' culture than adults ' . When they read about a former pupil who has become head of ICI , they always say , ' But that boy 's an idiot . He 's crap at geography . ' The boy is condemned forever because in the 1960s he didn 't know all the capitals of the Third World .
The Independent reported that Moffat " stresses that Chalk is a sitcom , not some banner @-@ waving , agitprop pamphlet " , but is still " passionate about education " . Moffat criticises " the [ Conservative ] government talk about the specially talented needing more education , but that 's absurd , the equivalent of hospitals for the healthy . " Moffat expected that teachers would find the show funny because it " has certain notes of accuracy " , recognising familiar myths such as the dead teacher and teachers ' contempt for their pupils . Moffat continued to say that teachers would " also recognise the pathological preference for science over arts and all that league @-@ table shit . An official teaching organisation couldn 't say , ' It 's a very faithful portrayal , ' but I hope they 'd say , ' It 's a comedy series . Why take it seriously ? ' You couldn 't claim it is the most flattering series , but , there again , people continued to stay at hotels after Fawlty Towers . "
As with Joking Apart , Ptaszynski produced Chalk for independent production company Pola Jones . The positive reaction of the studio audience during recording of the first series in 1996 propelled executives to commission a second set of six episodes before the first batch had aired .
= = = Recording = = =
All of the location shots for Chalk were filmed at the beginning of the production block . Acland Burghley School , in the Tufnell Park area of Camden , London , provided the exterior of the fictional Galfast High . The cast recall that it was difficult to perform comedy on location without a studio audience to gauge the reception and success of the jokes . Another school near Wembley was used for large interior shots , such as the school hall featured in the episode " The Inspection " . Rehearsals took place in BBC premises in Acton , west London , colloquially known by those in the industry as the " Acton Hilton " . David Bamber , his colleagues note , knew the script at the beginning of rehearsals and never dropped a line . The cast recall that director Juliet May provided a calm working environment ; rather than losing her temper when things went wrong , she instead focussed everyone 's mind on how to solve the problem .
After the exterior shots had been filmed , the episodes were recorded at BBC Television Centre in London . Most of the episodes were recorded in studios three or four , but occasionally the larger studio eight was used . After a week 's rehearsals , the episodes were filmed on Sundays . The cast and crew would have a camera rehearsal followed by a dress run . After a supper , the cast were introduced to the studio audience . The studio audience responded very positively to the show during recordings . However , Moffat reflects that the show 's style was not suited to the home audience . In a 2012 interview , he says :
Of any sitcom I ’ ve ever witnessed being made , and I ’ ve seen loads of them like Men Behaving Badly and The Vicar of Dibley , Chalk had the biggest laughs on the night . As a piece of theatre it was brilliant in the studio – people came back every week ; the audiences were rapturous . The trouble was when I watched the tape at home , it was far too loud and raucous [ for TV ] .
The BBC commissioned a second series based on the studio audience reactions during recordings . As development on series two had reached a relatively late stage when the first had received negative reviews upon transmission , it was too late to cancel the production . The cast and crew , then , had to work on a show which they knew was widely disliked . Moffat reflects on the experience : " There ’ s no feeling on earth like working on a show that you know is doomed and already tanking . ”
BBC executives insisted that the title be changed as they felt that " Chalk " did not stand out in the schedules . They were also concerned that the title might be somewhat anachronistic because schools were beginning to use whiteboards rather than blackboards . Many people , including the actors , attempted to think of alternatives , but instead reverted to " Chalk " .
Funding was running low towards the end of filming the first series . Moffat contrived an episode , " The Staff Meeting " , where all of the main cast would be locked in the staff room to avoid paying for any guest actors . To reduce expenditure further , crew members were enlisted to provide the voices for the television news report at the end of the episode : producer Andre Ptaszynski played the broadcast journalist , whilst second assistant director Sarah Daman voiced the protesting student Gail Bennett . When a guest actor delivered an inadequate performance of the psychiatric doctor at the end of " The Inspection " , Moffat coached assistant director Stacey Adair to perform the line . However , professional actor C.J. Allen lived near to the location and he was enlisted to deliver the line instead .
The expense and restrictions placed upon child actors limited the number of pupils that could be featured . The non @-@ speaking extras had to be licensed , a process that took four weeks , providing difficulties for assistant director Stacey Adair . The episode " Both Called Eric " features Antony Costa as one of the pupils , one of his earliest TV roles before going on to appear in Grange Hill and in the boy band Blue .
= = Episodes = =
The sitcom is based at the fictional comprehensive school Galfast High . It begins with the arrival of the young new English teacher Suzie Travis ( Nicola Walker ) . She immediately encounters the chaos of the school , a chaos enhanced by the manic Deputy Head Eric Slatt ( David Bamber ) . The Guardian retrospectively commented that the show 's " best episodes of ... manouevred their unwitting participants towards a climax of terrible sexual humiliation or violence . "
Moffat integrated many references to secondary characters and locations from his previous BAFTA winning show Press Gang into Chalk . For instance , the Chalk character Eric Slatt refers to his neighbouring school Norbridge High , run by Mr Sullivan : these were the names of the school and deputy headmaster in Press Gang . The scene where Slatt is being given instructions by wire is taken from the unfilmed Press Gang movie Dead Line . The pornographic video Lesbian Spank Inferno , owned by Dan McGill in the final episode , is later referenced in the Coupling episode " Inferno " . In an interview with The New York Times , Moffat admitted that the video is inspired by his then @-@ new partner , Sue Vertue , finding a similar video in their VCR .
= = Characters = =
Eric Slatt ( David Bamber ) is the deputy headmaster of Galfast High , who seems to " deepen the many crises that face the school ( most of Slatt ’ s own making ) " . Jeff Evans , writing in the The Penguin TV Companion , observed that " Slatt is certainly keen , but regrettably he is also unbalanced , tactless , clumsy , snobby , sarcastic , at times pointlessly aggressive and always prone to appalling errors of judgment ( an academic version of Basil Fawlty , it was widely noted ) " . The Independent commented : " Chalk is in the idiom of sadistic farce : disaster begets catastrophe begets apocalypse , and they all engulf Slatt . There are inevitable echoes of other sitcom characters - a dash of Basil Fawlty 's unquenchable apoplexy , a slice of Gordon Brittas 's purblind monomania - but Slatt 's entanglements are caused by his own cocktail of failings . " Nicola Walker commented that viewers sympathise with Slatt because he is in charge of a bunch of lunatics . Moffat told The Herald that Slatt was inspired by a real person :
My main character , the deputy head , is a manic git , and he 's based on a guy I never actually met and is therefore being denigrated terribly . He had already retired by the time I started but I used to get a lift to work from his wife , who still worked there . And she would tell me stories about him with the affectionate disdain of anyone who has been married for more than a year . In the staff room , all these bitter teachers who hadn 't been promoted would describe him as someone who would only briefly consider stopping short of invading Poland if he got the chance . I 've since found out that the real man is actually a very nice bloke .
Ptaszynski had attempted to persuade his friend Angus Deayton , who wanted to move into more acting roles away from Have I Got News for You , to play Slatt . The producer reflects that Deayton would have brought a more " sardonic " element to the character . The cast regularly teased David Bamber during rehearsals , speculating upon how Deayton might have performed a particular line or sequence .
Janet Slatt ( Geraldine Fitzgerald ) is Eric 's wife and the school 's secretary . She has an antagonistic relationship with Eric , with each regularly the butt of the other 's jokes . For instance , Eric suggests one morning that she had not shaved , and that she should rest her hind legs .
Suzy Travis ( Nicola Walker ) is a new English teacher who arrives at the school in the first episode . The press described Suzy as " the voice of sanity at Galfast High and the thorn in Slatt 's side . "
Amanda Trippley ( Amanda Boxer ) is the neurotic music teacher . Throughout the series , she invents her pupils to prevent her department being closed , uses the school 's telephone network to surf the internet about Star Trek , and demands the return of a musical instrument from a former pupil now on death row .
Dan McGill ( Martin Ball ) is a young teacher who instantly develops a crush on Suzy when she arrives at the school , and attempts to date her throughout the series . The character is given most prominence in " The Staff Meeting " episode , which was written in order to save money by not having any guest actors . In this episode it is revealed that Dan has agreed to teach several subjects in order to keep his job . Suzy is dismayed to find that he invented an entire language when he became a foreign languages teacher , and then invented its country ( Estranzia ) when made a Geography teacher . After Ball 's performance in that episode , Moffat promised him that he would not underwrite him in the second series .
Mr Carkdale ( John Grillo ) , the head of English , very rarely utters anything but expletives . Struggling to find a rationale for his character , Grillo paced up and down a rehearsal room carrying a brown briefcase , which he remembers all of his own teachers carrying around , and shouting profanities .
Mr Richard Nixon ( John Wells ) was the headteacher in the first series . Evans observes that he " shows precious little leadership " , and the running of the school seems to fall to Slatt . Wells was too ill to participate in the second series , and died a year after its transmission .
Mr J.F. Kennedy ( Duncan Preston ) replaced Mr Nixon as the head in the second series . Like Nixon , Mr Kennedy takes a back @-@ seat in the developments . In the final episode he reads a letter from the former head , which inadvertently serves to show how their characters are identical .
Jason Cockfoster ( Damien Matthews ) is a young religious education teacher . He arrives at the school in the first series episode " Both Called Eric " , and appears more regularly in the second series . Suzy is immediately attracted to him , making Dan McGill so jealous that he tells the pupils that he is Satan . The character was a deliberate attempt to add some sex appeal to the show .
= = Reception = =
Due to the positive reaction of the studio audience during recordings , a second series was commissioned before the first had started to be transmitted . However , the show was , as Mark Lawson summarised , " widely disliked " . The BBC 's publicity department compared Chalk to Fawlty Towers in the publicity materials . Critics , though , took exception to a new show being compared to such a renowned and respected programme . The cast point out that Fawlty Towers and Chalk are completely different shows , while Nicola Walker says that the comparison is like being asked to be " compared to a comedy God " . Writing for the BBC Guide to Comedy , Mark Lewisohn observes that the critical reception was mixed , with " its detractors pointing out that Eric Slatt was a carbon copy of John Cleese 's Basil Fawlty [ and ] its supporters praising its non @-@ PC , off @-@ the @-@ wall approach and the breathlessly paced plots that delivered moments of high farce . " Lewisohn also comments that while some elements of the show resemble Please Sir ! , " Chalk more closely resembled the ill @-@ fated Hardwicke House with its concentration on the teachers rather than the pupils , dark themes and overall depiction of the teachers as ... nuts . " Tom Lappin for Scotland on Sunday derided the combination of Chris Barrie 's Gordon Brittas and Cleese 's Basil Fawlty .
The first four episodes were transmitted at 21 : 30 , but the final two episodes of the second series were moved to 22 : 20 . The second series received an unstable timeslot , being replaced in its more mainstream slot by Men Behaving Badly . Commenting on the second series , the Glasgow Herald said , " the manic depute head of Galfast High , Eric Slatt , is looking more and more like Basil Fawlty on a bad day . So are those of us who remain glued to it in ghoulish fascination to see if it can get any worse . " Tabloid newspaper The Mirror published a damming review of the show 's second series opener :
The head of comedy at Television Centre deserves six of the best for bringing back Chalk ( BBC1 ) for a second term . If the opening episode of the new series is anything to go by , we are in for six of the worst half @-@ hours of comedy in the history of television ... It is no surprise that the show has been relegated to a late slot . It is a watershed for smut . Some of the jokes were in the worst possible taste . The standards of comedy are so pitiful , Galfast High School should not have been given a grant from TV licence @-@ payers ' money and it is time it closed its gates for good . David Bamber ... deserves a better vehicle for his acting talents . He was lured into playing Eric Slatt because the character was supposed to be the classroom equivalent of Basil Fawlty . They are as different as Chalk and Cleese .
In an interview in the early 2000s , Moffat refused to even mention Chalk , joking that he might get attacked in the street . The first series received criticism from some teachers and teaching unions , who criticised the representation of their professions . Letters were printed in specialist publications such as the Education Guardian . The Association of Teachers and Lecturers labelled Chalk as " perverse " and " vapid " , and its leader called upon the show to be axed . Teachers , according to the Daily Record , complained that the show portrayed teachers as " mentally unstable " , and deterred people from entering the profession . John Grillo , who played Mr Carkdale , recalls that he was appearing in a West End play at the time he was auditioning for the role ; a fellow actor in the play was meant to be auditioning for Chalk but , having been a deputy head teacher earlier in his career , was so disgusted by the material that he refused to attend . The unions ' derision actually inspired The Times 's Matthew Bond to like the show . However , despite identifying " genuine humour " such as Slatt 's rant against French teachers , Bond 's review is largely critical . He concedes , " the teaching organisations , you see , are half right . Slatt has no credible basis in the teaching profession , but far more importantly he has no credible basis in the human race . And what we don 't believe in , we rarely find funny . "
Kevin Lygo , the show 's executive producer and head of Independent Commissions Entertainment , who commissioned the series defending the show from the union 's criticisms , saying : " Chalk is a comedy . Just as Ben Elton 's Thin Blue Line does not reflect the modern police force nor The Vicar of Dibley the Church of England today , Chalk was never intended to reflect life in British schools . " Moffat said that Chalk was written " just for larks " and was not intended as a serious political diatribe . However , Scotland on Sunday responded in a piece placing Chalk in the context of other television shows about schools : " where such dramas fall down is not in shirking some contrived social responsibility but in their playing up to so many daft myths about the teaching profession . They could almost be written by one of those strange politicians who deny there is an education crises in Britain . "
= = Home release = =
The first three episodes were released on VHS in the United Kingdom on 7 September 1998 by BBC Video ( now 2entertain ) . During a DVD audio commentary for Coupling , Moffat claims that " no @-@ one bought it " , including him .
The complete first series was released on Region 2 PAL DVD by ReplayDVD , the independent label that had released Joking Apart , on 15 December 2008 . The disc contains audio commentaries on all six episodes ; Nicola Walker , Martin Ball , Geraldine Fitzgerald and John Grillo commentate over four of the episodes , with David Bamber and Amanda Boxer contributing to the remaining two . All of the above , along with producer Andre Ptaszynski , also feature in a 45 @-@ minute retrospective documentary , After the Chalk Dust Settled .
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= Kind of Blue =
Kind of Blue is a studio album by American jazz musician Miles Davis , released on August 17 , 1959 , by Columbia Records . It was recorded earlier that year on March 2 and April 22 at Columbia 's 30th Street Studio in New York City . The recording sessions featured Davis 's ensemble sextet , consisting of pianist Bill Evans , drummer Jimmy Cobb , bassist Paul Chambers , and saxophonists John Coltrane and Julian " Cannonball " Adderley , together with pianist Wynton Kelly on one track .
After the entry of Evans into his sextet , Davis followed up on the modal experimentations of Milestones ( 1958 ) by basing Kind of Blue entirely on modality , in contrast to his earlier work with the hard bop style of jazz .
Though precise figures have been disputed , Kind of Blue has been described by many music writers not only as Davis 's best @-@ selling album , but as the best @-@ selling jazz record of all time . On October 7 , 2008 , it was certified quadruple platinum in sales by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) .
Kind of Blue has been regarded by many critics as jazz 's greatest record , Davis 's masterpiece , and one of the best albums of all time . Its influence on music , including jazz , rock , and classical genres , has led writers to also deem it one of the most influential albums ever recorded . Kind of Blue was one of fifty recordings chosen in 2002 by the Library of Congress to be added to the National Recording Registry , and in 2003 , it was ranked number 12 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time .
= = Background = =
By late 1958 , Davis employed one of the most acclaimed and profitable working bands pursuing the hard bop style . His personnel had become stable : alto saxophonist Cannonball Adderley , tenor saxophonist John Coltrane , pianist Bill Evans , long @-@ serving bassist Paul Chambers , and drummer Jimmy Cobb . His band played a mixture of pop standards and bebop originals by Charlie Parker , Thelonious Monk , Dizzy Gillespie , and Tadd Dameron . As with all bebop @-@ based jazz , Davis 's groups improvised on the chord changes of a given song . Davis was one of many jazz musicians growing dissatisfied with bebop , and saw its increasingly complex chord changes as hindering creativity .
In 1953 , the pianist George Russell published his Lydian Chromatic Concept of Tonal Organization , which offered an alternative to the practice of improvisation based on chords and chord changes . Abandoning the traditional major and minor key relationships , the Lydian Chromatic Concept introduced the idea of chord / scale unity and was the first theory to explore the vertical relationship between chords and scales , as well as the only original theory to come from jazz . This approach led the way to " modal " in jazz . Influenced by Russell 's ideas , Davis implemented his first modal composition with the title track of his studio album Milestones ( 1958 ) . Satisfied with the results , Davis prepared an entire album based on modality . Pianist Bill Evans , who had studied with Russell but recently departed from Davis 's sextet to pursue his own career , was drafted back into the new recording project , the sessions that would become Kind of Blue .
= = Recording = =
Kind of Blue was recorded on three @-@ track tape in two sessions at Columbia Records ' 30th Street Studio in New York City . On March 2 , 1959 , the tracks " So What " , " Freddie Freeloader " , and " Blue in Green " were recorded for side one of the original LP , and on April 22 the tracks " All Blues " and " Flamenco Sketches " were recorded , making up side two . Production was handled by Teo Macero , who had produced Davis 's previous two LPs , and Irving Townsend .
As was Davis 's penchant , he called for almost no rehearsal and the musicians had little idea what they were to record . As described in the original liner notes by pianist Bill Evans , Davis had only given the band sketches of scales and melody lines on which to improvise . Once the musicians were assembled , Davis gave brief instructions for each piece and then set to taping the sextet in studio . While the results were impressive with so little preparation , the persistent legend that the entire album was recorded in one pass is untrue . Only " Flamenco Sketches " yielded a complete take on the first try . That take , not the master , was issued in 1997 as a bonus alternate take . The five master takes issued , however , were the only other complete takes ; an insert for the ending to " Freddie Freeloader " was recorded , but was not used for release or on the issues of Kind of Blue prior to the 1997 reissue . Pianist Wynton Kelly may not have been happy to see the man he replaced , Bill Evans , back in his old seat . Perhaps to assuage the pianist 's feelings , Davis had Kelly play instead of Evans on the album 's most blues @-@ oriented number , " Freddie Freeloader " . The live album Miles Davis at Newport 1958 documents this band . However , the Newport Jazz Festival recording on July 3 , 1958 , reflects the band in its hard bop conception , the presence of Bill Evans only six weeks into his brief tenure in the Davis band notwithstanding , rather than the modal approach of Kind of Blue .
= = Composition = =
Kind of Blue is based entirely on modality in contrast to Davis 's earlier work with the hard bop style of jazz and its complex chord progression and improvisation . The entire album was composed as a series of modal sketches , in which each performer was given a set of scales that defined the parameters of their improvisation and style . This style was in contrast to more typical means of composing , such as providing musicians with a complete score or , as was more common for improvisational jazz , providing the musicians with a chord progression or series of harmonies .
Modal jazz of this type was not unique to this album . Davis himself had previously used the same method on his 1958 Milestones album , the ' 58 Sessions , and Porgy and Bess ( 1958 ) , on which he used modal influences for collaborator Gil Evans 's third stream compositions . Also , the original concept and method had been developed in 1953 by pianist and writer George Russell . Davis saw Russell 's methods of composition as a means of getting away from the dense chord @-@ laden compositions of his time , which Davis had labeled " thick . " Modal composition , with its reliance on scales and modes , represented , as Davis called it , " a return to melody . " In a 1958 interview with Nat Hentoff of The Jazz Review , Davis elaborated on this form of composition in contrast to the chord progression predominant in bebop , stating " No chords ... gives you a lot more freedom and space to hear things . When you go this way , you can go on forever . You don 't have to worry about changes and you can do more with the [ melody ] line . It becomes a challenge to see how melodically innovative you can be . When you 're based on chords , you know at the end of 32 bars that the chords have run out and there 's nothing to do but repeat what you 've just done — with variations . I think a movement in jazz is beginning away from the conventional string of chords ... there will be fewer chords but infinite possibilities as to what to do with them . "
As noted by Bill Evans in the LP liner notes , " Miles conceived these settings only hours before the recording dates . " Evans continued with an introduction concerning the modes used in each composition on the album . " So What " consists of two modes : sixteen measures of the first , followed by eight measures of the second , and then eight again of the first . " Freddie Freeloader " is a standard twelve @-@ bar blues form . " Blue in Green " consists of a ten @-@ measure cycle following a short four @-@ measure introduction . " All Blues " is a twelve @-@ bar blues form in 6 / 8 time . " Flamenco Sketches " consists of five scales , which are each played " as long as the soloist wishes until he has completed the series " .
Liner notes list Davis as writer of all compositions , but many scholars and fans believe that Bill Evans wrote part or the whole of " Blue in Green " and " Flamenco Sketches " . Bill Evans assumed co @-@ credit with Davis for " Blue in Green " when recording it on his Portrait in Jazz album . The Davis estate acknowledged Evans ' authorship in 2002 . The practice of a band leader 's appropriating authorship of a song written by a sideman occurred frequently in the jazz world , as legendary saxophonist Charlie Parker did so to Davis when Parker took a songwriting credit for the tune " Donna Lee " , written by Davis while employed as a sideman in Charlie Parker 's quintet in the late 1940s . The composition later became a popular jazz standard . Another example is the introduction to " So What " , attributed to Gil Evans , which is closely based on the opening measures of French composer Claude Debussy 's Voiles ( 1910 ) , the second prelude from his first collection of preludes .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Since its release in 1959 , Kind of Blue has been regarded by many critics as Davis 's greatest work ; it is his most acclaimed album , and has been cited as the best @-@ selling jazz record released , despite later claims attributing the achievement to Davis 's first official gold record Bitches Brew ( 1970 ) . Music writer Chris Morris cited Kind of Blue as " the distillation of Davis 's art . " Kind of Blue has also been noted as one of the most influential albums in the history of jazz . One reviewer has called it a " defining moment of twentieth century music . " Several of the songs from the album have become jazz standards . Kind of Blue is consistently ranked among the greatest albums of all time . In a review of the album , AllMusic senior editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine stated :
Kind of Blue isn 't merely an artistic highlight for Miles Davis , it 's an album that towers above its peers , a record generally considered as the definitive jazz album , a universally acknowledged standard of excellence . Why does Kind of Blue possess such a mystique ? Perhaps because this music never flaunts its genius .... It 's the pinnacle of modal jazz — tonality and solos build from the overall key , not chord changes , giving the music a subtly shifting quality .... It may be a stretch to say that if you don 't like Kind of Blue , you don 't like jazz — but it 's hard to imagine it as anything other than a cornerstone of any jazz collection .
In 1958 , however , the arrival of Ornette Coleman on the jazz scene via his fall residency at the Five Spot club , consolidated by the release of his The Shape of Jazz to Come LP in 1959 , muted the initial impact of Kind of Blue , a happenstance that irritated Davis greatly . Though Davis and Coleman both offered alternatives to the rigid rules of bebop , Davis would never reconcile himself to Coleman 's free jazz innovations , although he would incorporate musicians amenable to Coleman 's ideas with his great quintet of the mid @-@ 1960s , and offer his own version of " free " playing with his jazz fusion outfits in the 1970s . The influence of Kind of Blue did build , and all of the sidemen from the album went on to achieve success on their own . Evans formed his influential jazz trio with bassist Scott LaFaro and drummer Paul Motian ; " Cannonball " Adderley fronted popular bands with his brother Nat ; Kelly , Chambers and Cobb continued as a touring unit , recording under Kelly 's name as well as in support of Coltrane and Wes Montgomery , among others ; and Coltrane went on to become one of the most revered and innovative of all jazz musicians . Even more than Davis , Coltrane took the modal approach and ran with it during his career as a leader in the 1960s , leavening his music with Coleman 's ideas as the decade progressed .
According to Acclaimed Music , Kind of Blue is the 49th most ranked record on critics ' all @-@ time lists . In 1994 , the album was ranked number one in Colin Larkin 's Top 100 Jazz Albums . Larkin described it as " the greatest jazz album in the world " . It has been ranked at or near the top of numerous " best album " lists in disparate genres . In 2002 , Kind of Blue was one of 50 recordings chosen that year by the Library of Congress to be added to the National Recording Registry . In selecting the album as number 12 on its 2003 list of the 500 greatest albums of all time , Rolling Stone magazine stated : " This painterly masterpiece is one of the most important , influential and popular albums in jazz " . On December 16 , 2009 , the United States House of Representatives passed a resolution honoring the 50th anniversary of Kind of Blue and " reaffirming jazz as a national treasure " . It is included in the 2005 book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die , described by reviewer Seth Jacobson as " a genre @-@ defining moment in twentieth @-@ century music , period . "
= = = Influence = = =
The album 's influence has reached beyond jazz , as musicians of such genres as rock and classical have been influenced by it , while critics have written about it as one of the most influential albums of all time . Many improvisatory rock musicians of the 1960s referred to Kind of Blue for inspiration , along with other Davis albums , as well as Coltrane 's modal records My Favorite Things ( 1961 ) and A Love Supreme ( 1965 ) . Guitarist Duane Allman of the Allman Brothers Band said his soloing on songs such as " In Memory of Elizabeth Reed " " comes from Miles and Coltrane , and particularly Kind of Blue . I 've listened to that album so many times that for the past couple of years , I haven 't hardly listened to anything else . " Pink Floyd keyboardist Richard Wright said that the chord progressions on the album influenced the structure of the introductory chords to the song " Breathe " on their landmark opus The Dark Side of the Moon ( 1973 ) . In his book Kind of Blue : The Making of a Miles Davis Masterpiece , writer Ashley Kahn wrote " still acknowledged as the height of hip , four decades after it was recorded , Kind of Blue is the premier album of its era , jazz or otherwise . Its vapory piano introduction is universally recognized " . Producer Quincy Jones , one of Davis ' longtime friends , wrote : " That [ Kind of Blue ] will always be my music , man . I play Kind of Blue every day — it 's my orange juice . It still sounds like it was made yesterday " . Pianist Chick Corea , one of Miles ' acolytes , was also struck by its majesty , later stating " It 's one thing to just play a tune , or play a program of music , but it 's another thing to practically create a new language of music , which is what Kind of Blue did . "
Gary Burton noted the consistent innovation present throughout the album , stating : " It wasn ’ t just one tune that was a breakthrough , it was the whole record . When new jazz styles come along , the first few attempts to do it are usually kind of shaky . Early Charlie Parker records were like this . But with Kind of Blue [ the sextet ] all sound like they ’ re fully into it . " Along with the Dave Brubeck Quartet 's Time Out ( 1959 ) and Coltrane 's Giant Steps ( 1960 ) , Kind of Blue has often been recommended by music writers as an introductory jazz album , for similar reasons : the music on both records is very melodic , and the relaxed quality of the songs makes the improvisation easy for listeners to follow , without sacrificing artistry or experimentation . Upon the release of the 50th anniversary collector 's edition of the album , a columnist for All About Jazz stated " Kind of Blue heralded the arrival of a revolutionary new American music , a post @-@ bebop modal jazz structured around simple scales and melodic improvisation . Trumpeter / band leader / composer Miles Davis assembled a sextet of legendary players to create a sublime atmospheric masterpiece . Fifty years after its release , Kind of Blue continues to transport listeners to a realm all its own while inspiring musicians to create to new sounds — from acoustic jazz to post @-@ modern ambient — in every genre imaginable . " Later in an interview , renowned hip @-@ hop artist and rapper Q @-@ Tip reaffirmed the album 's reputation and influence when discussing the significance of Kind of Blue , stating " It 's like the Bible — you just have one in your house . " The 2014 album Blue by Mostly Other People Do the Killing is a note @-@ for @-@ note reproduction of Kind of Blue .
The Kind of Blue musicians appeared together in further recorded ventures through the 1960s . Davis had made a rare post @-@ 1953 sideman appearance in 1958 on Adderley 's Somethin ' Else album ; Evans and Adderley collaborated on the latter 's LP Know What I Mean ? from 1961 . Kelly and Chambers backed Hank Mobley on Soul Station in 1960 , and Evans and Chambers played on the sessions for The Blues and the Abstract Truth by Oliver Nelson in 1961 . The rhythm section of Kelly , Chambers , and Cobb backed Coltrane for Coltrane Jazz and one track on his landmark Giant Steps , which featured Chambers throughout . That trio stayed with Davis for the recordings Someday My Prince Will Come and the live sets at the Blackhawk and at Carnegie Hall .
= = = Davis in retrospect = = =
Late in his life , from the electric period on , Davis repeatedly disregarded his earlier work , such as the music of Birth of the Cool or Kind of Blue . In Davis ' view , remaining static stylistically was the wrong option .
" So What " or Kind of Blue , they were done in that era , the right hour , the right day , and it happened . It 's over [ ... ] . What I used to play with Bill Evans , all those different modes , and substitute chords , we had the energy then and we liked it . But I have no feel for it anymore — it 's more like warmed @-@ over turkey .
When Shirley Horn insisted , in 1990 , that Davis reconsider playing the gentle ballads and modal tunes of his Kind of Blue period , he demurred : " Nah , it hurts my lip . "
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
= = = Musicians = = =
Per the liner notes
Miles Davis — trumpet
Julian " Cannonball " Adderley — alto saxophone ( except on " Blue in Green " )
John Coltrane — tenor saxophone
Bill Evans — piano ( except on " Freddie Freeloader " )
Wynton Kelly — piano ( on " Freddie Freeloader " )
Paul Chambers — double bass
Jimmy Cobb — drums
= = = Production = = =
Irving Townsend — producer
Fred Plaut — engineering
Don Hunstein — photography
Bill Evans — original liner notes
Michael Cuscuna — reissue production
Mark Wilder — remix engineering
Jay Maisel — 2009 reissue booklet photography
Nat Hentoff — 1997 reissue liner notes
Francis Davis — 2009 reissue liner notes
= = Charts = =
Billboard Music Charts ( North America )
1977 : Jazz Albums – No. 37
1987 : Top Jazz Albums – No. 10
2001 : Top Internet Albums – No. 14
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
Kind of Blue was originally released as a 12 @-@ inch vinyl record , in both stereo and mono . There have been several reissues of Kind of Blue , including additional printings throughout the vinyl era . On some editions , the label switched the order for the two tracks on side two , " All Blues " and " Flamenco Sketches " . The record has been remastered many times during the compact disc era , including the 1986 Columbia Jazz Masterpieces reissue and , most notably , the 1992 remastering that corrected the speed for side one , which had been issued slightly off @-@ pitch originally , and the 1997 issue that added the alternative take of " Flamenco Sketches " . In 2005 , a DualDisc release included the original album , a digital remastering in 5 @.@ 1 Surround Sound and LPCM Stereo , and a 25 @-@ minute documentary Made in Heaven about the making and influence of Kind of Blue . Kind of Blue has also been re @-@ released on a rare 24 @-@ carat gold CD collectors version .
The album was also released on many other formats , many of which are only to be found second hand .
Two @-@ track open @-@ reel tape ( US only ) , Columbia GCB 60 , from which " Freddie Freeloader " and " Flamenco Sketches " were omitted to keep cost down . This release was on the market less than a year and was discontinued some time after July 1961 , after Sketches of Spain had been released as four @-@ track only . Sonically most often better than the four @-@ track counterpart that replaced it . The reports that the two @-@ track version was the only one to be issued at correct speed for the tracks off the first album side are false . None issued were at the correct speed .
Four @-@ track open @-@ reel tape ( US only ) , Columbia CQ 379 , as the complete five @-@ track album . This release replaced the two @-@ track release and remained in the Columbia catalog for a few years . Some tracks are available on other reel tapes issued current at the time of or following the original release of the album , as by Various Artists . None issued were at the correct speed . " All Blues " is included on the Greatest Hits album .
Armed Forces Radio and Television Service 16 @-@ inch transcription discs . Note these are monophonic and the tune on side P @-@ 6925 marked " Flamenco Sketches " actually holds " All Blues " . None issued were at the correct speed .
Philips Compact Cassette . Both as the original album prior to the Jazz Masterpiece remaster , and as the 1987 Jazz Masterpiece remaster . Neither are at the correct speed .
MiniDisc , Columbia CM 40579 ( US ) . Only as the master prior to 1997 , but not as the Jazz Masterpiece remaster . This was unavailable by the end of the 1990s when production of Jazz Masterpiece series had ceased . None issued were at the correct speed .
Two @-@ disc box set " 50th Anniversary Collector 's Edition " , released on September 30 , 2008 , by Columbia and Legacy .
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= Newfoundland referendums , 1948 =
The Newfoundland Referendums of 1948 were a series of two referendums to decide the political future of the Dominion of Newfoundland . Before the referendums , Newfoundland was in debt and went through several delegations to determine whether the country would join Canada , remain under British rule or regain independence . The voting for the referendums occurred on June 3 and July 22 , 1948 . The eventual result was for Newfoundland to enter Canadian Confederation .
= = Background = =
Newfoundland is the oldest settled region in what would become Canada but was the last to obtain either a local representative government or responsible government . In 1832 , it received local representative government in the form of a locally elected body of officials overseen by a governor . The British granted responsible government , in which the government is responsible to the legislature and elected officials occupy ministerial jobs , only in 1855 .
Newfoundland did not send any delegates to the 1864 Charlottetown Conference , which was to discuss a union of Maritime colonies . Later that year , Newfoundland attended the Quebec Conference , called by John A. Macdonald to discuss a greater British North America union . The two Newfoundland delegates , Frederick Carter and Ambrose Shea , returned in favour of a union with Canada . However , Confederation was highly unpopular with the Newfoundland public , and the Government of Newfoundland did not send representatives to the London Conference of 1866 , in which the British government and the colonies agreed to the terms the British North America Act . Opponents of Confederation decisively won the Newfoundland general election , 1869 .
By the 1920s and the 1930s , Newfoundland was almost $ 40 million in debt , and on the verge of economic collapse . A commission recommended Newfoundland to be " given a rest from party politics " and to be administered by a special Commission of Government . Chaired by the governor , it would consist of three people from Newfoundland and three from the United Kingdom . Backing the recommendation was the United Kingdom , which agreed to take on Newfoundland 's debts . The Commission of Government began on February 16 , 1934 , governing the island until it entered Canada in 1949 .
Prosperity returned when the Americans were invited to the island by Britain to set up military bases in 1941 to 1945 . The American Bases Act became law in Newfoundland on June 11 , 1941 . As Earle ( 1998 ) finds , Newfoundland girls married American personnel by the thousands . In 1948 there was a short @-@ lived but growing movement for some sort of economic union with the United States .
The British government , keen to cut expenditure after World War II , hoped that Newfoundland would decide to join the Canadian Confederation and end the rule by commission . Newfoundland first asked Canada for help in a return to responsible government , however . The response from the Canadian government was that it was not interested in helping Newfoundland economically unless Newfoundland joined the Canadian Confederation .
The British did not want their colony to become an American possession , and the Canadian government , despite convinced that absorbing Newfoundland would not benefit Canada economically , thought that the anexation would be the lesser of two evils when compared to the prospect of the country being almost completely surrounded by American territory .
Seeking a union with the United States was not a referendum option , despite the idea having some currency amongst locals . With the Cold War looming , U.S. interest in Newfoundland were centered primarily on its strategic importance to the defence of North America . The Americans ' ability to maintain bases on the island satisfied those concerns - after receiving assurances that the Canadian government would honour the leases for bases on Newfoundland , the U.S. State department had no further interest in the political future of Newfoundland . President Harry S. Truman 's administration had little incentive to pursue annexation . With respect to foreign policy , such a territorial ambition would have only served to antagonize two key allies . With respect to domestic policy , the administration would not likely have been able to convince Congress to offer statehood to Newfoundland due to its small population and geographical isolation from the then @-@ 48 existing states , and would not likely have been able to convince Newfoundlanders to accept territorial status as an alternative to admission as a U.S. state .
= = The National Convention = =
The British government decided to let Newfoundlanders deliberate and choose their own future by calling a National Convention in 1946 . Chaired by Judge Cyril J. Fox , it consisted of 45 elected members one of whom was the future first premier of Newfoundland , Joey Smallwood .
The Convention set up committees to study where Newfoundland 's future lay . Many members assumed that the final decision was due near the end of their deliberations , but the timeline was upset when Smallwood moved that the Convention should send a delegation to Ottawa to discuss a union in October 1946 . His motion was defeated , as it only received the support of 17 members , although the Convention later decided to send delegations to both London and Ottawa .
= = = The London Delegation = = =
The London delegation , made up of so @-@ called anti @-@ confederates , preferred that Newfoundland become independent rather than join Canada . The group left Newfoundland on April 25 , 1947 , and met with a British delegation headed by the Dominions Secretary , Viscount Addison . The British response to the delegation was that it would give no economic help to Newfoundland if it returned to responsible government . The leader of the delegation from Newfoundland , Peter Cashin , gave an angry speech to the Convention on May 19 claiming , " A conspiracy existed to sell this country to the Dominion of Canada " .
= = = The Ottawa Delegation = = =
The Ottawa delegation , dominated by pro @-@ confederates including Smallwood , preferred a union with Canada to independence . The talks between them and Ottawa began on June 24 , 1947 with the goal being to stay in Ottawa as long as needed to negotiate good terms for Newfoundland 's entry . Ottawa was reluctant at first because they felt that the delegation was not an official representation of the Dominion of Newfoundland , but the Federal Cabinet finally decided to begin negotiations on July 18 . By mid @-@ August , the agreement of draft terms was nearly complete . However , with the death of Frank Bridges , Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King 's minister from New Brunswick , negotiations effectively ended . King refused further discussions until New Brunswick had representation , and so the delegation headed back to St. John 's .
= = = Back in St. John 's = = =
The Convention reconvened on October 10 and Smallwood presented his delegations report , infuriating the anti @-@ confederates . Just as the Convention decided to debate the delegation 's report , the draft terms from Ottawa arrived . Ottawa offered to assume most of the debt , negotiate a tax agreement , and outlined which services would remain in the jurisdiction of the province .
= = Referendums = =
Newfoundland recommended that the British Government hold a referendum on Newfoundland 's future . London agreed that a referendum was a good idea , and left it up to the Convention to decide what was to be on the ballot . Originally , the Convention decided that only two choices were to be on the ballot : restoration of responsible government and the continuation of the Commission of Government .
Smallwood moved on January 23 , 1948 to add Confederation with Canada to the choices . The debate ended at 5 : 30 in the morning on January 28 , with the motion being defeated 29 @-@ 16 . The British government intervened in March and overruled the Convention , deciding that Confederation with Canada would indeed be on the ballot . They did this after having concluding , " It would not be right that the people of Newfoundland should be deprived of an opportunity of considering the issue at the referendum " .
= = = The factions = = =
Three main factions actively campaigned during the lead up to the referendums . One faction , led by Smallwood , was the Confederate Association ( CA ) advocating union with the Canadian Confederation . They campaigned through a newspaper known as The Confederate . The Responsible Government League ( RGL ) , led by Peter Cashin , advocated an independent Newfoundland with a return to responsible government . They also had their own newspaper The Independent . A third smaller Economic Union Party ( EUP ) , led by Chesley Crosbie , advocated closer economic ties with the United States .
= = = The first referendum = = =
The first referendum took place on June 3 , 1948 . The votes were as follows :
= = = The second referendum = = =
Since none of the choices had gained over 50 % , a second referendum with only the two most popular choices was scheduled for July 22 , 1948 . Both sides recognized that more people had voted against responsible government than for it , which encouraged the CA and discouraged its opponents , although the RGL and EUP now became allies . The confederates widely publicized the Roman Catholic Archbishop E. P. Roche 's strong opposition to confederation , and persuaded the Loyal Orange Association to advise Protestants to resist Catholic influence . The CA also denounced anti @-@ confederates as anti @-@ British and pro @-@ republican , and called confederation with Canada " British Union " . Anti @-@ confederates responded that " Confederation Means British Union With French Canada " .
The results of the second referendum were :
= = = Results map = = =
The Avalon Peninsula , the location of St. John 's , supported responsible government in both referendums , while the rest of Newfoundland supported confederation . A majority of districts with mostly Catholic voters supported responsible government .
= = Reaction to the referendums = =
As the results of the binding referendum were to join Canada , Newfoundland began to negotiate with Canada to enter into Confederation . After negotiations were completed , the British Government received the terms and the British North America Act 1949 was subsequently passed by the British Parliament and given Royal Assent . Newfoundland officially joined Canada at midnight , March 31 , 1949 . At the elections for the Newfoundland House of Assembly two months later , Smallwood 's Liberal Party won and controlled the provincial government until the 1970s . Reactions to Confederation were mixed .
Newfoundland as a province secured some significant guarantees as a part of the union . As ruled by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in 1927 , Canada agreed to put Labrador under the jurisdiction of Newfoundland , after some consideration . Such commitments carried over to other areas as well , such as a ferry between Port aux Basques and North Sydney , and a guarantee that Newfoundland would be able to continue to manufacture and sell margarine , a very controversial product at the time .
Canada welcomed Newfoundland into confederation , as seen in an editorial in the The Globe and Mail on April 1 , 1949 :
Union with Newfoundland , as everyone knows , rounds out the dream of the Fathers of Confederation . This newspaper is certain that Canadians welcome their new fellow @-@ countrymen with full hearts . May the union be forever a blessing for Canada and to the island which is yielding its ancient independence , but not its identity , to belong to a larger fraternity .
An editorial from the Montreal Gazette also welcomed Newfoundland , saying :
For Canadians tomorrow will be a day of welcome . For this is the day when a tenth province is added to the Dominion of Canada . There will be a greater meaning than ever to the Canadian motto , chosen by Sir Leonard Tilley from the words of Isaiah which describes the dominion that reaches ' from sea to sea ' .
The Vancouver Sun also reflected on the results , saying :
Today a dream of greatness , present in the minds of the Fathers of Confederation more than 80 years ago , comes true . Newfoundland at long last is part of Canada .
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= Telopea speciosissima =
Telopea speciosissima , commonly known as the New South Wales waratah or simply waratah , is a large shrub in the plant family Proteaceae . It is endemic to New South Wales in Australia and is the floral emblem of that state . No subspecies are recognised , but the closely related Telopea aspera was only recently classified as a separate species .
T. speciosissima is a shrub to 3 or 4 m ( 9 @.@ 8 or 13 @.@ 1 ft ) high and 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) wide , with dark green leaves . Its several stems arise from a pronounced woody base known as a lignotuber . The species is well renowned for its striking large red springtime inflorescences ( flowerheads ) , each including hundreds of individual flowers . These are visited by the eastern pygmy possum ( Cercartetus nanus ) , birds such as honeyeaters ( Meliphagidae ) , and various insects .
The floral emblem for its home state of New South Wales , Telopea speciosissima has featured prominently in art , architecture , and advertising , particularly since Australian federation . Commercially grown in several countries as a cut flower , it is also cultivated in home gardens , requiring good drainage yet adequate moisture , but is vulnerable to various fungal diseases and pests . A number of cultivars with various shades of red , pink and even white flowers are available . Horticulturists have also developed hybrids with T. oreades and T. mongaensis which are more tolerant of cold , shade , and heavier soils .
= = Description = =
Telopea speciosissima , the New South Wales waratah , is a large , erect shrub up to 3 or 4 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 or 13 @.@ 1 ft ) in height with one or more stems . Arising vertically or near vertically from a large woody base , or lignotuber , the stems are little branched . In late spring , there is a spurt of new growth after flowering , with new shoots often arising from old flowerheads . The dark green leaves are alternate and usually coarsely @-@ toothed , ranging from 13 to 25 cm ( 5 to 10 in ) in length . Enveloped in leafy bracts , the flowerheads develop over the winter and begin to swell in early spring , before opening to reveal the striking inflorescences . The exact timing varies across New South Wales , but flowering can begin as early as August in the northern parts of its range , and finish in November in the southern , more elevated areas . Spot flowering may also occur around March in autumn . Containing up to 250 individual flowers , the domed flowerheads are crimson in colour and measure 7 – 10 cm ( 3 – 4 in ) in diameter . They are cupped in a whorl of leafy bracts which are 5 to 7 cm ( 2 to 3 in ) long and also red . Variations are not uncommon ; some flowerheads may be more globular or cone @-@ shaped than dome @-@ shaped , and the bracts may be whitish or dark red . The tips of the stigmas of some inflorescences may be whitish , contrasting with the red colour of the rest of the flowerhead .
An individual flowerhead reaches full size about two weeks after first emerging from the bracts , and lasts another two weeks before the flowers fade and fall . In the first phase , the individual small flowers , known as florets , remain unopened — and the flowerhead retains a compact shape — before they mature and split open , revealing the stigma , style , and anther . The anther is sessile , lacking a filament , and lies next to the stigma at the end of the style . The outermost florets open first , with anthesis progressing towards the centre of the flowerhead , which becomes darker and more open in appearance , and begins attracting birds and insects . The ovary lies at the base of the style and atop a stalk known as the gynophore , and it is from here that the seed pods then develop . Meanwhile , a crescent @-@ shaped nectary lies at the base of the gynophore .
The seed pods grow to 8 – 15 cm ( 3 – 6 in ) long . As the pods mature , they range from green , to yellow and finally turn russet red @-@ brown . The pods become leathery before splitting open during early winter , . The pods contain winged seeds inside . In the wild , only two or three seed pods develop per flowerhead , but there may be anywhere from 5 to 50 in cultivated plants .
= = Taxonomy = =
Telopea speciosissima , the New South Wales Waratah , was first described by botanist James Edward Smith in his 1793 book A Specimen of the Botany of New Holland , from " very fine dried specimens sent by Mr. White " . He gave the species its original binomial name of Embothrium speciosissimum . The specific epithet is derived from the superlative of the Latin word speciosus " beautiful " or " handsome " , hence " very- " or " most beautiful " . Embothrium had been a wastebasket taxon at the time , and Robert Brown suggested the genus Telopea for it in 1809 , which was published in 1810 . Richard Salisbury had published the name Hylogyne speciosa in 1809 , but Brown 's name was nomenclaturally conserved .
Telopea speciosissima is one of five species from southeastern Australia which make up the genus Telopea . Its closest relative is the very similar Gibraltar Range waratah ( T. aspera ) from northern New South Wales , which was only recognised as a separate species in 1995 , having previously been considered an unusual northern population of T. speciosissima .
The genus is classified in the subtribe Embothriinae of the Proteaceae , along with the tree waratahs ( Alloxylon ) from eastern Australia and New Caledonia , and Oreocallis and the Chilean firetree ( Embothrium coccineum ) from South America . Almost all these species have red terminal flowers , and hence the subtribe 's origin and floral appearance must predate the splitting of Gondwana into Australia , Antarctica , and South America over 60 million years ago .
Although no subspecies are recognised within Telopea speciosissima itself , geographical variations within its range have been noted . Forms toward the northern limits of its range have more prominently lobed leaves . A population from Waterfall has darker red , wider inflorescences , and a population at West Head in Ku @-@ ring @-@ gai Chase National Park has paler inflorescences . Leaf shape varies widely .
The common name waratah was first applied to this species before being generalised to other members of the genus Telopea and , to a lesser extent , Alloxylon . Waratah is derived from the Eora Aboriginal people , the original inhabitants of the Sydney area . The Dharawal people of the Illawarra region knew it as mooloone , and mewah is another aboriginal name . A former common name from around 1900 is " native tulip " , possibly derived from Telopea .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The species is found in New South Wales ( Australia ) from the Watagan Mountains southward to Ulladulla , with a relatively widespread distribution in the Central Coast region . It usually occurs as an understory shrub in open forest on sandy soils in areas with moderately high rainfall , receiving on average around 1 @,@ 200 mm ( 47 in ) a year . Dappled shade from eucalyptus ( Eucalyptus ) trees reduces sunlight by around 30 % . Much of its range occurs in the Sydney Basin , an area with one of the highest human populations and most intense development in Australia . The impact of habitat fragmentation and decreased fire interval ( time between bushfires ) on the gene pool of Telopea speciosissima , which relies on outcrossing , is unclear . Although largely protected within National Parks and conservation reserves in the Sydney area , most populations are small , numbering under 200 plants , and are often located near urban developments .
= = Ecology = =
Telopea speciosissima is a pyrogenic @-@ flowering species , relying on post @-@ fire flowering followed by production and dispersal of non @-@ dormant seeds to take advantage of favourable growing conditions in the altered environment following a fire . Of the woody resprouter species of southeastern Australia , it is one of the slowest to produce seedlings after bushfires , taking at least two years . The species resprouts from a lignotuber , a swollen woody base largely under the soil , that stores energy and nutrients as a resource for rapid growth of new shoots after a bushfire . Waratahs dominate the understorey around two years after a fire , but are later overtaken by the slower @-@ growing banksias ( Banksia ) and wattles ( Acacia ) . Fire also serves to strip away diseases and pests . Flowering may be prolific at this time .
The prominent position and striking colour of Telopea speciosissima and many of its relatives within the subtribe Embothriinae both in Australia and South America strongly suggest it is adapted to pollination by birds , and has been for over 60 million years . Honeyeaters , in particular the New Holland honeyeater ( Phylidonyris novaehollandiae ) and the crescent honeyeater ( P. pyrrhopterus ) , are frequent visitors . However , a field study conducted at Barren Grounds showed New Holland honeyeaters to carry relatively little pollen . The eastern pygmy possum ( Cercartetus nanus ) also forages among the flowerheads .
The New South Wales waratah had been considered to be protandrous ( that is , with male parts concluding sexual activity before female parts become receptive on the same plant ) , but analysis of the timing of pollen viability and stigma receptivity has shown significant overlaps . The species has been shown to be self @-@ incompatible , requiring cross @-@ pollination with plants of other genotypes to reproduce successfully .
= = Cultivation = =
The New South Wales waratah was a popular garden plant at the beginning of the 20th century . It had been introduced early ( 1789 ) into the United Kingdom , and was reported flowering for the first time in 1809 at Springwell , the villa of one E. J. A. Woodford Esq . The Royal Horticultural Society awarded it an Award of Merit in 1914 , and a First Class Certificate in 1922 .
Initially , waratahs were picked from the bushland for market , but by the early 20th century , a few plantsmen grew concerned at the development of urban areas at the expense of bush , particularly areas noted for wildflowers . Percy Parry of Floralands in Kariong developed the idea of " Preservation by Cultivation " and investigated the commercial cultivation of waratahs and other native plants . Meanwhile , the New South Wales Government was looking to curb flower and plant collecting from the wild , and considered prohibition in 1944 , but after witnessing the ability of Parry to manage and develop cultivation , introduced compulsory licences for wildflower collecting the following year . With his wife Olive , Percy promoted and developed knowledge over fifty years and received the Order of Australia medal in 1981 . Following on from the Parrys were Howard Gay and Arch Dennis , who pioneered growing waratahs at Monbulk in the Dandenong Ranges in the 1940s , Sid Cadwell and Frank Stone , who did likewise in Dural and the Blue Mountains respectively . The growing movement for cultivating and preserving native plants led to the establishment of the Society for Growing Australian Plants in 1957 , and the waratah was featured heavily in the first edition of its journal Australian Plants .
Today , New South Wales waratahs are grown commercially in Australia north of Sydney and in the Dandenong Ranges near Melbourne . They are also grown commercially in New Zealand and in Israel , and also in Hawaii , where they have been grown since 1961 . One major challenge in commercial production is that in any one location the flowering season is generally short ( five weeks total , with only small numbers in the earliest and latest weeks ) . The season for cut flowers may be extended , however , by growing plants at different latitudes . The vase life of a cut waratah is 10 to 14 days , and cut flower waratahs can be revived somewhat by water .
Although they grow naturally on deep sandy soils , the species has proved adaptable to other deep , well @-@ drained soils , especially where natural slopes assist drainage . Despite their natural occurrence in woodland , waratahs flower best in full sun , although they tolerate the dappled shade of eucalypts . Heavy pruning after flowering reinvigorates the plants and promotes more profuse flowering in the next season . Waratah blooms are highly susceptible to damage from wind , and benefit from some protection from prevailing winds . Waratah blooms attract birds to the garden . The species is readily propagated from fresh seed , but cultivars must be reproduced from cuttings to remain true @-@ to @-@ type .
Several species of fungi infect the roots of waratahs , causing significant plant morbidity or death . Typical symptoms include yellow leaves , wilting , blackening and dieback or part or all of the plant , or lack of proteoid roots . The most common pathogen is the soil @-@ borne water mold Phytophthora cinnamomi , which appears to be more problematic in cultivated plants than in wild populations . Mass plantings at the Royal Botanic Gardens in Sydney and at Mount Annan planted before the 2000 Summer Olympics were devastated by the disease . Rhizoctonia solani can cause damping off or root rot , and is an uncommon pathogen . Cylindrocarpon scoparium and C. destructans ( now Nectria radicicola ) are also uncommon causes of infection and result in decay of the crown of the plant . Although significant problems , fungi are less likely to be the cause of plant morbidity than poor drainage or soil conditions .
The larvae of the Macadamia leafminer ( Acrocercops chionosema ) , a moth , burrow along and disfigure the waratah 's leaves , and are mainly a problem in lowering the value of cut flower crops . More problematic is the larger caterpillar of another moth , the Macadamia twig girdler Macadamia twig girdler ( Xylorycta luteotactella ) which can burrow into and disfigure the developing flowerhead .
= = = Cultivars = = =
A number of natural variants of Telopea speciosissima have been selected for cultivation as follows :
Telopea ' Brimstone Blush ' is a shrub of smaller size than the species , reaching a metre ( 3 ft ) tall , and was originally found growing on a property of Ben Richards in Oakdale , southwest of Sydney . Flowering takes place in October . The flowerhead is globular with a pink crown and has 160 individual flowers , the styles of which are pink and white towards the ends . Three rows of whorled dark red bracts surround the flowerheads .
Telopea ' Cardinal ' is a form originally found on the property of Lucille Pope in Werombi , from where it was propagated and made available commercially . The original plant was a vigorous specimen reaching 3 by 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 by 9 @.@ 8 ft ) and producing 100 to 120 flowerheads each year . It is named for its large dome @-@ shaped cardinal red flowerheads , which bear 210 individual flowers and are surrounded by two rows of dark red bracts . These blooms have long vase life .
Telopea ' Corroboree ' , a form with longer styles , has compact inflorescences measuring 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 5 in ) high and wide , and is a vigorous grower . It was selected for commercial propagation in 1974 by Nanette Cuming of Bittern , Victoria , and registered with the Australian Cultivar Registration Authority in 1989 . It is grown principally for the cut flower industry .
Telopea ' Fire and Brimstone ' is a vigorous form with large inflorescences selected by waratah grower and author Paul Nixon of Camden , New South Wales . It is a shrub which may reach 3 – 4 m tall and 2 m wide , with large leaves with more heavily toothed margins . Each flowerhead is cone @-@ shaped and has up to 240 florets . The stigmas are a light red and tipped with white . The bracts surrounding the flowerheads are relatively small , while the leaves are large and can reach 44 cm ( 17 @.@ 5 in ) in length . The cultivar is thought to be tetraploid . With a long vase life of 17 days , the cultivar is suitable for the cut flower industry .
Telopea ' Galaxy ' has flowerheads with pinkish red tepals and white tips to the styles , surrounded by large bracts .
Telopea ' Olympic Flame ' is a form with prominent bracts around the flowerheads . It has large leaves with toothed margins and flowers in early spring . Also known as ' Sunburst ' , it arose as a seedling in a breeding program conducted by Cathy Offord , Peter Goodwin and Paul Nixon under the auspices of the University of Sydney .
Telopea ' Parry 's Dream ' was a chance seedling in the early 1970s . It gave rise to this cultivar , a vigorous plant with red @-@ pink flowerheads which reach a diameter of 10 cm × 10 cm ( 4 in × 4 in ) surrounded by pink bracts .
Telopea ' Shade of Pale ' is an unusual pale @-@ pink flowered form of T. speciosissima . It is less vigorous than the parent plant . It was initially promoted as ' Light Shade of Pale ' but there can only be three words in a registered cultivar name .
Telopea ' Sunflare ' is an early @-@ flowering form . It has large leaves with toothed margins and flowers in early spring . It also arose as a seedling in the same breeding program by the University of Sydney mentioned above . Selected in 1981 , it has red flowerheads with white @-@ tipped styles which reach 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) in diameter .
Telopea ' Wirrimbirra White ' is a white form from Kangaloon near Robertson . Aboriginal legends of white waratahs existed , and several had been encountered , but none had been previously preserved in horticulture . Joseph Maiden had previously found a white waratah near Kurrajong , and others had been sighted near Narara on the Central Coast in 1919 , and Colo Vale in the 1950s . Horticulturalist Frank Stone reported one in his garden , possibly propagated from the latter plant . ' Wirrimbirra White ' was brought into cultivation in 1972 by cuttings from the original plant , which grew on water catchment property . It has pale greenish buds which open to a cream @-@ white inflorescence . It is less vigorous than the parent species and vulnerable to borers . It is also highly vulnerable to the Macadamia twig girdler .
In addition , a number of interspecific Telopea hybrids have also been produced . These have been bred or used as more frost- or shade @-@ tolerant plants in cooler climates such as Canberra , Melbourne or elsewhere .
Telopea ' Braidwood Brilliant ' is a frost @-@ tolerant hybrid between a male T. speciosissima and female T. mongaensis . Dr Boden of the Canberra Parks Administration began investigating this hybrid in 1962 , and it was registered in 1975 by Richard Powell . It is a lignotuberous shrub to 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) high and has oblanceolate leaves to 20 cm ( 8 in ) long . The red blooms are 6 – 8 cm ( 2 @.@ 5 – 3 in ) in diameter , intermediate in size between the parent species . It has grown well in cooler climates such as Canberra .
Telopea ' Canberry Coronet ' is a cross between T. speciosissima from Wentworth Falls in the Blue Mountains and T. mongaensis intended for increased cold tolerance . It has red flowerheads to 6 – 8 cm ( 2 @.@ 5 – 3 in ) in diameter . Reaching 3 – 4 m ( 9 @.@ 8 – 13 @.@ 1 ft ) high , it is a larger plant than ' Braidwood Brilliant ' . It was bred by Doug Verdon of the Australian National Botanic Gardens in Canberra .
Telopea ' Champagne ' is a cultivar registered under Plant Breeders Rights ( PBR ) in 2006 . Its creamy yellow flowerheads appear from October to December . It is a three @-@ way hybrid between T. speciosissima , T. oreades and the yellow @-@ flowered form of T. truncata .
Telopea ' Golden Globe ' is a cultivar registered under PBR in 2006 . Larger than ' Champagne ' , it is also a three @-@ way hybrid between T. speciosissima , T. oreades and the yellow @-@ flowered form of T. truncata . It has been propagated and sold as ' Shady Lady Yellow ' . It was originally bred in the Dandenongs east of Melbourne .
Telopea ' Shady Lady ' is a larger shrub which may reach 5 m ( 16 ft ) high and 2 or 3 m ( 6 @.@ 6 or 9 @.@ 8 ft ) wide . A hybrid of T. speciosissima and T. oreades , it arose by chance in a Melbourne garden . The flowerheads are smaller and lack the bracts of the speciosissima parent . As its name suggests , it tolerates more shade . It is vigorous and more reliable in temperate and subtropical areas , and grows in semi @-@ shade or sun . ' Shady Lady Crimson ' , ' Shady Lady Red ' and ' Shady Lady Pink ' are three selected commercially available colour forms .
Telopea ' Shady Lady White ' is a white hybrid between T. speciosissima and T. oreades .
= = Symbolic and artistic references = =
The New South Wales waratah featured prominently in the folklore of the Darug and Tharawal people in the Sydney basin and Gandangara people to the southwest . A dreamtime legend from the Eora tells of a female wonga pigeon searching for her husband who has been lost while out hunting . A hawk attacks and wounds her , and she hides in a waratah bush . Her husband calls and as she struggles in the bush her blood turns the white waratah blooms red . A tale from the Burragorang Valley tells of a beautiful maiden named Krubi , who wore a red cloak of rock wallaby adorned with the feathers of the gang @-@ gang cockatoo . She fell in love with a young warrior who did not return from battle . Grief @-@ stricken , she died , and up from the ground grew the first waratah . The Dharawal people regarded it as a totem , using it in ceremonies and timing ceremonies to its flowering .
The striking form of the New South Wales waratah became a popular motif in Australian art in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century and was incorporated in art nouveau designs of the time . Matchboxes , paperweights and especially tins have been decorated with the flower . Arnott 's often used the waratah as an alternative to their parrot logo on biscuit and cake tins from the early 1900s . Shelleys soft drinks , established in 1893 in Broken Hill , also displayed it on their label . The French artist Lucien Henry , who had settled in Sydney in 1879 , was a strong proponent of a definitive Australian art style incorporating local flora , particularly the waratah . His most famous surviving work is a triptych stained glass window of Oceania flanked by numerous waratahs overlooking the Centennial Hall in Sydney Town Hall .
In 1925 , artist Margaret Preston produced a hand @-@ coloured woodcut depicting waratahs . The species also appeared on an Australian 3 shilling stamp in 1959 designed by botanical illustrator Margaret Jones and a 30c stamp in 1968 .
The Sydney suburb of Telopea takes its name from the Waratah , as does the Newcastle suburb of Waratah and the Super Rugby team , the Sydney @-@ based NSW Waratahs .
After Australian federation in 1901 , the upsurge in nationalism led to the search for an official national floral emblem . The New South Wales waratah was considered alongside the wattle Acacia pycnantha , and debate raged between proponents of the two flowers . The economist and botanist R. T. Baker proposed that the waratah 's endemism to the Australian continent made it a better choice than the wattle , as well as the prominence of its flowers . He was nicknamed the " Commander in Chief of the Waratah Armed Forces " . The South Australian Evening News also supported the bid , but to no avail .
Decades later , in 1962 , Telopea speciosissima was proclaimed as the official floral emblem of New South Wales by the then @-@ governor Sir Eric Woodward , after being used informally for many years . The species has also been adopted by others , including the New South Wales Waratahs rugby union team since the 1880s , and the former department store Grace Bros in a stylised form for their logo in the 1980s . Contemporary clothing designers Jenny Kee and Linda Jackson produced waratah @-@ inspired fabric designs in the 1970s and 1980s during a resurgence of Australian motifs .
From 1956 the annual Waratah Festival was held in Sydney , run by the Sydney Committee . It took place from late October to early November , coinciding with the blooming of the waratahs . It was an important cultural event which included a parade , a popular art competition , beauty contests , exhibitions and performances . A highlight was the Lord Mayor 's reception at the Sydney Town Hall for which the floral displays were made of hundreds of waratahs culled by Park Rangers from the national parks .
In 2009 , the Premier of New South Wales , Nathan Rees , commissioned a state logo based on the floral emblem . The resultant logo design has been criticised as resembling a lotus rather than the New South Wales Waratah .
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= Treehouse of Horror XIX =
" Treehouse of Horror XIX " is the fourth episode of the twentieth season of The Simpsons . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 2 , 2008 . This is the nineteenth Treehouse of Horror episode , and , like the other " Treehouse of Horror " episodes , contains three self @-@ contained segments : in " Untitled Robot Parody " , Transformer robots run amok in Springfield ; in " How to Get Ahead in Dead @-@ Vertising " , Homer is hired by ad agents to kill celebrities so their images can be used for free ; and in a Simpsons @-@ style parody of It 's the Great Pumpkin , Charlie Brown ( called " It 's The Grand Pumpkin , Milhouse " ) , Milhouse summons a demon pumpkin who goes berserk when it sees humans carving its brethren into jack @-@ o @-@ lanterns as part of Halloween tradition . It was written by Matt Warburton and directed by Bob Anderson .
A total of 12 @.@ 48 million viewers tuned in to watch during its first airing , more than any other episode since " The Wife Aquatic " . The episode received mixed reviews from critics , who generally regarded " It 's the Grand Pumpkin , Milhouse " as the best segment . Shortly after airing , the episode was criticized by the Gay , Lesbian and Straight Education Network ( GLSEN ) because a character ( Nelson Muntz ) casually uses the adjective " gay " to insult The Grand Pumpkin .
= = Plot = =
In the opening scene , Homer tries to vote for Democratic Senator Barack Obama in the 2008 American presidential election . However , the voting machine is rigged to turn his vote into one for Republican Senator John McCain . After six attempts to vote Homer heads out to report the mishap ( " This machine is RIGGED ! MUST TELL PRESIDENT MCCAIN ! " ) but the machine sucks him in and kills him , then shoots out his body out of the voting booth . Jasper sticks a patriotic @-@ themed " I voted " sticker on Homer 's forehead .
= = = Untitled Robot Parody = = =
In a parody of Transformers , Bart buys Lisa a Malibu Stacy convertible as a Christmas present . However , the car turns out to be a Transformer . The robot transforms all of the technology in Springfield into robots so they can wage war with each other . Just as the two machine factions ' leaders prepare to face off , Marge asks why the robots are at war with one another ; as it turns out , they cannot even remember . Thanking Marge , the two sides declare that they will work together , only for the " Optimus Prime @-@ esque " robot to shout " we shall enslave your planet ! " The two factions of sentient machines work together to overthrow humanity in which they use Homer 's idea of Springfield 's residents in a game of foosball .
= = = How to Get Ahead in Dead @-@ Vertising = = =
Homer takes Maggie to a daycare and encourages her to enjoy a mural featuring Krusty the Clown to make her feel better while she is away from her parents . However , Krusty arrives to have the images of his face sandblasted from the mural , as his likeness is trademarked and used without his permission . This left Maggie upset and an outraged Homer shoves Krusty in retaliation , sending him flying into a wood chipper and shredded alive . Homer is later approached by two advertising agents who have heard of his deed and explain their plan to use celebrities ' likenesses in advertising without issues over permission by simply killing the celebrities who refuse to lend their names to advertising . Homer is then hired as a celebrity assassin , taking out such famous faces as George Clooney ( by replacing wet cement with quicksand ) , Prince ( by strangling and stabbing him with his own guitar ) and Neil Armstrong ( by hitting him with a golf club , in the style of a Rube Goldberg machine ) . In Heaven , the dead celebrities are outraged by this and stage an attack on the living , with Homer as their main target . Ghost Krusty blasts Homer in the head with a shotgun , after Ghost Krusty tells him that the one true religion is a mix between Methodist and voodoo . Ghost Homer gets revenge by locking out all the celebrities in Heaven , but the joke is on him when an apparently gay Ghost Abraham Lincoln pretends to be Ghost Homer 's friend so he can hit on him for all eternity .
= = = It 's the Grand Pumpkin , Milhouse = = =
In a parody of It 's the Great Pumpkin , Charlie Brown , Milhouse waits in a pumpkin patch on Halloween for the Grand Pumpkin ( which Bart made up ) with Lisa . After Lisa sees everyone at school having a Halloween party , she grows tired of waiting and leaves in frustration . Milhouse starts to cry and his tears and childlike belief bring the Grand Pumpkin to life . However , the Pumpkin is appalled to find that his kindred pumpkins are being carved up on Halloween and made into pumpkin bread , originally thinking it was bread especially made for pumpkins until Milhouse revealed it is made from them , and vows revenge . He devours Homer as he carves a pumpkin , then marches to the school and eats Nelson who threatens to stab a yellow pumpkin . It becomes apparent at this point that the Grand Pumpkin is racist towards this type of pumpkin and then eats Groundskeeper Willie after being offered roasted pumpkin seeds . Realizing that Milhouse can bring things to life by believing in them , Lisa tells him about " Tom Turkey " , a symbol of Thanksgiving . Milhouse starts to believe in Tom Turkey , who comes to life and kills the Grand Pumpkin , freeing everyone he ate . However , when Tom Turkey learns that people eat turkeys on Thanksgiving from Bart , he vows revenge and starts angrily chasing children around the school , devouring some of them whole as Marge wishes the viewers happy holidays .
= = Production = =
The opening segment of the episode , which was leaked onto the internet weeks before the episode aired , features Homer voting for Barack Obama . Rather than taking sides in the election , executive producer Al Jean says it is " mostly a comment on what many people to believe to be the irregularities in our voting system . " " Untitled Robot Parody " is modeled on the live action Transformers film , rather than the cartoon . Al Jean said it was " just really fun to do transformations [ and ] you can see why they enjoyed doing that film . " " How to Get Ahead in Dead @-@ Vertising " featured a parody of the title sequence of Mad Men . Jean was a fan of the series and pitched the scene .
The final segment is based on the Halloween cartoon It 's the Great Pumpkin , Charlie Brown . It could not be titled " It 's the Great Pumpkin , Milhouse " to exactly match its namesake because of a " big legal issue " , according to Al Jean . However , the characters were redesigned to resemble the style of Peanuts , and they also obtained rights to use Vince Guaraldi 's music . Jean said in 2011 that " For years we had never been able to parody Charlie Brown 's Halloween special , which is one of the all @-@ time top three animated shows ever . The Vince Guaraldi music is such a huge part of it , so we got to clear it . It was just a dream come true to satirize it . I thought it was a really funny idea that instead of not ever seeing the Grand Pumpkin , it comes to life , and he 's really horrified at the way humans cook pumpkins into pies , and eat pumpkin seeds , which are basically pumpkin fetuses .... "
= = Cultural references = =
The first segment of the episode is a parody of Transformers . The second segment features a parody of the opening of Mad Men and Homer kills several celebrities , including Prince , George Clooney , and Neil Armstrong , set to the song " Psycho Killer " by Talking Heads . Other celebrities shown include Golda Meir , Edward G. Robinson , John Wayne and John Lennon , who says " All we 're saying is ' Let 's eat some brains ' " , a reference to the chorus of " Give Peace a Chance " by the Plastic Ono Band . The commercial " Planet of the Taste " is a parody of the 1968 film Planet of the Apes .
The second segment 's opening is a parody of the opening titles to AMC drama Mad Men .
The final segment , " It 's the Grand Pumpkin , Milhouse " is a parody of It 's the Great Pumpkin , Charlie Brown ( and was supposed to be named " It 's The Great Pumpkin , Milhouse , " but due to legal reasons , was renamed ) and contains several references to the Peanuts series . In the segment , Milhouse wears the same clothes and plays the same role as Linus van Pelt . Lisa is modelled after Sally Brown and Bart looks like Charlie Brown ; he even says " good grief " , echoing Charlie Brown 's catchphrase . The main theme to Peanuts " Linus and Lucy " is played several times . A redesigned version of Santa 's Little Helper can be seen sleeping on top of his dog house and Homer is seen sleeping on top of his house in a manner similar to Snoopy . When Marge first speaks , she uses a muted trombone . This is a parody of the " wah wah wah " voice that is used for adults in the various Peanuts specials . At the end of the segment , she says to the audience that they can send complaints to an address which she only says in more muted trombone noises . Milhouse ' prayer to the Grand Pumpkin is similar to the Nicene Creed . The dance scene during the Halloween party is a parody of the dance scene in A Charlie Brown Christmas right down to Kang and Kodos in a nonspeaking cameo as the twins 3 and 4 .
= = Reception = =
In its original airing , the episode was viewed in 12 @.@ 48 million viewers and achieved a 4 @.@ 9 Nielsen rating . It was the highest rated episode of the night in the 18 – 49 demographic , the sixteenth highest rated show of the week , and the fourth highest rated on Fox after two airings of the World Series and House . It was the highest rated episode since season 18 's " The Wife Aquatic " .
" Treehouse of Horror XIX " received mixed reviews from critics . Rick Bentley of the Seattle Times described it as a " paint @-@ by @-@ numbers episode " . Robert Canning of IGN gave the episode a 7 @.@ 9 / 10 , calling it " funny , entertaining and even nostalgic [ which ] only makes this yearly tradition that much better . "
" It 's the Grand Pumpkin , Milhouse " was regarded by reviewers as the best segment in the episode . Canning wrote , " this segment may not be all that gory , but it 's funny and , quite honestly , it will just make you feel good " , and Bentley described it as " a dead @-@ on comedy assault of the Charlie Brown animated Halloween special . " Rob Owen of the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette concurred , writing that it " succeeds because it offers sly cultural commentary . " Show Patrol wrote " The nostalgia factor makes “ Grand Pumpkin ” the best of these amusing bits for me , but they all lack that trademark “ Simpsons ” brand of satirical smartness . " Hal Boedecker of the Orlando Sentinel gave the episode a 4 / 5 and called the final segment a " witty parody of Charlie Brown 's Halloween classic . [ ... ] The best gag , though , is a subtle one . Marge plays a trombone , a loving salute to the way the Peanuts specials portrayed adult voices . "
Director Bob Anderson received an Annie Award nomination for " Best Directing in an Animated Television Production " but lost to Avatar : The Last Airbender .
= = = Controversy = = =
The Gay , Lesbian and Straight Education Network ( GLSEN ) , which was in the middle of running a campaign to prevent casual use of the adjective " gay " , criticized Nelson Muntz 's line " the Grand Pumpkin is super gay " . A spokesperson for the GLSEN said " many people say gay without even realizing what they 're saying is bad , we 're trying to educate people that this is a term that is hurtful to young people when used in a negative way . " The spokesperson added , " Nelson should send an apologetic e @-@ card to Milhouse . "
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= 2008 – 09 York City F.C. season =
The 2008 – 09 season was the eighty @-@ seventh season of competitive association football and fifth season in the Football Conference played by York City Football Club , a professional football club based in York , North Yorkshire , England . Their fourteenth @-@ place finish in 2007 – 08 meant it was their fifth successive season in the Conference Premier . The season covers the period from 1 July 2008 to 30 June 2009 .
Ahead of Colin Walker 's first start to a season as manager , York signed nine players before the summer transfer window closed . The season started with an eight @-@ match unbeaten run , but Walker was sacked in November 2008 after three successive defeats . Martin Foyle was appointed as his successor , and after the turn of the year York won only five league matches . Survival in the Conference Premier was achieved with a seventeenth @-@ place finish . York reached the 2009 FA Trophy Final at Wembley Stadium , being beaten 2 – 0 by Stevenage Borough . They were eliminated from the 2008 – 09 FA Cup in the fourth qualifying round , and from the 2008 – 09 Conference League Cup in the Northern section fourth round .
Thirty @-@ three players made at least one appearance in nationally organised first @-@ team competition , and there were fourteen different goalscorers . Defender Danny Parslow missed only one of the fifty @-@ eight competitive matches played over the season . Richard Brodie finished as leading scorer with nineteen goals , of which fifteen came in league competition and four came in the FA Trophy . The winner of the Clubman of the Year award , voted for by the club 's supporters , was Parslow .
= = Background and pre @-@ season = =
Billy McEwan was sacked as manager of York City early into the 2007 – 08 season , with the team nineteenth in the Conference Premier table and having recently been beaten by Conference South team Havant & Waterlooville in the FA Cup . After a six @-@ match unbeaten run as caretaker manager , Colin Walker was appointed as York 's permanent manager and led the team to a fourteenth @-@ place finish in the table . York released Darren Craddock , Stuart Elliott , Tom Evans , Ross Greenwood , Anthony Lloyd , Manny Panther and Alex Rhodes after the season ended , while Nicky Wroe and Martyn Woolford left for Torquay United and Scunthorpe United respectively .
Jimmy Beadle , Richard Brodie , Craig Farrell , Josh Mimms , Danny Parslow , Ben Purkiss , Mark Robinson and Onome Sodje signed new contracts ahead of 2008 – 09 . York signed seven players before the season started ; they were goalkeepers Michael Ingham from Hereford United and Artur Krysiak on a one @-@ month loan from Birmingham City , defender Mark Greaves from Burton Albion , midfielders Niall Henderson from Raith Rovers , Steven Hogg from Gretna and Ben Wilkinson from Hull City , and striker Daniel McBreen from St Johnstone . Professional contracts were handed to three youth team players , those being defenders Andy McWilliams and Josh Radcliffe and winger Liam Shepherd . Greaves was named as York 's club captain for the season .
New home and away kits were introduced for the first time in two years . The home kit comprised red and navy blue halved shirts with red collars , navy blue shorts and navy blue socks with two white strips on the cuffs . The away kit included white shirts with black shoulders , white shorts and white socks with black cuffs . Last season 's third kit was retained , which featured light blue shirts with a maroon collar , bar a section under the neck which was light blue , and maroon trims on the sleeves , maroon shorts and light blue socks . CLP Industries continued as shirt sponsors for the fourth successive season .
= = Review = =
= = = August = = =
York 's season started with a 1 – 0 victory away to Crawley Town , Farrell scoring the winner nineteen minutes from time . The second match was a 1 – 0 home win over Wrexham , who had won their opening fixture 5 – 0 against Stevenage Borough , with Greaves scoring the winner . Krysiak suffered a dislocated finger during this match , which resulted in him returning to Birmingham prematurely from his loan spell , and was replaced by Mimms , who gave an assured performance . York 's winning start to the season ended after a 1 – 1 home draw with Histon , who took the lead through a Daniel Wright penalty kick in the first half , before McBreen scored the equaliser for York on sixty @-@ nine @-@ minutes .
Winger Simon Russell signed for the club from Kidderminster Harriers . York drew 2 – 2 away to Northwich Victoria , which saw the team fight back on two occasions after twice being a goal down , with Brodie scoring his first goal of the season . He then scored in the third minute against Barrow , who equalised seven minutes later through Lee Hunt , in a home match that finished a 1 – 1 home draw . Beadle was loaned out to Northern Premier League Premier Division club Whitby Town for a month , having not made any appearances in 2008 – 09 . Sodje scored with a late volley after coming off the bench to give York a 1 – 1 draw away to Torquay United to maintain the team 's unbeaten record , which looked under threat after Danny Stevens gave Torquay the lead on sixty @-@ five minutes . Sodje 's goal against Torquay won the first Conference Premier Goal of the Month competition , for August 2008 .
= = = September = = =
Grimsby Town midfielder Peter Bore joined on an initial one @-@ month loan on transfer deadline day . York drew for the fifth time in succession with a 1 – 1 home draw with Mansfield Town , in which Sodje scored after he latched onto Adie Moses ' misplaced header . The team 's first victory in six games came in a 2 – 0 home win over Woking ; the goals came from McBreen and a Danny Bunce own goal . A 4 – 2 defeat away to Kettering Town saw York 's unbeaten run come to an end after nine games , leaving their opponents as the only unbeaten team in the division . Former Accrington Stanley striker David Brown , former Rotherham United defender Tom Hirst and Ipswich Town midfielder Jai Reason joined the club on trial . After impressing in a reserve match , Hirst was signed by the club . However , Brown and Reason were not offered contracts .
An eighty @-@ sixth @-@ minute equaliser from McBreen gave York a 1 – 1 draw at home to Salisbury City , which maintained the team 's unbeaten record at Bootham Crescent . Parslow signed a new contract with the club , and Rotherham midfielder Peter Holmes joined on a one @-@ month loan . A second defeat of the season came after losing 2 – 0 away to Kidderminster , Brian Smikle and Justin Richards scoring for the home team . Beadle was released by the club towards the end of his loan spell at Whitby , due to him looking for regular first team football . This was followed by the departure of Bore , who returned to Grimsby from his loan spell early . A 3 – 3 draw away against Stevenage was achieved after the team were 2 – 0 down after nineteen @-@ minutes , with the York goals coming from Sodje , Holmes and Farrell . Sodje picked up a hamstring injury during this match , meaning he would be out of action for four to six weeks .
= = = October = = =
Despite having the better chances , York drew 0 – 0 at home with Cambridge United , before being beaten 3 – 1 away by Wrexham , in which Wilkinson scored a late consolation goal . The club made an attempt to re @-@ sign former striker Clayton Donaldson on loan from Crewe Alexandra , but were told to make an inquiry four weeks later , due to him being injured . York 's first double of the season came with a 2 – 0 away win over Woking , the goals coming from Wilkinson and McBreen . Iyseden Christie 's loan spell at Kettering from Stevenage was to be terminated for a loan move to York to go ahead , but this deal fell through . Walker revealed he was interested in signing striker Bruce Dyer , shortly after he played against York 's reserves for Bradford City .
York achieved a consecutive victory for the first time in 2008 – 09 after beating Rushden & Diamonds 2 – 0 at home , with goals from Robinson and Farrell . After this match , Holmes was recalled by Rotherham . Brodie was loaned to fellow Conference Premier side Barrow for one month , having lost his place in the starting line @-@ up . Former Leeds United midfielder Gavin Rothery impressed in the reserves against Hartlepool United , after which he signed a short @-@ term contract with the club . A 0 – 0 home draw with Mansfield in the fourth qualifying round of the FA Cup resulted in a replay , which would be played at Field Mill . Radcliffe was sent out on loan for a month at Harrogate Railway Athletic of the Northern Premier League Division One North . York were eliminated from the FA Cup after a 1 – 0 defeat away to Mansfield .
= = = November = = =
An eighty @-@ seventh @-@ minute penalty scored by Yemi Odubade saw York lose 1 – 0 away to Oxford United . Dyer signed for the club , having been unattached after his release by Chesterfield at the end of 2007 – 08 . Adam Boyes signed a long @-@ term professional contract ahead of York 's Conference League Cup third round tie against Mansfield , which was won with a 4 – 2 penalty shoot @-@ out victory . This was preceded by Greaves ' headed goal in the fourth minute of stoppage time , earning the team a 1 – 1 draw , which was followed by a goalless period of extra time . The attendance of 609 was the lowest crowd in the club history — breaking the previous record of 763 set in the 2007 – 08 Conference League Cup .
York lost 2 – 1 at home to Torquay , in their first home defeat of the season . After Roscoe D 'Sane gave the visitors the lead , Greaves equalised for York with a header from a Purkiss cross in the eighty @-@ fifth minute , before Mark Ellis scored for Torquay on ninety minutes . A third successive defeat came after losing 1 – 0 away to Cambridge . It was agreed that Brodie 's loan at Barrow would be extended after he scored four goals in six appearances , but York decided to overturn this decision a day later . Barrow hoped to open talks over signing him on a permanent contract in January 2009 .
Walker was sacked as manager , alongside head coach Eric Winstanley , and youth team coach Neil Redfearn took over as caretaker manager . He took charge of the team for the home match against Crawley , which finished a 2 – 2 draw after Lewis Killeen scored the rebound from a Thomas Pinault penalty in the ninetieth @-@ minute . Former Port Vale manager Martin Foyle was appointed as manager , with Redfearn taking the role of assistant manager . Foyle made his first signing by bringing in winger Adam Smith on loan from Conference North club Gainsborough Trinity . Foyle 's first match in charge was a 1 – 1 away draw against Salisbury City , which was earned following a Brodie goal in the eighty @-@ third @-@ minute .
= = = December = = =
A 1 – 0 home defeat by Grays Athletic through a Wes Thomas goal followed ; this was Grays ' first away victory of the season . York followed this with a 1 – 1 draw away to Histon , in which they took the lead through Brodie in the fourteenth @-@ minute , before Parslow scored an own goal on fifty @-@ nine minutes . North Ferriby United striker Steve Torpey was appointed as youth team coach to succeed Redfearn . Foyle 's first win as manager came in a 2 – 0 away victory over Northwich Victoria in the FA Trophy first round , both goals coming from Brodie . This was followed with a 3 – 1 home win over Ebbsfleet United , with goals from Adam Smith , Brodie and Sodje after being one goal down . Dyer retired from football , having only made three appearances for York through back and hamstring injuries , while Rothery was released . York 's two @-@ match winning run ended after a 2 – 1 defeat away to league @-@ leaders Burton Albion , which was secured after Greaves scored an own goal . A 2 @-@ 1 home defeat by Altrincham followed ; Brodie scored a free kick in the thirty @-@ second minute to give York the lead , before Chris Senior and Dale Johnson scored for the visitors in the second half . Redfearn left the club to take charge of the Leeds under @-@ 18 team and Andy Porter , a former teammate of Foyle at Port Vale , was appointed as assistant manager .
= = = January = = =
The New Year began with a second defeat of the season to Burton , this time being beaten 3 – 1 at home , in which Brodie scored in the first half with a shot from the edge of the penalty area . Wrexham defender Kyle Critchell was signed on a one @-@ month loan , who Foyle knew while he was a coach at the club . Adam Smith returned to Gainsborough following the conclusion of his loan , while a permanent move had been stalled as Gainsborough were holding out for a fee . Progression to the third round of the FA Trophy was ensured with a 2 – 1 away victory over Oxford , with goals from McBreen and Brodie . Further signings from Wrexham took place when striker Simon Brown and midfielder Christian Smith signed on loan and permanently respectively . Hirst was released having failed to break into the first team . Lewes were beaten 3 – 0 at home ; Brodie opened the scoring with a volley into the top corner from outside the penalty area , and Christian Smith scored from thirty yards before Brodie finished the scoring with a low shot into the bottom corner . Henderson was released having fallen out of the reckoning for a first team place .
York were knocked out of the Conference League Cup following a 3 – 1 away defeat by Barrow in the Northern section fourth round . Midfielder Levi Mackin was signed on loan from Wrexham until the end of the season . He debuted in York 's 2 – 1 away defeat to Eastbourne Borough , in which Christian Smith scored a header from Brown 's cross . Adam Smith rejoined York from Gainsborough on a permanent contract for an undisclosed fee . His return came as a substitute in York 's 1 – 1 draw away to Altrincham , in which Brodie scored the equalising goal after Shaun Densmore put the home team in the lead . Farrell was loaned out to Oxford for the remainder of the season , as he sought more game time . York drew 1 – 1 away with Kidderminster in the FA Trophy third round , in which Boyes scored his first goal for York , meaning a replay was to be played .
= = = February = = =
Critchell 's loan at York was extended for a second month , with the fitness of several York defenders in doubt . York were beaten 1 – 0 away by Mansfield , courtesy of a Robert Duffy penalty , in the teams ' fourth encounter of the season . A 13 – 12 penalty shoot @-@ out victory over Kidderminster followed a 1 – 1 extra time draw in an FA Trophy replay ; in normal time , McBreen scored a header from a corner delivered by Simon Rusk before the away team equalised shortly after through Justin Richards . A new record for the most consecutive penalties scored in a shoot @-@ out was set , at twenty @-@ five . McBreen was reported to have signed for North Queensland Fury of the A @-@ League , although the transfer had yet to be confirmed by York . It was confirmed that he would join the Fury for the start of 2009 – 10 in August 2009 . Former Wrexham defender Shaun Pejic signed after a successful trial at the club . York beat Conference South team Havant & Waterlooville 2 – 0 at home in the fourth round of the FA Trophy to secure a place in the semi @-@ final , with both goals scored by McBreen . This was followed by a 2 – 0 away defeat to Rushden in the league . York 's first league victory in a month was a 2 – 0 home win over Weymouth , who were forced to play a weakened team due to their financial situation , and Brodie scored headers in each half .
= = = March = = =
Ingham made several important saves as York drew 0 – 0 away to Ebbsfleet . The first leg of the FA Trophy semi @-@ final tie against AFC Telford United ended in a 2 – 0 away win , with goals in each half from Rusk and Purkiss . A late goal from Sodje with a shot from the edge of the penalty area earned the team a 1 – 1 draw away to Forest Green Rovers , after Kaid Mohamed had given the home side a first half lead . A 2 – 1 home win over AFC Telford in the second leg of the FA Trophy semi @-@ final , with goals in each half from Brodie and McBreen , saw York progress into 2009 FA Trophy Final at Wembley Stadium with 4 – 1 aggregate victory . This was followed by a 0 – 0 home draw with Kettering in the league . Wilkinson joined divisional rivals Altrincham on loan until the end of the season , having failed to feature in the team since January 2009 . York drew 0 – 0 with play @-@ off contenders Kidderminster at home , which was followed by a 2 – 0 home defeat to Stevenage .
= = = April and May = = =
York dropped into the relegation zone after a 1 – 0 away defeat to Grays , who themselves moved out of the relegation zone and above York , and this was followed with a 0 – 0 home draw with Oxford . They were beaten 2 – 1 at home by Northwich ; Jonny Allan gave the visitors the lead in the first half and Robinson equalised with a penalty on sixty @-@ eight minutes , before Allan scored a stoppage @-@ time winner for Northwich . This was followed by a 0 – 0 draw away to fellow strugglers Barrow . Before York 's penultimate home match against Eastbourne , Parslow was named the 2008 – 09 Clubman of the Year , voted for by the club 's supporters . A 1 – 0 victory saw York move out of the relegation zone , in what was their first league win in ten matches . It was achieved after McBreen scored from a Purkiss pass in the thirty @-@ fifth minute . A second successive win came at home to Forest Green , who York beat 2 – 1 with second half goals from Boyes and Brodie .
A 2 – 1 away victory over Weymouth saw York secure survival from relegation , with their opponents facing relegation as a result . Brodie gave York a fourteenth @-@ minute lead , and after Cliff Akurang equalised for Weymouth late in the first half , Boyes scored the winning goal thirteen minutes from time . York 's last league match was a 1 – 1 away draw with bottom placed Lewes , Greaves scoring on eighty minutes before the home team equalised three minutes from time . This result saw them finish the season seventeenth the table . York were defeated 2 – 0 by Stevenage in the 2009 FA Trophy Final at Wembley , who scored with second half goals from Steve Morison and Lee Boylan .
= = Summary and aftermath = =
York were in a mid @-@ table position for most of the season , and were as high as fifth in August 2008 , while dropping as low as twenty @-@ second in April 2009 . Their goalscoring record of forty @-@ seven goals scored was the fifth lowest in the division ; whereas , their defensive record of fifty @-@ one goals conceded was better than that of the champions Burton . Parslow made the highest number of appearances during the season , appearing in fifty @-@ seven of York 's fifty @-@ eight matches . Brodie was York 's top scorer in the league and in all competitions , with fifteen league goals and nineteen in total . McBreen was the only other player to reach double figures , with ten goals .
After the season ended , York released Greaves , Hogg , McBreen , Pejic , Radcliffe , Robinson , Rusk , Shepherd , Christian Smith and Wilkinson . Boyes , Farrell , Darren Kelly and Sodje left for Scunthorpe , Rushden , Portadown and Barnsley respectively . Brodie , McWilliams , Mimms and Purkiss signed new contracts with the club . Over the summer York signed defenders James Meredith from Shrewsbury Town , Alan O 'Hare from Mansfield and Djoumin Sangaré from Salisbury , midfielders Neil Barrett from Ebbsfleet , Andy Ferrell from Kidderminster , Alex Lawless from Forest Green , Mackin from Wrexham , winger Craig Nelthorpe from Oxford and strikers Michael Gash from Ebbsfleet , Richard Pacquette from Maidenhead United and Michael Rankine from Rushden . Striker Michael Emmerson was promoted from the youth team after he signed a professional contract with the club .
= = Match details = =
= = = Conference Premier = = =
= = = League table ( part ) = = =
= = = FA Cup = = =
= = = FA Trophy = = =
= = = Conference League Cup = = =
= = Transfers = =
= = = In = = =
Brackets around club names denote the player 's contract with that club had expired before he joined York .
= = = Out = = =
Brackets around club names denote the player joined that club after his York contract expired .
= = = Loans in = = =
= = = Loans out = = =
= = Appearances and goals = =
Source :
Numbers in parentheses denote appearances as substitute .
Players with names struck through and marked left the club during the playing season .
Players with names in italics and marked * were on loan from another club for the whole of their season with York .
Players listed with no appearances have been in the matchday squad but only as unused substitutes .
Key to positions : GK – Goalkeeper ; DF – Defender ; MF – Midfielder ; FW – Forward
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= Tiruchirappalli =
Tiruchirappalli ( tiruchirāppaḷḷi ) ( pronunciation ) ( formerly Trichinopoly in English ) , also called Tiruchi or Trichy , is a city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and the administrative headquarters of Tiruchirappalli District . It is the third largest municipal corporation and the third largest urban agglomeration in the state . Located 322 kilometres ( 200 mi ) south of Chennai and 379 kilometres ( 235 mi ) north of Kanyakumari , Tiruchirappalli sits almost at the geographic centre of the state . The Kaveri Delta begins 16 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) west of the city as the Kaveri river splits into two , forming the island of Srirangam , now incorporated into Tiruchirappalli City Municipal Corporation . Occupying 167 @.@ 23 square kilometres ( 64 @.@ 57 sq mi ) , the city was home to 916 @,@ 857 people as of 2011 .
Tiruchirappalli 's recorded history begins in the 3rd century BC , when it was under the rule of the Cholas . The city has also been ruled by the Pandyas , Pallavas , Vijayanagar Empire , Nayak Dynasty , the Carnatic state and the British . The most prominent historical monuments in Tiruchirappalli include the Rockfort , the Ranganathaswamy temple at Srirangam and the Jambukeswarar temple at Thiruvanaikaval . The archaeologically important town of Uraiyur , capital of the Early Cholas , is now a suburb of Tiruchirappalli . The city played a critical role in the Carnatic Wars ( 1746 – 1763 ) between the British and the French East India companies .
The city is an important educational centre in the state of Tamil Nadu , and houses nationally recognised institutions such as the Indian Institute of Management ( IIMT ) , Indian Institute of Information Technology ( IIIT ) and National Institute of Technology ( NITT ) . Industrial units such as Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited ( BHEL ) , Golden Rock Railway Workshop and Ordnance Factory Tiruchirappalli ( OFT ) have their factories in Tiruchirappalli . The presence of a large number of energy equipment manufacturing units in and around the city has earned it the title of " Energy equipment and fabrication capital of India " . Tiruchirappalli is internationally known for a brand of cheroot known as the Trichinopoly cigar , which was exported in large quantities to the United Kingdom during the 19th century .
A major road and railway hub in the state , the city is served by an international airport which operates flights to Southeast Asia and the Middle East . According to the National Urban Sanitation Policy , Tiruchirappalli was listed as the third @-@ cleanest city in India in 2016 .
= = Etymology = =
According to Hindu Mythology , the word " Tiruchirappalli " is derived from " Tiru " which is to address someone with respect , " Chirapalli " is a compound of siram - head , palli - to sleep . It is a reference to the deity Sriranganathaswamy who is depicted at rest with his head in a slightly elevated position in the Srirangam Temple , Tiruchirappalli . Telugu scholar C. P. Brown has proposed that Tiruchirappalli might be a derivative of the word Chiruta @-@ palli meaning " little town " . Orientalists Henry Yule and Arthur Coke Burnell have speculated that the name may derive from a rock inscription carved in the 16th century in which Tiruchirappalli is written as Tiru @-@ ssila @-@ palli , meaning " holy @-@ rock @-@ town " in Tamil . Other scholars have suggested that the name Tiruchirappalli is a rewording of Tiru @-@ chinna @-@ palli , meaning " holy little town " . The Madras Glossary gives the root as Tiruććināppalli or the " holy ( tiru ) village ( palli ) of the shina ( Cissampelos pareira ) plant " .
Historically , Tiruchirappalli was commonly referred to in English as " Trichinopoly " . The shortened forms " Trichy " or " Tiruchi " are used in common parlance and the full name Tiruchirapalli appears in official use by government and quasi @-@ government departments but seldom by the native people .
= = History = =
= = = Early and medieval history = = =
Tiruchirappalli is one of the oldest inhabited cities in Tamil Nadu ; its earliest settlements date back to the second millennium BC . Uraiyur , the capital of the Early Cholas for 600 years from the 3rd century BC onwards , is a suburb of present @-@ day Tiruchirappalli . The city is referred to as Orthoura by the historian Ptolemy in his 2nd @-@ century work Geography . The world 's oldest surviving dam , the Kallanai ( Lower Anaicut ) about 18 kilometres ( 11 mi ) from Uraiyur , was built across the Kaveri River by Karikala Chola in the 2nd century AD .
The medieval history of Tiruchirappalli begins with the reign of the Pallava king Mahendravarman I , who ruled over South India in the 6th century AD and constructed the rock @-@ cut cave @-@ temples within the Rockfort . Following the downfall of the Pallavas in the 8th century , the city was conquered by the Medieval Cholas , who ruled until the 13th century .
After the decline of the Cholas , Tiruchirappalli was conquered by the Pandyas , who ruled from 1216 until their defeat in 1311 by Malik Kafur , the commander of Allauddin Khilji . The victorious armies of the Delhi Sultanate are believed to have plundered and ravaged the region . The idol of the Hindu god Ranganatha in the temple of Srirangam vanished at about this time and was not recovered and reinstated for more than fifty years . Tiruchirappalli was ruled by the Delhi and Madurai sultanates from 1311 to 1378 , but by the middle of the 14th century the Madurai Sultanate had begun to fall apart . Gradually , the Vijayanagar Empire established supremacy over the northern parts of the kingdom , and Tiruchirappalli was taken by the Vijayanagar prince Kumara Kampanna Udaiyar in 1371 . The Vijayanagar Empire ruled the region from 1378 until the 1530s , and played a prominent role in reviving Hinduism by reconstructing temples and monuments destroyed by the previous Muslim rulers . Following the collapse of the Vijayanagar Empire in the early part of the 16th century , the Madurai Nayak kingdom began to assert its independence . The city flourished during the reign of Vishwanatha Nayak ( c . 1529 – 1564 ) , who is said to have protected the area by constructing the Teppakulam and building walls around the Srirangam temple . His successor Kumara Krishnappa Nayaka made Tiruchirappalli his capital , and it served as the capital of the Madurai Nayak kingdom from 1616 to 1634 and from 1665 to 1736 .
In 1736 the last Madurai Nayak ruler , Meenakshi , committed suicide , and Tiruchirappalli was conquered by Chanda Sahib . He ruled the kingdom from 1736 to 1741 , when he was captured and imprisoned by the Marathas in the siege of Tiruchirappalli ( 1741 ) led by general Raghuji Bhonsle under the orders of Chhattrapati Shahu . Chanda Sahib remained prisoner for about eight years before making his escape from the Maratha Empire . Tiruchirappalli was administered by the Maratha general Murari Rao from 1741 to 1743 , when it was acquired by the Nizam of Hyderabad , who bribed Rao to hand over the city . Nizam appointed Khwaja Abdullah as the ruler and returned to Golkonda . When the Nawab of the Carnatic Muhammed Ali Khan Wallajah was dethroned by Chanda Sahib after the Battle of Ambur ( 1749 ) , the former fled to Tiruchirappalli , where he set up his base . The subsequent siege of Tiruchirappalli ( 1751 – 1752 ) by Chanda Sahib took place during the Second Carnatic War between the British East India Company and Muhammed Ali Khan Wallajah on one side and Chanda Sahib and the French East India Company on the other . The British were victorious and Wallajah was restored to the throne . During his reign he proposed renaming the city Natharnagar after the Sufi saint Nathar Vali , who is thought to have lived there in the 12th century AD . Tiruchirappalli was invaded by Nanjaraja Wodeyar in 1753 and Hyder Ali of the Mysore kingdom in 1780 , both attacks repulsed by the troops of the British East India Company . A third invasion attempt , by Tipu Sultan — son of Hyder Ali — in 1793 , was also unsuccessful ; he was pursued by British forces led by William Medows , who thwarted the attack .
= = = British rule = = =
The Carnatic kingdom was annexed by the British in July 1801 as a consequence of the discovery of collusion between Tipu Sultan — an enemy of the British — and Umdat Ul @-@ Umra , son of Wallajah and the Nawab at the time , during the Fourth Anglo @-@ Mysore War . Trichinopoly was incorporated into the Madras Presidency the same year , and the district of Trichinopoly was formed , with the city of Trichinopoly ( or Tiruchirappalli ) as its capital .
During the Company Raj and later the British Raj , Tiruchirappalli emerged as one of the most important cities in India . According to the 1871 Indian census — the first in British India — Tiruchirappalli had a population of 76 @,@ 530 , making it the second largest city in the presidency after the capital of Madras . It was known throughout the British Empire for its unique variety of cheroot , known as the Trichinopoly cigar . Tiruchirappalli was the first headquarters for the newly formed South Indian Railway Company in 1874 until its relocation to Madras in the early 20th century .
Trichinopoly during the British Raj
= = = Contemporary and modern history = = =
Tiruchirappalli played an active role during the pre @-@ independence era ; there were a number of strikes and non @-@ violent protests during the Quit India Movement , notably the South Indian Railway Strike that took place in 1928 . The city was the base for the Vedaranyam salt march initiated by C. Rajagopalachari in parallel with the Dandi March in 1930 . Tiruchirappalli was an epicentre of the anti @-@ Hindi agitations of Tamil Nadu when a team of Tamil language supporters gathered and organised a rally from the city to Madras in 1938 . Later in 1965 , Tiruchirappalli was made the base of the " Madras state Anti @-@ Hindi Conference " convened by C. Rajagopalachari . The population of Tiruchirappalli continued to grow rapidly , achieving a growth rate of 36 @.@ 9 % during the period 1941 – 51 . After independence in 1947 , Tiruchirappalli fell behind other cities such as Salem and Coimbatore in terms of growth . Tiruchirappalli remained a part of Madras State , which was renamed Tamil Nadu in 1969 . The city underwent extensive economic development in the 1960s with the commissioning of Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited . In the early 1980s , M. G. Ramachandran , then Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu drafted a plan to move the state 's administrative headquarters to Tiruchirappalli . A satellite town was developed near Navalpattu on the outskirts of the city , but the proposed move was shelved by successive governments .
Like much of Tamil Nadu , Tiruchirappalli remains prone to communal tensions based on religion and ethnicity . There have been occasional outbreaks of violence against Sri Lankans . In 2009 , the offices of a Sri Lankan airline were attacked in the city . In September 2012 , two groups of Sri Lankan pilgrims who had visited the Basilica of Our Lady of Good Health in Velankanni and the Poondi Madha Basilica had their buses attacked in Tiruchirappalli by a group of Tamil activists . Owing to a series of terrorist attacks in Indian cities since 2000 , security has been increased at sites such as Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple .
= = Geography and climate = =
Tiruchirappalli is situated in central south @-@ eastern India , almost at the geographic centre of the state of Tamil Nadu . The Kaveri Delta begins to form 16 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) west of the city where the river divides into two streams — the Kaveri and the Kollidam — to form the island of Srirangam . By road it is 912 kilometres ( 567 mi ) south of Hyderabad , 322 kilometres ( 200 mi ) south @-@ west of Chennai and 341 kilometres ( 212 mi ) south @-@ east of Bangalore . The topology of Tiruchirappalli is almost flat , with an average elevation of 88 metres ( 289 ft ) . A few isolated hillocks rise above the surface , the highest of which is the Rockfort ; its estimated age of 3 @,@ 800 million years makes it one of the oldest rocks in the world . Other prominent hillocks include the Golden Rock , Khajamalai , and one each at Uyyakondan Thirumalai and Thiruverumbur .
The two major rivers draining Tiruchirappalli are the Kaveri and its tributary the Kollidam , but the city is also drained by the Uyyakondan Channel , Koraiyar and Kudamuritti river channels . The land immediately surrounding the Kaveri River — which crosses Tiruchirappalli from west to east — consists of deposits of fertile alluvial soil on which crops such as finger millet and maize are cultivated . Further south , the surface is covered by poor @-@ quality black soil . A belt of Cretaceous rock known as the Trichinopoly Group runs to the north @-@ east of the city , and to the south @-@ east there are layers of archaean rocks , granite and gneiss covered by a thin bed of conglomeratic laterite . The region falls under Seismic Zone III , which is moderately vulnerable to earthquakes .
= = = Urban structure = = =
The city of Tiruchirappalli lies on the plains between the Shevaroy Hills to the north and the Palni Hills to the south and south @-@ west . Tiruchirappalli is completely surrounded by agricultural fields . Densely populated industrial and residential areas have recently been built in the northern part of the city , and the southern edge also has residential areas . The older part of Tiruchirappalli , within the Rockfort , is unplanned and congested while the adjoining newer sections are better executed . Many of the old houses in Srirangam were constructed according to the shilpa sastras , the canonical texts of Hindu temple architecture .
= = = Climate = = =
Tiruchirappalli experiences a tropical savanna climate — designated " Aw " under the Köppen climate classification — with no major change in temperature between summer and winter . The climate is generally characterised by high temperature and low humidity . With an annual mean temperature of 28 @.@ 9 ° C ( 84 @.@ 0 ° F ) and monthly average temperatures ranging between 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) and 32 ° C ( 90 ° F ) , the city is the hottest in the state . The warmest months are from April to June , when the city experiences frequent dust storms . As of November 2013 , the highest temperature ever recorded in Tiruchirappalli was 43 @.@ 9 ° C ( 111 @.@ 0 ° F ) , which occurred on 2 May 1896 ; the lowest was observed on 6 February 1884 at 13 @.@ 9 ° C ( 57 @.@ 0 ° F ) . The high temperatures in the city have been attributed to the presence of two rivers — Kaveri and Kollidam — and the absence of greenery around the city . As Tiruchirappalli is on the Deccan Plateau the days are extremely warm and dry ; evenings are cooler because of cold winds that blow from the south @-@ east . From June to September , the city experiences a moderate climate tempered by heavy rain and thundershowers . Rainfall is heaviest between October and December because of the north @-@ east monsoon winds , and from December to February the climate is cool and moist . The average annual rainfall is 841 @.@ 9 mm ( 33 @.@ 15 in ) , slightly lower than the state 's average of 945 mm ( 37 @.@ 2 in ) . Fog and dew are rare and occur only during the winter season .
= = Demographics = =
According to the 2011 Indian census , Tiruchirappalli had a population of 847 @,@ 387 , 9 @.@ 4 % of whom were under the age of six , living in 214 @,@ 529 families within the municipal corporation limits . The recorded population density was 5 @,@ 768 / km2 ( 14 @,@ 940 / sq mi ) while the sex ratio was 975 males for every 1 @,@ 000 females . The Tiruchirappalli urban agglomeration had a population of 1 @,@ 022 @,@ 518 , and was ranked the fourth largest in Tamil Nadu and the 53rd in India as of 2011 . The city had an average literacy rate of 91 @.@ 37 % , significantly higher than the national average of 73 @.@ 00 % . Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 10 @.@ 48 % and 0 @.@ 27 % of the population respectively . There were 228 @,@ 518 people , roughly constituting about 26 @.@ 96 % of the total population , who lived in slums in the city . The daily floating population of the city was estimated at around 250 @,@ 000 .
The city 's population is predominantly Hindu . Twenty per cent are Muslims and there is also a considerable Christian population . Sikhs and Jains are present in smaller numbers . Roman Catholics in Tiruchirappalli are affiliated to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Tiruchirapalli while Protestants are affiliated to the Trichy – Tanjore Diocese of the Church of South India .
The most widely spoken language are Tamil , , Gujarati , Telugu , Kannada , Malayalam and Hindi speakers . The standard dialect of Tamil spoken is the Central Tamil dialect . Saurashtrian is spoken by the Patnūlkarars who migrated from Gujarat in the 16th century . There is also a substantial population of Anglo @-@ Indians , and Sri Lankan Tamil migrants , most of whom are housed in refugee camps on the outskirts of the city .
= = Administration and politics = =
Covering 18 square kilometres ( 6 @.@ 9 sq mi ) , the municipality of Tiruchirappalli was inaugurated under the Town Improvements Act 1865 on 1 November 1866 ; it originally consisted of two ex @-@ officio and nine nominated members . Council elections were introduced in 1877 and the first chairman was elected in 1889 . The municipality was upgraded to a municipal corporation as per the Tiruchirappalli City Municipal Corporation Act 1994 by inclusion of the erstwhile Srirangam and Golden Rock municipalities . Covering 167 @.@ 23 square kilometres ( 64 @.@ 57 sq mi ) , the municipal corporation comprises 65 wards and four administrative zones ; these are Srirangam , Ariyamangalam , Golden Rock and Abhishekapuram .
Tiruchirappalli City Municipal Corporation Council , the legislative body , comprises 65 councillors elected from each of the 65 wards and is headed by a mayor assisted by a Deputy Mayor . The executive wing has seven departments — general administration , revenue , town planning , engineering , public health , information technology and personnel — and is headed by a City Commissioner . The Commissioner is assisted by two executive engineers for the east and west sections , and Assistant Commissioners for personnel , accounts and revenue departments , a public relations officer , a city engineer , a city health officer and an Assistant Commissioner for each of the four zones . A Local Planning Authority for Tiruchirappalli was created on 5 April 1974 as per the Tamil Nadu Town and Country Planning Act of 1971 with the District Collector of Tiruchirappalli as chairman and the Assistant Director of Town and Country Planning as its member secretary .
The city of Tiruchirappalli is represented in the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly by four elected members , one each for the Tiruchirappalli East ( State Assembly Constituency ) , Tiruchirappalli West ( State Assembly Constituency ) , Srirangam and Thiruverumbur constituencies . Jayalalithaa , the chief minister of Tamil Nadu as of 2014 , represents the Srirangam constituency . Tiruchirappalli is also part of the Tiruchirappalli Lok Sabha constituency and once every five years elects a member to the Lok Sabha — the lower house of the Parliament of India . The Lok Sabha seat has been held by the Indian National Congress for four terms ( 1957 – 62 , 1984 – 89 , 1989 – 91 and 1991 – 96 ) , the Communist Party of India ( 1962 – 67 , 1971 – 77 and 1977 – 80 ) and the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( 2001 – 04 , 2009 – 14 and 2014 – present ) for three terms each ) and Bharatiya Janata Party ( 1998 – 99 and 1999 – 2001 ) for two terms each . Candidates from the Communist Party of India , Tamil Maanila Congress and the Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam have won once each . Indian politician Rangarajan Kumaramangalam , who served as the Minister of Power in the government of Atal Bihari Vajpayee , was elected to the Lok Sabha from Tiruchirappalli in the 1998 and 1999 elections .
Law and order are enforced by the Tamil Nadu police , which for administrative purposes has constituted Tiruchirappalli city as a separate district , divided into 18 zonal offices and units , with a total of 38 police stations . The Tiruchirappalli city police force is headed by a Commissioner of police assisted by Deputy Commissioners . Law and order in suburban areas is enforced by the Tiruchirappalli district police . As of 2011 , Tiruchirappalli had a crime rate of 342 @.@ 17 , making it the second highest among cities in Tamil Nadu , but it also had the lowest proportion of rape and murder cases in the state .
= = Economy = =
During British rule , Tiruchirappalli was known for its tanneries , cigar @-@ manufacturing units and oil presses . At its peak , more than 12 million cigars were manufactured and exported annually . Tanned hides and skins from Tiruchirappalli were exported to the United Kingdom . The city has a number of retail and wholesale markets , the most prominent among them being the Gandhi Market , which also serves people from other parts of the district . Other notable markets in the city are the flower bazaar in Srirangam and the mango market at Mambazha Salai . The suburb of Manachanallur is known for its rice mills , where polished Ponni rice is produced .
Tiruchirappalli is a major engineering equipment manufacturing and fabrication hub in India . The Golden Rock Railway Workshop , which moved to Tiruchirappalli from Nagapattinam in 1928 , is one of the three railway workshop – cum – production units in Tamil Nadu . The workshops produced 650 conventional and low @-@ container flat wagons during 2007 – 2008 .
A high @-@ pressure boiler manufacturing plant was set up by Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited ( BHEL ) , India 's largest public sector engineering company , in May 1965 . This was followed by a seamless steel plant and a boiler auxiliaries plant . In 2010 , the Tiruchirappalli unit of the company contributed to nearly 30 per cent of its total sales , making it the largest of all units . As of 2011 , the Tiruchirappalli division employed about 10 @,@ 000 people , and is supported by a number of ancillary industries producing almost 250 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 250 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 kg ) of fabricated materials . These ancillary units together with BHEL contribute nearly 60 per cent of India 's steel fabrication , earning the city the title , " Energy equipment and fabrication capital of India " . Other important industries in Tiruchirappalli include Trichy Distilleries and Chemicals Limited ( TDCL ) , which was established at Senthaneerpuram in the former Golden Rock municipality in 1966 @.@ and the Trichy Steel Rolling Mills , which was started as a private limited company on 27 June 1961 . The Trichy Distilleries and Chemicals Limited manufactures rectified spirit , acetaldehyde , acetic acid , acetic anhydride and ethyl acetate . It is one of the biggest private sector distilleries in Tamil Nadu and produced 13 @.@ 5 megalitres ( 3 @.@ 0 million imperial gallons ) of spirit alcohol between December 2005 and November 2006 . The Ordnance Factories Board runs a weapons manufacturing unit and a Heavy Alloy Penetrator Project ( HAPP ) facility ; the latter was set up in the late 1980s and comprises a flexible manufacturing system ( FMS ) — the first of its kind in India .
From the late 1980s , a synthetic gem industry was developed in the city ; the gemstones are cut and polished in Tiruchirappalli district and in Pudukottai district . In 1990 , the Indian government launched a scheme to increase employment by boosting the production of American diamonds and training local artisans in semi @-@ automated machinery and technology . The local gem industry was reportedly generating annual revenues of ₹ 100 million ( equivalent to ₹ 420 million or US $ 6 @.@ 2 million in 2016 ) by the mid @-@ 1990s . Concerns have been raised over the employment of children aged 9 – 14 in the gem cutting and polishing industry . As a result , in 1996 , Tiruchirappalli district was selected to be involved in the National Child Labour Project and in the running of special schools to educate working children .
As of December 2010 , the Tiruchirappalli region annually exports around ₹ 262 @.@ 1 million ( equivalent to ₹ 410 million or US $ 6 @.@ 1 million in 2016 ) of software . The ELCOT IT Park — the city 's first IT park — commissioned at a cost of ₹ 600 million ( equivalent to ₹ 940 million or US $ 14 million in 2016 ) was inaugurated in December 2010 . Set up by the Electronics Corporation of Tamil Nadu , the park occupies an area of 59 @.@ 74 hectares ( 147 @.@ 6 acres ) and constitutes a Special Economic Zone .
= = Culture = =
A resident of Tiruchirappalli is generally referred to as a Tiruchiite . Situated at the edge of the Kaveri Delta , the culture of Tiruchirappalli is predominantly Brahminical , prevalent elsewhere in the delta . With a substantial population of students and migrant industrial workers from different parts of India , Tiruchirappalli has a more cosmopolitan outlook than the surrounding countryside . The main festival celebrated in Tiruchirappalli is Pongal , a regional harvest festival celebrated during January . As part of the Pongal celebrations , Jallikattu , a bull @-@ taming village sport played on the last day of the festival , is occasionally held on the outskirts of the city . Aadi Perukku , Samayapuram flower festival , Vaikunta Ekadasi , Srirangam car festival , and the Teppakulam float festival are some of the prominent festivals that are held locally . Bakrid and Eid al @-@ Fitr are also widely celebrated , owing to the substantial number of Muslims in the city . Nationwide festivals such as the Gregorian New Year , Christmas , Deepavali and Holi are also celebrated in Tiruchirappalli .
The 12th century Tamil epic Kambaramayanam was first recited at the Ranganathaswamy temple in Srirangam . In 1771 , Rama Natakam , a musical drama written Arunachala Kavi and based on the Ramayana , was also performed there . Tiruchirappalli was home to some of the prominent Carnatic musicians — including Lalgudi Jayaraman , Srirangam Kannan and A. K. C. Natarajan — and scholars such as T. S. Murugesan Pillai , Kundalam Rangachariar and K. A. P. Viswanatham . Composers , poets and vocalists such as G. Ramanathan , T. K. Ramamoorthy , Vaali and P. Madhuri , who have made significant contributions to Tamil film music hail from the city .
Textile weaving , leather @-@ work and gem cutting are some of the important crafts practised in Tiruchirappalli . Wooden idols of Hindu gods and goddesses are sold at Poompuhar , the crafts emporium run by the Government of Tamil Nadu . The Trichy Travel Federation ( TTF ) was formed on 5 May 2009 to promote Tiruchirappalli as a favourable tourist destination . The federation organises an annual food festival called Suvai . Lack of infrastructure has been a major deterrent to the city 's tourism industry .
= = Landmarks = =
Once a part of the Chola kingdom , Tiruchirappalli has a number of exquisitely sculpted temples and fortresses . Most of the temples , including the Rockfort temples , the Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam , the Jambukeswarar Temple at Thiruvanaikkaval , the Samayapuram Mariamman Temple , the Erumbeeswarar Temple , Ukrakaliamman temple in Tennur and the temples in Urayur , are built in the Dravidian style of architecture ; the Ranganathaswamy Temple and Jambukeswarar Temple are often counted among the best examples of this style . The rock @-@ cut cave temples of the Rockfort , along with the gateway and the Erumbeeswarar Temple , are listed as monuments of national importance by the Archaeological Survey of India .
Considered one of the symbols of Tiruchirappalli , the Rockfort is a fortress which stands atop a 273 @-@ foot @-@ high rock . It consists of a set of monolithic rocks accommodating many rock @-@ cut cave temples . Originally built by the Pallavas , it was later reconstructed by the Madurai Nayaks and Vijayanagara rulers . The temple complex has three shrines , two of which are dedicated to Lord Ganesha , one at the foot and the Ucchi Pillayar Temple at the top , and the Thayumanavar Temple between them . The Thayumanavar temple , the largest of the three , houses a shrine for Pārvatī as well as the main deity . The Rockfort is visible from almost every part of the city 's north . The Teppakulam at the foot of the Rockfort is surrounded by bazaars . It has a mandapa at its centre and has facilities for boat riding .
The Ranganathaswamy Temple , dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu , is located on the island of Srirangam . Often cited as the largest functioning Hindu temple in the world , it has a perimeter of 4 @,@ 116 metres ( 13 @,@ 504 ft ) and occupies 156 acres ( 630 @,@ 000 m2 ) . Considered to be among the 108 Divya Desams ( Holy shrines of Lord Vishnu ) , the temple is believed to house the mortal remains of the Vaishnavite saint and philosopher Ramanujacharya . Originally built by the Cholas , the temple was later renovated by the Pandyas , the Hoysalas , the Madurai Nayaks and the Vijayanagar empire between the 9th and 16th centuries AD . There are 21 gopurams ( towers ) , of which the Rajagopuram is 236 feet ( 72 m ) . According to the Limca Book of Records , it was the tallest temple tower in the world until 1999 .
The Jambukeswarar Temple at Thiruvanaikkaval and the Erumbeeswarar Temple at Thiruverumbur were built in the rule of the Medieval Cholas . The Jambukeswarar Temple is one of the Pancha Bhoota Stalams dedicated to Lord Shiva ; it is the fifth largest temple complex in Tamil Nadu . The city 's main mosque is the Nadir Shah Mosque or Nathar Shah mosque , which encloses the tomb of the 10th century Muslim saint Nadir Shah . The Christ Church constructed by the German Protestant missionary Christian Friedrich Schwarz in 1766 and the Our Lady of Lourdes Church are noted examples of Gothic Revival architecture in the city .
The Chokkanatha Nayak Palace , which houses the Rani Mangammal Mahal , was built by the Madurai Nayaks in the 17th century ; it has now been converted into a museum . The Nawab 's palace , the Railway Heritage Centre , the Upper Anaicut constructed by Sir Arthur Cotton , and the world 's oldest functional dam , the Grand Anaicut , are some of the other important structures in Tiruchirappalli .
= = Education = =
Tiruchirappalli has been recognised in India as an important educational centre since the time of British rule . St. Joseph 's College , which opened in Nagapattinam in 1846 and transferred to Tiruchirappalli in 1883 , is one of the oldest educational institutions in South India . The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel ( SPG ) college , established in 1883 , is a premium missionary institution in the city .
As of 2013 , Tiruchirappalli has 45 arts and science colleges , 40 polytechnic colleges and 13 colleges that offer management education . The St. Joseph 's College , National College , Bishop Heber College , Jamal Mohamed College and the Government Law College are prominent colleges providing higher education in the arts and sciences . There are approximately 35 engineering colleges in and around the city . The National Institutes of Technology , established by the government in 1964 as the Regional Engineering College , is one of the top engineering colleges in India .
The Anbil Dharmalingam Agricultural College and Research Institute was established as a constituent college of Tamil Nadu Agricultural University in 1989 , and the National Research Centre for Banana offer higher education and research in agriculture . The Tiruchirappalli branch of Anna University was established after the bifurcation of Anna University in 2007 . 64 self @-@ financing colleges which offer courses in engineering , architecture , management and computer applications in the districts of Ariyalur , Cuddalore , Nagapattinam , Perambalur , Pudukkottai , Thanjavur and Tiruvarur are affiliated to Anna University . The SRM Group of Colleges established the SRM Institute of Science and Technology at Irungalur near Tiruchirappalli ; this was followed by Chennai Medical College and Hospital in 2007 . A proposal by the group to include the institutions in SRM University is under review by the Ministry of Human Resources Development of the Government of India .
The Bharathidasan University was established in Tiruchirappalli in 1982 and controls 104 colleges in Tiruchirappalli district and seven neighbouring districts . The university also runs a management school , the Bharathidasan Institute of Management in the city in collaboration with BHEL . The Indian Institute of Management Tiruchirappalli was set up during the Eleventh Five @-@ Year Plan , along with five other IIMs opened during the 2011 – 12 academic season . In 2013 , the Ministry of Human Resource Development ( MHRD ) approved Indian Institute of Information Technology ( IIIT ) , and the Tamil Nadu National Law School , modelled on the National Law School of India University , both started their operations in the city .
There are 200 higher secondary schools in Tiruchirappalli ; notable ones are the Campion Anglo @-@ Indian Higher Secondary School , St Joseph 's Anglo Indian Girls Higher Secondary School , St. Johns Vestry Anglo Indian Higher Secondary School , Railway Mixed Higher Secondary School , Higher Secondary School for Boys , Srirangam and RSK Higher Secondary School .
Notable people who were either born or educated at Tiruchirappalli include scientists C. V. Raman , A. P. J. Abdul Kalam , Sujatha Rangarajan , Vaali , G. N. Ramachandran , and former President of India R. Venkataraman .
= = Sports and recreation = =
Hockey and cricket are the most popular sports in Tiruchirappalli . Former Indian hockey goalkeepers Charles Cornelius and Leslie Fernandez , and Rajagopal Sathish , who represent the Mumbai Indians in the Indian Premier League , all hail from the city . The Anna Stadium complex is the main venue for sports in the city ; it hosts an indoor stadium and an astro turf hockey ground . The stadium complex also includes a football ground , an athletic track , a swimming pool , a gymnasium , a badminton court and a hostel for the athletes . The Tiruchirappalli District Cricket Association ( TDCA ) is one of the constituents of the Tamil Nadu Cricket Association , and regulates school , college and club cricket in the district . First class cricket matches were held at the Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium — formerly the Khajamalai Stadium . At the association 's golden jubilee celebrations in 2008 – 09 , plans for the establishment of another cricket stadium and an academy in the outskirts of Tiruchirappalli city were mooted . The Mannarpuram Cricket Academy is one of the noted cricket coaching academies in Tiruchirappalli . Domestic association football , tennis and volleyball tournaments are held in and around the city . Tiruchirappalli hosted the Federation Cup , a knockout @-@ style club football tournament in 1984 and an open chess tournament organised by FIDE in 2006 .
The city has a few sources of entertainment . Parks that are monitored by the corporation suffer from maintenance issues . The Trichinopoly Club or Trichy Club was established in Tiruchirappalli Cantonment in 1869 . The club was disbanded in 1972 and its assets were taken over by the Madras Club . The P. T. Rajan Park , Chinnaswamy Park , Lourdusamy Park , Raja Park , Parangiri Velusamy Park and Ibrahim Park are some of the important government @-@ run parks in the city . Of these , the Raja Park and Ibrahim Park are frequented by children . There have been plans to set up a zoological park at M. R. Palaiyam on the outskirts of the city . Once completed , the zoo is expected to house about 500 animals belonging to 50 different species . The Anna Science Centre in Tiruchirappalli has one of the two planetaria in the state .
The Rasika Ranjana Sabha , founded in 1914 , is the only popular venue for arts and cultural events in the city . According to the Limca Book of Records , the Maris theatre complex in Tiruchirappalli runs the highest number of regular film shows in the world as of 2001 . The Urvasi theatre is another notable cinema in Tiruchirappalli . There are a few shopping malls in the city , the Femina Shopping Mall and the Spencer 's Shopping Mall being the most prominent .
= = Media = =
According to the Registrar of Newspapers in India , more than 100 newspapers have been registered in Tiruchirappalli as of November 2013 . The weekly newspaper Wednesday Review , founded in 1905 , is the first prominent journal to be published in Tiruchirappalli . Among the major English @-@ language newspapers being published in Tiruchirappalli are The Hindu which launched a Tiruchirappalli edition in 2004 , and The New Indian Express , which was publishing in Tiruchirappalli before The Hindu . Some of the important Tamil @-@ language newspapers that publish a Tiruchirappalli edition are Dina Thanthi Dina Mani , Dina Malar , Malai Malar , Dinakaran , Tamil Murasu and Tamil Sudar . The popular Tamil weekly Ananda Vikatan launched a local supplement for Tiruchirappalli in 2011 .
The first radio transmission station in Tiruchirappalli was opened by All India Radio ( AIR ) on 16 May 1939 . AIR started providing direct @-@ to @-@ home enabled radio broadcasting service from 2006 . In 2007 , the AIR launched Ragam , a separate Carnatic music station , from the city . Apart from the government @-@ owned AIR , private FM radio stations such as Hello FM and Suryan FM broadcast from Tiruchirappalli . Indira Gandhi National Open University 's Gyan Vani started broadcasting from the city in 2008 . Tiruchirappalli 's first campus community radio station was started by Holy Cross College on 22 December 2006 .
Television broadcasting from Chennai was started on 15 August 1975 . Satellite television channels have been available since 1991 . Direct @-@ to @-@ home cable television services are provided by DD Direct Plus and Sun Direct DTH .
= = Utility services = =
Electricity supply to the city is regulated and distributed by the Tamil Nadu Electricity Board ( TNEB ) . Tiruchirappalli is the headquarters of the Trichy region of TNEB . The city and its suburbs form the Trichy Metro Electricity Distribution Circle , which is subdivided into six divisions . A chief distribution engineer is stationed at the regional headquarters at Tennur . Water supply is provided by the Tiruchirappalli City Corporation . The city gets its drinking water supply from the Kaveri River and 1 @,@ 470 bore wells linked to 60 service reservoirs in and around the city . Four of the six head works from which the city gets its water supply are maintained by the municipal corporation and the rest by other agencies .
Pollution has been a major concern in Tiruchirappalli . The Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board has set up five stations in the city to check the quality of air . As of 2012 , about 432 tonnes ( 432 @,@ 000 kg ) of solid waste are produced in the city every day . Solid waste management in the city is handled by the corporation ; places such as the Gandhi Market , Central Bus terminus and the Chathram bus terminus are being monitored by other agencies . The principal landfill is at Ariyamangalam . Waste water management in the Trichy @-@ Srirangam underground drainage ( UGD ) areas is handled by the Tamil Nadu Water Supply and Drainage Board ( TWAD ) and in other areas by the Tiruchirappalli Municipal Corporation . As of 2013 , there were a total of 40 @,@ 580 UGD connections maintained by the municipal corporation . The high toxicity of the waste water released by the Trichy Distilleries and Chemicals Limited ( TDCL ) is a major cause of concern for the corporation . The corporation 's annual expenditure for the year 2010 – 11 was estimated to be ₹ 1 @,@ 559 @.@ 4 million ( equivalent to ₹ 2 @.@ 2 billion or US $ 33 million in 2016 ) . In 2013 , researchers from Bharathidasan University assessed water quality in the Tiruchirappalli area and concluded that although the quality of the groundwater was suitable for human consumption , the quality of the pond water in the city was " not fit for human usage , agricultural or industrial purposes " .
Under the National Urban Sanitation Policy , Tiruchirappalli was ranked sixth in India and first in Tamil Nadu on the basis of sanitation for the year 2009 – 10 . In January 2010 , Tiruchirappalli became the first city in India where open defecation was prevented in all its slums . In a 2016 survey conducted by the Ministry of Urban Development , as a part of the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan campaign , Tiruchirappalli was ranked third in the list of cleanest cities in India .
Tiruchirappalli comes under the Tiruchi Telecom District of the Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited ( BSNL ) , India 's state @-@ owned telecom and internet services provider . There are about 20 @,@ 000 business telephone subscribers in the city . Both Global System for Mobile Communications ( GSM ) and Code division multiple access ( CDMA ) mobile services are available . BSNL also provides broadband internet services . BSNL began offering wireless internet services with the commencement of Evolution @-@ Data Optimized ( EVDO ) transmission in 2008 . Tiruchirappalli is one of the few cities in India where BSNL 's Caller Line Identification ( CLI ) -based internet service Netone is available . Softnet ( STPI ) , Tata VSNL , Bharti and Reliance are other major broadband internet service providers in the city .
Tiruchirappalli has a passport office , the second in Tamil Nadu , which commenced its operations on 23 March 1983 . The office also caters to the needs of seven adjacent districts namely , Karur , Nagappattinam , Perambalur , Pudukkottai , Thanjavur , Ariyalur and Tiruvarur .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Healthcare = = =
Healthcare in Tiruchirappalli is mainly provided by government @-@ run and private hospitals . The CSI Mission General Hospital at Uraiyur is one of the oldest in the city . The Divisional Railway Hospital at Golden Rock , which was established by the then South Indian Railway in 1927 , caters exclusively to railway staff of the entire Tiruchirappalli Railway Division , which spreads over 10 districts . The Mahatma Gandhi Government Hospital — attached to the K.A.P.Viswanatham Government Medical College — and Srirangam Government Hospital offer low @-@ cost facilities . Major private hospitals that serve Tiruchirappalli include Kavery Medical Centre and Hospital ( KMCH ) , the 750 @-@ bed Chennai Medical College Hospital and Research Centre and Apollo Specialty Hospital .
Vasan Healthcare , a rapidly growing healthcare chain , is based in Tiruchirappalli . Tiruchirappalli has 29 nursing homes approved by the Department of Health and Family Welfare . As of 2011 , there are 133 hospitals in the city , including 10 maternity homes and two urban family welfare centres maintained by the municipal corporation . Tiruchirappalli is a hub for low @-@ cost medical tourism in central Tamil Nadu . The doctors of Mahatma Gandhi Memorial Government Hospital ( MGMGH ) conducted a risky surgery on Parasitic twins to remove their extra limbs on .
= = = Transport = = =
The most commonly used modes of local transport in Tiruchirappalli are the state government @-@ owned Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation ( TNSTC ) buses , and auto rickshaws . Tiruchirappalli forms a part of the Kumbakonam division of the TNSTC . The city has two major bus termini ; Chatram Bus Stand and Central Bus Stand , both of which operate intercity services and local transport to suburban areas .
Tiruchirappalli sits at the confluence of two major National Highways — NH 45 and NH 67 . NH 45 is one of the most congested highways in south India and carries almost 10 @,@ 000 lorries on the Tiruchirappalli – Chennai stretch every night . Other National Highways originating in the city are NH 45B , NH 210 and NH 227 . State highways that start from the city include SH 25 and SH 62 . Tiruchirappalli has 715 @.@ 85 km ( 444 @.@ 81 mi ) of road maintained by the municipal corporation . A semi @-@ ring road connecting all the National Highways is being constructed to ease traffic congestion in the city . As of 2013 , approximately 328 @,@ 000 two @-@ wheelers , 93 @,@ 500 cars and 10 @,@ 000 public transport vehicles operate with in the city limits , apart from the 1 @,@ 500 inter @-@ city buses that pass through Tiruchirappalli daily . Tiruchirappalli suffers from traffic congestion mainly because of its narrow roads and absence of an integrated bus station .
Passenger trains also carry a significant number of passengers from nearby towns . The Great Southern of India Railway Company was established in 1853 with its headquarters at England . In 1859 , the company constructed its first railway line connecting Tiruchirappalli and Nagapattinam . The company merged with the Carnatic Railway Company in 1874 to form the South Indian Railway Company with Tiruchirappalli as its headquarters . The city retained the position until 1908 when the company 's headquarters was transferred to Madras . Tiruchirappalli Junction is the second biggest railway station in Tamil Nadu and one of the busiest in India . It constitutes a separate division of the Southern Railway . Tiruchirappalli has rail connectivity with most important cities and towns in India . Other railway stations in the city include Tiruchirappalli Fort , Tiruchirappalli Town , Srirangam , Palakkarai and Golden Rock .
Tiruchirappalli is served by Tiruchirappalli International Airport ( IATA : TRZ , ICAO : VOTR ) , 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) from the city centre . The airport handles fivefold more international air traffic than domestic services , making it the only airport in India with this huge variation . It serves as a gateway to immigrants from South @-@ east Asian countries There are regular flights to Abu Dhabi , Chennai , Colombo , Dubai , Kuala Lumpur , Mumbai and Singapore . The airport handled more than 1 million passengers and 2012 tonnes of cargo during the fiscal year 2013 – 14 .
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= Monica Geller =
Monica E. Geller is a fictional character , one of the six main characters who appear in the American sitcom Friends . Created by show creators David Crane and Marta Kauffman , and portrayed by actress Courteney Cox , Monica appears in each of the show 's 236 episodes , from its premiere on September 24 , 1994 to its finale on May 6 , 2004 . A chef known for her cleanliness , competitiveness and obsessive @-@ compulsive nature , Monica is the younger sister of Ross and best friend of Rachel , the latter of whom she invites to move in with her after Rachel forsakes her own wedding . The two characters spend several years living together as roommates until Monica becomes romantically involved with neighbor Chandler , whom she marries . Unable to conceive children on their own , the couple eventually adopts twins and moves out of their apartment into a larger house in the suburbs to raise their growing family .
The creators ' first choice for the role of Monica was comedian Janeane Garofalo . Cox had originally been offered the role of Rachel , but declined in favor of playing the character 's best friend Monica because she was drawn to her strong personality . Meanwhile , the role of Rachel went to actress Jennifer Aniston , Cox 's co @-@ star to whom the role of Monica had originally been offered . Before Friends aired , Monica 's characterization was greatly debated among writers in regards to the character sleeping with a man on their first date during the pilot . Kauffman in particular greatly defended Monica , arguing with NBC executive Don Ohlmeyer over whether or not this would make the character too promiscuous . Ultimately , the episode aired unchanged after the studio surveyed the audience , the results of which returned in favor of Monica 's existing storyline . The character 's struggles with childhood obesity , challenges with romantic relationships and complicated relationship with her mother would each become popular staples of the show .
Several months before Friends premiered , NBC conducted a research report , the results of which determined that Monica was the only character to have been remotely well received by test audiences . When Friends first aired , critics initially perceived Monica – who was immediately established as the show 's " mother hen " – and Cox as the series ' main character and star , respectively . Critics have been largely receptive towards both Cox and her character ; the Los Angeles Times holds Cox 's acting responsible for disproving the stigma that attractive women are incapable of comedic performances . Revered as a television icon , Monica famously addressed several topics that were rarely discussed in prime time television at the time , including safe sex , casual sex and age disparity in relationships . Despite garnering positive reviews for her performance , Cox remains the only main cast member to have never been nominated for an Emmy Award during Friends ' ten @-@ year run . In addition to being widely recognized as one of the most famous fictional chefs , Monica 's Greenwich Village apartment , one of the series main locations , is considered to be among television 's most famous sets .
= = Role = =
A hardworking Monica is introduced in the pilot as one of five close @-@ knit friends who live in New York City , including her older brother Ross ( David Schwimmer ) , neighbors Joey ( Matt Leblanc ) and Chandler ( Matthew Perry ) , and former roommate Phoebe ( Lisa Kudrow ) . When her privileged , inexperienced childhood best friend Rachel ( Jennifer Aniston ) , with whom she had long lost contact , suddenly arrives in her neighborhood unannounced as a runaway bride after abandoning her own wedding , Monica allows her to move in with her while she attempts to reorganize her life , and the two reconnect .
Monica begins dating Dr. Richard Burke ( Tom Selleck ) , an older man who is also one of her father 's best friends and 21 years her senior . However , the couple mutually agrees to end their long @-@ running relationship after realizing that Richard does not want children , while Monica aspires to eventually raise a family of her own one day . While in England attending Ross ' second wedding , to Emily ( Helen Baxendale ) , Monica sleeps with Chandler . Initially supposed to have been a casual , one @-@ time thing which grew more recurrent , Monica and Chandler eventually develop feelings for each other , but attempt to conceal it from their friends for as long as possible . After finally revealing their relationship to their friends , who are delighted by the news , Monica proposes to Chandler , and they marry .
After several failed attempts to conceive a child of their own , Monica and Chandler discover that they are both infertile , and ultimately settle upon adoption as an alternative , deciding to adopt the yet @-@ to @-@ be @-@ born child of expectant single mother Erica ( Anna Faris ) . The couple is very much surprised when Erica gives birth to twins , and name the boy Jack after Monica 's father , and the girl Erica after her birth mother .
= = Development = =
= = = Conception and writing = = =
Television writers David Crane and Marta Kauffman originally pitched Friends as a show about " that special time in your life when your friends are your family " to then @-@ NBC president Warren Littlefield shortly after their short @-@ lived sitcom Family Album was canceled by CBS . Inspired by their own experiences as young adults living in New York City , the writers loosely based the six main characters on some of their own friends and family ; Monica is based on Kauffman herself . Observing that each main character was originally written as a " one @-@ note stereotype " , Jonathan Bernstein of The Daily Telegraph identified Monica as the group 's " uptight fun @-@ killer " . When Friends first aired , the majority of its earliest episodes revolved around Monica , via whom each character appears to be interconnected ; Friends stars the character 's brother , her best friend , her former roommate and her two neighbors socializing in Monica 's apartment .
In the pilot , Monica is dumped almost immediately after sleeping with her new date Paul on the night of their first date . Monica is tricked into bed with him after Paul lies to her about his sex life , falsely alleging that he has not slept with anyone in the two years since his wife left him . At first , NBC executives worried that audiences would react to Monica 's role unfavorably , thus they decided to survey the studio audience and ask them whether or not they thought that having Monica sleep with someone on their first date made her character too promiscuous . Don Ohlmeyer , then @-@ president of NBC 's west coast division , was particularly adamant about his stance against Monica 's role in the pilot , which he considered " casual sex " , and created a " stacked " questionnaire asking audience members if they thought Monica was a whore . Kauffman recalled Ohlmeyer specifically expressing that Monica deserved to be dumped , a statement by which the writer was greatly offended , dismissing Ohlmeyer as a misogynist . Ultimately , the results returned in favor of Monica ; audiences liked the character nonetheless , and the episode aired unchanged .
Early in the series , Monica 's apartment is established as one of the show 's two primary locations . In the pilot , the apartment number is 5 , which was changed to 20 in subsequent episodes after the writers determined that Monica actually lived on a much higher floor . Season three 's " The One Where No One 's Ready " takes place entirely in Monica 's apartment because the show 's budget was not large enough to accommodate additional sets or guest stars at that time . In the series finale , Phoebe certifies that each character shared Monica 's apartment at least one point during their lives .
= = = = Relationship with Chandler Bing = = = =
Andrew Harrison of The New Republic believes that the writers deliberately broke up any main character who was approaching a borderline life @-@ changing relationship because " The ones the Friends were really meant to be with were , after all , the other Friends " . Because Monica and Joey were initially conceived as the show 's two most sexual characters , Crane and Kauffman had originally intended for them to be the show 's main couple , before ultimately replacing them with Ross and Rachel . The idea of Monica and Joey was abandoned once the role of Joey was cast ; actor Matt LeBlanc approached his character using much more of a " big brother vibe " in terms of Joey 's relationship with Cox 's character as opposed to a romantic one , which the writers ultimately preferred . According to Allison Piwowarski of Bustle , Monica and Joey 's relationship would have greatly altered the trajectory of the entire series , having life @-@ changing effects on its characters . Summarizing the role of Monica in the series , Martin Gitlin wrote in his book The Greatest Sitcoms of All Time that while her friends " were ... just out to make the most of their social lives " , Monica " sought to keep the others in line " while searching for " Mr. Right " , who surprisingly turns out to be close friend Chandler . Several years before Monica and Chandler became romantically involved , Cox once joked in an interview that if her character were to ever have sex with another main character , it would most likely be Chandler . Crane and Kauffman had never intended to pair off Monica and Chandler with each other , and only decided to expand upon the idea of a relationship between the two friends upon realizing that viewers had " fallen in love " with the notion of Monica and Chandler as a couple . According to Robert Bianco of USA Today , " Their affair came out of the blue and was supposed to quickly return there — but something in the relationship clicked with viewers . " The idea of Monica and Chandler 's romantic arc originally surfaced much earlier in the series from writers Scott Silveri and Shana Goldberg @-@ Meehan , who first observed the characters ' chemistry in the season two episode " The One Where Ross Finds Out " , in which an idle and unemployed Monica is temporarily acting as Chandler 's personal trainer . However , Silveri 's suggestion was initially vetoed by the other writers , who felt that it was simply too soon to introduce another main couple to Friends having just recently paired off Ross and Rachel . Following Ross and Rachel 's break up in season three , the writers felt that the timing was just about right to officially introduce Monica and Chandler as a couple , deciding that Friends " can 't simply rest on this one [ Ross and Rachel ] relationship " , while believing that Monica and Chandler 's would ultimately provide a fun opportunity for the writers to explore brand new storylines .
Silveri and Goldberg @-@ Meehan deliberately intended to keep Monica and Chandler 's union " low @-@ key " in order to further differentiate it from Ross and Rachel 's , which had been very public . In order to get an idea how audiences would react to Monica and Chandler hooking up at Ross and Emily 's wedding in London , the scene in which a clearly nude Monica suddenly emerges from under the sheets of Chandler 's hotel bed was filmed in front of three separate test audiences , each of whom responded very enthusiastically to the surprise , several months before the episode was actually taped . Despite the warm reception received from the audience , Silveri and Goldberg @-@ Meehan were at first uncertain as to whether or not they should continue expanding upon their relationship even further , and proceeded with caution by having Monica and Chandler initially keep their relationship hidden from their peers . Protective of their characters , Cox and Perry shared similar hesitations at first , but ultimately grew to accept Monica and Chandler as a couple . The characters ' relationship is eventually revealed to their friends in the episode " The One Where Everybody Finds Out " . While each character very much approves of their union , Monica 's parents initially resent their daughter 's feelings for Chandler due to an age @-@ old misunderstanding involving Chandler .
Bianco observed that " On most shows , linking two main characters like Monica and Chandler would have been an act of desperation . " However , " On Friends , it was a stroke of genius that made both characters more appealing while providing a needed diversion from the show 's central task : Retaining a romantic equilibrium between Ross and Rachel . " Monica and Chandler 's relationship is the antithesis of Ross and Rachel 's because it remained " healthy and strong until the series ended " , while the other couple was relentlessly on @-@ and @-@ off . Encyclopedia of Television author Horace Newcomb believes that Monica 's feelings for Chandler are responsible for curing the latter 's fear of commitment . Similarly , Slate writer Ruth Graham observed that " Chandler is painted as a self @-@ loathing loser with women , until he finally snags Monica at the end of Season 4 . " Meanwhile , Silveri believes that Friends ultimately ran as long as it did due in part to Monica and Chandler 's romance , explaining , " if the center of Friends had remained Ross and Rachel , you would 've seen a much shorter shelf life for the show " ; Monica and Chandler 's arc is believed to have extended the series by approximately three years . Crane and Kauffman had always intended to give Monica and Chandler a child . When it finally came time for them to write the finale , the idea of the couple adopting newborn twins was conceived at the last minute simply " for fun " . The birth of Monica and Chandler 's twins serves as sone of the finale 's main plots . They were named Jack and Erica – after Monica 's father and their birth mother , respectively . – The twins are born three minutes and forty @-@ six seconds apart . Although the surprise addition of Monica and Chandler 's twins was generally well received , critics questioned the fact that the babies are brought home from the hospital the same day as their delivery
= = = Casting = = =
Monica is portrayed by American actress Courteney Cox . Crane and Kauffman had originally written the role of Monica for comedian Janeane Garofalo , their first choice , because they were attracted to her " edgier and snarkier " voice . However , Garofalo ultimately turned down the offer . Actress Jamie Gertz was also offered the role but declined , while actress Leah Remini auditioned for Monica before ultimately being cast as Carrie Heffernan in the sitcom The King of Queens in 1998 ; Remini would eventually guest star in an episode of Friends . Before being cast as Monica in Friends , Cox was best known for appearing in singer Bruce Springsteen 's " Dancing in the Dark " music video ; within the television industry for her recurring role as Lauren Miller , Alex P. Keaton 's girlfriend , on the sitcom Family Ties ; and Melissa Robinson in the comedy film Ace Ventura : Pet Detective ( 1994 ) , opposite Jim Carrey . After guest starring on the sitcom Seinfeld as Meryl , main character Jerry Seinfeld 's girlfriend , the producers offered Cox the role of Monica 's spoiled best friend Rachel because the actress " had this cheery , upbeat energy " , which was significantly different than how they had envisioned Monica at the time . Feeling she was not " quirky " enough to portray Rachel , Cox lobbied in favor of playing Monica instead because she was drawn to the character 's " strong " personality , but the producers feared that she was not " tough " enough for the role , which was offered to actress Jennifer Aniston , alongside whom Cox would eventually co @-@ star . Meanwhile , a close competitor for the role was actress Nancy McKeon ; Littlefield recalled having greatly enjoyed both actress ' auditions equally , and left the final decision up to Crane and Kauffman . Ultimately , Cox won the role over McKeon because the creators noticed " something fresh " in her audition ; Kauffman elaborated that Cox ultimately " brought a whole bunch of other colors " to Monica than what they had first envisioned back when they were considering Garofalo for the part . Meanwhile , Aniston ultimately won the role of Rachel .
Each main cast member auditioned for Friends having had some degree of prior sitcom experience . Before finally being cast in Friends , Cox 's burgeoning success as an actress had heavily relied on her physical appearance . Unlike her previous roles in projects such as Family Ties and Ace Ventura : Pet Detective , the Los Angeles Times Steve Weinstein believes that Monica was the first major role in which Cox was cast based on her abilities as a comedic actress as opposed to her beauty . Cox believes that she owes winning the role to her brief stint as Gabriella Easden on the short @-@ lived sitcom The Trouble With Larry , which she considers to be the first time she played a character who " was the funny one " , which in turn earned the actress a recommendation for Friends following its cancellation . When Friends premiered , Cox was the show 's most famous main cast member among a cast of young , relatively unknown actors , and was thus initially perceived by critics and audiences as the show 's star , despite Crane and Kauffman 's efforts to promote Friends as an ensemble comedy . According to actress Lisa Kudrow , who portrays Phoebe , Cox is responsible for suggesting that the entire cast work together as a team . As the most experienced cast member at the time , Cox advised her co @-@ stars to remain open to each other 's ideas , notes and suggestions , while giving them permission to tell her " If I could do anything funnier " . Preferring to be treated as equals , the entire cast negotiated for universal salaries , demanding that Warner Bros. accommodate their request of $ 100 @,@ 000 per episode in season three , increased from their original inaugural season salary of $ 22 @,@ 000 per episode . At one point , the actors went as far as threatening to boycott their own show should their demands be denied , temporarily refusing to renew their expired contracts . The studio eventually complied , and by season 10 each actor was being paid $ 1 million per episode , making Cox and her female co @-@ stars the highest @-@ paid television actresses of all time .
Cox was 30 years old at the time she was cast , making her the show 's oldest main cast member , and was 39 by the beginning of Friends ' final season . Additionally , this distinction makes Cox older than her on @-@ screen brother , actor David Schwimmer , who portrays her older brother Ross , who is one year her senior . The actress would deliver Monica 's lines emphatically . Although each character is depicted as an avid coffee drinker , spending much of their free time in a coffee house , Cox herself does not drink coffee , and was only pretending to drink it out of mugs on the show . Kauffman believes that Cox 's own cleanliness closely resembles her character 's ; at times the actress would clean her co @-@ stars ' dressing rooms . Cox also shares the character 's motherly nature . The actress enjoyed portraying Monica she was able to " bring more of my own personality to her , and I 've never really been able to do that before . " Starpulse.com observed that " As Monica , Cox never quite enjoyed the sort of watercooler storylines that co @-@ star ... Jennifer Aniston had with David Schwimmer as the on @-@ again , off @-@ again Rachel and Ross . " At one point , Cox had begun to regret her decision to accept the role of Monica over Rachel due to the character 's lack of strong storylines ; she eventually relented once Monica and Chandler became romantically involved , thus her character 's storylines gradually began to improve .
Cox married actor David Arquette in 1999 while the show was on hiatus between seasons five and six , hence the actress legally changed her full name to Courteney Cox Arquette . The opening credits of the season six premiere " The One After Vegas " features an inside joke in which Cox 's new surname " Arquette " is attached to the surnames of each cast and crew member . The episode is dedicated to Cox and Arquette , reading , " For Courteney and David , who did get married . " Before marrying Cox , Arquette had guest starred in an episode of Friends as Phoebe 's love interest . During season 10 , Cox got pregnant with her and Arquette 's child . At that same time , her character and on @-@ screen husband were going through the process of adopting a child . Like Monica and Chandler , Cox and Arquette had also struggled with conceiving in real life . Although Kudrow 's real @-@ life pregnancy had successfully been written into the show , the same could not have been done for Cox because Friends had already long @-@ established that Monica is incapable of having children . Therefore , the crew attempted to conceal Cox 's pregnancy using a combination of baggy , loose @-@ fitting costumes and props instead . However , at times the actress ' growing belly was still detectable by viewers in spite of the crew 's best efforts .
= = Characterization and themes = =
= = = Codependency and neuroticism = = =
At the beginning of season one , Monica is 25 years old . Rita Loiacono of SheKnows Media believes that Monica is the show 's most fully realized character from the very beginning of the series because her " quirks were developed to a tee . " Like several strong female sitcom characters who were popular throughout the 1980s and 1990s , Monica possesses a natural maternal instinct , constantly " vocalising a desire for motherhood . " As the group 's " unofficial den mother , " Monica occupies the role of their mother hen , and is thus often perceived as the most level @-@ headed member of the sextet , with Ken Parish Perkins of the Chicago Tribune identifying Monica as the show 's most grounded character . Jill O 'Rourke of Crushable described her as " the glue that held the group together . " Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly believes that Monica serves as " the solid center in a circle of wacky pals " due to her " sunny " personality , combined with the fact that she maintains a secure job while appearing to possess the most common sense . Furthermore , Tucker identified Monica as the show 's " straight woman . " Writing for The New York Times , John J. O 'Connor believes that Monica exhibits " the strongest ties to reality " as the sitcom 's most realistically portrayed character . Bustle 's James Tison agreed that Monica is the show 's most relatable character . Referring to Monica as one @-@ half of the series ' " head friends , " the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette 's Robert Bianco described the character as sensible , explaining that both her and brother Ross represent " the relatively stable centers around which the other friends rotate . " Describing her as " ultra @-@ competent , " Natural Living Today 's Emily Nussbaum likened Monica to the fairy tale character Snow White , on whose homemaking skills the five other main characters heavily rely , similar to the relationship between Snow White and the seven dwarfs . Although Monica began Friends as the show 's straight person , the writers eventually made her funnier by incorporating aspects of Cox 's own personality into the character , in addition to writing wittier material for her .
Identified by Ayn Bernos of Thought Catalog as " the epitome of a ... control freak " , Refinery29 's Kelsey Miller summarized Monica 's personality as funny , uptight , loving and competitive . A very organized character with a signature Type A personality who enjoys being in charge , Monica is known for being a " neat freak " obsessed with cleanliness – especially when it comes to maintaining the impeccable condition of her apartment – neurotic , extremely obsessive @-@ compulsive and competitive in nature , personality traits that are exaggerated for humor and comic relief ; the writers did not begin to take full comedic advantage of Monica 's neuroses until the show 's first Thanksgiving episode . The character is also the loudest of her friends . In her book Writing With Emotion , Tension , and Conflict : Techniques for Crafting an Expressive and Compelling Novel , author Cheryl St. John wrote that Monica exhibits qualities commonly associated with perfectionism and bossiness . James Tison of Bustle wrote that Monica 's cleanliness and bossiness often relinquishes her to being " the lame one " among her friends , although " she proved that sometimes rules and responsibility were important " . However , the Los Angeles Times Steve Weinstein observed that Monica 's actions often tend to contradict her " Miss Perfect " image and reputation , explaining that the character frequently " makes a fool of herself " in addition to being " so compulsively neat that just her facial expressions of discomfort at one of her friends ' messing things up in her apartment is enough to provoke genuine chuckles . " Although several of Monica 's personality traits and mannerisms make the character a strong candidate for obsessive @-@ compulsive disorder , they are treated as " quirky and amusing " as opposed to a disability or disease ; her friends either ignore or find humor in her peculiarities .
As creator and writer , Kauffman confirmed that Monica 's extremely organized personality is based on her own , explaining , " I have a lot of Monica in me , in terms of everything having to be a certain way . " Writing about the development of Monica 's personality in USA Today , Robert Bianco observed that the character gradually evolves from " the caring , nurturing mother figure ... into a slightly off @-@ the @-@ beam benevolent monarch . " By the show 's final season , Monica 's personality has been " exacerbated for comedy " to the point of which she becomes borderline " cartoonish . "
= = = Family and childhood ; career and love life = = =
Monica has a complicated relationship with her parents Jack ( Elliot Gould ) and Judy Geller ( Christina Pickles ) , more @-@ so with her mother . Entertainment Weekly referred to the character 's relationship with her parents as " esteem @-@ sucking . " In fact , the majority of Friends main characters have " strained relationships " with their parents . Described as " hypercritical , " Judy enjoys constantly criticizing her daughter 's appearance , career and love life , while acting much kinder towards her son , who she favors . Chelsea Mize of Bustle wrote that Monica and Ross ' " wacky quirks become all the more understandable after ... seeing them with their parents . " Encyclopedia of Television Shows , 1925 through 2010 author Vincent Terrance believes that Monica 's competitiveness originates from having grown up with Ross as a brother , against whom she often competed as a child . Kriti Tulsiani of IBNLive described Monica and Ross ' relationship as " A blend of love and sibling jealousy with an urge to irritate each other to the deepest core of existence " , with Ross often making fun of his sister 's weight and Monica teasing him about his several failed marriages in return . In terms of religion and ethnicity , Crane confirmed that both Monica and Ross are half @-@ Jewish , with their father being Jewish and their mother being of non @-@ Jewish European ancestry . However , Television 's Changing Image of American Jews categorized Monica as a " masked " Jew , explaining that " the smart , funny , and insecure Ross seems more Jewish " than Monica , who the author dismissed as " china @-@ doll like " in appearance and demeanor . In his book Encyclopedia of American Jewish History , Volume 1 , author Stephen Harlan Norwood agrees that , unlike the show 's male Jews , Monica 's Jewish " markers " have been virtually removed .
Although Monica and Rachel have remained best friends since high school , they are very much opposites . While both characters share similar economic backgrounds , they grew up on " different ends of the high school social order , " with Rachel being a popular cheerleader and Monica " deal [ ing ] with body and control issues due to being an overweight child and teen . " Sabienna Bowman of This Was TV observed that " Monica ’ s struggles ultimately left her more confident than Rachel , as well as more prepared for adulthood . " Among her defining qualities , Monica has had a passion for cooking ever since childhood , stemming from when she received her first Easy @-@ Bake Oven . A chef , the character has had several cooking @-@ related jobs throughout the series , having worked at five different restaurants , a trend that nearly coincides with her constant rotation of boyfriends in an ongoing search for the " perfect match " . Michael Hogan of The Guardian believes that the character 's " competitive , perfectionist , obsessive @-@ compulsive nature made her ideally suited to a career as a chef . " However , her love of cooking and food is also responsible for her having been extremely overweight as a child , throughout high school and college . The running gag of an overweight Monica is often used as a recurring backstory for the character throughout the series , first explored in the second season episode " The One With the Prom Video " via flashback . One of the character 's childhood nicknames was " Big Fat Goalie " when she played field hockey . While overweight , Monica is depicted as having very low self @-@ esteem , binge eating often , and constantly seeking attention . While in college , Monica is embarrassed into losing weight permanently after overhearing her then @-@ crush Chandler make fun of her appearance . Media and the Rhetoric of Body Perfection : Cosmetic Surgery , Weight Loss and Beauty in Popular Culture author Dr. Deborah Harris @-@ Moore believes that Monica 's tendency to come off as a control freak originates from her childhood struggles with weight gain , explaining that the character ate excessively in order " to cope with her emotions . "
Possessing a very strong will , the character tends to exhibit outstanding perseverance when it comes to what she expects out of her relationships , jobs and life in general , oftentimes refusing to settle for anything less than what satisfies her . Early in the series , Monica develops a reputation for experiencing bad luck and encountering rather unfortunate circumstances when it comes to dating , romantic relationships and her love life . Nick at Nite joked that the character " likes to keep things tidy in her home and love life , although the latter is a bit more difficult . " This motif is frequently explored as a source of comic relief ; the character 's friends would often " pick apart " her new dates and boyfriends . In his review of the series , David Hiltbrand of People referred to the character as " an unlucky @-@ in @-@ love codependent , " while the Chicago Tribune 's Ken Parish Perkins observed that Monica " often misfires when shooting for Mr. Right . " According to Mike D 'Avria of Splitsider , Monica " never shied away from jumping into the sac with both random guys and people she worked with " – among them a high school senior , an old high school crush and an alcoholic – prior to dating Chandler , and of the show 's six main characters maintains the highest total of serious relationships . Cox described Monica as goofy , angry and sarcastic , while referring to her as the show 's most sexually active character despite her " goody two shoes " image .
Out of Friends ' female characters , Monica 's style took the longest to establish . InStyle wrote that Monica 's combination of short , wavy hair and dark lipstick evoked " a ' 90s take on ' 40s style . " Ashley Hoffman of Styleite believes that character initially " dressed like a tourist trying to look like a New Yorker , " frequently sporting jeans , overalls and cargo shorts . With a wardrobe comprised almost equally of dresses and pants , Monica 's fashion sense , much like Rachel and Phoebe 's , " was a little bit normcore , a little bit corporate @-@ casual . "
= = Critical reception = =
Four months before its premiere , Friends failed NBC 's confidential research report , which cited the unlikeability of its six main characters as a possible factor . Although the report acknowledged Monica as the only character with whom test audiences identified somewhat positively , NBC admitted that reception towards the character was " well below desirable levels for a lead " nonetheless . In retrospect , The New Republic 's Andrew Harrison believes that although Monica and her friends " were superficial , self @-@ absorbed and at first difficult to like ... in their solipsism and neurosis they reflected and sent up the world emerging around them ... far more accurately than any conventional gooey @-@ hearted family sitcom " , ultimately " creat [ ing ] a coffee @-@ scented cocoon that millions wanted to enter " . Reviews gradually improved ; an early critical evaluation of Friends , which had pegged Cox as the show 's star , read , " As Monica , [ Cox ] came across as charming , attractive , confident , and motivated – the leader of the group " . While men found the actress attractive , women appreciated her sense of humor .
When Friends premiered in September 1994 , critics initially perceived Monica as the show 's main character ; Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker attributes this to the fact that Cox was the show 's most famous cast member at the time . The actress has garnered largely positive reviews for her performance , with Tucker concluding that Cox successfully " plays straight woman ... with alluring modesty " . Tony Scott of Variety commended the entire cast for " appear [ ing ] resourceful and display [ ing ] sharp sitcom skills ... especially Cox " , while The Baltimore Sun 's David Zurawik described her acting as " terrific " . John Kiesewetter of The Cincinnati Enquirer praised Cox 's ability to " deliver both verbal and physical comedy " . Contactmusic.com 's Sophie Miskiw commended Cox for portraying Monica with " endearing neurosis " . As a character , Lifetime described Monica as " neurotic yet lovable " . Bustle 's Emma Lord wrote , " I can 't imagine why anyone wouldn 't want to be Monica Geller " , describing her as a " smart " and " savvy " character . Admitting that Monica is " probably not our favourite character " , TalkTalk described the character as " wonderfully neurotic , " while Nick at Nite reviewed her as " just as lovable as she is neurotic " despite her overbearing personality . Howard Rosenberg of the Los Angeles Times was receptive towards the entire cast , especially Cox and her character , both of whom he described as " strong " and " likable and funny " . Also writing for the Los Angeles Times , Glenn Whipp lauded Cox 's tenure on Friends , enthusing that the actress successfully " took a character loaded with obsessive @-@ compulsive quirks and a goofy , overly competitive nature and fashioned a flesh @-@ and @-@ blood woman " . Describing the actress ' comic timing as " impeccable " , Whipp went on to write that Cox " brought out Monica 's insecurities in a way that turned self @-@ deprecation into an art form " . Jenna Mullins of E ! dubbed Cox " a fantastic comedic actress " . Alec Harvey of The Birmingham News described Monica as a " very , very funny " character . Kayla Upadhyaya of The Michigan Daily appreciated the fact that " Cox brought moments of sincerity and severity to Monica " . However , The Washington Post panned Cox 's performance as " degrading " , while Mike Ryan of ScreenCrush dismissed Monica as a " fairly normal , but boring " character .
In 1999 , Cox was nominated for an American Comedy Award for Funniest Supporting Female Performer in a TV Series . Although continuously praised for her performance , Cox never received an Emmy Award nomination for her role on Friends during its entire run , although each of her five co @-@ stars did . Both female castmates Lisa Kudrow and Jennifer Aniston remain the show 's only main cast members to have won the award , whose multiple nominations Cox especially " had a hard time not taking ... personally " , admitting to having been " hurt " by the snub . A number of media outlets cite Cox among several successful television actors who they believe deserve but yet have to win an Emmy Award . The Academy of Television Arts & Sciences ' failure to acknowledge Cox prompted Jenna Mullins of E ! to ask " if Hollywood has something against honoring a fantastic comedic actress like Cox . " In 2014 , SheKnows Media published an article explaining five reasons author Rita Loiacono believes Monica is " the best character on Friends " , citing her cleanliness , bluntness and role as " the heart of the group " , among others . Loiacono enthused that Monica " didn 't just have one defining aspect ; she had many , and they were all equally hilarious . Not to mention , her ambition and vulnerability resulted in some of the show 's most touching and heartbreaking moments " . Additionally , Loiacono dismissed the fact that Cox has never received an Emmy Award nomination for her performance as Monica as " downright criminal " . In 2015 , HitFix wrote a similar article entitled " 5 Reasons Monica Geller is the Best Friends Friend " , published in tandem with Cox 's 51 birthday . An article in The Birmingham News cited " The One Where it All Began " , " The One With Two Parts : Part 2 " , " The One with the Prom Video " , " The One with Chandler in a Box " , " The One with the Embryos " , " The One with All the Thanksgivings " , " The One Where Everybody Finds Out " , " The One On the Last Night " , " The One with the Proposal " , " The One with Monica and Chandler 's Wedding " and " The Last One " among Monica 's best episodes ; Cox herself acknowledged " The One with the Embryos " as her personal favorite . Meanwhile , BDCwire ranked “ The One With The Routine ” , " The One With The Cheap Wedding Dress " , " The One With Monica ’ s Boots " , " The One With the Jellyfish " and " The One Where Monica Sings " among the character 's best .
Despite consistently warm reception towards Cox and her character , some aspects of Monica 's characterization have been criticized . The second season episode " The One Where Dr. Ramoray Dies " sparked controversy due to one of its storylines revolving around Monica and Rachel arguing over which roommate will win the last remaining condom in their apartment in order to have sex with their respective boyfriends , Richard and Ross . In her book Narratives , Health , and Healing : Communication Theory , Research , and Practice , author Lynn M. Harter defended the storyline , arguing that it promotes safe sex . Rachel eventually wins the condom in a game of rock , paper , scissors , forcing Monica to abstain for the night . Monica 's overweight alter @-@ ego " Fat Monica " has often been accused of being an offensive stereotype of overweight women exploited for laughs . Although identifying a formerly overweight character as " a standard TV trope " , the New Statesman 's Bim Adewunmi wrote that Fat Monica " always struck a weird note " with the writer despite the show 's efforts " to pinpoint a solid and satisfying back @-@ story for the character " . Megan Kirby of xoJane questioned the negative effect the show 's fat jokes would have on its overweight viewers , writing , " What does this mean for the girls like me who never become thin ? Are we relegated to side roles and stereotypes in our own lives ? Of course , this isn ’ t true . But I think it sometimes , dark and secret : The fat girl doesn ’ t get to be the protagonist . " Emma Tarver of Feminspire complained that Fat Monica " made me think as a child that I was unworthy of love , was going to be mocked relentlessly by my friends and family for my weight , and should never bother flirting because I would just disgust every man I looked at . " Contrarily , Kelsey Miller of Refinery29 received Fat Monica positively as " proof I could overcome my disgusting plumpness and be seen as lovable , too " . In spite of these complaints , Fat Monica proved so popular among audiences that the writers would resurrect the character for a total of four flashback episodes , each of which aired featuring Cox dressed as Fat Monica and eating a doughnut while dancing after the show had finished taping much to the amusement of the studio audience . Although she only appears physically in four , Fat Monica is referenced in approximately half of the show 's episodes , and has since proven popular enough to be adapted into an internet meme .
= = Impact and legacy = =
While each main character eventually evolved into household names the longer Friends ran , the once @-@ obscure actors by whom they were portrayed gradually established themselves as celebrities . According to Elle , the combined popularity of Monica and Cox established them both as television icons during the 1990s . Additionally , baby name books now commonly associate the name " Monica " with the character . As the role in which Cox " found fame " , Monica remains the actress ' most iconic role to @-@ date , as well as the part for which she remains best known . Us Weekly believes that Cox " made television history during her 10 year stint playing Monica " . Meanwhile , Steve Weinstein of the Los Angeles Times credits Cox 's comedic performance with helping disprove the stereotype that " Pretty women aren 't supposed to be funny " . In 1995 , one year after Friends premiered , Cox appeared on the cover of People 's " 50 Most Beautiful People " . According to Alabama Biographical Dictionary author Jan Onofrio , Monica helped " put [ Cox ] in the television spotlight and provided offers for more desirable roles . " The Daily News referred to Cox as " one of the more successful ' Friends ' since the show ended " thanks in part to her subsequent television and film roles . According to Reed Tucker of the New York Post , " Cox has diversified perhaps more than her former co @-@ stars " by founding her own production company Coquette Productions , exploring directing and obtaining a real estate license . However , the actress has also been criticized for failing to venture into roles that differ from Monica . By both starring in and producing the sitcom Cougar Town , which has been reviewed as the actress ' " best gig since ... Friends " , Cox became the only Friends main cast member to accomplish significant television success post @-@ Friends .
ChaCha collectively ranked Phoebe , Rachel and Monica the 11th , 12th and 13th best female television characters of all @-@ time , respectively . Maria Tallarico of Cosmopolitan observed that a number of Monica 's storylines , specifically one in which the character unintentionally has sex with a high school senior , " probably wouldn 't fly on TV today " . Writing for Mic.com , Samantha Allen believes that Monica helped " set the standard for how sitcoms could and would talk about sex " by both engaging in casual sex and dating a much older man . According to Dustin Levy of The Diamondback , Monica inspired " any ensemble cast in a sitcom with a female character who is bossy or neurotic , " citing Scrubs ’ Elliot Reid and Happy Endings ’ Jane Kerkovich @-@ Williams as examples of Monica 's influence . Additionally , Levy identified Claire Dunphy from the sitcom Modern Family as Monica 's modern @-@ day equivalent , explaining that the character " acts like Monica plus children " . In spring 2015 , TV Guide published an article entitled " 22 Spring Cleaning Tips From Monica Geller " in recognition of the character 's cleanliness . In her article " 5 Signs You ’ re A Real @-@ Life Monica Geller " , Ayn Bernos of Thought Catalog wrote that the character 's personality is the reason " all perfectionist fans of this iconic TV show have asked themselves this question at least once in their life : ' Oh my god , am I a Monica Geller ? ! ' " Emma Lord of Bustle expounded in her article " 13 Signs You Are The Monica Of Your Friend Group " " that isn 't to say life is easy for the Real Life Monicas of the world . First , there 's all the name calling : ' neat freak ' and ' sore loser ' , to name a few . Second , all of your elaborate , carefully @-@ laid plans inevitably go haywire when people around you don 't respect the obvious beauty and rightness of them . "
Friends ' female characters had a profound influence on women 's fashion during the 1990s , becoming household names as well as fashion icons . Monica , Rachel and Phoebe each " became style icons for a generation of young women . " Describing Monica 's wardrobe as " classic and elegant , " Stylist observed that the character 's first season bob cut was imitated by several woman , although its popularity paled in comparison to that of Aniston 's iconic " Rachel " haircut , the widespread success of which Cox was jealous . However , Cosmopolitan identified Monica 's hairstyle as " Iconic in its own right " , including in its list of " 20 iconic Friends hairstyles " . Monica also became well known for accessorizing sweaters using scarves ; on Cox 's 51 birthday in 2015 , Cosmopolitan published an article celebrating her character 's best sweaters . BuzzFeed ranked Monica 's wedding dress seventh on the website 's list of the " 28 TV Show Wedding Dresses You ’ ll Always Envy " , while Brides ranked it the ninth greatest wedding dress in television history . Us Weekly included it on their list of " Celebrity Wedding Dresses : TV & Movies " . Meanwhile , The Daily Telegraph cited several of Monica 's outfits and hairstyles among the newspaper 's list of " Friends best fashion moments " . According to Patricia Murphy of the Irish Independent , Monica " is most definitely one of the most famous fictional telly chefs , " expounding , " her OCD combined with her continuous strive for perfection making her a thoroughly enjoyable watch . " The Guardian ranked Monica fifth on the newspaper 's list of " The 10 best fictional chefs " , while People ranked the character eighth , with author Grace Gavilanes writing , " She 's the best kind of chef – neurotic in the most entertaining / productive way , and always cleans up the mess in her kitchen . "
USA Today 's Robert Bianco credits Monica and Chandler 's relationship and their wedding in the episode " The One With Monica and Chandler 's Wedding " with saving Friends . Prior to the episode , the show had " appeared to be in serious danger of out @-@ staying its welcome . " Although admitting that the overall episode " is not one of Friends ' best " , Bianco explained that " The wedding changed all that , and in remarkable fashion . " While BuzzFeed ranked Monica and Chandler the 23rd best television couple , E ! placed the couple second on its ranking of the greatest Friends couples , with author Sydney Bucksbaum writing , " It 's hard to imagine a time when Monica and Chandler weren 't together , but it took them four seasons to actually get together . From then on , it was clear that they were meant to be . " Tim Gerstenberger of TV Overmind echoed this sentiment by ranking Chandler Monica 's best boyfriend , awarding him an ' A ' grade . Gerstenberger penned , " I would not be able to face myself every day if I did not rank Chandler the best of Monica ’ s boyfriends from Friends . The two ended up getting married , which just goes to show that some one night stands are meant to last . " Monica and Ross ' relationship was also influential . According to Kriti Tulsiani of IBNLive , the characters " provide a perfect exception to the myth that one cannot find a best friend in their sibling particularly when they are of opposite sex ... they have broken all the conventional boundaries of a brother @-@ sister relationship . " PopSugar ranked Monica and Ross fifth on the website 's list of " The 9 Best Sibling Relationships From ' 90s TV "
Immediately established as one of the show 's primary settings , Monica 's large Greenwich Village apartment has since become one of the most famous and iconic television sets in history . Steffani Cameron of BuildDirect wrote that Monica 's " apartment was unlike anything else on TV . It was full of color , clutter , and personality . It was a space cobbled together of kitsch and class , and it was just magic " , citing its windows , color and openness among her favourite things about the apartment . Harper 's Bazaar magazine ranked it among the " 12 Best Apartments on TV " . Chloe Daley of Refinery29 joked that the apartment serves as both " a lesson in how to decorate with purple " and " a lesson in how not to " . Based on its total number of bedrooms , open kitchen concept , large living space and balcony , real estate agent Sydney Blumstein estimates that the apartment would be worth approximately US $ 2 @.@ 3 million in 2015 . In terms of its size and affordability , the apartment has frequently been the subject of scrutiny ; critics constantly question how Monica , a chef , and Rachel , a waitress , were able to afford such a luxurious home based on their relatively low incomes , often dismissing the show 's explanation that this is due to an illegal sublet courtesy of Monica 's late grandmother . Hollywood.com 's Abbey Stone ranked it television 's 10th " most ridiculous " apartment , while The Village Voice placed it at number four in a similar article .
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= Carolina Marsh Tacky =
The Carolina Marsh Tacky or Marsh Tacky is a rare breed of horse , native to South Carolina . It is a member of the Colonial Spanish group of horse breeds , which also include the Florida Cracker Horse and the Banker horse of North Carolina . It is a small horse , well adapted for use in the lowland swamps of its native South Carolina . The Marsh Tacky developed from Spanish horses brought to the South Carolina coast by Spanish explorers , settlers and traders as early as the 16th century . The horses were used by the colonists during the American Revolution , and by South Carolinians for farm work , herding cattle and hunting throughout the breed 's history .
The breed is considered to be critically endangered by both the American Livestock Breeds Conservancy and the Equus Survival Trust , and there are only around 275 Marsh Tackies in existence today . In 2006 and 2007 , the two organizations worked together to complete DNA testing on the breed with the goals of mapping the Marsh Tacky 's place among the horse breeds of the world and beginning a stud book . In 2007 , an association was begun with the objective of preserving and promoting the Marsh Tacky ; and in 2010 a closed stud book was created .
= = Characteristics = =
The Marsh Tacky generally stands between 14 and 14 @.@ 2 hands ( 56 and 58 inches , 142 and 147 cm ) high , although the acceptable range is between 13 and 15 hands ( 52 and 60 inches , 132 and 152 cm ) high . Today , the breed comes in a wide variety of colors , including dun , bay , roan , chestnut , black and grullo . Historically , multi @-@ colored patterns such as pinto were found , but they were not selected for when breeding , and today are not seen . The colors today are consistent with those of other Colonial Spanish horses . The profile of the breed 's head is usually flat or somewhat concave , becoming slightly convex from the nasal region to the top of the muzzle . The forehead is wide and the eyes set well apart . The breed typically has a slight ewe neck , and the neck is attached low on the chest compared to many other breeds . The withers are pronounced , the back short and strong , and the croup steeply angled . The chest is deep but narrow and the shoulder long and angled . The legs have long , tapering muscling , with in general no feathering on the lower legs . The Marsh Tacky exhibits a four @-@ beat ambling gait , most similar to the marcha batida of the Brazilian Mangalarga Marchador , another breed with Spanish heritage , although also compared to the fox trot of the Missouri Fox Trotter . However , the Marsh Tacky 's gait shows a period of quadrupedal support where all four feet are planted and diagonal foot pairings , whereas the Fox Trotter shows tripedal support and the Mangalarga Marchador lacks the diagonal foot pairings .
The Marsh Tacky is known by owners for its stamina and ability to work in water and swamps without panicking . They tend to be sure @-@ footed , sturdy , smart , and able to survive in challenging coastal environments , as well as being easy keepers . Their small size and gentle nature made them the historically preferred mount for children and women , but they were also used as working animals due to their abilities in the field . Today , they are used in endurance riding , as well as continuing their traditional work assisting humans with hunting wild game and herding cattle .
Marsh Tackies have the same ancestral bloodlines as Florida Cracker Horses and North Carolina Banker horses . However , DNA testing has proved that the Marsh Tackies ' relative isolation has made them a separate breed with unique characteristics .
= = History = =
The Carolina Marsh Tacky developed from Spanish horses brought to the island and coastal areas of South Carolina by Spanish explorers and settlers as early as the 16th century . More horses were added to the population that would become the Marsh Tacky through animals that were purchased in the Spanish settlement of St. Augustine in Florida . They were then used as pack horses on Native American trade routes , and sold when the traders reached Charleston . They were managed mainly as feral herds , rounded up by locals when horses were needed , and this tradition continued into the 20th century . The breed was used during the American Revolution by many of the irregular forces of Francis Marion , nicknamed the " Swamp Fox " . The swamp savvy of the Marsh Tacky may have given Marion 's forces an advantage , as British cavalry mounted on larger European breeds were not as easily able to maneuver in the dense lowland swamps . After the American Civil War , they were commonly used by members of the Gullah community on the islands off the South Carolina shore for use in fields and gardens . The breed derives the " tacky " part of its name from the English word meaning " common " or " cheap " , as these horses were the most common breed in their area of the country for most of their history . During the height of their popularity they ranged from Myrtle Beach , South Carolina to St. Simon 's Island in Georgia . The Tackies continued to be used during World War II by members of the beach patrols tasked with the surveillance of South Carolina beaches against Nazi u @-@ boat attacks and enemy troop or spy landings . During the 1960s , Marsh Tackies were used in races on Hilton Head beaches . This tradition was revived in 2009 during the Gullah Cultural Festival , and the races will be continued at the festival in future years .
In 2007 , the Carolina Marsh Tacky Association was formed . The association was developed through the efforts of the American Livestock Breeds Conservancy working with owners and breed enthusiasts , with the goal of preserving and promoting the Marsh Tacky breed . The breed registry became a closed registry on August 18 , 2010 , and is maintained by the American Livestock Breeds Conservancy Pedigree Registry . Although closed , outside horses can be registered upon proof of origin , visual inspection and DNA confirmation of parentage .
In 2015 , a complete , articulated horse skeleton believed to be a Marsh Tacky was unearthed at an archaeological dig in St. Augustine , Florida . The approximately 200 @-@ year @-@ old skeleton was found on the site which once housed the Spanish Dragoon Barracks .
= = Conservation = =
In the lowcountry region of coastal Georgia and South Carolina , the Carolina Marsh Tacky was the most common horse for most of the breed 's history . As the automobile became more common during the 20th century , breed numbers declined , and the Marsh Tacky was thought to have gone extinct during the 1980s and 1990s . Today there are 276 living animals recognized by the breed registry , including 153 mares and 123 stallions and geldings . The Equus Survival Trust considers the breed to be at critical / nearly extinct levels , meaning that there are fewer than 100 breeding mares in existence . The American Livestock Breeds Conservancy considers the Marsh Tacky ( which they consider a strain of the Colonial Spanish horse ) to be at critical levels , meaning that there are fewer than 200 annual registrations in the United States and an estimated global population of less than 2 @,@ 000 . Representatives of the ALBC state that the breed numbers will have to increase to an estimated 1 @,@ 000 members to ensure permanent survival . On June 11 , 2010 , a bill was signed into law that made the Carolina Marsh Tacky the state heritage horse of South Carolina .
In 2006 , the ALBC began investigating the Marsh Tacky to see if it was truly a descendent of Spanish stock , and during the organization 's initial field investigations it was found that many surviving members of the breed fit the physical type of Colonial Spanish stock . In 2007 , the American Livestock Breeds Conservancy collaborated with the Equus Survival Trust to collect DNA samples and photo @-@ document the largest herd in South Carolina , considered to be the largest remaining herd , with a heritage tracing back to the American Civil War . DNA testing was undertaken in an effort to identify horses for a new studbook , reveal what DNA markers the breed carries , and map the breed 's genetic place among all other horse breeds worldwide . Sixty horses were tested in the effort .
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= Asian F =
" Asian F " is the third episode of the third season of the American musical television series Glee , and the forty @-@ seventh overall . Written by series co @-@ creator Ian Brennan and directed by Alfonso Gomez @-@ Rejon , it first aired on Fox in the United States on October 4 , 2011 . The episode features the introduction of Emma Pillsbury 's ( Jayma Mays ) and Mike Chang 's ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) parents , and the final auditions for the McKinley High production of West Side Story , in which the competition between Mercedes Jones ( Amber Riley ) and Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) leads the former to quit New Directions .
An advance copy of the episode was released to several reviewers , and received a highly enthusiastic response . Once the episode aired many others were equally impressed , though not all . Brittany 's ( Heather Morris ) " Run the World ( Girls ) " performance was hailed , and the entire Mike Chang storyline , especially his rendition of " Cool " and his initial solo dance sequence , also received favorable notice . The musical numbers were generally greeted positively , among them the three that featured Mercedes , particularly " It 's All Over " . However , her storyline had its detractors , mostly due to the recurrence of the Mercedes versus Rachel plot , and the inconsistency of her characterization with past appearances .
All six songs were released as singles , available for download , and two , " Fix You " and " Run the World ( Girls ) " , charted on the Billboard Hot 100 , and " Fix You " also charted on the Canadian Hot 100 . Upon its initial airing , this episode was viewed by 8 @.@ 42 million American viewers and garnered a 3 @.@ 6 / 10 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The total viewership and ratings for this episode were down slightly from the previous episode , " I Am Unicorn " .
= = Plot = =
After Mike receives an " A − " on a chemistry exam , his father ( Keong Sim ) is upset by this " Asian F " and the danger it poses to his chances of attending Harvard , and insists that Mike focus more on his studies and give up glee club and his girlfriend Tina ( Jenna Ushkowitz ) , who has been helping him improve his singing . Mike begs for one more chance and promises to meet with a tutor , but later decides to follow his dreams and auditions for the role of Riff in West Side Story , performing " Cool " . He misses a tutoring session and is confronted by his mother ( Tamlyn Tomita ) , and when he admits he wants to be a dancer rather than a doctor , she reveals that she gave up dreams of becoming a dancer and doesn ’ t want her son to do the same .
To promote her candidacy for senior class president , Brittany ( Heather Morris ) sings a rousing song of female empowerment — " Run the World ( Girls ) " — at an impromptu assembly , with the help of the Cheerios and Santana ( Naya Rivera ) , who has rejoined New Directions unbeknownst to cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) . The enormous enthusiasm of the school 's entire female population worries Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) , the other candidate in the race . Kurt has given up his dream to play Tony in the musical , and gives a bouquet of roses to his boyfriend Blaine ( Darren Criss ) , the likely choice as Tony .
Will ( Matthew Morrison ) is insecure about his relationship with Emma because she hasn ’ t asked him to meet her parents , so he invites them to dinner without telling her . They mock their daughter ’ s OCD , which angers Will , and display an extreme hair @-@ color obsession — Emma refers to them as " ginger supremacists " . Her OCD suffers a severe resurgence under the stress of their visit . A helpless Will apologizes , and joins Emma when she prays .
Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) , supported by her boyfriend Shane ( LaMarcus Tinker ) , auditions for the role of Maria and impresses the directors — Emma , Coach Beiste ( Dot @-@ Marie Jones ) and Artie ( Kevin McHale ) — with her rendition of " Spotlight " . They schedule a callback between her and Rachel ( Lea Michele ) to help them decide who should be cast in the role . Mercedes is angry about what she perceives as continued favoritism shown to Rachel , especially in the awarding of solos , and when Will pushes her in the glee club 's extra dance rehearsals that Rachel is excused from , she decides she has had enough and quits glee club . When Mercedes and Rachel compete by singing " Out Here On My Own " in the callbacks , Mercedes gives a performance that Rachel privately concedes was better , which prompts Rachel to begin a last @-@ minute candidacy for senior class president to improve her college prospects ; this dismays Kurt , who now has another rival to campaign against . The three directors decide to offer the role of Maria to both contenders , with each to do half the performances , but Mercedes is convinced she deserved to win the part outright and refuses to accept half a role . She withdraws from contention , which leaves Rachel as the sole Maria , and volunteers to join Shelby Corcoran 's ( Idina Menzel ) new glee club . The cast list is posted , with Rachel as Maria , Blaine as Tony , Santana as Anita , Mike as Riff , and Kurt as Officer Krupke .
= = Production = =
The episode began filming on August 29 , 2011 ; the finale was filmed on September 16 , 2011 . The script was written by series co @-@ creator Ian Brennan and the episode was directed by Alfonso Gomez @-@ Rejon .
Two new sets of parents are introduced during the episode . Emma 's parents , Rose and Rusty Pillsbury , are played by Valerie Mahaffey and Don Most . Mays was very excited when she learned Most , who played Ralph Malph on the 1970s sitcom Happy Days , had been cast , and exclaimed , " What ? He 's my father ? ! " Both Most and Mahaffey were so funny during the shooting of their sequence that she had to apologize for causing a portion to have to be reshot , telling them , " I 'm so sorry , the back of my shoulders were shaking because I was laughing so hard . "
Mike 's parents , who may become recurring characters , are Tamlyn Tomita in the role of Julia Chang , and Keong Sim as Mike Chang , Sr. Recurring guest stars appearing in the episode include Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) , football coach Shannon Beiste ( Dot @-@ Marie Jones ) , student Lauren Zizes ( Ashley Fink ) , teacher Shelby Corcoran ( Idina Menzel ) and football players Shane Tinsley ( LaMarcus Tinker ) and Azimio ( James Earl ) .
This episode features the show 's first Coldplay cover , " Fix You " . Coldplay had previously refused to license their music for use on Glee , but later changed their minds . Five other songs are covered , including Beyoncé 's " Run the World ( Girls ) " sung by Morris , Jennifer Hudson 's " Spotlight " sung by Riley , " Cool " from West Side Story sung by Shum in his first solo , " Out Here On My Own " from Fame sung by Riley and Michele , and " It 's All Over " from Dreamgirls performed by Riley and most of New Directions . Riley appreciated the opportunity to perform " Spotlight " , a modern pop song , " because Mercedes usually does the old diva @-@ ish " songs . She found the episode challenging , as she " really had to think about who Mercedes is . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Asian F " was first broadcast on October 4 , 2011 in the United States on Fox . It garnered a 3 @.@ 6 / 10 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and received 8 @.@ 42 million American viewers during its initial airing . It was second for the third week in a row in its timeslot to NCIS on CBS , which earned a 4 @.@ 2 / 12 rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and also by the third episode of New Girl , which follows Glee on Fox , and brought in a 4 @.@ 3 / 11 rating / share and 8 @.@ 65 million viewers . The Glee numbers were down slightly from the previous week 's episode , " I Am Unicorn " , which netted a 3 @.@ 7 / 11 rating / share and 8 @.@ 60 million viewers .
Viewership increased markedly in other countries . In the United Kingdom , " Asian F " was watched on Sky1 by 1 @.@ 10 million viewers , up over 10 % compared to " I Am Unicorn " in the previous week , when 995 @,@ 000 viewers were watching . In Australia , " Asian F " was watched by 843 @,@ 000 viewers , which made Glee the eleventh most @-@ watched program of the night . The viewership was up significantly from " I Am Unicorn " the week before , which drew 729 @,@ 000 viewers , and also an improvement over the season premiere 's 760 @,@ 000 . In Canada , 1 @.@ 82 million viewers watched the episode , and it was the fourteenth most @-@ viewed show of the week , up four slots and 21 % from the 1 @.@ 50 million viewers who watched " I Am Unicorn " .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Kristin dos Santos of E ! Online and Michael Ausiello of TVLine heavily praised screener copies of the episode . Dos Santos called it " arguably the best episode of Glee , not just this season but in the history of the series " , while Ausiello praised the episode as " a standout hour " . Tim Stack of Entertainment Weekly also viewed the episode in advance , and was similarly impressed ; he wrote that it was " one of the series ' best episodes ever " .
A number of critics who viewed the episode when it aired were equally taken with " Asian F " . The Atlantic 's Kevin Fallon called it Glee 's " best ever " , while others , including Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone and Abby West of Entertainment Weekly said it was the best one of the new third season . Vanity Fair 's Brett Berk wrote , " This week 's episode stands out as one of the most cohesive and well acted in the series 's pantheon " , though he wondered what had happened to the show 's humorous side , something also noted by Futterman , who found it to be a significant problem : " Glee 's own identity crisis of not knowing whether or not it 's a sitcom has made it hard to get deeply invested in its characters . " Amy Reiter of The Los Angeles Times wrote that " the producers hit every note ( emotional , musical , character , plot ) as squarely as Rachel Berry auditioning for a coveted role " , and the episode " had emotional truth , character growth , new revelations and really good musical numbers : the kind that seem to emerge organically from the plot and deepen and advance it . " AOLTV 's Crystal Bell said the episode delivered on the setup in the previous " I Am Unicorn " outing , and said " it definitely seems to echo the glory days " of the first season . TV Guide later included " Asian F " in its list of 2011 's Top TV Episodes .
Others were not as impressed . Although he praised " fantastic performances by Harry Shum as Mike Chang and Jayma Mays as Emma " , Anthony Benigno of The Faster Times criticized the " hackneyed storytelling that moves nobody forward " , and IGN 's Robert Canning noted that the show 's " inconsistent character development " was on display , though he gave the episode his best grade so far in the season , a " great " 8 out of 10 . Samantha Urban of The Dallas Morning News likened " Asian F " to a " half @-@ hearted meal " : while she said the subplots featuring Mike and Emma " worked really well " , the main storyline featuring Mercedes " was offensive in how lazily it was executed " .
The Mercedes storyline was met with widely divergent reactions , though her musical numbers were generally given high marks . In addition to Urban , many reviewers were unhappy with the return of the Rachel versus Mercedes rivalry , including Bell , who lamented that it had " been done every season " . Nearly as many expressed the hope that Mercedes was not pregnant given her nausea in the first " booty camp " scene , including Vicki Hyman of The Star @-@ Ledger , BuddyTV 's John Kubicek , and West . Benigno felt Mercedes was acting " wildly out of character " in the episode . Michael Slezak of TVLine was also puzzled at her change , and asked , " When has Mercedes ever been anything other than a team player and New Directions MVP ? Seriously , nobody 's going to cut her slack for a bad week ? " Canning agreed , and wrote : " Schue 's tough love with Mercedes came out of left field " , and felt it added to the " inconsistency of these characters " , even though " it ultimately made sense " in the context of setup for " It 's All Over " . Time 's James Poniewozik wrote that having the story " turn on her resentment at being overlooked by the glee club is an apt meta @-@ touch , since she 's been overlooked by the show for some time now . " Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club was the most enthusiastic about her storyline , and called it " the best part of the episode " : it was " all about how she now feels appreciated — because she has a boyfriend , sigh — and so she 's willing to take on Rachel for the role of Maria ( and , actually , beat her ) and push for what she feels is rightfully hers , which involves more respect from New Directions . "
Mike Chang 's first major storyline was the most widely praised of the episode . West said Shum " really showed his acting chops " , and Urban thought the " plot worked well " , though she heaped scorn on the notion that " any college would consider glee club a detriment " in an application . Mike 's " Cool " performance was very well received . Berk called it a " spectacular audition " and Bell said it was " one of the highlights of the episode " ; she also noted that the episode " really solidified " Mike and Tina 's relationship , though she also pointed out that Tina was " the most neglected member of the entire cast " . Mike 's scenes in the dance studio were even more highly praised than " Cool " . The first , when Mike " dances alone and imagines Tina and his dad in the room with him " was described as " really beautiful " by Benigno . Fallon characterized it as " a standout scene " : " the performer dances out his life frustrations , pirouetting @-@ as @-@ catharsis until he realizes that the only place he feels happy is on stage . It 's a trademark Glee moment . " Hyman agreed , and wrote , " When he ducked into the studio and started dancing by himself , without music , it reminded me of how special a show Glee can be " . Lesley Goldberg of The Hollywood Reporter lauded the subsequent scene in the studio with his mother as the " most touching part " of the storyline , and more than one reviewer admitted shedding tears , including Reiter .
Poniewozik stated that the Will and Emma storyline " again shows how Glee handles adults much worse than teens " , and added , " there 's no reason this couldn 't have been a rewarding plot " . Hyman called it a " bizarre subplot " , and Berk stated that the " patent absurdity " of the " ginger eugenics " of Emma 's parents " felt out of whack , tonally , with the rest of the episode " . VanDerWerff felt that the story failed to work " despite featuring Don Most and Valerie Mahaffey doing their very best " . Canning thought Most 's role as Emma 's " racist Ginger Supremacist father was perhaps the greatest bit of casting I 've seen on television all year " . Urban thought the subplot " worked really well " , though she added that there were " missteps " . Brittany 's campaign rally flash mob , complete with her performance of " Run the World ( Girls ) " , was a huge favorite ; Poniewozik called it " an excellent Brittany dance showcase " . Hyman was critical of the " ridiculousness " of Rachel 's run for senior class president , a development Urban said " made absolutely zero sense " . VanDerWerff lauded the " montage of the kids finding out who was cast " in West Side Story , and said it " might be the best thing the show has ever done . " Amy Lee of The Huffington Post wrote , " The football team is dancing again . This can only be good . " Urban mentioned that seeing " Cool " performed by the football players made her realize that " we haven 't seen Karofsky this season . " Benigno was more direct : " where the hell is Karofsky ? "
= = = Music and performances = = =
The episode 's musical performances were generally well @-@ received , though a few reviewers , including Benigno , chafed at the continued emphasis on Broadway showtunes . Both of the major dance numbers came in for considerable praise , and " Run the World ( Girls ) " garnered the most superlatives : Fallon wrote , " Brittany 's performance of " Run the World ( Girls ) " was thrilling . It was the most adrenaline @-@ pumping musical number the series has produced : intricately choreographed , expertly shot and edited , perfectly woven into the story , and performed exquisitely by Heather Morris . " VanDerWerff " enjoyed the ginormous production number built around it quite a bit " , and The Wall Street Journal 's Raymund Flandez called it a " stellar performance " . Kubicek stated , " this was unbelievably superb , easily my favorite performance of the entire season " . Futterman noted that " Brittany 's vocals are nowhere near the power of Beyoncé 's , but they 're just fine for this performance , the real focus of which is the dancing . "
Mercedes featured in three of the episode 's musical numbers . Flandez said of her solo , " She blew Jennifer Hudson 's ' Spotlight ' out of this world . " Benigno wrote that it was " great " , but added that it was " not much of a stretch for Amber Riley to hit this one " . Berk praised her " amazing voice " and gave the performance four stars out of five , and Goldberg characterized the rendition as " flawless " . Other reviewers were more critical , including VanDerWerff , who said that this was the only song in the episode that " really didn 't work " . Slezak felt that the arrangement used was not distinct enough from the original , though he gave the performance a " B + " , as did West , who wrote , " Mercedes looked fantastic and carried herself well , and her voice was as strong as ever but it felt a little lacking . " In her " Maria @-@ off " with Rachel , Benigno said they " both kill it " , characterized it as " easy but fun " , and gave it an " A − " , as did Slezak and West , the latter of whom " didn 't feel that Mercedes was the clear winner " but thought both singers were " fantastic " . Kubicek thought that " Mercedes clearly won " and Flandez maintained that she " clearly outshone her rival " , and continued , " You just believe so much of what she sings . " Berk agreed , and contrasted the two singers with his rating scale of one to five stars : " Two stars for Rachel , who sang this like Barry Manilow ; four for Mercedes , who sang this like she lived it . " Futterman had a slightly different take : " Rachel puts on a diva front , but inside she 's scared and nervous , while Mercedes is just a diva . " However , Hyman thought that the two " were evenly matched " , while Canning and Billboard 's Rae Votta both thought Rachel was the victor ; Votta stated , " While the show wants us to believe otherwise , Rachel clearly outsang Mercedes " . " It 's All Over " from Dreamgirls received the most enthusiastic commentary , including an " A + " from West , who wrote " Mercedes was at her best in this performance " , a sentiment echoed by Benigno when he awarded the song an " A " . Hyman called it " pretty awesome " and Flandez a " cleverly amusing take " , while Futterman said Mercedes " fully embraces her inner Effie White " and that the song was " on par with the best of Glee 's Broadway songs in terms of plot relevancy and vocal arrangements " . She also praised " the first group showtune the New Directions have done " and added , " we want more " . Votta characterized it as " a flawless fantasy homage " and stated , " It 's the perfect use of the non @-@ realism of " Glee " and the power of musical theater to express a storyline " . Kubicek agreed it was " like a real musical " in these regards and praised Mike 's short solo , and West liked the segment where Santana confronts Mercedes in the number . Slezak was not enthusiastic about the rendition , and wrote that he wished that the " scene gelled better than it did " , and questioned why Mercedes was the character Effie while all the other members of New Directions were themselves . He gave the number a " C + " .
Votta wrote of " Cool " that " for Mike Chang 's first solo it 's impressive " , and added , " maybe he should play Tony instead of Blaine " ; Slezak also thought he should have been considered for Tony since it was " performed with such verve and swagger and charisma " . Even so , he conceded that Mike ( and Shum ) was " not the strongest singer " , an assessment echoed in the " decent singer " characterizations from Hyman and Kubicek , and the former called the performance a fine job while the latter wrote that " Mike Chang is the total package " . Flandez said Mike 's singing " wasn 't so terrible " , but while Lee said his is " not , by any means , a wonderful voice " she also said " he still pirouettes with the kind of easy grace that makes each move a joy to watch . " Futterman wrote , " He 's got the smooth dance moves down ... but , most impressively , his slick vocals are on point , hitting nice rises and falls at certain moments but mostly staying ' real cool ' , as the song calls for " , and Berk gave the performance five of five stars . " Fix You " received the least warm reception of the songs in the episode . Benigno criticized it for being " exactly like the original " , though he gave it a " B " and noted that the " last bit is kind of chillingly good in Matthew Morrison 's hands " . Flandez felt that the show 's version " pales in imitation to the original " . Futterman thought it was " thematically appropriate " but " not Schuester 's finest singing moment " , and Lee stated that " the song does not fit Morrison 's range comfortably " . Kevin P. Sullivan of MTV called it a " surprisingly tragic and moving rendition " , but Kubicek characterized it as an " emotionally manipulative song " , and West did not like the " implied condescension " of Will singing the song to Emma and gave it a " B " , though she thought Morrison " sounded good " and it was a " good way to close out the show " . In December 2012 , TV Guide listed the rendition as one of Glee 's worst performances .
= = = Chart history = = =
Two of the six cover versions released as singles debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 : " Fix You " debuted at number fifty @-@ three and " Run the World ( Girls ) " at number ninety @-@ one . " Fix You " debuted at number seventy @-@ six on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 , and was the one song from the episode to appear on that chart . Both " Fix You " and " Run the World ( Girls ) " were featured on the soundtrack album Glee : The Music , Volume 7 .
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= Battle of Albulena =
The Battle of Albulena , also known as the Battle of Ujëbardha , was fought on 2 September 1457 between Albanian forces led by Skanderbeg and an Ottoman army under Isak bey Evrenoz and Skanderbeg 's nephew , Hamza Kastrioti .
Skanderbeg had been the leader of the Albanians for over a decade and had seen many victories over Ottoman arms . However , after his loss at Berat in 1455 at the hands of Isak bey , Skanderbeg was betrayed by some of his most trusted officers , among them Moisi Arianit Golemi . Golemi returned the next year with an Ottoman force under his command , but was defeated at the Battle of Oranik and rejoined Skanderbeg 's army . Later , the dissatisfied Hamza Kastrioti betrayed Skanderbeg and was offered joint @-@ command with Isak bey over a second Ottoman invasion force .
The Ottomans arrived in late May 1457 and marched through the Mat River Valley . Skanderbeg tried to delay the vanguard , composed of Akıncı cavalrymen , but upon the approach of the main force , decided to retreat . Both Isak bey and Hamza were familiar with Skanderbeg 's tactics so the Albanian leader adopted a new one . He split his army into several groups and ordered them to march in separate directions through the mountains and remain unseen by the Ottoman forces until the signal to reassemble was given . The Albanians remained in separate formations until September , by which time the Ottomans had become both exasperated and convinced that Skanderbeg had been defeated . On 2 September 1457 , Skanderbeg finally gave the order for his armies to regroup and launched a surprise attack on the Ottoman camp , killing and capturing up to 30 @,@ 000 men . Among them was Hamza who was later sent as a prisoner to Naples in Italy .
The victory strengthened the morale of the Albanians . There were few , if not any , officers and soldiers who deserted afterwards . The battle of Albulena has been seen as Skanderbeg 's most brilliant victory over the Ottomans . However , it also marked the high point of the Albanian resistance , beginning a new phase in Skanderbeg 's quarter @-@ century long war which would include its fiercest Ottoman invasions . Even though Skanderbeg himself had died in January 1468 , the war would drag on until 1478 and later in the same year the main Albanian fortress at Krujë fell , finally effecting the annexation of Skanderbeg 's Albania by the Ottoman Empire .
= = Background = =
Skanderbeg , the ruler of Albania ( Latin : dominus Albaniae ) , had served for several years in the Ottoman army , as both soldier and commander , before returning to his homeland and beginning an uprising against the Ottoman Empire in 1444 . The Second Battle of Kosovo in 1448 had ended with the defeat of John Hunyadi , voivode of Transylvania while Skanderbeg and his forces were on their way ; but did not arrive due to his army being blocked off by Đurađ Branković , and so he was unable to provide help ; Hunyadi engaged the Ottomans thinking Skanderbeg was not coming . In reparation , Skanderbeg ravaged Brankovic 's domains . As a result of the defeat , the Ottomans were free from Hungarian pressure , which had been limited to Belgrade and its environs . In 1455 , Skanderbeg laid siege to Berat , a fortress which had been seized from his control in 1450 . The result was catastrophic for the Albanians who succumbed to an Ottoman counterattack upon Skanderbeg 's temporary departure from the main force . Alfonso V of Aragon , Skanderbeg 's most helpful and important ally , also suffered a blow to his ambitions which included a pan @-@ Mediterranean empire . The Albanians , however , were able to recover their morale when Pope Calixtus III , who had begun to worry that his plans for crusade would be undermined , promised to aid Skanderbeg .
Before the planned crusade commenced , Sultan Mehmed II the Conqueror ( Turkish : el @-@ Fātiḥ ) decided to march against Hungary and Albania . In April 1456 , Skanderbeg sent Pal Engjëlli , his ambassador to the West , with a letter to Cardinal Domenico Capranica informing the Holy See of his need for aid . The Ottoman invasion came in May 1456 when Moses Golemi , Skanderbeg 's former captain who had deserted after loss of Berat , met Skanderbeg 's men at the Battle of Oranik . The force was defeated and , through a show of mercy , Golemi was allowed to return to the Albanian ranks without punishment . In July 1456 Mehmed marched a large army to besiege Hungarian @-@ held Belgrade in Serbia , but was defeated by Hunyadi . Later that year , İbrahim II of the Karamanid Dynasty tried to create an anti @-@ Ottoman alliance which would include his realm , Skanderbeg , Hunyadi , Calixtus , and Alfonso , all of whom would act in concert to defeat the sultan . The plans were never put to practice , however .
Skanderbeg 's resources were worn out after over a decade of continuous war . Alfonso and the pope could not provide for him fully , while Venice continued to undermine Skanderbeg . The latter considered war with Skanderbeg since he maintained his alliance with Aragon . Relations with the Italian state worsened further when Lekë Dukagjini , Skanderbeg 's elusive ally in the north , captured Dagnum . Even though Skanderbeg did not participate in this , Venice used it as a casus belli to launch an expedition against Skanderbeg . War never started but Albanian @-@ Venetian relations sunk to their lowest point . The Venetian rectors continued to provoke Skanderbeg at a time when he had grown relatively weak due to his nephew and one of his most important officers , Hamza Kastrioti , deserting and joining the Ottomans . Hamza had become dissatisfied with Skanderbeg 's growing power and , upon being received by the sultan , was offered control over much of Albania once conquered . Stung by the betrayal , Skanderbeg offered an ultimatum to Venice where they had to halt their provocations or begin war . Since a crusade was anticipated against the Ottomans , Venice did not want to seem pro @-@ Ottoman and eased their stance towards Albania .
= = Campaign = =
By the end of May 1457 , a large Ottoman army was seen approaching Albania . Skanderbeg sent a letter to Calixtus informing him of the Ottoman arrival and the dire need for military aid . The pope responded with a promise to send a fleet to Albania – even though the enemy was on land – but it did not arrive . Skanderbeg was thus left to fight the oncoming Ottoman army alone . Mehmed II had placed Isak Bey Evrenoz and Hamza Kastrioti in command of the force . Isak bey was an experienced commander who had crushed John Kastrioti 's rebellion in 1430 and led the Ottoman counterattack at the Siege of Berat . Hamza brought along with him several disaffected Albanian nobles and personal knowledge of the tactics they could expect from Skanderbeg . In total , Ottoman forces numbered between 50 @,@ 000 and 80 @,@ 000 men . Armies of this size were usually commanded by the sultan himself so rumors spread that Mehmed was leading the campaign . In contrast , Skanderbeg had between 8 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 men to stand in opposition .
= = = Skanderbeg 's " disappearance " = = =
The Ottoman army did not march into Albania in one group . The first detachments to arrive were the Akıncı who marched through Dibra . Skanderbeg stalled this force 's advance , but , once the main force arrived , the Albanians were not able to offer further resistance and withdrew . Realizing that both Ottoman commanders , Isak bey and Hamza , were familiar with the Albanian terrain and his tactics , Skanderbeg decided to adopt a new means of engagement . Normally , he would lure his enemy into a trap and then ambush them . His new tactic was very similar to his normal ; however , he chose to approach it in a different manner . To make it impossible to be followed , Skanderbeg split his forces into several groups and ordered their respective commanders to march through the forests and mountains in different directions and to never assemble or assault the Ottomans unless instructed to do so . The Albanian warriors were supplied by the locals and supply depots set throughout the mountains as they marched .
The Ottomans marched through Mat and pillaged the area . Skanderbeg took parallel routes through the mountains . Since he had not yet engaged Skanderbeg , Isak bey decided not to besiege Krujë , Albania 's main fortress , until he was sure of the Albanian 's fate . He thus camped with his men in the area north of Mount Tumenishta ( Skënderbeu ) to wait for Skanderbeg 's appearance . This region was called Albulena ( Albanian : Uji i Bardhë ) , located south of modern @-@ day Laç . It was surrounded by a series of protective hills where guards were placed . Since Tumenishta had served as the main base for Skanderbeg 's forays into the Ottoman camp at the Siege of Krujë ( 1450 ) , Isak bey and Hamza prepared to annihilate any resistance they would find there . This effort came in vain , however , as they were not challenged by any Albanian forces . Still unsure of Skanderbeg 's dispositions , the Ottoman commanders strengthened the camp 's northern defenses , while the eastern side , in the direction of Tumenishta , remained lightly defended . Ottoman scouts crossed the Mat River into northern Albania . They were seen at the gates of Venetian @-@ held Alessio ( Lezhë ) and ventured deeper into Venetian territory .
Due to Skanderbeg 's " disappearance , " rumors began to spread that he had fled since he was unable to confront the Ottomans and that his men had betrayed him . This was further upheld by the Venetians in Durazzo ( Durrës ) . Isak bey and Hamza continued to be wary , however , and their reconnaissance forces reached as far north as Scutari ( Shkodër ) . Skanderbeg remained in the mountains throughout July and August . It is not known with certainty what his army did while in the mountains , but he planned to wear the Ottomans out by forcing them to wait and to make them believe that he had been decisively defeated . Skanderbeg then sent Gjergj ( George ) Pjetri to Rome as an ambassador to give the Pope the impression that Albania had been decisively conquered and that aid was necessary to force the Ottomans out of Albania . On 17 September 1457 , Calixtus notified Skanderbeg that he had sent Johan Navarre to help fund the crusade . By the time he arrived , however , the situation had already changed .
= = = Battle = = =
The local population remained faithful to Skanderbeg and did not reveal his whereabouts . Isak bey and Hamza grew confident that Skanderbeg had been defeated and had thus began to withdraw . When he judged the time right , Skanderbeg gave the signal for the army , which had up until then been in separate groups , to assemble without being seen by the Ottomans . The army gathered by the hills at Tumenishta – as the weakest point in the Ottoman camp was in this direction – and on 2 September 1457 , it was split again into three groups to assault the Ottoman camp . With some of his most trusted men , he climbed to a high peak to scout on the Ottoman camp and saw that the Ottomans were resting . He descended with his chosen band to eliminate any watching guards , but one saw Skanderbeg and fled into the camp yelling that Skanderbeg had arrived . In order to maintain the surprise , Skanderbeg ordered his men to get ready for battle .
With the accompaniment of loud noise made from metallic tools and weapons being clapped together , the Albanians charged into the Turkish camp . The Ottomans were caught by surprise and , despite their large numbers , were terrified by the fury of the Albanian assault , thinking they were attacking in larger numbers than they actually had . Hamza tried to reorder his men , assuring them that the Albanians were few . Isak bey , tried to send reinforcements to Hamza 's men , but the arrival of new Albanian contingents forced him to turn his attention . A series of cavalry charges and counter @-@ charges kept the battle moving with a rain of missiles and arquebusiers forcing the Ottomans into the heart of the camp . Seeing that they were surrounded , the Ottoman force began to panic and melted away . Hamza was thus captured , though Isak bey fled . The Ottoman dead may have been as high as 30 @,@ 000 , but it is unlikely that they suffered more than 15 @,@ 000 deaths . In addition , 15 @,@ 000 men were taken prisoner , twenty @-@ four standards were captured , and all the riches in the camp were lost to the Albanians . A multitude of men were also captured , among them Hamza Kastrioti . The fallen Albanian warriors were buried in the Cathedral of St. Mary in the village of Shumri ( 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) east of Mamurrasi ) near the battlefield .
= = Aftermath = =
The Battle of Albulena was significant for the southern resistance against the Ottoman Empire . Franz Babinger , a historian of the Ottoman Empire , describes the battle as Skanderbeg 's most brilliant victory . The battle of Albulena strengthened the morale of Skanderbeg 's men who afterwards rarely , if at all , deserted his army as Hamza had . Hamza himself was sent as a prisoner to Naples in Alfonso 's realm after being captured . An Ottoman envoy was sent to ransom the standard bearers and forty of the distinguished prisoners . The envoy also tried to settle for a truce between Mehmed and Skanderbeg , but the latter responded that he would only accept if Svetigrad and Berat , which had been lost in 1448 and 1450 respectively , were restored to his state . Seeing that Mehmed would not accept such terms , Skanderbeg strengthened his garrisons in the area around Svetigrad . The victory still bought Albania and Italy time ; in 1460 , Mehmed and Skanderbeg signed an armistice that lasted three years . This gave Skanderbeg the opportunity to land in Italy and help out Alfonso 's son , Ferdinand I of Naples , who had been crowned after his father had died . The battle thus opened a new phase in the Ottoman @-@ Albanian war which saw the high @-@ water mark of the Albanian resistance and the fiercest Ottoman invasions of Albania in the war . The war would last until the fall of Krujë in 1478 .
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= Don Kent ( wrestler ) =
Leo Joseph " Joe " Smith Jr . ( June 24 , 1933 – June 7 , 1993 ) was an American professional wrestler who wrestled as Don Kent and also as The Black Dragon , Doug Kent , Joe Smith and Super Medico III during his 20 years in professional wrestling .
Don Kent is one half of The Fabulous Kangaroos alongside partners Al Costello , Bruno Bekkar or Johnny Heffernan . Despite being born in America , Kent was billed as Australian when he competed as a Kangaroo using the Kangaroos ' " Ultra Australian " gimmick , complete with boomerangs , bush hats and " Waltzing Matilda " as their entrance music .
When Kent was not one half of the Kangaroos , he mainly worked as " Bulldog " Don Kent in NWA Mid @-@ America and NWA Detroit in the singles and the tag team divisions until his retirement in 1986 .
= = Career = =
Kent attended St. Philip Catholic Central High School in Battle Creek , Michigan . He was recruited by the Boston Red Sox as a catcher right out of high school . Kent ’ s father thought that Kent was too young to play professional baseball and insisted that he go to St. Benedict ’ s College in Kansas . After graduating , Kent worked at a Veterans Administration Medical Center in his hometown of Battle Creek while being trained by Leapin ’ Larry Chene for a professional wrestling career .
= = = Starting out = = =
Kent made his professional wrestling debut in 1956 working under such names as " Don Kent " , " Joe Smith " and " The Black Dragon " , generally working as a heel ( bad guy ) in the Michigan area . In the first half of the 1960s Don Kent went to Arizona and worked in the local wrestling promotion , where he was booked as a sadistic heel . In Arizona , Kent worked a storyline that drew full houses at the Phoenix Madison Square Garden against local face ( good guy ) Tito Montez . The two faced off week after week in a variety of specialty matches such as a chain match , " Arizona death match " and falls count anywhere match . The angle ended with a steel cage match that saw Montez win after overcoming Kent ’ s cheating ways . One week after the storyline ended , attendance dropped by half and Don Kent soon left the area .
= = = Fabulous Kangaroos = = =
In 1967 , Al Costello reformed the tag team The Fabulous Kangaroos with Ray St. Clair who retired after six months with knee problems . A few months after St. Clair retired , Costello found Don Kent to don the bush hat . Kent , who was from Michigan , adopted the Ultra @-@ Australian gimmick ( but retained his American accent ) and a second version of the Fabulous Kangaroos was formed . Costello and Kent teamed together on a regular basis from 1968 until 1974 , approximately the same amount of time that Costello spent teaming with his original partner Roy Heffernan . The Kangaroos won their first tag team championship a few months after teaming up , during a tour of Japan for “ International Wrestling Enterprise " . Over the years , they defended their title in promotions around the globe . In Canada , they were the first Eastern Sports Association International Tag Team Champions ; in the World Wrestling Association , they held the WWA World Tag Team Championship twice . In addition to winning titles all over North America , they also made appearances for the World Wide Wrestling Federation ( now known as World Wrestling Entertainment .
The Kangaroos frequented NWA Detroit , where they held the Detroit version of the NWA World Tag Team Championship for most of 1971 . By the end of 1972 , the Kangaroos began working for Nick Gulas ’ NWA Mid @-@ America . In Mid @-@ America , they held the local version of the NWA World Tag Team Championship , the Mid @-@ America version , on three occasions .
After a match in the Cincinnati Gardens , Costello 's hip was damaged when an enraged fan threw a fire extinguisher from the balcony . Costello had hip replacement surgery later that year . The fan was arrested , served 15 days in jail , and was fined fifty dollars for damaging the fire extinguisher . With Costello unable to compete , the Fabulous Kangaroos split up . After the Kangaroos went their separate ways Don Kent returned to NWA Mid @-@ America as a singles wrestler .
= = = Working alone = = =
When Costello retired , Kent remained with Mid @-@ America where he developed into a main heel as the " Dog Collar " wearing , barking " Bulldog " Don Kent . Kent teamed with Chris Gallagher and won the NWA Mid @-@ America Tag Team Championship on two occasions , beating the teams of Frank Monte and Nick DeCarlo as well as Steve Kovac and Ricky Gibson for the title . Kent teamed up with Count Drummer to win the Mid America Tag Team title once more , defeating Jackie Fargo and George Gulas on November 6 , 1974 , losing the title to Fargo and Gulas three weeks later . Kent won the NWA Mid @-@ America Heavyweight Championship , the main title of the promotion , in October 1974 by defeating Tony Charles . Kent lost his first Mid @-@ America title to Jackie Fargo and won it twice more in 1975 , first from Fargo and then later from " Crazy " Luke Graham . Graham defeated Kent on May 7 , 1975 to end his third and final reign with the title .
In late 1975 , Kent moved closer to home and work for The Sheik ’ s " NWA Detroit " ( also known as " Big Time Wrestling " ) using his " Bulldog " Don Kent persona . On November 1 , 1975 , Kent defeated Mark Lewin to win the Detroit version of the NWA United States Heavyweight Championship . Lewin regained the title in December . On October 16 , 1976 , Kent regained the title in a bloody brawl against Pampero Firpo and held on to it until January 8 , 1977 , when he lost it to Gino Hernandez . Kent developed into a long running enemy of the Sheik , who was the most popular man in the promotion , with the two clashing many times in wild and bloody brawls .
In 1977 , having recovered from hip surgery , Al Costello teamed up with Kent as The Fabulous Kangaroos for a tour of Puerto Rico with the World Wrestling Council ( WWC ) . In Puerto Rico , the Kangaroos were billed on arrival as the WWC World Tag Team Champions . The Kangaroos lost the title to Carlos Colón and Jose Rivera on March 12 , 1977 . The Kangaroos remained in WWC throughout 1977 and into 1978 , never regaining the WWC World Tag Team Championship . After their tour in Puerto Rico ended , Don Kent returned to singles wrestling and Costello focused more on managing due to his bad hip .
In 1977 Kent returned to the Alabama area to work for NWA Mid @-@ America once more . Kent defeated Lanny Poffo to win his fourth Mid @-@ America Heavyweight title in December 1977 and lost it to Poffo ’ s brother Randy Savage on January 3 , 1978 . In 1979 , Kent wrestled in Puerto Rico as a singles wrestler , winning the WWC Caribbean Heavyweight Championship from Chief War Cloud on January 6 , 1979 and holding it for over 6 months until he lost it to Hurricane Castillo on July 21 , 1979 . Shortly after losing the Caribbean title , Kent moved up a level and defeated Puerto Rican legend Carlos Colón on August 3 , 1979 only to lose the title to Invader I three weeks later in Ponce , Puerto Rico .
In the early to mid 80s , Don Kent returned sporadically to Big Time Wrestling to wrestle the Sheik 's nephew Sabu .
= = = Kangaroo return = = =
In 1981 , Costello teamed Kent with Bruno Bekkar , who was best known for working in his native New Zealand and Australia , and work a tour as The Kangaroos for the WWC with Costello serving as their manager . Kent and Bekkar won the WWC North American Tag Team title from the team of Jack and Jerry Brisco on October 22 , 1981 . This version of the Kangaroos first lost to , then regained the titles from , Invader I and Super Gladiador before losing them for good on January 26 , 1982 to Invader and Gladiador . After this tour of the Caribbean , Bruno Bekkar returned to Australia and New Zealand to work for the local promotions there .
Bekkar was replaced with " Johnny Heffernan " ( Canadian Bob Della Serra ) , a storyline cousin of Roy Heffernan for what was the final Kangaroo version to compete . The team ended Terry and Dory Funk , Jr . ’ s year and a half long run with the WWC World Tag Team championship when they defeated them on May 1 , 1982 . The team held the gold for less than 2 months before losing the belts again . After ending their tour in Puerto Rico , Kent and Heffernan returned to mainland USA to work for Championship Wrestling from Florida , a promotion the Kangaroos had worked in 1962 . In Florida , The Kangaroos won the NWA Florida Global Tag Team Championship four times . The final storyline involving the Fabulous Kangaroos saw Al Costello bring in J.J. Dillon to act as his short term replacement as he " took care of business " . When Costello returned from his business trip , Dillon refused to give up the Kangaroos ' contracts and was backed up by both Kent and Heffernan ( in storyline terms ) . This storyline was designed to write Al Costello out of The Fabulous Kangaroos storyline and allow him to retire from wrestling altogether . Not long after Costello retired , Kent and Della Serra went their separate ways .
= = = After The Kangaroos = = =
After The Kangaroos split up for the last time , Kent worked mainly in Michigan with tours of Puerto Rico . In Puerto Rico , Don Kent donned a mask and worked under the name " Super Médico III " alongside Super Médico I. Kent was brought in as a storyline replacement for the real Super Médico III , who was played by Jose Estrada , Jr . Médicos I & III won the WWC World Tag Team Championship on August 4 , 1984 from King Tonga and Gran Apollo . When Super Médico III was unmasked in October and revealed to NOT be Jose Estrada , Jr . , the team was stripped of their titles because they used an illegal man to help defend the title . After being exposed as the fake " Medico III " Kent returned to the United States and worked primarily in the Indianapolis @-@ based World Wrestling Association where he continued to wrestle until 1986 , when he went into semi @-@ retirement . By 1988 , Kent was back wrestling tours of Puerto Rico 's WWC as a single . He would continue to wrestle sporadically over the years to follow , stepping into the ring as late as 1992 at the age of 59 . Don Kent died on June 14 , 1993 after suffering from Leukemia for a long period of time .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Bulldog
Managers
George " Crybaby " Cannon
Sir Dudley Clement
Al Costello
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Central States Wrestling
NWA Central States Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Championship Wrestling from Florida
NWA Florida Global Tag Team Championship ( 4 times ) – with Johnny Heffernan
Eastern Sports Association
ESA International Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Al Costello
International Wrestling Enterprise
Trans @-@ World Wrestling Alliance World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Al Costello
NWA Detroit
NWA United States Heavyweight Championship ( Detroit version ) ( 2 times )
NWA Mid @-@ America
NWA Mid @-@ America Heavyweight Championship ( 4 times )
NWA Mid @-@ America Tag Team Championship ( 3 times ) – with Chris Gallager ( 2 ) and Count Drummer ( 1 )
NWA World Tag Team Championship ( Mid @-@ America version ) ( 3 times ) – with Al Costello
World Wrestling Association
WWA World Tag Team Championship ( 5 times ) – with Al Costello ( 2 ) , Dr. Jerry Graham ( 2 ) and Chris Carter ( 1 )
World Wrestling Council
WWC Caribbean Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
WWC Caribbean Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Bruno Bekkar
WWC North American Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
WWC North American Tag Team Championship ( 4 times ) – with Bruno Bekkar ( 1 ) , Johnny Heffernan ( 2 ) and Super Médico I ( 1 )
WWC World Junior Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
WWC World Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – with Al Costello ( 1 )
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= M @-@ 53 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 53 is a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan that connects Detroit to The Thumb region . The highway starts in Detroit at a connection with M @-@ 3 and ends in Port Austin , Michigan at M @-@ 25 . In between , the trunkline passes through the northern suburbs of Metro Detroit , connects to freeways like Interstate 69 ( I @-@ 69 ) and provides access to rural farmland . In Macomb County , M @-@ 53 follows the Christopher Columbus Freeway , while the remainder of the highway is known as Van Dyke Avenue in the metro area or Van Dyke Road elsewhere . The highway has also been named the Earle Memorial Highway for one of the pioneers of the Good Roads Movement and Michigan 's highway system .
When the first state highways were signed in the field in 1919 , M @-@ 53 was one of them , running from Detroit to Elkton . In the 1920s , the highway was extended northward to connect with Port Austin . Later improvements through 1940 realigned a section of the roadway near Imlay City and completed paving . With planning and construction during the 1950s and 1960s , the state converted portions of the road north of Detroit to have divided highway and freeway segments . The freeway bypass of Romeo was started in the 1990s and finished to its current state in 2003 .
= = Route description = =
Starting at the intersection between Van Dyke Avenue and M @-@ 3 ( Gratiot Avenue ) , M @-@ 53 runs north @-@ northwesterly along Van Dyke in the city of Detroit . The four @-@ lane roadway passes through residential neighborhoods on the city 's east side . About a half mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) north of its start , M @-@ 53 meets I @-@ 94 at the latter 's exit 218 . On the opposite side of the freeway interchange , Van Dyke Avenue turns due north and continues through a mix of residential and industrial areas near Coleman A. Young International Airport . In this area , the highway crosses branch lines for both the Conrail Shared Assets Operations and the Canadian National Railway . M @-@ 53 continues northward through residential areas north of 6 Mile Road and crosses from Detroit into Warren at the junction with 8 Mile Road ; that road also marks the Wayne – Macomb county line . The highway passes through the middle of Center Line , an enclave surrounded by Warren . On the northern edge of Center Line , M @-@ 53 meets exit 23 along I @-@ 696 , the Walter Reuther Freeway . North of this interchange , Van Dyke Avenue crosses back into Warren and continues northward . The highway is paralleled by a Conrail line as they both pass through the northern Detroit suburbs . Between 12 Mile and 14 Mile roads , M @-@ 53 passes next to the General Motors Technical Center and through the center of a suburban shopping district . The roadway widens out into a divided highway as it continues northward , crossing into Sterling Heights at 14 Mile Road . The highway is bounded by additional commercial and light industrial properties as it intersects Metropolitan Parkway ( 16 Mile Road ) .
Near 18 Mile Road , M @-@ 53 curves to the northeast and separates from Van Dyke Avenue . This separation is marked by an interchange as M @-@ 53 also transitions into a full , four @-@ lane freeway . The interchange , numbered exit 15 , connects to a roundabout junction with 18 ½ Mile Road and Van Dyke Avenue . M @-@ 53 , now named either the Van Dyke Freeway or the Christopher Columbus Freeway , crosses the Clinton River before resuming a northward course , passing to the east side of Utica in Shelby Township . M @-@ 53 runs about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the east of Van Dyke Avenue through the area , and north of the 23 Mile Road interchange , it curves northwesterly to draw closer to Van Dyke . The landscape is mostly residential subdivisions with parks and golf courses as the freeway exits Metro Detroit proper . There is one last interchange near 28 Mile Road where the freeway meets Van Dyke Road , as it is now called . M @-@ 53 turns northeasterly , running as an expressway , with at @-@ grade intersections for access at the key cross roads instead of full interchanges . The expressway section bypasses Romeo to its east , passing between the city and the Romeo State Airport . There are intersections for 30 and 32 Mile roads before the highway curves to the northwest and transitions back to a rural undivided , two @-@ lane , highway near 34 Mile Road . The Columbus Freeway designation drops at this point , and M @-@ 53 follows Van Dyke Road north and northwesterly through rural northern Macomb County .
North of Romeo , the trunkline passes through agricultural areas of The Thumb region of the state . M @-@ 53 crosses into Lapeer County south of Almont . Further north , Van Dyke Road meets I @-@ 69 in Imlay City , running through the downtown area north of the Interstate ; Imlay City is also the location of a crossing of the Canadian National Railway line that carries Amtrak 's Blue Water service between Flint and Port Huron . In the unincorporated community of Burnside , M @-@ 53 intersects M @-@ 90 . The two highways run concurrently for about a mile and a half ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) before separating . M @-@ 53 continues northward and crosses into Sanilac County near Marlette . In that city , the highway crosses a branch line of the Huron and Eastern Railway ( HESR ) before continuing through downtown . From Marlette northward , M @-@ 53 runs parallel to , and about a mile east of , the Sanilac – Tuscola county line . The highway follows Van Dyke Road through rural farming country past intersections with M @-@ 46 and M @-@ 81 and across the Cass River before crossing into Huron County .
About six miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) into Huron County , the highway turns to the northeast . Near Bad Axe , Van Dyke Road curves again , turning due east into town where it becomes Huron Street . At downtown , M @-@ 53 turns north on Port Crescent Street , joining with M @-@ 142 . The two highways cross another branch line of the HESR . Outside of town , the street name changes back to Van Dyke Road , and M @-@ 142 separates to the west . M @-@ 53 now follows Van Dyke Road , which is paralleled by a HESR line as far north as Kinde . The highway continues further along , meandering toward the northeast as it approaches Port Austin . M @-@ 25 merges in from the east at Grindstone Road , and the two highways run together north along Lake Street into town . At the intersection with Spring Street , M @-@ 25 turns west to follow the shoreline of Saginaw Bay , and M @-@ 53 terminates .
M @-@ 53 is maintained by MDOT like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 53 were the 62 @,@ 594 vehicles daily between the southern end of the freeway and M @-@ 59 ; the lowest counts were the 1 @,@ 964 vehicles per day north of Kinde . M @-@ 53 between M @-@ 3 in Detroit and the northern M @-@ 142 junction near Bad Axe has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
M @-@ 53 was first designated by 1919 ; it started at Gratiot Avenue in Detroit running north through Centerline , and Utica to eventually end east of Elkton on M @-@ 31 . An extension in 1926 moved the northern terminus to Port Austin along the former M @-@ 19 . A new route near Imlay City was opened in 1932 , with the southern section of the bypass opened in 1937 . The trunkline was completely paved by 1940 when the last 11 miles ( 18 km ) were paved in Huron and Sanilac counties .
The first divided highway section was completed in 1952 in Warren , with an additional two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) completed the following year , completing the divided highway between 12 Mile and 17 Mile roads . Full freeway segments were built in 1965 between 18 Mile and 27 ½ Mile roads near Utica and Romeo . The plans at the time were to extend the freeway west one mile to Mound Road and then have it continue south along the Mound Road corridor into Detroit to connect with the Davison Freeway and I @-@ 96 . In fact , a four @-@ level freeway @-@ to @-@ freeway interchange had already been completed at the intersection of Mound Road and I @-@ 696 in Warren . Construction started on the Romeo Bypass in 1989 . Completed in 1992 , the bypass extended a two @-@ lane expressway to 34 Mile Road . Further construction on the remaining two lanes was started in 2002 . When it was finished in 2003 , the highway had two remaining intersections but is otherwise a limited @-@ access freeway . The old highway was transferred to local control and removed from the state trunkline highway system .
= = Memorial highway designations = =
The freeway and expressway sections of M @-@ 53 are officially known as the Christopher Columbus Freeway as a nod to Macomb County 's large Italian American population . This designation was approved by the Michigan Legislature in 1978 . The remainder has been named Van Dyke Avenue or Van Dyke Road . That name honors James A. Van Dyke , a prominent attorney in Detroit in the 19th century . Van Dyke was the prosecutor for Wayne County , as well as both city attorney and mayor of Detroit . The street through Detroit was named in his honor , and as the highway was extended northward , the name was carried with it .
The last name applied to M @-@ 53 is the Earle Memorial Highway , named in honor of Horatio Earle , Michigan 's first State Highway Commissioner . Earle was instrumental in the early Good Roads Movement in the state and the creation of the Michigan State Highway Department , which is now MDOT . When the original legislation creating a highway agency was declared unconstitutional in 1903 , he kept the job in an unofficial capacity until the Legislature could rectify the situation . Earle designated that the first mile of state reward road in The Thumb , and residents formed a group to lobby to have the road named in his honor . The State Highway Commissioner Murray Van Wagoner designated M @-@ 53 in Earle 's memory in April 1939 , and the Legislature legislation two years later honoring him , but not officially naming the road . That was corrected in 2001 when the statutes naming various highways in the state were consolidated , and M @-@ 53 was officially designated the Earle Memorial Highway .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Lessons for Children =
Lessons for Children is a series of four age @-@ adapted reading primers written by the prominent 18th @-@ century British poet and essayist Anna Laetitia Barbauld . Published in 1778 and 1779 , the books initiated a revolution in children 's literature in the Anglo @-@ American world . For the first time , the needs of the child reader were seriously considered : the typographically simple texts progress in difficulty as the child learns . In perhaps the first demonstration of experiential pedagogy in Anglo @-@ American children 's literature , Barbauld 's books use a conversational style , which depicts a mother and her son discussing the natural world . Based on the educational theories of John Locke , Barbauld 's books emphasise learning through the senses .
One of the primary morals of Barbauld 's lessons is that individuals are part of a community ; in this she was part of a tradition of female writing that emphasised the interconnectedness of society . Charles , the hero of the texts , explores his relationship to nature , to animals , to people , and finally to God .
Lessons had a significant effect on the development of children 's literature in Britain and the United States . Maria Edgeworth , Sarah Trimmer , Jane Taylor , and Ellenor Fenn , to name a few of the most illustrious , were inspired to become children 's authors because of Lessons and their works dominated children 's literature for several generations . Lessons itself was reprinted for over a century . However , because of the disrepute that educational writings fell into , largely due to the low esteem awarded Barbauld , Trimmer , and others by contemporary male Romantic writers , Barbauld 's Lessons has rarely been studied by scholars . In fact , it has only been analysed in depth since the 1990s .
= = Publication , structure , and pedagogical theory = =
= = = Publication and structure = = =
Lessons depicts a mother teaching her son . Presumably , many of the events were inspired by Barbauld 's experiences of teaching her own adopted son , her nephew Charles , as the events correlate with his age and growth . Although there are no surviving first edition copies of the works , children 's literature scholar Mitzi Myers has reconstructed the probable publication dates from Barbauld 's letters and the books ' earliest reviews as follows : Lessons for Children of two to three ( 1778 ) ; Lessons for Children of three , part I ( 1778 ) ; Lessons for Children of three , part II ( 1778 ) ; and Lessons for Children of three to four ( 1779 ) . After its initial publication , the series was often published as a single volume .
Barbauld demanded that her books be printed in large type with wide margins , so that children could easily read them ; she was more than likely the " originator " of this practice , according to Barbauld scholar William McCarthy , and " almost certainly [ its ] popularizer " . In her history of children 's literature in The Guardian of Education ( 1802 – 1806 ) , Sarah Trimmer noted these innovations , as well as the use of good @-@ quality paper and large spaces between words . While making reading easier , these production changes also made the books too expensive for the children of the poor , therefore Barbauld 's books helped to create a distinct aesthetic for the middle @-@ class children 's book .
Barbauld 's texts were designed for the developing reader , beginning with words of one syllable and progressing to multi @-@ syllabic words . The first part of Lessons includes simple statements such as : " Ink is black , and papa 's shoes are black . Paper is white , and Charles 's frock is white . " The second part increases in difficulty : " February is very cold too , but the days are longer , and there is a yellow crocus coming up , and the mezereon tree is in blossom , and there are some white snow @-@ drops peeking up their little heads . "
Barbauld also " departs from previous reading primers by introducing elements of story , or narrative , piecemeal before introducing her first story " : the narrator explains the idea of " sequentiality " to Charles , and implicitly to the reader , before ever telling him a story . For example , the days of the week are explained before Charles 's trip to France .
= = = Pedagogical theory = = =
Barbauld 's Lessons emphasises the value of all kinds of language and literacy ; not only do readers learn how to read but they also acquire the ability to understand metaphors and analogies . The fourth volume in particular fosters poetic thinking and as McCarthy points out , its passages on the moon mimic Barbauld 's poem " A Summer Evening 's Meditation " :
Barbauld also developed a particular style that would dominate British and American children 's literature for a generation : an " informal dialogue between parent and child " , a conversational style that emphasised linguistic communication . Lessons starts out monopolised by the mother 's voice but slowly , over the course of the volumes , Charles 's voice is increasingly heard as he gains confidence in his own ability to read and speak . This style was an implicit critique of late 18th @-@ century pedagogy , which typically employed rote learning and memorisation .
Barbauld 's Lessons also illustrates mother and child engaging in quotidian activities and taking nature walks . Through these activities , the mother teaches Charles about the world around him and he explores it . This , too , was a challenge to the pedagogical orthodoxy of the day , which did not encourage experiential learning . The mother shows Charles the seasons , the times of the day , and different minerals by bringing him to them rather than simply describing them and having him recite those descriptions . Charles learns the principles of " botany , zoology , numbers , change of state in chemistry ... the money system , the calendar , geography , meteorology , agriculture , political economy , geology , [ and ] astronomy " . He also inquires about all of them , making the learning process dynamic .
Barbauld 's pedagogy was fundamentally based on John Locke 's Some Thoughts Concerning Education ( 1693 ) , the most influential pedagogical treatise in 18th @-@ century Britain . Building on Locke 's theory of the Association of Ideas , which he had outlined in Some Thoughts , philosopher David Hartley had developed an associationist psychology that greatly influenced writers such as Barbauld ( who had read Joseph Priestley 's redaction of it ) . For the first time , educational theorists and practitioners were thinking in terms of developmental psychology . As a result , Barbauld and the women writers she influenced produced the first graded texts and the first body of literature designed for an age @-@ specific readership .
= = Themes = =
Lessons not only teaches literacy , " it also initiates the child [ reader ] into the elements of society 's symbol @-@ systems and conceptual structures , inculcates an ethics , and encourages him to develop a certain kind of sensibility " . One of the series ' overall aims is to demonstrate that Charles is superior to the animals he encounters — because he can speak and reason , he is better than they are . Lessons for Children , of Three Years Old , part 2 begins :
Do you know why you are better than Puss ? Puss can play as well as you ; and Puss can drink milk , and lie upon the carpet ; and she can run as fast as you , and faster too , a great deal ; and she can climb trees better ; and she can catch mice , which you cannot do . But can Puss talk ? No . Can Puss read ? No . Then that is the reason why you are better than Puss — because you can talk and read .
Andrew O 'Malley writes in his survey of 18th @-@ century children 's literature , " from helping poor animals [ Charles ] eventually makes a seamless transition to performing small acts of charity for the poor children he encounters " . Charles learns to care for his fellow human beings through his exposure to animals . Barbauld 's Lessons is not , therefore , Romantic in the traditional sense ; it does not emphasise the solitary self or the individual . As McCarthy puts it , " every human being needs other human beings in order to live . Humans are communal entities " .
Lessons was probably meant to be paired with Barbauld 's Hymns in Prose for Children ( 1781 ) , which were both written for Charles . As F. J. Harvey Darton , an early scholar of children 's literature , explains , they " have the same ideal , in one aspect held by Rousseau , in another wholly rejected by him : the belief that a child should steadily contemplate Nature , and the conviction that by so doing he will be led to contemplate the traditional God " . However , some modern scholars have pointed to the lack of overt religious references in Lessons , particularly in contrast to Hymns , to make the claim that it is secular .
One important theme in Lessons is restriction of the child , a theme which has been interpreted both positively and negatively by critics . In what Mary Jackson has called the " new child " of the 18th century , she describes " a fondly sentimentalized state of childishness rooted in material and emotional dependency on adults " and she argues that the " new good child seldom made important , real decisions without parental approval ... In short , the new good child was a paragon of dutiful submissiveness , refined virtue , and appropriate sensibility . " Other scholars , such as Sarah Robbins , have maintained that Barbauld presents images of constraint only to offer images of liberation later in the series : education for Barbauld , in this interpretation , is a progression from restraint to liberation , physically represented by Charles ' slow movement from his mother 's lap in the opening scene of first book , to a stool next to her in the opening of the subsequent volume , to his detachment from her side in the final book .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Lessons for Children and Barbauld 's other popular children 's book , Hymns in Prose for Children , had an unprecedented impact ; not only did they influence the poetry of William Wordsworth and William Blake , particularly Blake 's Songs of Innocence and Experience ( 1789 – 94 ) , they were also used to teach several generations of schoolchildren both in Britain and the United States . Barbauld 's texts were used to perpetuate the ideal of Republican motherhood in 19th @-@ century America , particularly the notion of the mother as the educator of the nation . British children 's author and critic Charlotte Yonge wrote in 1869 that the books had taught " three @-@ quarters of the gentry of the last three generations " to read . Poet Elizabeth Barrett Browning could still recite the beginning of Lessons at age thirty @-@ nine .
Writers of all stamps immediately recognised the revolutionary nature of Barbauld 's books . After meeting Barbauld , the famous 18th @-@ century novelist Frances Burney described her and her books :
... the authoress of the most useful books , next to Mrs. Trimmer 's , that have been yet written for dear little children ; though this for the world is probably her very secondary merit , her many pretty poems , and particularly songs , being generally esteemed . But many more have written those as well , and not a few better ; for children 's books she began the new walk , which has since been so well cultivated , to the great information as well as utility of parents .
Barbauld herself believed that her writing was noble and she encouraged others to follow in her footsteps . As Betsy Rodgers , her biographer , explains : " she gave prestige to the writing of juvenile literature , and by not lowering her standard of writing for children , she inspired others to write on a similar high standard " . In fact , because of Barbauld , Sarah Trimmer and Hannah More were galvanised to write for poor children and to organise a large @-@ scale Sunday School movement . Ann and Jane Taylor began writing children 's poetry , the most famous of which is " Twinkle , Twinkle , Little Star " . Ellenor Fenn wrote and designed a series of readers and games for middle @-@ class children , including the best @-@ selling Cobwebs to Catch Flies ( 1784 ) . Richard Lovell Edgeworth began one of the first systematic studies of childhood development which would culminate not only in an educational treatise co @-@ authored with Maria Edgeworth entitled Practical Education ( 1798 ) , but also in a large body of children 's stories by Maria , beginning with The Parent 's Assistant ( 1798 ) . Thomas Day originally began his important The History of Sandford and Merton ( 1783 – 89 ) for Edgeworth 's collection , but it grew too long and was published separately .
In the second half of the 1790s , Barbauld and her brother , the physician John Aikin , wrote a second series of books , Evenings at Home , aimed at more advanced readers , ages eight to twelve . While not as influential , these were also popular and remained in print for decades . Lessons was reprinted , translated , pirated , and imitated until the 20th century ; according to Myers , it helped found a female tradition of educational writing .
While Day , for example , has been hailed as an educational innovator , Barbauld has most often been described through the unsympathetic words of her detractors . The politician Charles James Fox and the writer and critic Samuel Johnson ridiculed Barbauld 's children 's books and believed that she was wasting her poetic talents . In his Life of Johnson ( 1791 ) , James Boswell recorded Johnson 's thoughts :
Endeavouring to make children prematurely wise is useless labour ... Too much is expected from precocity , and too little performed . [ Barbauld ] was an instance of early cultivation , but in what did it terminate ? In marrying a little Presbyterian parson , who keeps an infant boarding @-@ school , so that all her employment now is , ' To suckle fools , and chronicle small beer . ' She tells the children ' This is a cat , and that is a dog , with four legs and a tail ; see there ! you are much better than a cat or a dog , for you can speak.'
Barbauld had published a successful book of poetry in 1773 which Johnson greatly admired ; he viewed her switch to children 's literature as a descent . The most damning and lasting criticism , however , came from the Romantic essayist Charles Lamb in a letter to the poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge :
Mrs. Barbauld [ ' s ] stuff has banished all the old classics of the nursery ... Mrs. B 's and Mrs. Trimmer 's nonsense lay in piles about . Knowledge insignificant & vapid as Mrs. B 's books convey , it seems , must come to a child in the shape of knowledge , & his empty noddle must be turned with conceit of his own powers , when he has learnt , that a Horse is an animal , & billy is better than a Horse , & such like : instead of that beautiful Interest which made the child a man , while all the time he suspected himself to be no bigger than a child . Science has succeeded to Poetry no less in the little walks of Children than with Men . ― : Is there no possibility of averting this sore evil ? Think what you would have been now , if instead of being fed with Tales and old wives fables in childhood , you had been crammed with Geography & Natural History ? Damn them . I mean the cursed Barbauld Crew , those Blights & Blasts of all that is Human in man & child . [ emphasis Lamb 's ]
This quote was used by writers and scholars to condemn Barbauld and other educational writers for a century . As Myers argues :
[ Lamb ] expresses in embryonic form ways of thinking about children , teaching , and literature that have long since been institutionalized in historical account and classroom practice : the privileging of an imaginative canon and its separation from all the cultural knowledge that had previously been thought of as literature ; the binary opposition of scientific , empiricist ways of knowing and intuitive , imaginative insights ; even the two @-@ tiered structure of most modern English departments , with male @-@ dominated imaginative literature on the upper @-@ deck and practical reading and writing instruction , taught most often by women and the untenured , relegated to the lower levels .
It is only in the 1990s and 2000s that Barbauld and other female educational writers are beginning to be acknowledged in the history of children 's literature and , indeed , in the history of literature itself . As Myers points out , " the writing woman as teacher has not captured the imagination of feminist scholars " , and Barbauld 's children 's works are usually consigned to " the backwaters of children 's literature surveys , usually deplored for their pernicious effect on the emergent cultural construction of Romantic childhood , or in the margins of commentary on male high Romanticism , a minor inspiration for Blake or Wordsworth perhaps " . The male Romantics did not explore didactic genres that illustrated educational progress ; rather , as Myers explains , their works embodied a " nostalgia for lost youth and [ a ] pervasive valorization of instinctive juvenile wisdom " not shared by many female writers at this time .
Serious scholarship is just beginning to investigate the complexities of Barbauld 's Lessons ; McCarthy , for example , has noted the resonances between Lessons and T. S. Eliot 's The Wasteland that have yet to be explored :
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= Urquhart Castle =
Urquhart Castle ( listen ; Scottish Gaelic : Caisteal na Sròine ) sits beside Loch Ness in the Highlands of Scotland . The castle is on the A82 road , 21 kilometres ( 13 mi ) south @-@ west of Inverness and 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) east of the village of Drumnadrochit .
The present ruins date from the 13th to the 16th centuries , though built on the site of an early medieval fortification . Founded in the 13th century , Urquhart played a role in the Wars of Scottish Independence in the 14th century . It was subsequently held as a royal castle , and was raided on several occasions by the MacDonald Earls of Ross . The castle was granted to the Clan Grant in 1509 , though conflict with the MacDonalds continued . Despite a series of further raids the castle was strengthened , only to be largely abandoned by the middle of the 17th century . Urquhart was partially destroyed in 1692 to prevent its use by Jacobite forces , and subsequently decayed . In the 20th century it was placed in state care and opened to the public : it is now one of the most @-@ visited castles in Scotland .
The castle , situated on a headland overlooking Loch Ness , is one of the largest in Scotland in area . It was approached from the west and defended by a ditch and drawbridge . The buildings of the castle were laid out around two main enclosures on the shore . The northern enclosure or Nether Bailey includes most of the more intact structures , including the gatehouse , and the five @-@ storey Grant Tower at the north end of the castle . The southern enclosure or Upper Bailey , sited on higher ground , comprises the scant remains of earlier buildings .
= = History = =
= = = Early Middle Ages = = =
The name Urquhart derives from the 7th @-@ century form Airdchartdan , itself a mix of Gaelic air ( by ) and Old Welsh cardden ( thicket or wood ) . Pieces of vitrified stone , subjected to intense heat and characteristic of early medieval fortification , had been discovered at Urquhart from the early 20th century . Speculation that Urquhart may have been the fortress of Bridei son of Maelchon , king of the northern Picts , led Professor Leslie Alcock to undertake excavations in 1983 . Adomnán 's Life of Columba records that St. Columba visited Bridei some time between 562 and 586 , though little geographical detail is given . Adomnán also relates that during the visit , Columba converted a Pictish nobleman named Emchath , who was on his deathbed , his son Virolec , and their household , at a place called Airdchartdan . The excavations , supported by radiocarbon dating , indicated that the rocky knoll at the south @-@ west corner of the castle had been the site of an extensive fort between the 5th and 11th centuries . The findings led Professor Alcock to conclude that Urquhart is most likely to have been the site of Emchath 's residence , rather than that of Bridei who is more likely to have been based at Inverness , either at the site of the castle or at Craig Phadrig to the west .
= = = The early castle = = =
Some sources state that William the Lion had a royal castle at Urquhart in the 12th century , though Professor Alcock finds no evidence for this . In the 12th and 13th centuries , the Meic Uilleim ( MacWilliams ) , descendents of Malcolm III , staged a series of rebellions against David I and his successors . The last of these rebellions was put down in 1229 , and to maintain order Alexander II granted Urquhart to his Hostarius ( usher or door @-@ ward ) , Thomas de Lundin . On de Lundin 's death a few years later it passed to his son Alan Durward . It is considered likely that the original castle was built soon after this time , centred on the motte at the south @-@ west of the site . In 1275 , after Alan 's death , the king granted Urquhart to John II Comyn , Lord of Badenoch .
The first documentary record of Urquhart Castle occurs in 1296 , when it was captured by Edward I of England . Edward 's invasion marked the beginning of the Wars of Scottish Independence , which would go on intermittently until 1357 . Edward appointed Sir William fitz Warin as constable to hold the castle for the English . In 1297 he was ambushed by Sir Andrew de Moray while returning from Inverness , and Moray subsequently laid siege to the castle , launching an unsuccessful night attack . The English must have been dislodged soon after , since in 1298 Urquhart was again controlled by the Scots . In 1303 Sir Alexander de Forbes failed to hold off another English assault . This time Edward installed as governor Alexander Comyn , brother of John , as the family had sided with the English against Robert Bruce . Following his murder of the Red Comyn in 1306 , Bruce completed his defeat of the Comyns when he marched through the Great Glen in 1307 , taking the castles of Inverlochy , Urquhart and Inverness . After this time Urquhart became a royal castle , held for the crown by a series of constables .
Sir Robert Lauder of Quarrelwood was constable of Urquhart Castle in 1329 . After fighting at the Battle of Halidon Hill in 1333 , where the Scots were defeated , Lauder returned to hold Urquhart against another threatened English invasion . It is recorded as being one of only five castles in Scotland held by the Scots at this time . In 1342 , David II spent the summer hunting at Urquhart , the only king to have stayed here .
Over the next two hundred years , the Great Glen was raided frequently by the MacDonald Lords of the Isles , powerful rulers of a semi @-@ independent kingdom in western Scotland , with a claim to the earldom of Ross . In 1395 , Domhnall of Islay seized Urquhart Castle from the crown , and managed to retain it for more than 15 years . In 1411 , he marched through the glen to take on the king 's supporters at the Battle of Harlaw . Although an indecisive battle , Domhnall subsequently lost the initiative and the crown was soon back in control of Urquhart . In 1437 Domhnall 's son Alexander , now Earl of Ross , raided around Glen Urquhart but could not take the castle . Royal funds were granted to shore up the castle 's defences . Alexander 's son John succeeded his father in 1449 , aged 16 . In 1452 he too led a raid up the Great Glen , seizing Urquhart , and subsequently obtained a grant of the lands and castle of Urquhart for life . However , in 1462 John made an agreement with Edward IV of England against the Scottish King James III . When this became known to James in 1476 , John was stripped of his titles , and Urquhart was turned over to an ally , the Earl of Huntly .
= = = The Grants = = =
Huntly brought in Sir Duncan Grant of Freuchie to restore order to the area around Urquhart Castle . His son John Grant of Freuchie ( d.1538 ) was given a five @-@ year lease of the Glen Urquhart estate in 1502 . In 1509 , Urquhart Castle , along with the estates of Glen Urquhart and Glenmoriston , was granted by James IV to John Grant in perpetuity , on condition that he repair and rebuild the castle . The Grants maintained their ownership of the castle until 1912 , although the raids from the west continued . In 1513 , following the disaster of Flodden , Sir Donald MacDonald of Lochalsh attempted to gain from the disarray in Scotland by claiming the Lordship of the Isles and occupying Urquhart Castle . Grant regained the castle before 1517 , but not before the MacDonalds had driven off 300 cattle and 1 @,@ 000 sheep , as well as looting the castle of provisions . Grant unsuccessfully attempted to claim damages from MacDonald . James Grant of Freuchie ( d.1553 ) succeeded his father , and in 1544 became involved with Huntly and Clan Fraser in a feud with the Macdonalds of Clanranald , which culminated in the Battle of the Shirts . In retaliation , the MacDonalds and their allies the Camerons attacked and captured Urquhart in 1545 . Known as the " Great Raid " , this time the MacDonalds succeeded in taking 2 @,@ 000 cattle , as well as hundreds of other animals , and stripped the castle of its furniture , cannon , and even the gates . Grant regained the castle , and was also awarded Cameron lands as recompense .
The Great Raid proved to be the last raid . In 1527 , the historian Hector Boece wrote of the " rewinous wallis " of Urquhart , but by the close of the 16th century Urquhart had been rebuilt by the Grants , now a powerful force in the Highlands . Repairs and remodelling continued as late as 1623 , although the castle was no longer a favoured residence . In 1644 a mob of Covenanters ( Presbyterian agitators ) broke into the castle when Lady Mary Grant was staying , robbing her and turning her out for her adherence to Episcopalianism . An inventory taken in 1647 shows the castle virtually empty . When Oliver Cromwell invaded Scotland in 1650 , he disregarded Urquhart in favour of building forts at either end of the Great Glen .
When James VII was deposed in the Revolution of 1688 , Ludovic Grant of Freuchie sided with William of Orange and garrisoned the castle with 200 of his own soldiers . Though lacking weapons they were well @-@ provisioned and , when a force of 500 Jacobites ( supporters of the exiled James ) laid siege , the garrison were able to hold out until after the defeat of the main Jacobite force at Cromdale in May 1690 . When the soldiers finally left they blew up the gatehouse to prevent reoccupation of the castle by the Jacobites . Large blocks of collapsed masonry are still visible beside the remains of the gatehouse . Parliament ordered £ 2 @,@ 000 compensation to be paid to Grant , but no repairs were undertaken . Subsequent plundering of the stonework and other materials for re @-@ use by locals further reduced the ruins , and the Grant Tower partially collapsed following a storm in 1715 .
= = = Later history = = =
By the 1770s the castle was roofless , and was regarded as a romantic ruin by 19th @-@ century painters and visitors to the Highlands . In 1884 the castle came under the control of Caroline , Dowager Countess of Seafield , widow of the 7th Earl of Seafield , on the death of her son the 8th Earl . On Lady Seafield 's death in 1911 her will instructed that Urquhart Castle be entrusted into state care , and in October 1913 responsibility for the castle 's upkeep was transferred to the Commissioners of His Majesty 's Works and Public Buildings . Historic Scotland , the successor to the Office of Works , continues to maintain the castle , which is a category A listed building and a scheduled monument in recognition of its national significance .
In 1994 Historic Scotland proposed construction of a new visitor centre and car park to alleviate the problems of parking on the main A82 road . Strong local opposition led to a public inquiry , which approved the proposals in 1998 . The new building is sunk into the embankment below the road , with provision for parking on the roof of the structure . The visitor centre includes a display on the history of the site , including a series of replicas from the medieval period ; a cinema ; a restaurant ; and shop . The castle is open all year , and can also host wedding ceremonies . In 2011 more than 315 @,@ 000 people visited Urquhart Castle , making it Historic Scotland 's third most visited site after the castles of Edinburgh and Stirling .
= = Description = =
Urquhart Castle is sited on Strone Point , a triangular promontory on the north @-@ western shore of Loch Ness , and commands the route along this side of the Great Glen as well as the entrance to Glen Urquhart . The castle is quite close to water level , though there are low cliffs along the north @-@ east sides of the promontory . There is considerable room for muster on the inland side , where a " castle @-@ toun " of service buildings would originally have stood , as well as gardens and orchards in the 17th century . Beyond this area the ground rises steeply to the north @-@ west , up to the visitor centre and the A82 . A dry moat , 30 metres ( 98 ft ) across at its widest , defends the landward approach , possibly excavated in the early Middle Ages . A stone @-@ built causeway provides access , with a drawbridge formerly crossing the gap at the centre . The castle side of the causeway was formerly walled @-@ in , forming an enclosed space similar to a barbican .
Urquhart is one of the largest castles in Scotland in area . The walled portion of the castle is shaped roughly like a figure @-@ 8 aligned northeast @-@ southwest along the bank of the loch , around 150 by 46 metres ( 492 by 151 ft ) , forming two baileys ( enclosures ) : the Nether Bailey to the north , and the Upper Bailey to the south . The curtain walls of both enclosures date largely to the 14th century , though much augmented by later building , particularly to the north where most of the remaining structures are located .
= = = Nether Bailey = = =
The 16th @-@ century gatehouse is on the inland side of the Nether Bailey , and comprises twin D @-@ plan towers flanking an arched entrance passage . Formerly the passage was defended by a portcullis and a double set of doors , with guard rooms either side . Over the entrance are a series of rooms which may have served as accommodation for the castle 's keeper . Collapsed masonry surrounds the gatehouse , dating from its destruction after 1690 .
The Nether Bailey , the main focus of activity in the castle since around 1400 , is anchored at its northern tip by the Grant Tower , the main tower house or keep . The tower measures 12 by 11 metres ( 39 by 36 ft ) , and has walls up to 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) thick . The tower rests on 14th @-@ century foundations , but is largely the result of 16th @-@ century rebuilding . Originally of five storeys , it remains the tallest portion of the castle despite the southern wall collapsing in a storm in the early 18th century . The standing parts of the parapet , remodelled in the 1620s , show that the corners of the tower were topped by corbelled bartizans ( turrets ) . Above the main door on the west , and the postern to the east , are machicolations , narrow slots through which objects could be dropped on attackers . The western door is also protected by its own ditch and drawbridge , accessed from a cobbled " Inner Close " separated from the main bailey by a gate . The surviving interior sections can still be accessed via the circular staircase built into the east wall of the tower . The interior would have comprised a hall on the first floor , with rooms on another two floors above , and attic chambers in the turrets . Rooms on the main floors have large 16th @-@ century windows , though with small pistol @-@ holes below to allow for defence .
To the south of the tower is a range of buildings built against the thick , buttressed , 14th @-@ century curtain wall . The great hall occupied the central part of this range , with the lord 's private apartments of great chamber and solar in the block to the north , and kitchens to the south . The foundations of a rectangular building stand on a rocky mound within the Nether Bailey , tentatively identified as a chapel .
= = = Upper Bailey = = =
The Upper Bailey is focused on the rocky mound at the south @-@ west corner of the castle . The highest part of the headland , this mound is the site of the earliest defences at Urquhart . Vitrified material , characteristic of early medieval fortification , was discovered on the slopes of the mound , indicating the site of the early medieval fortification identified by Professor Alcock . In the 13th century , the mound became the motte of the original castle built by the Durwards , and the surviving walls represent a " shell keep " ( a hollow enclosure ) of this date . These ruins are fragmentary , but indicate that there were towers to the north and south of the shell keep .
A 16th @-@ century water gate in the eastern wall of the Upper Bailey gives access to the shore of the loch . The adjacent buildings may have housed the stables . To the south of this , opposite the motte , is the base of a doocot ( pigeon house ) and the scant remains of 13th @-@ century buildings , possibly once a great hall but more recently re @-@ used as a smithy .
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= Crinoline =
A crinoline / krɪn.əl.ɪn / is a stiffened or structured petticoat designed to hold out a woman 's skirt , popular at various times since the mid @-@ 19th century . Originally , crinoline described a stiff fabric made of horsehair ( " crin " ) and cotton or linen which was used to make underskirts and as a dress lining .
By the 1850s the term crinoline was more usually applied to the fashionable silhouette provided by horsehair petticoats , and to the hoop skirts that replaced them in the mid @-@ 1850s . In form and function these hoop skirts were similar to the 16th- and 17th @-@ century farthingale and to 18th @-@ century panniers , in that they too enabled skirts to spread even wider and more fully .
The steel @-@ hooped cage crinoline , first patented in April 1856 by R.C. Milliet in Paris , and by their agent in Britain a few months later , became extremely popular . Steel cage crinolines were mass @-@ produced in huge quantity , with factories across the Western world producing tens of thousands in a year . Alternative materials , such as whalebone , cane , gutta @-@ percha and even inflatable caoutchouc ( natural rubber ) were all used for hoops , although steel was the most popular . At its widest point , the crinoline could reach a circumference of up to six yards , although by the late 1860s , crinolines were beginning to reduce in size . By the early 1870s , the smaller crinolette and the bustle had largely replaced the crinoline .
Crinolines were worn by women of every social standing and class across the Western world , from royalty to factory workers . This led to widespread media scrutiny and criticism , particularly in satirical magazines such as Punch . They were also hazardous if worn without due care . Thousands of women died in the mid @-@ 19th century as a result of their hooped skirts catching fire . Alongside fire , other hazards included the hoops being caught in machinery , carriage wheels , gusts of wind , or other obstacles .
The crinoline silhouette was revived several times in the 20th century , particularly in the late 1940s as a result of Christian Dior 's " New Look " of 1947 . The flounced nylon and net petticoats worn in the 1950s and 1960s to poof out skirts also became known as crinolines even when there were no hoops in their construction . In the mid @-@ 1980s Vivienne Westwood designed the mini @-@ crini , a mini @-@ length crinoline which was highly influential on 1980s fashion . Late 20th and early 21st century designers such as John Galliano and Alexander McQueen have become famous for their updated crinoline designs . Since the 1980s and well into the 21st century the crinoline has remained a popular option for formal evening dresses , wedding dresses , and ball gowns .
= = Etymology = =
The name crinoline is often described as a combination of the Latin word crinis ( " hair " ) and / or the French word crin ( " horsehair " ) ; with the Latin word linum ( " thread " or " flax , " which was used to make linen ) , describing the materials used in the original textile .
= = Pre @-@ 1850 = =
The crinoline was not the first garment designed to support the wearer 's skirts in a fashionable shape . Whilst the bell @-@ shaped skirts seen on statuettes from the ancient Minoan civilization are often compared to crinolines , particularly under the assumption that hoops were required to retain their shape , there is no evidence to confirm this and the theory is usually dismissed . The crinoline 's ancestors are more typically recognised as the Spanish verdugada , later known as the farthingale , widely worn in Europe from the late 15th century to the early 17th century , and the side @-@ hoops and panniers worn throughout the 18th century .
The horsehair fabric called crinoline was first noted by 1829 , when it was offered for lining and dress @-@ making . That year , Rudolph Ackermann 's Repository of Fashions described the new textile as a " fine clear stuff , not unlike in appearance to leno , but of a very strong and durable description : it is made in different colours ; grey , and the colour of unbleached cambric are most in favour . "
Petticoats made of horsehair crinoline appeared around 1839 , proving so successful that the name ' crinoline ' began to refer to supportive petticoats in general , rather than solely to the material . By 1847 , crinoline fabric was being used as a stiffening for skirt linings , although English women preferred separate crinoline fabric petticoats which were beginning to collapse under the increasing weight of the skirts . One alternative to horsehair crinoline was the quilted petticoat stuffed with down or feathers , such as that reportedly worn in 1842 by Lady Aylesbury . However , quilted skirts were not widely produced until the early 1850s . In about 1849 , it was possible to buy stiffened and corded cotton fabric for making petticoats , marketed as ' crinoline , ' and designed as a substitute for the horsehair textile . The artificial crinoline with hoops did not emerge until the 1850s .
= = Late 19th century = =
= = = 1850s – 60s = = =
The cage crinoline made out of spring steel wire was first introduced in the 1850s , with the earliest British patent for a metal crinoline ( described as a ' skeleton petticoat of steel springs fastened to tape . ' ) granted in July 1856 . Alison Gernsheim suggests that the unidentified French inventor was probably R. C. Milliet of Besançon , as the July 1856 patent was filed by their British agent , C. Amet . Milliet had already patented a ' tournure de femme ' in Paris on 24 April 1856 which was described as comprising ' elastic extensible circles joined together by vertical bands . ' Following its introduction , the women 's rights advocate Amelia Bloomer felt that her concerns about the hampering nature of multiple petticoats had been resolved , and dropped dress reform as an issue . Diana de Marly , in her biography of the couturier Charles Frederick Worth noted that by 1858 there existed steel factories catering solely to crinoline manufacturers , and shops that sold nothing else but crinolines . One of the most significant manufacturers of crinolines was that of Thomson & Co . , founded by an American with branches across Europe and the United States . At the height of their success , up to four thousand crinolines were produced by Thomson 's London factory in a day , whilst another plant in Saxony manufactured 9 @.@ 5 million crinolines over a twelve @-@ year period . In 1859 the New York factory , which employed about a thousand girls , used 300 @,@ 000 yards of steel wire every week to produce between three and four thousand crinolines per day , while the rival Douglas & Sherwood factory in Manhattan used a ton of steel each week in manufacturing hoop skirts .
The crinoline needed to be rigid enough to support the skirts in their accustomed shape , but also flexible enough to be temporarily pressed out of shape and spring back afterwards . Other materials used for crinolines included whalebone , gutta @-@ percha and vulcanised caoutchouc ( natural rubber ) . The idea of inflatable hoops was short @-@ lived as they were easily punctured , prone to collapse , and due to the use of brimstone in the manufacture of rubber , they smelled unpleasant . Although hard rubber hoops of gutta @-@ percha worked satisfactorily at first , they were brittle and easily crushed without recovering their form . Despite objections that the sharp points of snapped steels were hazardous , lightweight steel was clearly the most successful option . It reduced the number of petticoats and their weight , and offered increased freedom of movement of the legs . However , hasty or careless movements in a hoop skirt could lead to accidentally revealing more than intended . An advertisement published in The Lady 's Newspaper in 1863 for a cage crinoline with waved hoops attempted to reassure the potential customer that while wearing it , activities such as climbing stairs , passing to her theatre seat , dropping into armchairs and leaning against furniture would be possible without hindrance either to herself or to others around her .
Despite some claims , such as that by the historian Max von Boehm , that the largest crinolines measured up to ten yards ( 30 feet ) around , the photohistorian Alison Gernsheim concluded that the maximum realistic circumference was in fact between five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half and six yards . Whilst a loosely gathered skirt draped over a large hoop would certainly require a higher yardage , Gernsheim noted that ten yard hems were highly improbable . Staged photographs showing women wearing exaggeratedly large crinolines were quite popular , such as a widely published sequence of five stereoscope views showing a woman dressing with the assistance of several maids who require long poles to lift her dress over her head and other ingenious means of navigating her enormous hoopskirt . Such photographs , which re @-@ enacted contemporary caricatures rather than accurately reflecting reality , were aimed towards the voyeur 's market . However , it was a fact that the size of the crinoline often caused difficulties in passing through doors , boarding carriages and generally moving about . By the late 1860s many crinolines were of a significantly reduced size , as noted by a Victoria and Albert Museum curator observing the sizes of cage crinolines in the Museum 's collection .
= = = Crinolettes and 1880s revival = = =
The crinoline began to fall out of fashion from about 1866 . A modified version , the crinolette , was a transitional garment bridging the gap between the cage crinoline and the bustle . Fashionable from 1867 through to the mid @-@ 1870s , the crinolette was typically composed of half @-@ hoops , sometimes with internal lacing or ties designed to allow adjustment of fullness and shape . The crinolette was still worn in the early 1880s , with an 1881 article describing it as sticking out solely behind , as opposed to projecting " hideously at the side " like the crinoline . It is possible that some of the smaller crinolines that survive were worn in combination with separate bustles , rather than in isolation . During the 1880s the cage crinoline was revived , with hoop petticoats designed to accommodate the extremely large bustles of the period and support the skirt hems . One of the mid @-@ 1880s styles was called the lobster pot due to its resemblance to a lobster trap . Due to the extreme weight of the fabrics of the decade , the hoops of the crinolines were crossed over each other behind the legs in order to support and hold the skirts firmly in place . As with the earlier cage crinolines , sprung steel , wire and cane were used .
= = = Critical response = = =
Unlike the farthingales and panniers , the crinoline was worn by women of every social class ; and the fashion swiftly became the subject of intense scrutiny in Western media . Critical articles on the crinoline were published by the Hungarian journal Az Üstökös ( 1858 ) and the Bulgarian journalist Petko Slaveykov in 1864 . In the 1850s , the Welsh poet Dafydd Jones wrote a ballad decrying the fashion . A similar sentiment was expressed by a Russian song published in 1854 , where the singer complains about his wife having assumed the fashion . In 1855 , an observer of Queen Victoria 's state visit to Paris complained that despite the number of foreigners present , Western fashions such as the crinoline had diluted national dress to such an extent that everyone , whether Turkish , Scottish , Spanish or Tyrolean , dressed alike . Victoria herself is popularly said to have detested the fashion , inspiring a song in Punch that started : " Long live our gracious Queen / Who won 't wear crinoline ! " Gernsheim has noted that the Queen was often photographed in crinolines , and suggests that this misapprehension came from a request made by Victoria that female guests attending her daughter 's marriage in 1858 should leave their hoops off due to limited space in the Chapel Royal at St James 's Palace .
The crinoline was perceived as a signifier of social identity , with a popular subject for cartoons being that of maids wearing crinolines like their mistresses , much to the higher @-@ class ladies ' disapproval . The questions of servants in crinoline and the related social concerns were raised by George Routledge in an etiquette manual published in 1875 , where he criticised London housemaids for wearing hoops at work . As the girls knelt to scrub the doorsteps , Routledge described how their hoops rose to expose their lower bodies , inspiring street harassment from errand boys and other male passers @-@ by . Routledge firmly opined that servants ought to save their fashionable garments for their leisure periods , and dress appropriately for their work . However , this was challenged by some servants who saw attempts to control their dress as equivalent to controlling their liberty , and refused to work for employers who tried to forbid crinolines .
Arthur Munby observed that in the " barbarous locality " of Wigan , the sight of a female colliery worker wearing trousers was " not half as odd as a woman wearing a crinoline , " exposing his own upper @-@ class attitudes . In Australia , poorer rural women were photographed posing outside their slab huts , wearing their best dresses with crinolines . The French sociologist and economist Frédéric le Play carried out surveys of French working @-@ class families ' wardrobes from 1850 – 75 , in which he found that two women had crinolines in their wardrobe , both wives of skilled workers . One , the fashion @-@ conscious wife of a glove @-@ maker , owned two crinolines and eleven dresses , although for everyday she wore wooden shoes and printed aprons . In America , the mid @-@ 19th century crinoline has become popularly associated with the image of the Southern Belle , a young woman from the American Deep South 's upper socioeconomic , slave @-@ owning classes . However , as in Europe and elsewhere , the crinoline was far from exclusively worn by wealthy white women . Both black and white women in America of all classes and social standings wore hooped skirts , including First Lady Mary Todd Lincoln and her African @-@ American dressmaker , Elizabeth Keckley , who created many of Todd Lincoln 's own extravagant crinolines .
The difficulties associated with the garment , such as its size , the problems and hazards associated with wearing and moving about in it , and the fact that it was worn so widely by women of all social classes , were frequently exaggerated and parodied in satirical articles and illustrations such as those in Punch . Alexander Maxwell has summarised crinoline mockery as expressing the male authors ' insecurity and fears that women , whose crinolines took up " enough space for five , " would eventually " conquer " mankind . Julia Thomas , observing the extent of Punch 's anti @-@ crinoline sentiment and mockery , noted that the magazine 's attacks , rather than crushing the fashion , exacerbated and even invented the phenomenon of " crinolinemania . "
= = = = Hazards = = = =
The flammability of the crinoline was widely reported . It is estimated that , during the late 1850s and late 1860s in England , about 3 @,@ 000 women were killed in crinoline @-@ related fires . One such incident , the death of a 14 @-@ year @-@ old kitchenmaid called Margaret Davey was reported in The Times on 13 February 1863 . Her dress , " distended by a crinoline , " ignited as she stood on the fender of the fireplace to reach some spoons on the mantelpiece , and she died as a result of extensive burns . The Deputy @-@ Coroner , commenting that he was " astonished to think that the mortality from such a fashion was not brought more conspicuously under the notice of the Registrar @-@ General , " passed a verdict of " Accidental death by fire , caused through crinoline . " A similar case was reported later that year , when 16 @-@ year @-@ old Emma Musson died after a piece of burning coke rolled from the kitchen fire to ignite her crinoline . A month later , on 8 December 1863 , a serious fire at the Church of the Company of Jesus in Santiago , Chile , killed between two and three thousand people . The severity of the death toll is credited in part to the large amounts of flammable fabric that made up the women 's crinoline dresses . Two notable victims of crinoline fires were William Wilde 's illegitimate daughters , Emily and Mary , who died in November 1871 of burns sustained after their evening gowns caught fire . Slaveykov reported in 1864 that over the last 14 years , at least 39 @,@ 927 women worldwide had died in crinoline @-@ related fires , opining that it was more deadly than the practice of sati or the auto @-@ da @-@ fé . Although flame @-@ retardant fabrics were available , these were thought unattractive and were unpopular .
Other risks associated with the crinoline were that it could get caught in other people 's feet , carriage wheels or furniture , or be caught by sudden gusts of wind , blowing the wearer off their feet . In 1859 , while participating in a paper chase , Louisa , Duchess of Manchester , caught her hoop while climbing over a stile , and was left with the entirety of her crinoline and skirts thrown over her head , revealing her scarlet drawers to the assembled company .
The crinoline was worn by some factory workers , leading to the textiles firm Courtaulds instructing female employees in 1860 to leave their hoops and crinolines at home . Cunnington described seeing a photograph of female employees in the Bryant and May match factories wearing crinolines while at work . A report in The Cork Examiner of 2 June 1864 recorded the death of Ann Rollinson from injuries sustained after her crinoline was caught by a revolving machinery shaft in a mangling room at Firwood bleach works .
= = 20th and 21st centuries = =
During World War I the " war crinoline " became fashionable from 1915 – 1917 . This style featured wide , full mid @-@ calf length skirts , and was described as practical ( for enabling freedom of walking and movement ) and patriotic , as the sight of attractively dressed women was expected to cheer up soldiers on leave . The full skirts of the war crinoline endured in the robe de style of the 1920s .
In the late 1930s , just before the outbreak of World War II , there was a revival of the hooped crinoline from designers such as Edward Molyneux , who put hoops in both day skirts and evening gowns , and Norman Hartnell , whose late 1930s Winterhalter @-@ inspired crinoline designs for Queen Elizabeth were so successful that the Queen is popularly ( if inaccurately ) credited with having single @-@ handedly brought crinolines back into fashion . Both as Queen , and as the Queen Mother , Elizabeth adopted the traditional bell @-@ shaped crinoline as her signature look for evening wear and state occasions . The film Gone With The Wind , released in 1939 , inspired the American fashion for prom dresses with crinolines in Spring 1940 .
Following the Second World War , crinolines were once again revived by designers such as Christian Dior , whose 1947 " New Look " featured full skirts supported by stiffened underskirts . Loschek has suggested that , by explicitly referencing the Belle Époque era and reviving historic styles of corsets and crinolines in his " New Look , " Dior was the first designer to introduce the idea of postmodernism to fashion , albeit unconsciously . Crinolines were popular throughout the 1950s and into the early 1960s . The American designer Anne Fogarty was particularly noted for her full @-@ skirted designs worn over crinoline petticoats , which were always separate garments from the dress to enable ease of movement and travelling . Life reported in 1953 on how one of Fogarty 's crinoline designs from 1951 was almost exactly duplicated by a design in Dior 's latest collection . Hooped , tiered and / or ruffled crinoline petticoats in nylon , net and cotton were widely worn , as were skirts with integrated hoops .
In the mid @-@ 1980s Vivienne Westwood revisited the crinoline , taking inspiration from the ballet Petrushka to produce miniskirt length versions that she christened the " mini @-@ crini . " The mini @-@ crini silhouette influenced the work of other designers such as Christian Lacroix 's " puffball " skirts . The Westwood mini @-@ crini was described in 1989 as a combination of two conflicting ideals – the crinoline , representing a " mythology of restriction and encumbrance , " and the miniskirt , representing an " mythology of liberation . "
Late 20th and early 21st @-@ century fashion designers such as Alexander McQueen and John Galliano often used crinolines in their designs , with the skirt of one of Galliano 's ballgowns for Dior in 1998 reaching a width of 9 feet . Galliano specifically visited the original crinoline manufacturers that Christian Dior himself had used in order to inform and influence his own designs . McQueen was fascinated by the crinoline and often referenced it in his collections , cutting away leather ballgowns to reveal the cage beneath , or making it out of silver @-@ decorated cut metal . One of McQueen 's most notable crinoline designs was modelled by the amputee model Aimee Mullins in a series of photographs by Nick Knight for Dazed and Confused , in which Mullin 's cage crinoline , deliberately worn without overskirts in order to reveal her prosthetic legs , was described as suggesting both a walking frame and a cage to " contain the unruliness of the unwhole " . The images from this shoot were declared among the most significant commercial images of 1998 , representing Knight and McQueen 's dedication to presenting alternatives to the traditional concepts of fashion and physical beauty . After McQueen 's death in 2010 , his successor , Sarah Burton , continued the tradition of designing crinolines for the McQueen brand .
Crinolines continue to be worn well into the 21st century , typically as part of formal outfits such as evening gowns , prom dresses , or wedding dresses . 1950s and 1960s style net crinolines are a traditional element of costumes for square dancing and clogging . They are also popular garments for attending 1950s and 1960s influenced rockabilly events such as Viva Las Vegas . The steampunk movement has also appropriated cage crinolines along with other elements of 19th century fashion such as corsets and the top hat for its costuming .
In some contexts , the traditional hooped crinoline may be seen as controversial , as in early 2015 when the University of Georgia reportedly requested hoop skirts not be worn to certain fraternity events due to their perceived association with Southern Belles and the slave @-@ owning , upper socioeconomic classes of the American Deep South . The reason for the proposed ban was linked to the SAE racism incident earlier that year , with several articles noting it was a well @-@ intentioned attempt to avoid the University of Georgia fraternities facing charges of racial insensitivity . It was noted that hoop skirts and crinolines had been worn by both black and white women of all classes and social standings during the historical period in question , and that despite popular associations , they were not exclusive to the image of the Southern Belle .
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= Operation Jackal =
Operation Jackal ( Croatian : Operacija Čagalj ) , also known as Operation June Dawns ( Croatian : Operacija Lipanjske Zore ) , was an offensive of the Bosnian War fought between a combined Croatian Army ( HV ) and Croatian Defence Council ( HVO ) army against the Army of Republika Srpska ( VRS ) from 7 – 26 June 1992 . The offensive was a Croatian pre @-@ emptive strike against the VRS , a Bosnian Serb military formed in May 1992 from JNA units that were stationed in Bosnia and Herzegovina . The HV concluded that the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) offensive operations of April and May 1992 , resulting in the capture of Kupres and much of the Neretva River valley south of Mostar , were aimed at capturing or threatening the Croatian Port of Ploče and possibly Split . To counter this threat , the Croatian leadership deployed the HV , under the command of General Janko Bobetko , to the " Southern Front " including the area in which Operation Jackal was to be conducted .
The offensive marked the first significant Bosnian Serb defeat in the war and placed the HV in a favourable position to push back the VRS and remnants of the JNA holding positions north and east of Dubrovnik . The HV later re @-@ established overland links with the city which had been under siege by the JNA since late 1991 . The attack resulted in an HV / HVO victory and the capture of approximately 1 @,@ 800 square kilometres ( 690 square miles ) of territory in and around Mostar and Stolac .
= = Background = =
In August 1990 , a Serbian uprising occurred in Croatia centred on the Dalmatian hinterland around the city of Knin , parts of the Lika , Kordun , and Banovina regions , as well as in settlements in eastern Croatia with significant Serb populations . The areas were subsequently named the Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) . The RSK , supported by Serbia , declared its intention to integrate with Serbia , and was denounced by the Government of Croatia as a rebellion . Tensions rose and by March 1991 the Croatian War of Independence had broken out . With the disintegration of Yugoslavia , in June 1991 Croatia issued its declaration of independence which became official on 8 October after a three @-@ month moratorium . The RSK then initiated a campaign of ethnic cleansing against Croatian civilians and most non @-@ Serbs were expelled by early 1993 .
In May 1991 , the Croatian National Guard ( ZNG ) , subsequently renamed the Croatian Army ( HV ) in November , was formed as a result of growing support for the RSK from the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) and the inability of the Croatian Police to cope with the situation . The establishment of the military of Croatia was hampered by a UN arms embargo introduced in September . The final months of 1991 saw the fiercest fighting of the war culminating in the Battle of the Barracks , the Siege of Dubrovnik , and the Battle of Vukovar .
In January 1992 , the Sarajevo Agreement was signed by representatives of Croatia , the JNA and the UN , and a ceasefire called . After a series of unsuccessful ceasefires , the United Nations Protection Force ( UNPROFOR ) was deployed to Croatia to supervise and maintain the agreement . The conflict largely passed on to entrenched positions , and the JNA soon retreated from Croatia into Bosnia and Herzegovina , where a new conflict was anticipated .
As the Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska narodna armija – JNA ) withdrew from Croatia following the acceptance and start of implementation of the Vance plan , its 55 @,@ 000 officers and soldiers born in Bosnia and Herzegovina were transferred to a new Bosnian Serb army , which was later renamed the Army of Republika Srpska ( VRS ) . This reorganisation followed the declaration of the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 9 January 1992 , ahead of the 29 February – 1 March 1992 referendum on independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina . This declaration would later be cited as a pretext for the Bosnian War . Bosnian Serbs began fortifying the capital , Sarajevo , and other areas on 1 March . On the following day , the first fatalities of the war were recorded in Sarajevo and Doboj . In the final days of March , the Bosnian Serb army bombarded Bosanski Brod with artillery , drawing a border crossing by the HV 108th Brigade in response . On 4 April , JNA artillery began shelling Sarajevo . The JNA and the VRS in Bosnia and Herzegovina faced the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( ARBiH ) and the Croatian Defence Council ( HVO ) , reporting to the Bosniak @-@ dominated central government and the Bosnian Croat leadership respectively , as well as the HV , which occasionally supported HVO operations .
= = Prelude = =
In April 1992 , the JNA renewed offensive operations against the HV and the HVO in areas of western and southern Herzegovina near Kupres and Stolac . The JNA 's 2nd Military District , commanded by Colonel General Milutin Kukanjac , deployed elements of the 5th Banja Luka Corps and the 9th Knin Corps to the Kupres region , capturing the town from the HV and the HVO jointly defending the area in the 1992 Battle of Kupres on 7 April and threatening Livno and Tomislavgrad to the southwest . The 4th Military District of the JNA , commanded by General Pavle Strugar , employed the 13th Bileća Corps and the 2nd Titograd Corps to capture Stolac and most of the eastern bank of the Neretva River south of Mostar . The fighting around Mostar and JNA artillery attacks on the city started on 6 April , with the town of Široki Brijeg coming under attack by the Yugoslav Air Force on 7 – 8 April . While a Croatian attack of 9 April failed to capture a JNA @-@ controlled airfield in Mostar , the Bosnian Serb Territorial Defence Force captured two nearby hydroelectric power plants on the Neretva River and the JNA pushed the HV / HVO force from Stolac on 11 April . Čapljina , 25 kilometres ( 16 miles ) southwest from Mostar , came under intermittent JNA artillery and air attacks . A ceasefire was arranged on 7 May , but the JNA and the Bosnian Serb forces resumed the attack the next day . The attack succeeded in capturing a large part of Mostar and some territory on the west bank of the Neretva River . On 12 May , the transfer of JNA forces based in Bosnia and Herzegovina to the VRS was completed , and those JNA units which had not been transferred to the VRS withdrew from Bosnia and Herzegovina to the newly declared Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
While the JNA planned the offensive to pre @-@ empt a Croatian attack on Serb @-@ held territory , Croatia saw the moves as a prelude to JNA attacks on southern Croatia , specifically aimed at the Port of Ploče and possibly Split . To counter the perceived threat , the HV deployed additional troops to the area redesignated as the " Southern Front " . HV General Janko Bobetko , appointed to command the Southern Front , reorganised the HVO command structure and assumed command of the HVO in the area to stop the expected JNA / VRS offensive and regain the lost territory along the Neretva River . In late May , Bobetko launched an attack along the Adriatic coast , and in its immediate hinterland , towards besieged Dubrovnik linking up with the HV force in the city and breaking the JNA encirclement of the city by 1 June . The attack coincided with a JNA withdrawal towards Dubrovnik Airport in Konavle and positions within Bosnia and Herzegovina borders , 2 to 10 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 to 6 @.@ 2 miles ) away from the coast . On 23 May , the HV / HVO captured the Hum Mountain south of Mostar .
= = Order of battle = =
The HV and the HVO committed 4 @,@ 670 troops to Operation Jackal . The HVO deployed various units stationed or raised in the area , mostly drawn from Mostar , Široki Brijeg , and Čitluk . The HV contributed the 4th Guards Brigade , elements of the 116th Infantry Brigade and the 156th Infantry Brigade . The HV troops were deployed around Čapljina , for the main attack across the Neretva River and on the right flank of the axis , while the HVO troops were deployed to their left , as well as in the Čapljina area . The VRS Herzegovina Corps ( former JNA 13th Bileća Corps ) , commanded by Major General Radovan Grubač , consisted of the 10th and 13th Brigades as well as Ljubinje Territorial Defence troops in the area of Mostar and Stolac .
= = Timeline = =
Operation Jackal , or alternatively Operation June Dawns , commenced on 7 June 1992 . The attacking HV / HVO force moved east and north from Čapljina towards Stolac and Mostar aiming to push the VRS back from the Neretva River and capture positions around Mostar . The HV / HVO force captured the first objective of the offensive , the town of Tasovčići located across the Neretva River , opposite Čapljina , on 8 June . The HV component of the force which captured Tasovčići , the 156th Infantry Brigade , was detached from the force tasked with continued advance to capture Klepci and Prebilovci to protect the right flank of the Neretva bridgehead . The HV 116th Infantry Brigade held the Neretva River valley south of the bridgehead and east of Metković .
As the VRS Herzegovina Corps positions around Tasovčići collapsed , the attacking forces were able to quickly move east along its planned line of advance . On 11 June , the Mostar HVO forces attacked VRS positions on the west bank of the Neretva River , south of the city of Mostar in support of the main attack . The advance was immediately successful , capturing the villages of Varda , Kruševo , Jasenica , Slipčići and the Orlovac Mountain . The HVO captured JNA / VRS Heliport Barracks in Mostar the same day . On 12 June , the HVO pushed all remaining VRS forces east across the river .
The 1st Herzegovina Brigade of the HVO and the 156th Infantry Brigade advanced northeast from Čapljina and captured villages of Bivolje Brdo and Lokve ten kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 miles ) away from the Neretva crossing point . The 116th Infantry Brigade , spearheading the Tactical Group @-@ 2 , consisting of the brigade and supporting HVO troops , staged a rapid breakthrough and reached outskirts of Stolac , approximately 20 kilometres ( 12 miles ) east of the Neretva crossing . The advance northeast towards Mostar continued north through Pijesci and Gubavica and reached the southern approaches to Mostar on 14 June . HVO units attacking from Čapljina secured Stolac by capturing VRS positions in Hodovo , approximately eight kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 miles ) north of Stolac , on 15 June . The same day , the 4th Battalion of the Mostar HVO captured JNA " Sjeverni logor " barracks in Mostar while other elements of the HVO Mostar force captured nearby Fortica Hill overlooking the city . The final part of the northward advance of the force that set off from Čapljina was routed through Buna and Blagaj villages , which were also captured on 15 June . In order to complete a link up with the advancing HV and HVO units , the Mostar HVO forces , supported by the HV 's 4th Battalion of the 4th Guards Brigade , moved south from the city through Jasenica . The two advancing forces met at the Mostar International Airport on 17 June .
The HV and the HVO completely pushed the VRS from Mostar , advancing further east along the slopes of the Velež Mountain and capturing high ground overlooking the city by 21 June . The ARBiH supported the eastward push from the city only in a secondary role . Even though the front lines did not move significantly to the east , the city of Mostar was relatively secure from future VRS attacks . The offensive is considered to have ended on 26 June , when the HVO captured the Merdžan Glava peak of the Velež Mountain .
= = Aftermath = =
The HV and the HVO captured approximately 1 @,@ 800 square kilometres ( 690 square miles ) of territory during Operation Jackal , and the supporting attacks around Mostar , as well as handing the VRS their first significant defeat in the Bosnian War . The offensive removed a direct threat posed by the JNA and the VRS to Metković , and it accomplished the Croatian objective of capturing positions that were favourable to staging further offensives against JNA and VRS forces still positioned near Dubrovnik . The follow @-@ up Operation Tiger was the first HV offensive to exploit the success of Operation Jackal and improve Croatian military positions on the Southern Front in general but specifically around Dubrovnik . HV deployment to Bosnia and Herzegovina not only gained them significant experience in the execution of large @-@ scale military offensives , but also denied the Bosnian Serb VRS forces the chance to pursue a decisive victory .
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= Alligator gar =
Alligator gar ( Atractosteus spatula ) are ray @-@ finned euryhaline fish related to bowfin in the infraclass Holostei ( ho ' -las @-@ te @-@ i ) . The fossil record traces their existence to the Early Cretaceous over a hundred million years ago . They are the largest species in the gar family , and among the largest freshwater fishes in North America . Gars are often referred to as " primitive fishes " , or " living fossils " because they have retained some morphological characters of their earliest ancestors , such as a spiral valve intestine which is also common to the digestive system of sharks , and they can breathe both air and water . Their common name was derived from their resemblance to American alligator , particularly their broad snout and long sharp teeth . Anecdotal evidence in several scientific reports suggest that an alligator gar can grow up to 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) in length and weigh as much as 300 lb ( 140 kg ) ; however in 2011 the largest alligator gar ever caught and officially recorded was 8 ft 5 1 ⁄ 4 in ( 2 @.@ 572 m ) long , weighed 327 lb ( 148 kg ) , and was 47 in ( 120 cm ) around the girth .
The body of an alligator gar is torpedo shaped , usually brown or olive fading to a lighter gray or yellow ventral surface . Their scales are not like the scales of other fishes , rather they have ganoid scales which are hard , enamel @-@ like , diamond @-@ shaped scales , often with serrated edges . Ganoid scales are nearly impenetrable and have served the fish well as protection against predation . Unlike other gar species , the upper jaw of an alligator gar has a dual row of large sharp teeth which are used to impale and hold prey . Alligator gar are stalking , ambush predators , primarily piscivores , but they will also ambush and eat water fowl and small mammals they find floating on the water 's surface .
Populations of alligator gar have been extirpated from much of their historic range as a result of habitat destruction , indiscriminate culling , and unrestricted harvests . Populations are now located primarily in the southern portions of the United States extending into Mexico . They are considered euryhaline because they can adapt to varying salinities ranging from freshwater lakes and swamps to brackish marshes , estuaries , and bays along the Gulf of Mexico .
For nearly a half @-@ century , alligator gar were considered " trash fish " , or a " nuisance species " detrimental to sport fisheries ; therefore , were targeted for elimination by state and federal authorities in the United States . The 1980s brought a better understanding of the ecological balance necessary to sustain an ecosystem , and eventually an awareness that alligator gar were no less important than any other living organism in the ecosystems they inhabit . Over time , alligator gar were afforded some protection by state and federal resource agencies . They are also protected under the Lacey Act which makes it illegal to transport certain species of fish in interstate commerce when in violation of state law or regulation . Several state and federal resource agencies are monitoring populations in the wild , and have initiated outreach programs to educate the public . Alligator gar are being cultured in ponds , pools , raceways and tanks by federal hatcheries for mitigation stocking , by universities for research purposes , and in Mexico for consumption .
= = Anatomy = =
Alligator gar are the largest species in the gar family , and among the largest freshwater fishes found in North America . Mature alligator gar commonly measure 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) in length , and weigh over 100 lbs . ( 45 kg ) . However , anecdotal reports suggest they can grow up to 10 ft ( 3m ) in length , and weigh as much as 350 lbs . ( 159 kg ) . The largest alligator gar officially recorded was inadvertently caught in the net of fisherman Kenny Williams of Vicksburg , Mississippi while he was fishing the oxbow lakes of the Mississippi River on February 14 , 2011 . Williams was pulling up his net on Lake Chotard expecting to find buffalo fish , but instead discovered a large alligator gar tangled in his net . The gar was 8 ft 5 1 ⁄ 4 in ( 2 @.@ 572 m ) long , weighed 327 lb ( 148 kg ) , and its girth was 47 in ( 120 cm ) . According to wildlife officials , the fish was estimated to be somewhere between 50 and 70 years old ; one report estimated the gar 's age to be at least 95 . Williams donated it to the Mississippi Museum of Natural Science in Jackson where it will remain on display .
All gars have torpedo @-@ shaped bodies , but some distinguishing characteristics of adult alligator gar include their large size , heavy bodies , broad heads , short broad snouts , large sharp teeth and double row of teeth on their upper jaw . They are usually brown or olive fading to a lighter gray or yellow ventral surface . The dorsal and anal fins are positioned toward the back of their bodies , and their caudal fin is abbreviate @-@ heterocercal , or non @-@ symmetrical .
= = Physiology = =
Alligator gar have gills , but unlike other species of fish , with few exceptions , they also have a highly vascularized swim bladder lung that supplements gill respiration . The bladder not only provides buoyancy but also enables them to breathe in air which is why they are able to inhabit bodies of water in which most other fishes would die of suffocation . The swim bladder is connected to their foregut by a small pneumatic duct which allows them to breathe or gulp air when they break the surface , an action that is seen quite frequently on lakes in the southern United States during the hot summer months . The scales of alligator gar are not like the scales of other fishes which have flexible elasmoid scales ; their bodies are protected by inflexible and articulated ganoid scales that are diamond @-@ shaped and may have a serrated edge . These scales are designed for toughness and strength when under attack , and are composed of a tough inner layer of bone and a hard outer layer of ganoin that is nearly impenetrable .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
Lacépède first described the alligator gar in 1803 . The original name was Lepisosteus spatula , but was later changed by E.O. Wiley in 1976 to Atractosteus spatula in order to recognize two distinct extant taxon of gars . Synonyms of Atractosteus spatula include Lesisosteus [ sic ] ferox ( Rafinesque 1820 ) , and Lepisosteus spatula ( Lacepede 1803 ) . Fossils from the order Lepisosteiformes have been collected in Europe from the Cretaceous to Oligocene periods , in Africa and India from the Cretaceous , and in North America from the Cretaceous to recent times . Lepisosteidae is the only extant family of gar which has seven species all located in North and Central America . The fossil record traces the existence of alligator gar back to the Early Cretaceous over a hundred million years ago . Despite being a highly evolved species , alligator gar are often referred to as " primitive fishes " , or " living fossils " because they have retained a few morphological characteristics of their earliest ancestors with seemingly little to no apparent changes , such as a spiral valve intestine which is also common to the digestive system of sharks , an abbreviate @-@ heterocercal tail , and a swim bladder lung for breathing in both air and water .
= = Feeding behavior = =
Alligator gar are relatively passive , seemingly sluggish solitary fish , but voracious ambush predators . They are opportunistic night predators and are primarily piscivores , but they will also ambush and eat water fowl and small mammals that may be floating on the surface . Their method of ambush is to float a few feet below the surface , and wait for unsuspecting prey to swim within reach . They lunge forward , and with a sweeping motion grab their prey , impaling it on their double rows of sharp teeth .
Diet studies have shown alligator gar to be opportunistic piscivores , and even scavengers depending on the availability of their preferred food source . They occasionally ingest sport fish , but the majority of stomach content studies suggest they feed predominately on forage fishes such as gizzard shad as well as invertebrates , and water fowl . Diet studies have also revealed fishing tackle and boat engine parts in their stomachs .
= = Spawning = =
As with most ancestral species , alligator gar are long living , and sexually late maturing . Most females do not reach sexual maturity until after their first decade of life while males reach sexual maturity in half that time . The conditions must be precise for a successful spawning to occur . Preparation for spawning begins in the spring with the extended photoperiod and rising water temperatures , but flooding is also necessary to trigger the event . When rivers rise and spread over the floodplain , they create oxbow lakes and sloughs , and inundate terrestrial vegetation which in turn provides protection and a nutrient rich habitat for larval fishes , and fry . Once the water temperature has reached 68 to 82 ° F ( 20 to 28 ° C ) , and all the other criteria are met , gars will move into the grassy , weed @-@ laden shallows to spawn .
Actual spawning occurs when a collection of males gather around gravid females , and begin writhing , twisting , bumping into and slithering over the tops of females , an activity which triggers the release of eggs . Males release clouds of milt to fertilize the eggs as they are released into the water column . The sticky eggs then attach to submerged vegetation , and development begins . It takes only a few days for the eggs to hatch into larval fish , and another ten days or so for the larval fish to detach from the vegetation and start moving about as young fry . Egg production is variable , and believed to be dependent on the size of the female . A common formula used for predicting the volume of eggs a female can produce is 4 @.@ 1 eggs / gram of body weight which gives an average of about 150 @,@ 000 eggs per spawn . The eggs of alligator gar are bright red and poisonous to humans if ingested .
= = Distribution = =
= = = Natural range = = =
Alligator gar inhabit a wide variety of aquatic habitats , but most are found in the Southern United States in reservoirs and lakes , in the backwaters of lowland rivers , and in the brackish waters of estuaries , bayous and bays . They have occasionally been seen in the Gulf of Mexico . In Texas and Louisiana it is common to see large gars breaking the surface in reservoirs , bayous , and brackish marshes . They are found throughout the lower Mississippi River Valley and Gulf Coast states of the Southern United States and Mexico as far south as Veracruz , encompassing the following states in the United States : Texas , Oklahoma , , Louisiana , Kentucky , Mississippi , Alabama , Tennessee , Arkansas , Missouri , Illinois , Florida , and Georgia . Reports suggest alligator gar were once numerous throughout much of their northern range , however valid sightings today are rare , and may occur once every few years . Records of historical distribution indicate alligator gar once inhabited regions as far north as central Kansas , Nebraska , Ohio , Iowa , and west @-@ central Illinois where they are now listed as extirpated . The most northerly verified catch was in Meredosia , Illinois in 1922 .
= = = Outside natural range = = =
A few notable sightings of alligator gar have been reported outside North America . In November 2008 , a broadhead gar , genus Atractosteus , measuring 5 @.@ 2 to 6 @.@ 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 0 m ) was caught in the Caspian Sea north of Esenguly , Turkmenistan by two officials of Turkmenistan Fishery Protection . Its species is unconfirmed but is believed to be an alligator gar .
On September 4 , 2009 a 3 ft 3 in ( 0 @.@ 99 m ) alligator gar was found in Tak Wah Park in Tsuen Wan , Hong Kong . Over the next two days , at least 16 other alligator gar , the largest measuring 4 @.@ 9 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) , were found in ponds in public parks in Hong Kong . Nearby residents reported the alligator gar had been released into the ponds by aquarium hobbyists , and had lived there for several years . However , after a complaint made by a citizen who falsely identified alligator gar as crocodiles , the use of terms like " horrible man @-@ eating fish " had begun appearing in the headlines of some major local newspapers . Officials with Leisure and Cultural Services in Tak Wah Park removed all the alligator gar from the ponds because they were concerned the large , carnivorous fish might harm children . It is not unusual for the large sharp teeth and outward appearance of alligator gar to precipitate unreasonable fear in those unfamiliar with the species . Sensationalized reports have contributed to the misconception of predatory attacks by alligator gar on humans even though none of the reports have been confirmed .
On January 21 , 2011 , an alligator gar measuring 4 feet 11 inches ( 1 @.@ 50 m ) was caught in a canal in Pasir Ris , Singapore by two recreational fishermen . The fish was taken to a nearby pond where the owner confirmed it was an alligator gar rather than an arapaima as the men had initially thought .
There have been anecdotal reports of alligator gar captured in various parts of India but are believed to be the result of incidental releases by aquarium hobbyists and the like . In August 2015 , an alligator gar was found entangled in cloth inside a well in Dadar where it had been living for quite some time . It was rescued by animal activists and returned to the well unharmed . In June 2016 , a 3 @.@ 5 ft Alligator Gar was caught from Subhash Sarovar Lake in Kolkata . Other incidents over the years have been random , ranging anywhere from captures in coastal waters during environmental assessments to captures in private ponds .
= = Human utilization = =
= = = Early history = = =
Native Americans in the south , and Caribbean peoples used the alligator gar 's ganoid scales for arrow heads , breastplates , and as shielding to cover plows . Early settlers tanned the skins to make a strong , durable leather to cover their wooden plows , make purses , and various other items . Gar oil was also used by the people of Arkansas as a repellent for buffalo @-@ gnats .
For nearly half a century , alligator gar were considered " trash fish " , or a " nuisance species " by state and federal authorities who targeted them for elimination to protect game fish populations , and to prevent alleged attacks on humans , a claim that remains unsubstantiated with the exception of occasional injuries sustained from captured alligator gar thrashing around on the decks of boats . Fishermen participated in the slaughter of thousands of alligator gar believing they were providing a great service . In 1995 , KUHT channel 8 , a member PBS television station located on the campus of the University of Houston in Texas , distributed and broadcast the first video documentary ever produced on alligator gar . The documentary , " Alligator Gar : Predator or Prey ? " , debuted nationally in prime time during the July Sweeps , and according to the Nielsen rating report provided to KUHT , was the number one rated program of the evening . The documentary focused on the physiology and life cycle of alligator gar , addressed the destruction of habitat , the unregulated culling and over harvesting of alligator gar from various lakes in Texas and Louisiana , and expressed concerns for the future of the species at a time when they were still considered a " trash fish " . A decade passed before any significant action was taken to protect and preserve the remaining populations of alligator gar in the United States . The Missouri Department of Conservation has since partnered with Tennessee , Arkansas , Kentucky , Illinois , Alabama , Mississippi , Texas , Oklahoma , and Louisiana in restoration and management activities .
= = = Sport fish = = =
The long time public perception of alligator gar as " trash fish " , or a " nuisance species " has changed with increasing national and international attention on the species as a sport fish which some have attributed to features on popular television shows . Oklahoma , Texas , Arkansas , Mississippi , and Louisiana allow regulated sport fishing of alligator gar . Texas has one of the best remaining fisheries for alligator gar , and in concert with its efforts to maintain a viable fishery , imposed a one @-@ per @-@ day bag limit on them in 2009 . The Texas state record , and world record for the largest alligator gar caught on rod and reel is 279 lb ( 127 kg ) , taken by Bill Valverde on January 1 , 1951 on the Rio Grande in Texas . Alligator gar are also quite popular among bowfishers because of their large size , trophy potential , and fighting ability . The Texas state bowfishing record was set In 2001 by Marty McClellan with a 290 pounds ( 130 kg ) alligator gar from the Trinity River . The all @-@ tackle record was a 302 pounds ( 137 kg ) alligator gar caught on a trotline in 1953 by T.C. Pierce , Jr . In 1991 , fishing guide , Kirk Kirkland , anecdotally reported catching an alligator gar measuring 9 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 90 m ) on rod and line from the Trinity River .
= = = Commercialization and aquaculture = = =
Declining populations of alligator gar throughout their historic range has resulted in the need to monitor wild populations and regulate commercial harvests . Alligator gar have a high yield of white meat fillets and a small percentage of waste relative to body weight . The meat is sold to wholesale distributors , and also sold retail by a few supermarkets with prices starting at around $ 3 @.@ 00 / lb . Fried gar balls , grilled fillets , and fillets boiled in water with crab boil seasoning are popular dishes in the south . There is also a small cottage industry that makes jewelry out of ganoid scales , and tans gar hides to produce leather for making lamp shades , purses , and a host of novelty items .
Atractosteus gars , including alligator gar , tropical gars , and Cuban gars are considered good candidates for aquaculture particularly in developing regions where their rapid growth , disease resistance , easy adaptation to artificial feeds as juveniles , and ability to tolerate low water quality are essential . Their ability to breathe in both air and water eliminates the need for costly aeration systems and other technology commonly used in aquaculture . In the Southern United States , as well as in parts of Mexico and Cuba , broodstocks have already been established , and are being maintained in their respective regions where they already are a popular food fish .
= = = Aquaria = = =
Despite the large size alligator gar can attain , they are kept as aquarium fish , though many fish labeled as " alligator gar " in the aquarium trade are actually smaller species . Alligator gar require a very large aquarium or pond , and ample resources in order for them to thrive in captivity . They are also a popular fish for public aquaria , and zoos . It is illegal in many areas to keep alligator gar as pets , but they will occasionally show up in fish stores . Alligator gar are highly prized and sought after for private aquaria , particularly in Japan . According to some reports , large alligator gar could fetch as much as US $ 40 @,@ 000 in what some consider the " Japanese black market " . In June 2011 , three men from Florida and Louisiana were indicted on charges of illegally removing wild alligator gar from the Trinity River in Texas , and attempting to ship them to Japan for private collectors . The indictments resulted from an undercover sting operation by special agents with the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service , the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department , and the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission . The charges included violations of three separate provisions of the Lacey Act , specifically conspiracy to submit a false label for fish transported in interstate commerce ; conspiracy to transport fish in interstate commerce in violation of state law or regulation ; and conspiracy to transport and sell fish in interstate commerce in violation of state law or regulation . Two of the conspirators entered guilty pleas to one count , and the government dropped the other two charges against them . A third conspirator went to trial on all three counts , was acquitted on one count , and found guilty on two . The district court sentenced him to serve nine months in prison followed by one year of supervised release . The case was appealed , and on April 15 , 2014 , the appellate court affirmed the judgment of the district court .
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= StarCraft : Brood War =
StarCraft : Brood War is the expansion pack for the award winning military science fiction , real @-@ time strategy video game StarCraft . Released in 1998 for Windows and Mac OS , it was co @-@ developed by Saffire and Blizzard Entertainment . The expansion pack introduced new campaigns , map tilesets , music , extra units for each race , and upgrade advancements . The campaigns continue the story from where the original StarCraft ended , with the sequel StarCraft II : Wings of Liberty continuing from the conclusion of Brood War . The expansion was released in the United States on 30 November 1998 .
Brood War was critically well received , with reviewers praising it for being developed with the care of a full game rather than as an uninspired extra . As of 31 May 2007 , StarCraft and Brood War have sold almost ten million copies combined . The game is especially popular in South Korea , where professional players and teams participated in matches , earned sponsorships , and competed in televised matches .
= = Gameplay = =
StarCraft focuses around three distinct interstellar species : the psionic Protoss , the adaptable Terrans , and the insectoid Zerg . The game revolves around players collecting resources to construct a base , upgrade their militaries , and ultimately conquer opponents . Brood War 's gameplay remains fundamentally unchanged from that of StarCraft , although it made small alterations to unit costs and some abilities . These changes make rushing tactics — a factor that gained some criticism in the original StarCraft — less practical . The single @-@ player campaign has an increased difficulty ; missions are no longer entirely linear , and a greater focus on strategy is needed to complete missions . In addition , the game 's artificial intelligence ( AI ) has been augmented so that AI @-@ controlled players are more intelligent and tend to use tactics more effectively .
Brood War introduces seven new units . Each race is given access to a unique ground unit : the Zerg can create a defensive unit that can attack from the concealment of its burrow , while the Terrans can train combat medics . The Protoss are able to produce dark templar units , a powerful cloaked melee unit only given to the player in special missions of StarCraft . Protoss players can merge two of these units to create a special spellcaster unit . Each race is also given access to a dedicated air @-@ to @-@ air attack unit .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
Brood War takes place in Chris Metzen 's StarCraft universe , set around the early 26th century . Terran exiles from Earth have colonized a distant area of the Milky Way galaxy called the Koprulu Sector , having established several governments . Eventually , a civil war breaks out and ends with the formation of the Terran Dominion . However , humanity soon becomes caught in a war between the Protoss and the Zerg , which culminates at the end of StarCraft with the death of the Zerg leader , the Overmind , on the Protoss homeworld of Aiur . Without the Overmind to command , the Zerg rampage mindlessly across Aiur , while the cerebrates — the secondary commanders of the Swarm — attempt to regain control . After the discovery of alien life in the Koprulu Sector , the United Earth Directorate ( UED ) — the international body governing Earth — decides to send an expeditionary force to secure the sector and prevent the aliens from finding Earth . Brood War begins two days after the conclusion of StarCraft .
= = = Characters = = =
The player assumes the roles of three anonymous characters over the course of the game . In the first campaign , the player assumes the role of a Protoss fleet commander . The player 's character is commanded by Zeratul and Aldaris , two adversaries from StarCraft who have since reconciled their differences to lead their people in the face of the rampaging Zerg . They are joined by Jim Raynor , a Terran rebel on the run from the Dominion , Artanis , the previous Executor of the third campaign of StarCraft who has recently been promoted , and Raszagal , the matriarch of the dissident dark templar faction in Protoss society . The second campaign sees the player as a captain in the UED expeditionary force , reporting to the fleet 's admiral Gerard DuGalle and his vice @-@ admiral Alexei Stukov . To secure the sector , the UED plans to overthrow the Terran Dominion and its emperor Arcturus Mengsk , and are assisted in this by Samir Duran , a mysterious psionic ghost espionage agent , and his group of anti @-@ Dominion rebels . The final campaign has the player assume the position of a Zerg cerebrate , a commander within the Zerg Swarm . The player is put under the control of Sarah Kerrigan , a Terran who was infested by the Zerg in StarCraft .
= = = Plot = = =
The story of Brood War is presented through its instruction manual , the briefings to each mission , and conversations within the missions themselves , along with the use of cinematic cut scenes at the end of each campaign . The game itself is split into three new episodes , one for the player to command each race .
In the first episode , Aldaris , Zeratul , and the newly promoted Artanis work to evacuate the surviving Protoss from their devastated homeworld through a warp gate to a dark templar colony on Shakuras , where they meet the matriarch of the dark templar , Raszagal . Although the Zerg are able to follow the Protoss to Shakuras , Raszagal informs the survivors of a Xel 'Naga temple on the surface of the planet with the power to scour the Zerg from the surface if activated . Reluctantly partnering with Sarah Kerrigan , who informs them of a new Overmind growing on Char , the player joins Zeratul and Artanis in an operation to recover two key crystals ( Khalis and Uraj ) necessary to operate the temple . Upon their return , it is revealed that Aldaris has begun an uprising against the dark templar over their alliance with Kerrigan . The uprising is crushed , and Aldaris is killed by Kerrigan , who reveals that her motives are to ensure the destruction of the Zerg cerebrates on Shakuras so she can gain control of the Zerg herself before departing the planet . Despite knowing that activating the temple will accomplish Kerrigan 's objectives , Zeratul and Artanis proceed with little other choice , wiping the Zerg off Shakuras ' surface .
In the second episode , the player leads the United Earth Directorate 's initial incursions against the Terran Dominion . Upon meeting Samir Duran , the fleet 's vice @-@ admiral Alexei Stukov conscripts Duran as a special advisor . The UED soon discovers a " psi disrupter " — a device capable of disrupting Zerg communications — on the former Confederate capital Tarsonis . Although Duran persuades admiral Gerard DuGalle to have the anti @-@ Zerg device destroyed , Stukov 's forces relieve Duran at the last moment . The UED proceeds to the Dominion throne world Korhal IV where the player defeats Arcturus Mengsk 's armies , although Mengsk is rescued when a Protoss fleet commanded by Jim Raynor arrives . The UED tracks Raynor and Mengsk to the Protoss homeworld of Aiur , but the two escape the massive UED assault when Duran inexplicably moves his forces out of position and allows the Zerg to interfere with the operation . Having understood that the UED invasion had caused Mengsk , Raynor , and the Protoss to band together against a common foe , Stukov realizes that Duran 's actions and the Zerg attack were too much to be a coincidence — the Zerg were also allied with the Terran Dominion and the Protoss , and Duran had been working to undermine the UED . While Stukov takes a contingent of troops and reconstructs the psi disrupter on Braxis , DuGalle is unaware of his intentions and becomes convinced that he is a traitor . The player helps Duran hunt down Stukov inside the psi disrupter , but before he dies , Stukov reveals to DuGalle that Duran is the real enemy . Duran flees after the player foils his attempt to sabotage the psi disrupter . Using the psi disrupter 's capabilities , DuGalle and the UED are able to assault the Zerg world Char and take control of the new Overmind growing there .
The final section of Brood War sees the player helping Sarah Kerrigan defeat the UED . With the Overmind falling under the United Earth Directorate 's command , all operations amongst native factions in the sector are damaged , including Kerrigan 's forces . To begin the campaign against the Directorate forces , Kerrigan and Samir Duran form a reluctant alliance with Jim Raynor , Protoss praetor Fenix , and Arcturus Mengsk to destroy the psi disrupter . After destroying the psi disrupter , the player leads Kerrigan 's forces in a full @-@ scale assault on Korhal , quickly breaking the UED 's hold over the planet . In the aftermath , Kerrigan betrays her allies , destroying a large number of Dominion forces and killing both Fenix and Mengsk 's right @-@ hand man , Edmund Duke . Angry at Kerrigan 's betrayal , Raynor promises that he will kill her one @-@ day and then retreats . Kerrigan travels with Duran to Shakuras and abducts Raszagal , who she uses to blackmail Zeratul into killing the Overmind on Char , thus bringing all Zerg forces under Kerrigan 's control . Zeratul attempts to rescue Raszagal , but the player prevents their escape , and Zeratul eventually kills Raszagal when it becomes clear she has been irreversibly brainwashed by Kerrigan . At that moment it became clear that Aldaris 's uprising in the first episode was an attempt to stop the brainwashed Raszagal from betraying her people any further . Upon leaving Char in search of Artanis , Zeratul stumbles upon a genetics facility run by Duran without Kerrigan 's knowledge where a Protoss / Zerg hybrid is being developed . At the same time , Kerrigan is attacked on Char by the Dominion , the UED , and a vengeful fleet commanded by Artanis . Despite being outnumbered , Kerrigan defeats all three fleets and eradicates the surviving UED fleet , leaving her the dominant power in the sector . Before the UED fleet was wiped out , Admiral DuGalle sent a final message back to his family before committing suicide with his pistol .
= = Development = =
Development on Brood War began shortly after the release of StarCraft in 1998 , and was announced after the release of StarCraft 's first two expansion packs , Insurrection and Retribution . Most of the team at Blizzard Entertainment responsible for StarCraft returned to work on Brood War . They were assisted by members of Saffire , who were contracted for a variety of tasks consisting of programming and design for levels , visuals , and audio effects . According to Shane Dabiri , the game 's producer , Brood War aimed to drastically increase the significance of the story within gameplay , stating that the team was adding scripting that would allow " Final Fantasy type events " to be played out during the course of a level . Dabiri further explained that the objectives in the missions would also reflect the story in a far more interactive way , with players being presented with tactical decisions over which objectives to pursue and with fewer missions revolving around simple annihilation of the enemy . Although originally slated for release in the US in October 1998 , Brood War 's release was delayed by a month for a November release .
As with StarCraft , an exemplar campaign showcasing the methods of creating a custom campaign for Brood War is available . Entitled Enslavers : Dark Vengeance , the campaign follows the actions of a rogue dark templar , Ulrezaj , and his attempts to remove the Khalai Protoss from his homeworld of Shakuras , with the player and Zeratul trying to stop him . However , it is not included in the release and must be downloaded separately from Battle.net.
= = Cultural impact = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
StarCraft : Brood War was critically acclaimed . The magazine PC Zone gave Brood War a short but flattering review , describing it as having " definitely been worth the wait " . PC Zone praised the inclusion of new units and the balancing tweaks as transforming the original StarCraft " from an okay game into something akin to the mutt 's nuts " . The review also drew note to the cinematic cut scenes , stating that they " actually feel like part of the story rather than an afterthought " .
IGN praised Brood War as a " carefully designed " expansion , " with a surfeit of new features that will satisfy even the pickiest of gamers " . Although stating that there was " enough to enrich the core gameplay without losing the flavor " , IGN presented concern over the difficulty of the game : " Brood War 's difficulty is an order of magnitude higher than StarCraft . [ Players will ] barely have enough time to acquaint [ themselves ] with the new units before the enemy starts coming at [ them ] full bore . " However , IGN praised the plot as " compelling " and described the extended multiplayer as " one of the best features " of the game , ultimately rating the expansion as " impressive " .
GameSpot was also positive in its review , stating that the design of Brood War " contains all the care , detail , and ingenuity of a true sequel " that " completely revitalizes " the original game . The reviewer praises the " seemingly minor but terribly significant modifications " to the balance of the game , putting the results as " outstanding " , but draws concern to the interface 's shortfalls in coping with these changes . GameSpot also notes the music and audio work on Brood War as a bold improvement , describing the voice acting as " completely convincing " in a heavily story @-@ driven single @-@ player campaign that although becoming less innovative in the latter stages , " remains captivating to the end " . The review concludes that Brood War is a " more @-@ than @-@ worthy successor to StarCraft and one of the finest computer game expansion sets of all time " , and gave a special achievement award of " Best Expansion Pack " to the game .
In its review , The Cincinnati Enquirer commended Brood War 's new content , praising the efforts gone to in the development of the expansion . Noting the increased difficulty of the expansion and its multiplayer success , The Cincinnati Enquirer stated that " While it ’ s rare that an expansion pack reawakens the joy birthed from the original , Brood War proves it ’ s not impossible " and concluding that the expansion was a " worthwhile choice " .
However , the critical response to Brood War was not universal . Game Revolution described the gameplay as " identical to StarCraft in almost every way " and displaying mixed feelings towards the new units . The reviewer continued by stating that " while the unit upgrades are good , the scenarios still don 't cut it " , describing the single @-@ player mission design as an " afterthought " despite the expansion possessing an " interesting " storyline . Dismissing the multiplayer additions as unimportant , Game Revolution summarized that while " a fun expansion " , Brood War was " a mixed bag " .
= = = Legacy = = =
After its release , StarCraft , along with its expansion Brood War , rapidly grew in popularity in South Korea , establishing a successful professional gaming scene . Some pro @-@ gamers have gained television contracts , sponsorships , and tournament prizes , allowing the most famous player , Lim Yo @-@ Hwan , who is known in @-@ game as SlayerS `BoxeR` , to gain a fanclub of over a half million people . Professional gamers dedicate many hours each day to playing StarCraft when preparing for the highly competitive leagues . Lee Yun @-@ Yeol , a Terran player known as [ Red ] NaDa , reported earnings in 2005 of US $ 200 @,@ 000 . In April 2009 , a Collegiate Star League was formed in the U.S. to facilitate inter @-@ collegiate competition amongst university teams and clubs . On October 2009 , the first ever live collegiate Starcraft match occurred between Rutgers University and Princeton University in a best @-@ of @-@ five series .
On May 2 , 2012 , KeSPA , Ongamenet , Blizzard Entertainment , and GomTV announced the introduction of StarCraft II : Wings of Liberty to professional competitions in South Korea with StarCraft : Brood War being completely phased out in October .
However , even after being supplanted by its successor , Brood War competition remained popular for part of an audience and streaming channels of retired professional gamers kept popularity . Outside governance of Korean eSports Professional Association , amateur competitions started to gain popularity , and in 2014 , few higher profile tournaments were announced - with prize pool matching competitions from the peak of popularity and one even returning to the television channel - OGN .
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= French battleship Danton =
Danton was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship of the French Navy and the lead ship of her class . She was a technological leap in battleship development for the French Navy , as she was the first ship in the fleet with turbine engines . However , like all battleships of her type , she was completed after the Royal Navy battleship HMS Dreadnought , and as such she was outclassed before she was even commissioned .
During her career Danton was sent to Great Britain to honor the coronation of George V , and later served in World War I as an escort for supply ships and troop transports , guarding them from elements of the German Navy . While en route to aid a blockade , she was torpedoed and sunk on 19 March 1917 by a German U @-@ boat , leaving 296 men dead . The location of the wreck remained a mystery until an underwater survey team inadvertently discovered the battleship in December 2007 . In February 2009 , the wreck was confirmed to be Danton . The ship is in remarkably good shape for her age . Danton rests upright on the ocean floor , and most of the original equipment is reported to be intact .
= = Design = =
Although the Danton @-@ class battleships were a significant improvement from the preceding Liberté class , especially with the 3 @,@ 000 @-@ ton displacement increase , they were outclassed by the advent of the dreadnought well before they were completed . This , combined with other poor traits , including the great weight in coal they had to carry , made them rather unsuccessful ships , though their numerous rapid @-@ firing guns were of some use in the Mediterranean .
Danton was laid down at the Arsenal de Brest in February 1906 , launched on 4 July 1909 , and commissioned into the French Navy on 1 June 1911 . The ship was 146 @.@ 6 meters ( 481 ft 0 in ) long overall and had a beam of 25 @.@ 8 m ( 84 ft 8 in ) and a full @-@ load draft of 9 @.@ 2 m ( 30 ft 2 in ) . She displaced 19 @,@ 736 metric tons ( 19 @,@ 424 long tons ; 21 @,@ 755 short tons ) at full load and had a crew of 681 officers and enlisted men . She was powered by four Parsons steam turbines with twenty @-@ six Belleville boilers , the first French warship to use turbines . They were rated at 22 @,@ 500 shaft horsepower ( 16 @,@ 800 kW ) and provided a top speed of around 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . Coal storage amounted to 2 @,@ 027 t ( 1 @,@ 995 long tons ; 2 @,@ 234 short tons ) .
Danton 's main battery consisted of four 305mm / 45 Modèle 1906 guns mounted in two twin gun turrets , one forward and one aft . The secondary battery consisted of twelve 240mm / 50 Modèle 1902 guns in twin turrets , three on either side of the ship . A number of smaller guns were carried for defense against torpedo boats . These included sixteen 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) L / 65 guns and ten 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) guns . The ship was also armed with two 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . The ship 's main belt was 270 mm ( 10 @.@ 6 in ) thick and the main battery was protected by up to 300 mm ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) of armor . The conning tower also had 300 mm thick sides .
= = Service = =
In May 1909 , at the launching ceremony for Danton , socialist activists prevented the ship from leaving the stocks . The ship was eventually launched on 4 July 1909 . A week after she was completed , she was sent to the United Kingdom in honour of the Coronation of George V in 1911 . Upon her return to France , Danton was assigned to the 1st Battle Squadron , along with her sister ships and the two powerful dreadnoughts Courbet and Jean Bart. In 1913 , while off Hyères in the Mediterranean , Danton suffered an explosion in one of her gun turrets , which killed three men and injured several others .
Danton served in World War I in the French Mediterranean Fleet . At the outbreak of the war in early August 1914 , she was assigned to guard convoys bringing French soldiers from North Africa , to protect from attack by the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben and light cruiser SMS Breslau , which were operating in the area . At the time , she remained in the 1st Battle Squadron alongside her sister ships , under the command of Vice Admiral Chocheprat . By 16 August , the French naval commander , Admiral de Lapeyrère , took the bulk of the French fleet from Malta to the entrance of the Adriatic to keep the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy bottled up .
= = = Sinking = = =
Danton , commanded by Captain Delage , was torpedoed by U @-@ 64 , commanded by Kapitänleutnant Robert Moraht , at 13 : 17 on 19 March 1917 , 22 miles ( 19 nmi ; 35 km ) south @-@ west of Sardinia . The battleship was returning to duty from a refit in Toulon and was bound for the Greek island of Corfu to join the Allied blockade of the Strait of Otranto . Danton was carrying more men than normal , as many were crew members of other ships at Corfu , and had been zig @-@ zagging to foil enemy submarines . The ship sank in 45 minutes ; 806 men were rescued by the destroyer Massue and nearby patrol boats , but 296 , including Captain Delage , went down with the ship . Massue attacked U @-@ 64 with depth charges , but the U @-@ boat successfully evaded her attacker .
= = Discovery = =
In February 2009 , it was made public that in late 2007 the wreck of the ship was discovered " in remarkable condition " during an underwater survey between Italy and Algeria for the GALSI gas pipeline . The wreck lies at 38 ° 45 ′ 35 ″ N 8 ° 3 ′ 30 ″ E , a few kilometres away from where it had been thought she sank , sitting upright with many of her gun turrets intact at a depth of over 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 550 fathoms ; 3 @,@ 300 ft ) .
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= Hungry Bay Nature Reserve =
Hungry Bay Nature Reserve is a nature reserve on the east coast of Bermuda . It was established in 1986 . It is considered the best example of coastal mangrove swamp on the island . It includes the Hungry Bay area and the largest mangrove coastal swamp in Bermuda . It is protected by a Tree preservation order ( T.P.O. ) and designated as an official Nature Reserve within the Parks system of Bermuda .
The Hungry Bay Mangrove Swamp Reserve , a wetland site , is one of the seven Ramsar Sites in Bermuda . This designation recognises its international importance as a northerly mangrove swamp , as a habitat for its native crustaceans and as an important destination for migratory birds . Most of the reserve consists of mangrove swamp , while in the southern part there is a small area of saltmarsh . Much damage was done to the site by a storm in 2003 and residents have expressed concern about possible environmental damage resulting from pollution from the village of Seabright .
= = History = =
The reserve was proposed as a National Nature Reserve under the Development and Planning Act of 1974 . It was part of the Development Plan of 1983 . While the mangroves are under the Tree Preservation Order , the reserve in general is decreed as a National Reserve under the Bermuda National Parks Act of 1986 . The Hungry Bay Mangrove Swamp Reserve is one of the seven Ramsar Sites in Bermuda . It was approved as a Ramsar site of international importance on 10 May 1999 , meeting the criteria ( 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 and 8 ) for its unique characteristics . Its significance is due to being the largest northerly mangrove swamp in the Atlantic Ocean , the many migratory bird species which visit during winter , and the many native crustacean species , including the endangered terrestrial hermit crab ( Coenobita clypeatus ) and giant land crab ( Cardisoma guanhumi ) .
During Hurricane Fabian in September 2003 , the outer ( western ) third of the swamp , accounting for 25 @-@ 30 % of the total area of mangroves , suffered total destruction . Global warming has also caused rise in tidal levels resulting in damage to the swamps . More recently , residents have begun to voice concerns over the Seabright sewage outflow , which enters Hungry Bay itself . A resident of the Bay noted the persistent appearance of a " shiny slick " emanating from Seabright extending to the " reef @-@ line a few hundred yards off " .
= = Geography = =
Bermuda ’ s largest tidal mangrove swamp is situated in a sea bay on the east coast of Bermuda , in an enclosed coast with a narrow opening from the sea , Hungry Bay . Reported as the most northerly mangrove swamp in the world , it is shallow with a depth of about 1 metre ( 3 ft 3 in ) during high tide . The area is small at 2 @.@ 01 hectares ( 5 @.@ 0 acres ) , of which 99 % is of tidal mangrove forest and the balance 1 % is made up of permanent brackish marshes . The soil conditions comprise clay , mud , peat and sand . It has perennial source of water and is of water quality varying from brackish to mixosaline , saline and euhaline in different zones .
Climatic conditions in the reserve is subtropical with mild temperatures with humidity . Storms and gales are a common feature during winter . The reserve consists of dense forest of red and black mangrove trees . A large number of sea water channels flow through the area which rise and fall with the tides . These tidal channels are an important habitat for small fish . Crabs and other marine creatures are found here . The trees are the habitat for many species of birds . Snails and insects are commonly found in the reserve .
The reserve can be reached by road , though access is limited , or by boat traveling directly through the bay . The reserve operates a small wharf capable of receiving boat traffic .
= = Flora = =
Vegetation in the mangrove swamps consists primarily of black mangrove ( Avicennia germinans ) and red mangrove ( Rhizophora mangle ) . Other species of trees reported around the mangroves are buttonwood ( Conocarpus erectus ) , rush ( Juncus acutus ) , sea purslane ( Sesuvium portulacastrum ) , sea ox @-@ eye ( Borrichia arborescens ) , sea lavender ( Limonium caroliniatum ) , Paspalum vaginatum , Sporobolus virginicus , woody glasswort ( Sarcocornia perennis ) and West Indian grass ( Eustachys petraea ) . Tropical mangrove swamp characterizes the northern areas of the reserve while the southern areas primarily represent temperate saltmarsh .
Invasive plants , notably among them casuarina , are adversely affecting the growth of the mangrove swamp , and therefore in addition giant land and hermit crabs , endemic snail species . Habitat restoration measures are underway to retain the mangroves and other native species .
= = Fauna = =
The faunal species reported from the mangrove swamp include several species of crabs : the giant land crab ( Cardisoma guanhumi ) ( only two colonies exists in the upper regions of the swamp ) , the terrestrial hermit crab ( Coenobita clypeatus ) ( 54 individuals recorded in 1990 ) , and the mangrove crab ( Goniopsis cruentatus ) .
= = = Avifauna = = =
Significant avifauna reported in the reserve are the great blue heron ( Ardea herodias ) , yellow @-@ crowned night heron ( Nyctanassa violacea ) , snowy egret ( Egretta thula ) , mallard ( Anas platyrhynchus ) , belted kingfisher , Megaceryle alcyon and northern waterthrush ( Parkesia noveboracensis ) , which are all wintering bird species . Feral pigeons , which are displacing tropic birds from their nesting sites in cliff @-@ holes and ledges , need to be eliminated from the reserve to preserve the native species of birds , according to efforts made to control their population thus far .
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= Croatian submarine Velebit ( P @-@ 01 ) =
Velebit ( pennant number P @-@ 01 ) was a modified Una @-@ class midget submarine and the only submarine to see service with the Croatian Navy . It was built for the Yugoslav Navy during the 1980s where it was named Soča . At the outbreak of the Croatian War of Independence Soča was being overhauled in the Brodogradilište specijalnih objekata division of Brodosplit shipyard in Split , Croatia . Although stripped of all equipment , it was preserved from the retreating Yugoslav forces by the shipyard workers .
With modifications that were aimed at improving the ships endurance by including a diesel generator , it was launched as Velebit ( P @-@ 01 ) in 1996 . A few years later it was out of service because of the need to acquire a new set of batteries , which in turn , never happened . After unsuccessful attempts of selling it to a foreign buyer , it was offered to various museums in Croatia with a final destination still pending .
= = Design and construction = =
Velebit was completed as Soča in 1987 at the Brodogradilište specijalnih objekata division of Brodosplit shipyard in Split , Croatia , as the fourth boat in its class . It measures 21 @.@ 09 metres ( 69 @.@ 2 feet ) in length , has a draft of 2 @.@ 4 m ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) , a 2 @.@ 7 m ( 8 @.@ 9 ft ) beam and displaces 88 tonnes ( 87 long tons ) when surfaced or 98 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 96 @.@ 9 long tons ) when submerged . It was constructed as a single hull design with the internal compartment divided into three sections : forward ( command / steering ) position , exit chamber and the propulsion section in the back . During underwater operations two battery groups with a total of 256 cells power two 20 kW Končar electric motors mounted on a single shaft that spins a five blade propeller . Surface propulsion and battery recharging is provided by a single diesel generator .
Maximum speed is eight knots ( 15 kilometres per hour ; 9 @.@ 2 miles per hour ) underwater and seven knots ( 13 kilometres per hour ; 8 @.@ 1 miles per hour ) surfaced . The boat 's range is 250 nautical miles ( 460 kilometres ; 290 miles ) with a speed of four knots ( 7 @.@ 4 kilometres per hour ; 4 @.@ 6 miles per hour ) . It has an underwater endurance of up to 6 – 7 days which is an improvement compared to 96 hours of other Una @-@ class boats . Maximum diving depth is 120 metres ( 390 ft ) .
Because the class was designed with reconnaissance , small scale minelaying and special operations in mind , it does not possess any offensive weapons such as torpedoes . The submarine was to use its small dimensions to easily maneuver in the relatively shallow waters of the Adriatic sea , staying undetected and transporting up to six special forces personnel who had 6 – 12 limpet mines and four AIM @-@ M70 ( M70 / 1 ) bottom mines or four R @-@ 1 submersibles at their disposal . Velebit had a crew of four .
= = Service = =
Before the Croatian War of Independence Velebit served with the 88th Submarine Flotilla of the Yugoslav Navy entering service during the late 1980s . Velebit , then named Soča , was like other Una @-@ class submarines , named after rivers in Yugoslavia . In 1991 , it was being overhauled in Brodogradilište specijalnih objekata until the beginning of the war , when Croatian forces captured it . In 1993 , Brodarski Institut ( BI ) of Zagreb started a modification program to improve the operational capabilities of the submarine captured two years earlier . The hull was lengthend to create space needed for the installation of a single MTU 105 kW diesel generator , a feature the original Una @-@ class design lacked . A new steering system developed by BI was also installed .
It was recommissioned as Velebit in 1996 . According to the 2007 edition of The Naval Institute Guide to Combat Fleets of the World , Velebit was fitted with a STN @-@ Atlas Elektronik PP @-@ 10 active and PSU @-@ 1 @-@ 2 passive sonar and a portable navigational radar may have been used on board along with the GPS . The claim is contradicted by other sources with news reports stating the submarine was completed without an active sonar , effectively being " blind " underwater . During the 1990s Velebit had the pennant number " 3 " painted on its side . After the existing battery set needed for underwater propulsion expired and needed replacement , crew training and boat operations were limited to surface drives .
= = Decommissioning and aftermath = =
In February 2005 Velebit was raised from the sea , placed on a small platform within the Lora Naval Base and has remained there since . In June 2006 the Croatian Ministry of Defence released the Croatian Armed Forces Long Term Development Plan 2006 – 2015 ( Croatian : Dugoročni plan razvoja Oružanih snaga Republike Hrvatske 2006 – 2015 ) in which it was stated that :
The HRM [ Croatian Navy ] does not possess anti @-@ submarine warfare capabilities . It possesses one submarine which is not operationally usable . It 's designed for offensive minelaying and transporting underwater special forces . The Armed Forces of Croatia will not keep its submarine capabilities and the submarine will be decommissioned .
- Croatian Armed Forces Long Term Development Plan 2006 – 2015
The defence minister at the time , Berislav Rončević , explained that because Croatia was to join NATO in the spring 2008 , it would be a part of the collective defense of the entire alliance , and the need to develop all aspects of the defence system , including a submarine force , would be unnecessary . In 2007 it was confirmed that the submarine was put up for sale through the state @-@ owned " Alan Agency " that deals with weapons sales , with a starting price of 8 million Croatian kunas ( approximately 1 @.@ 07 million Euros ) . Acting commander of the Croatian Navy at the time , Ante Urlić , among other propositions , mentioned the possibility of installing a new set of batteries , sonar and overhauling the submarine . Fully operational , Velebit would then be sold for a much higher price of around 15 million euros . Considering the potential overhaul and sale didn 't happen , a decision was made to donate the submarine to a museum .
In 2009 it appeared that the submarine would be given to the Technical Museum in Zagreb under an agreement between mayor Milan Bandić and the government agencies , but this project was canceled due to the difficulty of transporting the 4 @.@ 42 metres ( 14 @.@ 5 feet ) tall submarine through the city center to the museum . The Croatian Maritime Museum in Split also expressed interest in obtaining Velebit as a part of its display , especially considering it was built in Split and homeported in the city throughout its service career . The main obstacle to this option is that the Maritime Museum is located in the Gripe fortress ; because the plans for moving the Maritime Museum to the more spacious port of Split have been put on hold , a new option that includes moving Velebit to the Military Museum that 's being created in Zagreb , has also appeared . As of November 2013 , the final location has yet to be decided .
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= The History of British Political Parties =
The History of British Political Parties , also referred to as Politico 's Guide to the History of British Political Parties , is a reference book about political parties in the United Kingdom . Written by David Boothroyd , it was published in 2001 by Politico 's Publishing Ltd and distributed in the United States by International Specialized Book Services ( ISBS ) . At the time of the book 's publication , Boothroyd worked as a researcher with Parliamentary Monitoring Services . The book contains entries on over 250 UK political parties that have participated in parliamentary elections . It is structured alphabetically by entry , with the size of each entry relative to the history and influence of the individual political party . Boothroyd includes information about the history and election statistics of each party , as well as a brief narrative . He focuses on the Conservative , Liberal , and Labour parties ; the parties with the most significant histories in British politics .
Boothroyd 's work received positive reviews in book journals . The book was recommended by The School Librarian and Choice : Current Reviews for Academic Libraries ; although the latter criticised it for not including bibliographical aids . The authors of the bibliographical work Information Sources of Political Science described it as a " handy guide " , and it was used as a reference in Third Force Politics : Liberal Democrats at the Grassroots .
= = Contents = =
The History of British Political Parties is a comprehensive work which lists and describes over 250 political parties in the United Kingdom that have participated in parliamentary elections since 1832 . Entries are organised alphabetically , and most descriptions of the political parties span a few paragraphs or pages . Space is allotted to each entry based on the individual party 's history and influence ; 34 pages are devoted to the Conservative Party , whereas only two paragraphs are given to the Captain Beany 's New Millennium Bean Party .
Each entry contains objective information on the party including its history , address , the number of registered members , election statistics , and their email address and website if these exist . The author provides a detailed , narrative description of each party . Boothroyd writes , " Only three parties out of the 250 ... have ever formed a government in the United Kingdom . " He devotes the most discussion in the book to the Conservative , Liberal and Labour parties . The book includes cross @-@ references to enable the reader to easily locate political parties that have had changes over time .
= = Reception = =
In a review of the book for The School Librarian , Valerie Caless wrote , " Overall , this is a thorough historical guide to the political parties , and will serve as a very useful reference book for students of both history and politics at all levels . A glossary or ' concepts ' guide would have been a bonus for the new or less patient student . " N.W. Polsby of the University of California , Berkeley reviewed the book for Choice : Current Reviews for Academic Libraries , and wrote , " The total absence of bibliographical aids is a weakness of this book . Its strengths are its plainly factual and accessible writing . This is a book to be consulted , not read straight through . Recommended at all levels . " A review in Reference & Research Book News said , " The book is intended as an affordable reference book for the general reader interested in British politics " . The History of British Political Parties was also reviewed in Parliamentary Affairs .
In the 2003 book The Times House of Commons Guide : 1929 , 1931 , 1935 , Boothroyd is mentioned as the author of The History of British Political Parties and referred to as " an elections specialist " . In the 2005 bibliographical work Information Sources of Political Science , authors Stephen W. Green , Douglas Ernest , and Frederick L. Holler described Boothroyd 's book as " a handy guide to approximately 250 British political parties , " and wrote , " Even some of the more humorous and tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek political parties are included in this handbook , such as the Official Monster Raving Loony Party " .
The book is used as a reference in the works Third Force Politics : Liberal Democrats at the Grassroots ( 2006 ) by Paul Whiteley , Patrick Seyd and Antony Billinghurst , published by Oxford University Press ; The Logic of Pre @-@ Electoral Coalition Formation ( 2006 ) by Sona Nadenichek Golder , published by Ohio State University Press ; and in Posters , Propaganda , and Persuasion in Election Campaigns Around the World and Through History ( 2008 ) by Steven A. Seidman . Nicholas Whyte of the website Northern Ireland Access Research Knowledge ( ARK ) wrote , " For general information about political parties in Northern Ireland since 1922 , the whole of Ireland 1801 – 1922 , England , Scotland , and Wales , I urge you to get hold of Politico 's Guide to the History of British Political Parties by David Boothroyd available from Politico 's . "
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= Paul Dickov =
Paul Dickov ( born 1 November 1972 ) is a Scottish former professional footballer and former manager of League One side Doncaster Rovers .
Dickov played as a forward from 1990 to 2011 , starting his career with Arsenal , where he won the UEFA Cup Winners Cup in 1994 , but often struggled to hold a place in the first team and spent time on loan with Luton Town and Brighton & Hove Albion before moving to Manchester City in 1996 who were then in Division One . Over six seasons at the club , Dickov experienced two promotions and two relegations , playing in three different divisions . Dickov left in 2002 to join Leicester City , where he stayed for two seasons and , in 2004 , he signed for Blackburn Rovers , and was part of the team which qualified for the UEFA Cup in 2005 – 06 . Upon the expiry of his Blackburn contract in 2006 , he rejoined Manchester City and later went on to play for Crystal Palace , Blackpool , Leicester City , Derby County and Leeds United . He joined Oldham Athletic in 2010 as Player / Manager and later retired from the playing side of the game to concentrate on the managerial side of his position . He held the position at Oldham until he resigned in February 2013 . He became manager of Doncaster Rovers in May 2013 .
In 2000 , he made his debut for Scotland , against San Marino . In total he represented his country ten times , scoring one goal .
= = Club career = =
= = = Arsenal = = =
Born in Livingston , West Lothian , Paul started playing football around the age of nine years playing for his local under @-@ 11 team Livingston United . Paul continued to play for Livingston United each year and when he played in under @-@ 13 this is when he caught the eye of Arsenal Scout Malcolm McGregor . Dickov joined the youth ranks of Arsenal in 1989 , before being promoted to the first team in 1990 . Under George Graham chances were limited for Dickov as he struggled to break into the Arsenal team who were rich in talent with players such as Ian Wright . He helped the club win the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup in 1994 , and beforehand he had been a member of Arsenal 's squad during its first season in the Premier League . Whilst at Highbury he spent several loan spells at both Luton Town and Brighton & Hove Albion . He left Arsenal in 1996 having made 26 appearances in all competitions , scoring seven goals .
= = = Manchester City = = =
Dickov joined Manchester City on 22 August 1996 in a transfer valued between £ 750 @,@ 000 and £ 1 million , the final signing of Alan Ball 's Manchester City management . He made his debut as a substitute against Stoke City on 24 August , a 2 – 1 defeat which was Ball 's final match . Dickov made his first Manchester City start in the next match , in a 2 – 1 win over Charlton Athletic . Dickov joined the club in a period of turmoil ; in his first season at Manchester City he played under five different managers ( three full @-@ time appointments and two caretakers ) . A regular starter under Asa Hartford , Steve Coppell and Phil Neal , he played less frequently under Frank Clark , and finished the season with five goals from 25 League starts . At the start of the 1997 – 98 season , Dickov did not feature in the first team , but was restored to the starting line @-@ up following injuries to Uwe Rösler and Lee Bradbury . Dickov finished the season as the City 's top scorer with nine goals , but the club were relegated to the third tier of English football for the first time in their history after finishing in 22nd place .
Dickov , wearing the number 9 shirt , played a supporting role in a striking partnership with Shaun Goater in the 1998 – 99 season , scoring 16 goals in all competitions , including a hat @-@ trick against Lincoln City . He scored an important equaliser against Wigan Athletic in the play off semi final first leg ( which was also the last ever goal to be scored at Springfield Park ) . The sixteenth goal was particularly crucial , a 15 @-@ yard , top corner injury time equaliser in the final of the promotion playoffs against Gillingham . Dickov 's 95th @-@ minute goal took the game to extra time , and the Manchester team ultimately won to earn promotion to the First Division . This goal , scored past Vince Bartram , the best man at Dickov 's wedding , was voted City 's Greatest Ever Goal in a 2005 poll conducted by Manchester City .
Dickov retained his place in the first team at the start of the 1999 – 2000 season . He started each of the first fifteen League games , despite suffering a facial injury on 26 September 1999 in which he lost a tooth . The run of starting appearances came to an end on 27 October , when he damaged knee ligaments in a match against Ipswich Town . During the subsequent absence , Manchester City signed Robert Taylor , and most of Dickov 's appearances in the second half of the season were as a substitute . One of these substitute appearances was the final match of the season , a 4 – 1 win at Blackburn . Dickov scored the third Manchester City goal as City clinched promotion to the Premier League .
When Manchester City returned to the Premier League for the 2000 – 01 season , it appeared that Dickov 's chances of playing would be limited as City signed former FIFA World Player of the Year George Weah and Costa Rican international Paulo Wanchope . However , Dickov earned a place in the team , his performances attracting the attention of Scotland manager Craig Brown , who called him up to the Scotland squad for the first time .
City were relegated back into the First Division for the 2001 – 02 season and Kevin Keegan replaced Joe Royle as manager . Dickov found his first team opportunities at the club limited especially as the team had other strikers such as Paulo Wanchope , Shaun Goater and Darren Huckerby . Having fallen out of favour , on 22 February 2002 he moved to Leicester City for £ 150 @,@ 000 .
= = = Leicester City = = =
Dickov 's Leicester debut came in a 3 – 0 defeat against Derby County . His first goals for Leicester came in his sixth appearance , when he scored both Leicester goals in a 2 – 1 victory against Blackburn Rovers , the club 's first win for four months . However , Dickov only scored two more goals that season . Leicester finished bottom and were relegated .
He scored a career @-@ high of 20 goals in the 2002 – 03 season as Leicester made an immediate return to the top flight , finishing runners @-@ up in Division One behind Portsmouth .
He managed to score 13 goals in the 2003 – 04 season . Leicester were subsequently relegated to the First Division and Dickov moved to Blackburn Rovers , declining an offer of an improved contract from Leicester and exercising a contractual clause which allowed him to join a Premier League club for a nominal fee .
= = = Blackburn Rovers = = =
Dickov debuted for Blackburn Rovers as a half @-@ time substitute against West Bromwich Albion on 14 August 2004 . He scored his first goal for the club in the following match , a 3 – 2 defeat to Southampton . Dickov was involved in the majority of matches in the 2004 – 05 season , until a knee injury caused him to miss the last few weeks of the season . He finished the season with ten league goals . In 2005 – 06 , Dickov found it hard to retain a regular place in the side , with manager Mark Hughes having signed forwards Craig Bellamy and Shefki Kuqi during the summer . A red card against West Ham United caused him to miss most of the first month of the season . He had a run of first team games in the autumn but starting appearances became fewer as the season progressed . He left the club in the summer of 2006 following the expiry of his contract .
= = = Return to Manchester City = = =
Dickov re @-@ joined Manchester City on 26 May 2006 , signing a two @-@ year contract . He came on as a substitute in City 's first game of the 2006 – 07 season against Chelsea , a 3 – 0 defeat . He then started the next three matches , including a 1 – 0 win over his former club Arsenal .
Dickov suffered several injuries over the course of the season , including a back problem , a knee injury and a toe injury , the latter sidelining him for four months . Dickov made nine starts and seven substitute appearances in 2006 – 07 , but failed to score a single goal . In May 2007 he announced his interest in pursuing a coaching role when he retires . He was transfer listed by Manchester City in August . He joined Crystal Palace on a three @-@ month loan on 31 August 2007 . He played his first game for the Eagles in a friendly against Crystal Palace Baltimore , Crystal Palace 's American counterparts , on Friday 7 September , playing the full 90 minutes . On 31 January 2008 , Dickov joined Blackpool managed by Simon Grayson on loan until May . Two days later he scored on his debut for Blackpool , what proved to be the winning goal in the Seasiders ' 2 – 1 victory against Leicester City , one of his former clubs , at Bloomfield Road . He had come on as a 70th @-@ minute substitute and scored the winning goal in the 89th minute . It was his first goal since 2 January 2006 . He went on to score five goals in his first five appearances for the club , and on 4 March he was named as the Professional Footballers ' Association ( PFA ) ' s Fans Championship Player of the Month for February . By the end of his loan , Dickov had scored six goals in eleven appearances . He returned to Manchester City after his loan before then being released at the end of the season .
= = = Return to Leicester City = = =
An initial bid from his former club Leicester City was rejected a week earlier , and after pondering other offers from Toronto FC and Blackpool , Dickov decided to rejoin Leicester on 7 August 2008 , signing a two @-@ year contract . He made his debut in a 2 – 0 home win over Milton Keynes Dons on 9 August 2008 , scoring his first goal in a 3 – 2 League Cup defeat to Fulham on 27 August . He made a total of 20 league games , scoring two goals as Leicester finished the 2008 – 09 season as League One champions . On 28 August 2009 , Dickov joined Derby County on loan until January as cover . Due to an injury crisis Dickov found himself playing regularly at Derby , where his dogged style won over the support of the Derby fans . Dickov scored his first goal for Derby against Queens Park Rangers on 24 October 2009 . After his loan spell at Derby ended , Dickov returned to Leicester in January 2010 . He was released from his contract by Leicester on 1 February 2010 to find a new club .
= = = Leeds United = = =
On 3 March 2010 Dickov signed for Leeds United until the end of the season . It was initially thought that MLS side Toronto had beaten Leeds to Dickov 's signature , however United eventually won the race for the Scot . Leeds also had to receive special dispensation from FIFA to sign Dickov due to the fact he had already played for two clubs this season , the maximum permitted . Dickov was named on Leeds ' bench against Brentford and made his debut for Leeds when he came on as a late substitute . Made his impact as a Leeds player by getting booked immediately , scrapping with Brentford winger Ryan Dickson before the ball had come into play .
Dickov made his first start for Leeds in a defeat against Millwall , after replacing the injured Jermaine Beckford in the starting line @-@ up . At the end of the 2009 – 10 season Leeds finished second thus earning promotion to the Championship . Dickov 's contract wasn 't renewed after promotion .
= = International career = =
Dickov played in Scotland 's run in the 1989 FIFA U @-@ 16 World Championship , where he scored in the final , but went on to miss in the penalty shoot @-@ out as Scotland lost to Saudi Arabia . He made his senior international debut on 7 October 2000 , coming on as a substitute in a World Cup qualifier against San Marino . He made two further substitute appearances that year , against Croatia and Australia . Limited first @-@ team opportunities at club level then meant Dickov was not selected for international duty for another two years . Good form at Leicester earned him a recall in September 2002 . He made his first international start against the Faroe Islands . However , playing out of position on the wing , he was substituted at half @-@ time as the faltering Scotland team drew 2 – 2 against a nation 62 places lower in the world rankings . In the return fixture a year later , Dickov scored his first international goal in a 3 – 1 win . His last cap came in a 1 – 0 defeat against Norway in October 2004 . In total , Dickov earned ten Scotland caps and scored one goal .
= = Management career = =
= = = Oldham Athletic = = =
On 9 June 2010 , Dickov agreed a one @-@ year rolling contract with Oldham Athletic to become player @-@ manager following the departure of previous manager Dave Penney . It was Dickov 's first attempt at managing and expected to be his last club as a player . His first competitive game as Oldham manager ended in a 2 – 1 victory at rivals Tranmere with Dale Stephens scoring both goals , Dickov also praised the travelling army of Oldham Fans . On 4 September 2010 , he made his debut coming on as a second @-@ half substitute against Bristol Rovers .
Dickov opted to build a youthful side and made controversial decisions at the start of the season to offload 2009 – 10 player of the year and club captain Sean Gregan as well as top scorer Paweł Abbott amongst other first team players . The team went into the New Year in ninth position , with games in hand on the teams above them , and being unbeaten at home in the league . Results in the second half of the season were less consistent and the team finished the season in the bottom half of the table . On 6 May 2011 Dickov announced that he would make only his second appearance of the season for the first team in the final match of the season , and would then end his playing career to concentrate on management . He then came on as a 77th @-@ minute substitute the following day against Milton Keynes Dons .
They finished the 2011 – 12 Season in 16th position in League One , one place higher than the previous season .
On 27 January 2013 , Dickov lead Oldham to a shock 3 – 2 victory against Premier League side Liverpool in the FA Cup fourth round but resigned on 3 February , primarily due to the team 's poor league form .
= = = Doncaster Rovers = = =
On 20 May 2013 , Dickov was appointed manager of Doncaster Rovers , who were promoted to the Championship having won the League One title in the 2012 – 13 season . Doncaster were relegated back to League One after just one season following a 1 @-@ 0 final day defeat to Leicester City . On 8 September 2015 , Dickov was sacked as Doncaster manager due to poor performances .
= = Style of play = =
Although he was a striker , Dickov was better known for his tenacity than his goal @-@ scoring exploits . In a 2003 interview with the Independent on Sunday he provided a summary of his playing style : " The ability to battle is one of the main parts of my game . I know my limits . I am not the sort who gets the ball and is then going to beat five or six players and stick it in the top corner from God knows where . But , whether I 'm playing well or not , the one thing you will get from me is 110 per cent , upsetting defenders and basically giving them pain . " Rio Ferdinand was mentioning his name as the biggest headache to deal with on the pitch . His combative approach resulted in Manchester City manager Joe Royle naming him " The Wasp " , and during his time at Leicester he was known as " The Pest " .
= = Personal life = =
Dickov is married to Janet and the couple have had three children together , Lauren , Max and Sam . The family live in Cheshire .
Later describing it as the " darkest period " of his footballing career , in March 2004 , he , and team @-@ mates Keith Gillespie and Frank Sinclair were falsely accused of sexual assault while at a training camp in La Manga , Spain with Leicester City . All three were subsequently cleared when forensic tests showed the allegations were false .
According to a media source in Bulgaria , Dickov owes his family name to a Bulgarian grandfather .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Player = = =
= = = International = = =
= = = International goals = = =
Scores and results list Scotland 's goal tally first .
= = = Manager = = =
As of 5 September 2015
= = Honours = =
Arsenal
UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup : 1994
Manchester City
Football League Second Division play @-@ offs : 1998 – 99
Football League First Division promotion : 1999 – 2000
Leicester City
Football League First Division runners @-@ up ( promoted ) : 2002 – 03
Football League One : 2008 – 09
Leeds United
Football League One runners @-@ up ( promoted ) : 2009 – 10
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= 1940 Brocklesby mid @-@ air collision =
On 29 September 1940 , a mid @-@ air collision occurred over Brocklesby , New South Wales , Australia . The accident was unusual in that the aircraft involved , two Avro Ansons of No. 2 Service Flying Training School RAAF , remained locked together after colliding , and then landed safely . The collision stopped the engines of the upper Anson , but those of the machine underneath continued to run , allowing the pair of aircraft to keep flying . Both navigators and the pilot of the lower Anson bailed out . The pilot of the upper Anson found that he was able to control the interlocked aircraft with his ailerons and flaps , and made an emergency landing in a nearby paddock . All four crewmen survived the incident , and the upper Anson was repaired and returned to flight service .
= = Training school and flight details = =
No. 2 Service Flying Training School ( SFTS ) , based at RAAF Station Forest Hill near Wagga Wagga , New South Wales , was one of several pilot training facilities formed in the early years of World War II as part of Australia 's contribution to the Empire Air Training Scheme . After basic aeronautical instruction at an elementary flying training school , pupils went on to an SFTS to learn techniques they would require as operational ( or " service " ) pilots , including instrument flying , night flying , cross @-@ country navigation , advanced aerobatics , formation flying , dive bombing , and aerial gunnery . No. 2 SFTS 's facilities were still under construction when its first course commenced with Avro Ansons on 29 July 1940 .
On 29 September 1940 , two Ansons took off from the Forest Hill air base for a cross @-@ country training exercise over southern New South Wales . Tail number N4876 was piloted by Leading Aircraftman Leonard Graham Fuller , 22 , from Cootamundra , with Leading Aircraftman Ian Menzies Sinclair , 27 , from Glen Innes , as navigator . Tail number L9162 was piloted by Leading Aircraftman Jack Inglis Hewson , 19 , from Newcastle , with Leading Aircraftman Hugh Gavin Fraser , 27 , from Melbourne , as navigator . Their planned route was expected to take them first to Corowa , then to Narrandera , and finally back to Forest Hill .
= = Collision and emergency landing = =
The Ansons were at an altitude of 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 metres ) over the township of Brocklesby , near Albury , when they made a banking turn . Fuller lost sight of Hewson 's aircraft beneath him and the two Ansons collided amid what Fuller later described as a " grinding crash and a bang as roaring propellors struck each other and bit into the engine cowlings " . The aircraft remained jammed together , the lower Anson 's turret wedged into the other 's port wing root , and its fin and rudder balancing the upper Anson 's port tailplane .
Both of the upper aircraft 's engines had been knocked out in the collision but those of the one below continued to turn at full power as the interlocked Ansons began to slowly circle . Fuller described the " freak combination " as " lumping along like a brick " . He nevertheless found that he was able to control the piggybacking pair of aircraft with his ailerons and flaps , and began searching for a place to land . The two navigators , Sinclair and Fraser , bailed out , followed soon after by the lower Anson 's pilot , Hewson , whose back had been injured when the spinning blades of the other aircraft sliced through his fuselage .
Fuller travelled five miles ( eight kilometres ) after the collision , then successfully made an emergency pancake landing in a large paddock 6 kilometres ( 4 mi ) south @-@ west of Brocklesby . The locked aircraft slid 180 metres ( 200 yards ) across the grass before coming to rest . As far as Fuller was concerned , the touchdown was better than any he had made when practising circuits and bumps at Forest Hill airfield the previous day . His acting commanding officer , Squadron Leader Cooper , declared the choice of improvised runway " perfect " , and the landing itself as a " wonderful effort " . The RAAF 's Inspector of Air Accidents , Group Captain Arthur " Spud " Murphy , flew straight to the scene from Air Force Headquarters in Melbourne , accompanied by his deputy Henry Winneke . Fuller told Murphy :
Well , sir , I did everything we 've been told to do in a forced landing — land as close as possible to habitation or a farmhouse and , if possible , land into the wind . I did all that . There 's the farmhouse , and I did a couple of circuits and landed into the wind . She was pretty heavy on the controls , though !
= = Aftermath = =
The freak accident garnered news coverage around the world , and cast a spotlight on the small town of Brocklesby . In preventing the destruction of the Ansons , Fuller was credited not only with avoiding possible damage to Brocklesby , but with saving approximately £ 40 @,@ 000 worth of military hardware . Both Ansons were repaired ; the top aircraft ( N4876 ) returned to flight service , and the lower ( L9162 ) was used as an instructional airframe . Hewson was treated for his back injury at Albury District Hospital and returned to active duty ; he graduated from No. 2 SFTS in October 1940 . He was discharged from the Air Force as a flight lieutenant in 1946 . Sinclair was discharged in 1945 , also a flight lieutenant . Fraser was posted to Britain and flew as a pilot officer with No. 206 Squadron RAF , based in Aldergrove , Northern Ireland . He and his crew of three died on 1 January 1942 during a routine training flight , when their Lockheed Hudson collided with a tree .
Fuller was promoted to sergeant after his successful landing , but also confined to barracks for fourteen days and docked seven days ' pay for speaking about the incident to newspapers without authorisation . He graduated from No. 2 SFTS in October 1940 , and subsequently received a commendation from the Australian Air Board for his " presence of mind , courage and determination in landing the locked Ansons without serious damage to the aircraft under difficult conditions " . Fuller saw active service first in the Middle East , and then in Europe with No. 37 Squadron RAF . He earned the Distinguished Flying Medal for his actions over Palermo in March 1942 . Commissioned later that year , Fuller was posted back to Australia as a flying officer , and became an instructor at No. 1 Operational Training Unit in Sale , Victoria . He died near Sale on 18 March 1944 , when he was hit by a bus while riding his bicycle .
= = Legacy = =
According to the Greater Hume Shire Council , the 1940 mid @-@ air collision remains Brocklesby 's " main claim to fame " . Local residents commemorated the 50th anniversary of the event by erecting a marker near the site of the crash landing ; it was unveiled by Tim Fischer , the Federal Member for Farrer and Leader of the National Party , on 29 September 1990 . On 26 January 2007 , a memorial featuring an Avro Anson engine was opened during Brocklesby 's Australia Day celebrations .
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= Digital forensics =
Digital forensics ( sometimes known as digital forensic science ) is a branch of forensic science encompassing the recovery and investigation of material found in digital devices , often in relation to computer crime . The term digital forensics was originally used as a synonym for computer forensics but has expanded to cover investigation of all devices capable of storing digital data . With roots in the personal computing revolution of the late 1970s and early 1980s , the discipline evolved in a haphazard manner during the 1990s , and it was not until the early 21st century that national policies emerged .
Digital forensics investigations have a variety of applications . The most common is to support or refute a hypothesis before criminal or civil ( as part of the electronic discovery process ) courts . Forensics may also feature in the private sector ; such as during internal corporate investigations or intrusion investigation ( a specialist probe into the nature and extent of an unauthorized network intrusion ) .
The technical aspect of an investigation is divided into several sub @-@ branches , relating to the type of digital devices involved ; computer forensics , network forensics , forensic data analysis and mobile device forensics . The typical forensic process encompasses the seizure , forensic imaging ( acquisition ) and analysis of digital media and the production of a report into collected evidence .
As well as identifying direct evidence of a crime , digital forensics can be used to attribute evidence to specific suspects , confirm alibis or statements , determine intent , identify sources ( for example , in copyright cases ) , or authenticate documents . Investigations are much broader in scope than other areas of forensic analysis ( where the usual aim is to provide answers to a series of simpler questions ) often involving complex time @-@ lines or hypotheses .
= = History = =
Prior to the 1980s crimes involving computers were dealt with using existing laws . The first computer crimes were recognized in the 1978 Florida Computer Crimes Act , which included legislation against the unauthorized modification or deletion of data on a computer system . Over the next few years the range of computer crimes being committed increased , and laws were passed to deal with issues of copyright , privacy / harassment ( e.g. , cyber bullying , cyber stalking , and online predators ) and child pornography . It was not until the 1980s that federal laws began to incorporate computer offences . Canada was the first country to pass legislation in 1983 . This was followed by the US Federal Computer Fraud and Abuse Act in 1986 , Australian amendments to their crimes acts in 1989 and the British Computer Misuse Act in 1990 .
= = = 1980s – 1990s : Growth of the field = = =
The growth in computer crime during the 1980s and 1990s caused law enforcement agencies to begin establishing specialized groups , usually at the national level , to handle the technical aspects of investigations . For example , in 1984 the FBI launched a Computer Analysis and Response Team and the following year a computer crime department was set up within the British Metropolitan Police fraud squad . As well as being law enforcement professionals , many of the early members of these groups were also computer hobbyists and became responsible for the field 's initial research and direction .
One of the first practical ( or at least publicized ) examples of digital forensics was Cliff Stoll 's pursuit of hacker Markus Hess in 1986 . Stoll , whose investigation made use of computer and network forensic techniques , was not a specialized examiner . Many of the earliest forensic examinations followed the same profile .
Throughout the 1990s there was high demand for these new , and basic , investigative resources . The strain on central units lead to the creation of regional , and even local , level groups to help handle the load . For example , the British National Hi @-@ Tech Crime Unit was set up in 2001 to provide a national infrastructure for computer crime ; with personnel located both centrally in London and with the various regional police forces ( the unit was folded into the Serious Organised Crime Agency ( SOCA ) in 2006 ) .
During this period the science of digital forensics grew from the ad @-@ hoc tools and techniques developed by these hobbyist practitioners . This is in contrast to other forensics disciplines which developed from work by the scientific community . It was not until 1992 that the term " computer forensics " was used in academic literature ( although prior to this it had been in informal use ) ; a paper by Collier and Spaul attempted to justify this new discipline to the forensic science world . This swift development resulted in a lack of standardization and training . In his 1995 book , " High @-@ Technology Crime : Investigating Cases Involving Computers " , K Rosenblatt wrote :
Seizing , preserving , and analyzing evidence stored on a computer is the greatest forensic challenge facing law enforcement in the 1990s . Although most forensic tests , such as fingerprinting and DNA testing , are performed by specially trained experts the task of collecting and analyzing computer evidence is often assigned to patrol officers and detectives .
= = = 2000s : Developing standards = = =
Since 2000 , in response to the need for standardization , various bodies and agencies have published guidelines for digital forensics . The Scientific Working Group on Digital Evidence ( SWGDE ) produced a 2002 paper , " Best practices for Computer Forensics " , this was followed , in 2005 , by the publication of an ISO standard ( ISO 17025 , General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories ) . A European lead international treaty , the Convention on Cybercrime , came into force in 2004 with the aim of reconciling national computer crime laws , investigative techniques and international co @-@ operation . The treaty has been signed by 43 nations ( including the US , Canada , Japan , South Africa , UK and other European nations ) and ratified by 16 .
The issue of training also received attention . Commercial companies ( often forensic software developers ) began to offer certification programs and digital forensic analysis was included as a topic at the UK specialist investigator training facility , Centrex .
Since the late 1990s mobile devices have become more widely available , advancing beyond simple communication devices , and have been found to be rich forms of information , even for crime not traditionally associated with digital forensics . Despite this , digital analysis of phones has lagged behind traditional computer media , largely due to problems over the proprietary nature of devices .
Focus has also shifted onto internet crime , particularly the risk of cyber warfare and cyberterrorism . A February 2010 report by the United States Joint Forces Command concluded :
Through cyberspace , enemies will target industry , academia , government , as well as the military in the air , land , maritime , and space domains . In much the same way that airpower transformed the battlefield of World War II , cyberspace has fractured the physical barriers that shield a nation from attacks on its commerce and communication .
The field of digital forensics still faces unresolved issues . A 2009 paper , " Digital Forensic Research : The Good , the Bad and the Unaddressed " , by Peterson and Shenoi identified a bias towards Windows operating systems in digital forensics research . In 2010 Simson Garfinkel identified issues facing digital investigations in the future , including the increasing size of digital media , the wide availability of encryption to consumers , a growing variety of operating systems and file formats , an increasing number of individuals owning multiple devices , and legal limitations on investigators . The paper also identified continued training issues , as well as the prohibitively high cost of entering the field .
= = = Development of forensic tools = = =
During the 1980s very few specialized digital forensic tools existed , and consequently investigators often performed live analysis on media , examining computers from within the operating system using existing sysadmin tools to extract evidence . This practice carried the risk of modifying data on the disk , either inadvertently or otherwise , which led to claims of evidence tampering . A number of tools were created during the early 1990s to address the problem .
The need for such software was first recognized in 1989 at the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center , resulting in the creation of IMDUMP ( by Michael White ) and in 1990 , SafeBack ( developed by Sydex ) . Similar software was developed in other countries ; DIBS ( a hardware and software solution ) was released commercially in the UK in 1991 , and Rob McKemmish released Fixed Disk Image free to Australian law enforcement . These tools allowed examiners to create an exact copy of a piece of digital media to work on , leaving the original disk intact for verification . By the end of the 1990s , as demand for digital evidence grew more advanced commercial tools such as EnCase and FTK were developed , allowing analysts to examine copies of media without using any live forensics . More recently , a trend towards " live memory forensics " has grown resulting in the availability of tools such as WindowsSCOPE .
More recently the same progression of tool development has occurred for mobile devices ; initially investigators accessed data directly on the device , but soon specialist tools such as XRY or Radio Tactics Aceso appeared .
= = Forensic process = =
A digital forensic investigation commonly consists of 3 stages : acquisition or imaging of exhibits , analysis , and reporting . Ideally acquisition involves capturing an image of the computer 's volatile memory ( RAM ) and creating an exact sector level duplicate ( or " forensic duplicate " ) of the media , often using a write blocking device to prevent modification of the original . However , the growth in size of storage media and developments such as cloud computing have led to more use of ' live ' acquisitions whereby a ' logical ' copy of the data is acquired rather than a complete image of the physical storage device . Both acquired image ( or logical copy ) and original media / data are hashed ( using an algorithm such as SHA @-@ 1 or MD5 ) and the values compared to verify the copy is accurate .
During the analysis phase an investigator recovers evidence material using a number of different methodologies and tools . In 2002 , an article in the International Journal of Digital Evidence referred to this step as " an in @-@ depth systematic search of evidence related to the suspected crime . " In 2006 , forensics researcher Brian Carrier described an " intuitive procedure " in which obvious evidence is first identified and then " exhaustive searches are conducted to start filling in the holes . "
The actual process of analysis can vary between investigations , but common methodologies include conducting keyword searches across the digital media ( within files as well as unallocated and slack space ) , recovering deleted files and extraction of registry information ( for example to list user accounts , or attached USB devices ) .
The evidence recovered is analysed to reconstruct events or actions and to reach conclusions , work that can often be performed by less specialised staff . When an investigation is complete the data is presented , usually in the form of a written report , in lay persons ' terms .
= = Application = =
Digital forensics is commonly used in both criminal law and private investigation . Traditionally it has been associated with criminal law , where evidence is collected to support or oppose a hypothesis before the courts . As with other areas of forensics this is often as part of a wider investigation spanning a number of disciplines . In some cases the collected evidence is used as a form of intelligence gathering , used for other purposes than court proceedings ( for example to locate , identify or halt other crimes ) . As a result , intelligence gathering is sometimes held to a less strict forensic standard .
In civil litigation or corporate matters digital forensics forms part of the electronic discovery ( or eDiscovery ) process . Forensic procedures are similar to those used in criminal investigations , often with different legal requirements and limitations . Outside of the courts digital forensics can form a part of internal corporate investigations .
A common example might be following unauthorized network intrusion . A specialist forensic examination into the nature and extent of the attack is performed as a damage limitation exercise . Both to establish the extent of any intrusion and in an attempt to identify the attacker . Such attacks were commonly conducted over phone lines during the 1980s , but in the modern era are usually propagated over the Internet .
The main focus of digital forensics investigations is to recover objective evidence of a criminal activity ( termed actus reus in legal parlance ) . However , the diverse range of data held in digital devices can help with other areas of inquiry .
Attribution
Meta data and other logs can be used to attribute actions to an individual . For example , personal documents on a computer drive might identify its owner .
Alibis and statements
Information provided by those involved can be cross checked with digital evidence . For example , during the investigation into the Soham murders the offender 's alibi was disproved when mobile phone records of the person he claimed to be with showed she was out of town at the time .
Intent
As well as finding objective evidence of a crime being committed , investigations can also be used to prove the intent ( known by the legal term mens rea ) . For example , the Internet history of convicted killer Neil Entwistle included references to a site discussing How to kill people .
Evaluation of source
File artifacts and meta @-@ data can be used to identify the origin of a particular piece of data ; for example , older versions of Microsoft Word embedded a Global Unique Identifer into files which identified the computer it had been created on . Proving whether a file was produced on the digital device being examined or obtained from elsewhere ( e.g. , the Internet ) can be very important .
Document authentication
Related to " Evaluation of source , " meta data associated with digital documents can be easily modified ( for example , by changing the computer clock you can affect the creation date of a file ) . Document authentication relates to detecting and identifying falsification of such details .
= = = Limitations = = =
One major limitation to a forensic investigation is the use of encryption ; this disrupts initial examination where pertinent evidence might be located using keywords . Laws to compel individuals to disclose encryption keys are still relatively new and controversial .
= = Legal considerations = =
The examination of digital media is covered by national and international legislation . For civil investigations , in particular , laws may restrict the abilities of analysts to undertake examinations . Restrictions against network monitoring , or reading of personal communications often exist . During criminal investigation , national laws restrict how much information can be seized . For example , in the United Kingdom seizure of evidence by law enforcement is governed by the PACE act . During its existence early in the field , the " International Organization on Computer Evidence " ( IOCE ) was one agency that worked to establish compatible international standards for the seizure of evidence .
In the UK the same laws covering computer crime can also affect forensic investigators . The 1990 computer misuse act legislates against unauthorised access to computer material ; this is a particular concern for civil investigators who have more limitations than law enforcement .
An individuals right to privacy is one area of digital forensics which is still largely undecided by courts . The US Electronic Communications Privacy Act places limitations on the ability of law enforcement or civil investigators to intercept and access evidence . The act makes a distinction between stored communication ( e.g. email archives ) and transmitted communication ( such as VOIP ) . The latter , being considered more of a privacy invasion , is harder to obtain a warrant for . The ECPA also affects the ability of companies to investigate the computers and communications of their employees , an aspect that is still under debate as to the extent to which a company can perform such monitoring .
Article 5 of the European Convention on Human Rights asserts similar privacy limitations to the ECPA and limits the processing and sharing of personal data both within the EU and with external countries . The ability of UK law enforcement to conduct digital forensics investigations is legislated by the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act .
= = = Digital evidence = = =
When used in a court of law digital evidence falls under the same legal guidelines as other forms of evidence ; courts do not usually require more stringent guidelines . In the United States the Federal Rules of Evidence are used to evaluate the admissibility of digital evidence , the United Kingdom PACE and Civil Evidence acts have similar guidelines and many other countries have their own laws . US federal laws restrict seizures to items with only obvious evidential value . This is acknowledged as not always being possible to establish with digital media prior to an examination .
Laws dealing with digital evidence are concerned with two issues : integrity and authenticity . Integrity is ensuring that the act of seizing and acquiring digital media does not modify the evidence ( either the original or the copy ) . Authenticity refers to the ability to confirm the integrity of information ; for example that the imaged media matches the original evidence . The ease with which digital media can be modified means that documenting the chain of custody from the crime scene , through analysis and , ultimately , to the court , ( a form of audit trail ) is important to establish the authenticity of evidence .
Attorneys have argued that because digital evidence can theoretically be altered it undermines the reliability of the evidence . US judges are beginning to reject this theory , in the case US v. Bonallo the court ruled that " the fact that it is possible to alter data contained in a computer is plainly insufficient to establish untrustworthiness . " In the United Kingdom guidelines such as those issued by ACPO are followed to help document the authenticity and integrity of evidence .
Digital investigators , particularly in criminal investigations , have to ensure that conclusions are based upon factual evidence and their own expert knowledge . In the US , for example , Federal Rules of Evidence state that a qualified expert may testify “ in the form of an opinion or otherwise ” so long as :
( 1 ) the testimony is based upon sufficient facts or data , ( 2 ) the testimony is the product of reliable principles and methods , and ( 3 ) the witness has applied the principles and methods reliably to the facts of the case .
The sub @-@ branches of digital forensics may each have their own specific guidelines for the conduct of investigations and the handling of evidence . For example , mobile phones may be required to be placed in a Faraday shield during seizure or acquisition to prevent further radio traffic to the device . In the UK forensic examination of computers in criminal matters is subject to ACPO guidelines . There are also international approaches to providing guidance on how to handle electronic evidence . The " Electronic Evidence Guide " by the Council of Europe offers a framework for law enforcement and judicial authorities in countries who seek to set up or enhance their own guidelines for the identification and handling of electronic evidence .
= = = Investigative tools = = =
The admissibility of digital evidence relies on the tools used to extract it . In the US , forensic tools are subjected to the Daubert standard , where the judge is responsible for ensuring that the processes and software used were acceptable . In a 2003 paper Brian Carrier argued that the Daubert guidelines required the code of forensic tools to be published and peer reviewed . He concluded that " open source tools may more clearly and comprehensively meet the guideline requirements than would closed source tools . "
= = Branches = =
Digital forensics includes several sub @-@ branches relating to the investigation of various types of devices , media or artifacts .
= = = Computer forensics = = =
The goal of computer forensics is to explain the current state of a digital artifact ; such as a computer system , storage medium or electronic document . The discipline usually covers computers , embedded systems ( digital devices with rudimentary computing power and onboard memory ) and static memory ( such as USB pen drives ) .
Computer forensics can deal with a broad range of information ; from logs ( such as internet history ) through to the actual files on the drive . In 2007 prosecutors used a spreadsheet recovered from the computer of Joseph E. Duncan III to show premeditation and secure the death penalty . Sharon Lopatka 's killer was identified in 2006 after email messages from him detailing torture and death fantasies were found on her computer .
= = = Mobile device forensics = = =
Mobile device forensics is a sub @-@ branch of digital forensics relating to recovery of digital evidence or data from a mobile device . It differs from Computer forensics in that a mobile device will have an inbuilt communication system ( e.g. GSM ) and , usually , proprietary storage mechanisms . Investigations usually focus on simple data such as call data and communications ( SMS / Email ) rather than in @-@ depth recovery of deleted data . SMS data from a mobile device investigation helped to exonerate Patrick Lumumba in the murder of Meredith Kercher .
Mobile devices are also useful for providing location information ; either from inbuilt gps / location tracking or via cell site logs , which track the devices within their range . Such information was used to track down the kidnappers of Thomas Onofri in 2006 .
= = = Network forensics = = =
Network forensics is concerned with the monitoring and analysis of computer network traffic , both local and WAN / internet , for the purposes of information gathering , evidence collection , or intrusion detection . Traffic is usually intercepted at the packet level , and either stored for later analysis or filtered in real @-@ time . Unlike other areas of digital forensics network data is often volatile and rarely logged , making the discipline often reactionary .
In 2000 the FBI lured computer hackers Aleksey Ivanov and Gorshkov to the United States for a fake job interview . By monitoring network traffic from the pair 's computers , the FBI identified passwords allowing them to collect evidence directly from Russian @-@ based computers .
= = = Forensic data analysis = = =
Forensic Data Analysis is a branch of digital forensics . It examines structured data with the aim to discover and analyse patterns of fraudulent activities resulting from financial crime .
= = = Database forensics = = =
Database forensics is a branch of digital forensics relating to the forensic study of databases and their metadata . Investigations use database contents , log files and in @-@ RAM data to build a timeline or recover relevant information .
= = Education and Research = =
Academic centre of education and research in forensic sciences :
North America : Penn State University offers Security and Risk Analysis Major , Master of Professional Studies in Information Sciences , Master of Professional Studies in Homeland Security , and Ph.D. in Information Sciences and Technology in the digital forensics area .
= = Related journals = =
Journal of Digital Forensics , Security and Law
International Journal of Digital Crime and Forensics
Journal of Digital Investigation
International Journal of Digital Evidence
International Journal of Forensic Computer Science
Journal of Digital Forensic Practice
Small Scale Digital Device Forensic Journal
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= Wasting Light =
Wasting Light is the seventh studio album by American rock band Foo Fighters . It was released on April 12 , 2011 on RCA Records , and is the first album to feature rhythm guitarist Pat Smear since The Colour and the Shape ( 1997 ) , making the band a five piece with the album . Wishing to capture the essence of the group 's earlier work and avoid the artificiality of digital recording , frontman Dave Grohl arranged for the band to record in his garage in Encino , California using only analog equipment . The sessions were supervised by producer Butch Vig , with whom Grohl had worked on Nirvana 's Nevermind . Since the old equipment did not allow for many mistakes to be corrected in post @-@ production , the band spent three weeks rehearsing the songs , and Vig had to relearn outdated editing techniques . The band went for a heavier and rawer sound to contrast with the musical experiments from their previous albums , and most of the lyrics were written as Grohl reflected upon his life and possible future . Guest musicians include Bob Mould , Krist Novoselic , Jessy Greene , Rami Jaffe and Fee Waybill .
The recording sessions were documented for fans on the band 's website and Twitter , and the album 's promotion included the documentary Back and Forth and a worldwide concert tour that included concerts played in fans ' garages . Wasting Light was preceded by the successful single " Rope " , which became only the second song ever to debut at number one on Billboard 's Rock Songs chart . The follow @-@ up single , " Walk " , also charted highly . The album was a commercial success , debuting at number one in eleven countries , and it received positive reviews from most music critics , who complimented its production and the band 's songwriting . In 2012 , Wasting Light and its songs earned Foo Fighters five Grammy Awards , including Best Rock Album .
= = Background = =
After the Echoes , Silence , Patience & Grace tour ended in 2008 , the Foo Fighters went to Grandmaster Recorders in Hollywood to record 14 compositions written during the tours so as to possibly release a new album without much promotion and touring . The band eventually decided to take a break instead of continuing to work on those recordings . Three songs from those sessions saw a later release : " Wheels " and " Word Forward " , were rerecorded for the band 's Greatest Hits album , and " Rope " became a part of Wasting Light . As " Wheels " and " Word Forward " were the reunion of frontman Dave Grohl with producer Butch Vig , who had previously worked with Nirvana on their breakthrough album Nevermind , Grohl thought it was finally time to bring Vig to produce the next Foo Fighters album .
The idea of a new album came back in 2010 , as frontman Dave Grohl was touring Australia with Them Crooked Vultures . Grohl decided that " we should make a documentary about the recording of this new album and make it a history of the band too . Rather than just record the album in the most expensive studio with the most state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art equipment , what if Butch and I were to get back together after 20 years and dust off the tape machines and put them in my garage ? " Grohl later elaborated that Vig was brought in so the record could be " that one album that kinda defines the band : it might not be their best album , but it 's the one people identify the band with the most , like Back In Black or the Metallica Black Album . It 's like you take all of the things that people consider your band 's signature characteristics and just amplify them and make one simple album with that . And that 's sorta what I thought we could do with Butch , because Butch has a great way of trimming all the fat and making sense of it all . " Grohl also used the tour with the Vultures to turn song ideas into demos , which were then brought to drummer Taylor Hawkins to be further developed . The album would also mark the return of guitarist Pat Smear as a permanent member ; Smear left the Foo Fighters after the release of The Colour and the Shape , but had been part of the touring band since 2006 .
Unlike the band 's previous two albums , Wasting Light was recorded in Dave Grohl 's garage in Encino , California , as opposed to the band 's home @-@ built studio , Studio 606 . Regarding this decision , Grohl states : " There 's poetry in being the band that can sell out Wembley but also makes a record in a garage . Why go into the most expensive studio with the biggest producer and use the best state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art equipment ? Where 's the rock 'n'roll in that ? " Grohl added it was a way to " do something really primal sounding " , innovate , break people 's expectations and " make records the way we used to fucking make records " .
The album was recorded using entirely analogue equipment until post @-@ mastering . Grohl said it was done that way because he felt digital recording was getting out of control : " when I listen to music these days , and I hear Pro Tools and drums that sound like a machine- it kinda sucks the life out of music . " According to Grohl , the analog strategy would make the record " sound rawer and somewhat imperfect " , something which guitarist Chris Shiflett agreed was beneficial , declaring that " rock n 'roll is about flaws and imperfections " . Bassist Nate Mendel added that " we grew up making records on tape , which has a certain sound , certain limitations " , and drummer Taylor Hawkins said that the digital recording in contemporary rock n ' roll lead to an artificial sound : " they kinda played it and then how someone else manipulated it in a computer , to make them sound a certain way . " Hawkins believed an analog project would help the band reclaim its artistic freedom .
Once Vig learned about the analog project , at first he considered Grohl was joking , but then replied that " You guys have to play really well , because nothing is gonna be fixed " since mistakes are not as easily correctable as in a digital recording . With that in mind , the band spent three weeks doing pre @-@ production and rehearsals at Studio 606 , where the composition was completed , going " from forty songs to fourteen " , and said songs were rehearsed to be recorded live , while in previous records , as put by Mendel , " we 'd often come up with parts in the studio , and the songs would evolve " . Smear added that the band committed to not change what would end recorded : " Whatever we did , we didn ’ t change it . If a distorted vocal went through a pedal , that ’ s what it was going to be . ”
= = Recording = =
Grohl 's garage was equipped with microphones , sound baffles on the garage door and behind the drums to prevent sound leakings , and a carpet under the drum kit to make it sound less " loud and bright " . To reduce the cymbal bleed , the microphones were rearranged and the crash cymbal was traded for a " shorter @-@ decay Zildjian cymbal with holes drilled in it " . A room next to the study was turned into an isolation booth to record the vocals . For the recording itself a makeshift control room was built inside a tent on the backyard , and a system of two cameras and a television provided the communication between the garage and the control room . The equipment was the same the band employed to record the albums There Is Nothing Left to Lose and One by One at Grohl 's former house in Alexandria , Virginia .
Recording of the album began September 6 , 2010 , lasting for eleven weeks , each one focusing on a particular song , something Vig stated " was good because each song kinda had its own life " . The recordings started with Grohl 's rhythm guitar and Taylor Hawkins ' drumming to provide the foundations and see if both could " lock in " . Hawkins usually played for hours before he got " a drum track I 'd be proud of " . Click tracks were used , but Vig said that there was not a worry for the drums to follow it exactly as they " wanted it to groove " and " we realized that when everything is off just a few milliseconds , the sound gets wider and thicker . " After the guitar and drum track , Mendel would play his basslines , which were practiced enough for them to be recorded perfectly on the first take . The following day , Shiflett and Smear would play guitars , with the latter being the last and usually being given a baritone guitar to have a different sound from the other guitarists . After the instrumental backing was ready , Grohl did the vocals either on the control room or the isolation booth . As Grohl wanted the songs " to have maximum emotional potential " , the vocals were screamed to the point he had headaches — " when the mic is picking up every tiny inconsistency , you really strain to make it sound right . "
Bob Mould of Hüsker Dü , one of Grohl 's idols , was brought in to do vocals in a song Grohl conceived as a duet with him , " Dear Rosemary " . Mould also played guitar on the track , even though Vig 's plans had him just singing . Grohl 's and Smear 's former Nirvana bandmate Krist Novoselic appeared in " I Should Have Known " as Grohl thought " it would be nice to have him come down and share the experience " and that the song would be enhanced by his bass and accordion @-@ playing . " " Miss the Misery " features Fee Waybill of The Tubes , a personal friend of Grohl who said that the frontman invited him because " the background vocal sounded like him " . Other guest musicians included three members of the expanded touring band , keyboardist Rami Jaffee , violinist Jessy Greene and percussionist Drew Hester .
Vig started doubting it could be done fully analog once the tapes for the first song recorded , " Miss the Misery " , started falling apart , but Grohl reassured him " no , Butch , I don 't want any computer in this house at all . " The producer said that during recording he " had to force my brain to fire different synapses " to remember how to deal with the analog equipment and the lack of a digital display . One of the habits Vig had to call back was editing using a razor blade — " I used to be able to do 20 edits in half an hour if need be . It took me about 20 minutes to do the first edit ! " — a technique he employed for the first songs recorded . Eventually he gave up and decided to punch in and punch out tapes instead , as the process was time @-@ consuming and a more editable tape sent to Vig from Smart Studios was mostly ruined by one of Grohl 's daughters . While many recordings had inserts and some parts rerecorded , the only song that had to be redone from scratch was " I Should Have Known " , as Grohl felt Vig was " trying to make this into a radio single " when the singer wanted it " to sound really raw and primal " .
The mixing started at Chalice Recording Studios , but moved to Grohl 's house as engineer Alan Moulder said it was the way " to make it sound like your garage . " Since Grohl 's mixing console was not automated , at times four people — Vig , Grohl , Moulder and engineer James Brown — had to work simultaneously on the board , something Grohl found interesting because every song was done differently and " even the mixes sounded like performances " The mixes were tested out in the cars of the band members and Vig , as they felt that " if it sounds good on a lousy stereo , it will sound good anywhere " .
The recording of the album was filmed as part of a career @-@ spanning documentary called Back and Forth , which Grohl said was essential to make audiences understand the decision to record the album in his garage . The album name , taken from a lyric in " Miss the Misery " , was chosen by Grohl because " it seemed to resonate with me : ' OK , that 's what we 're here doing ' " , as the band always " recorded each album thinking it could be our last " and tried to take the most of their tenure together — " we 're only here for a short time , we 're lucky to be alive , lucky to be a band ; I don 't take any of this for granted ; I don 't want to spend my time looking backwards , I want to look forwards " .
= = Composition = =
For Wasting Light , Grohl stated that they would go back to a rawer and heavier sound after " exploring new musical ground " on the previous records , adding that " with the last album we were too concerned with being musical , now it 's time for us to be a rock band again " . To contrast with the " seven or eight minute @-@ long songs , with seven or eight sections , and two or three time changes " Grohl played with Them Crooked Vultures , he instead tried to compose the " tightest , catchiest four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ minute ' softball bat to your face ' songs " . Hawkins added that he liked Wasting Light for being " straightforward , and that ’ s a good thing for us right now . The last couple [ records ] had some big dynamic changes . " Grohl described the effort as their heaviest yet , later saying it was done because " I 'm 42 now . I don 't know if I 'm going to be able to make this record when I 'm 46 or 49 . It 's my last chance . " While the demos that prompted Grohl to say the album would be their heaviest yet were not used on the album , Vig took the declarations to heart , following three criteria while recording : " It 's got to be hooky , heavy , and we 're going analog all the way . "
For the guitar sound , the group tried to balance Grohl 's " playing the rhythm straight up the middle " , Shiflett 's " sharp and clean sense of melodic playing " , and Smear 's more aggressive sound , with Grohl declaring that " with three guitars , you have to be careful that it doesn 't become a huge fucking mess . But when everybody 's playing their thing really well , it sounds perfectly orchestrated . " Smear would usually play his parts on a baritone guitar , which would both contrast with Grohl and Shiflett and add a heavier sound - as Grohl declared , " if we ever felt like a section wasn 't heavy enough , we put the fuckin ' baritone on it , and it became huge . " Hawkins added many buzz rolls to his drum fills at the suggestion of Vig , as buzz rolls were a trademark of one of the producer 's favorite drummers , Ian Paice .
The lyrics for Wasting Light were completed during the week each song was being recorded . Grohl said that the words were " what was on my mind each week " , most being " written from the perspective of who I was then and who I am now " , with references to the past , life and death , and " time , but questioning whether it matters at all . There 's so much focus on the before that people forget there 's an after . " The frontman said this was helped by the environment - " a lot of retrospection and introspection and nostalgia going back to the way we used to make records " - and working with Vig again , which " made me think a lot about starting over , and rebirth , and making your way through tragedy and coming out the other side . " An example was " I Should Have Known " , partially inspired by former Nirvana bandmate Kurt Cobain - " a song like ' I Should Have Known ' is about all the people I 've lost , not just Kurt " . Grohl still tried to do laid @-@ back songs such as " White Limo " , which had its lyrics written in just two minutes , specially after Mendel sent him an e @-@ mail saying , " I really like it when you write songs that are silly and mean nothing , too . You don 't have to try to write ' Imagine ' every time you sit down with a pen and paper " .
= = Packaging and versions = =
The first CD copies of the album contain a small section of the original analogue master tape . Grohl decided to it both for thinking it " would be an extraordinary move to destroy all the masters and give the pieces of the tapes to the fans " , as the digital recording does not allow for such a memento , and also due to every technician involved with Wasting Light being overtly worried about the tapes . The art direction was done by New York studio Morning Breath Inc . , and keeping with the album 's analog recording , the images did not use computer graphics , instead being created with " old tools of the trade " such as copy machines , transparent ink and X @-@ Acto blades , and the end result was not printed in CMYK .
The album was issued on CD , a double vinyl record and digital download . The pre @-@ orders had the option for both the CD and LP with a T @-@ shirt , and a Deluxe packaging that came with both the CD and LP , a T @-@ shirt , a beer coaster , an iron @-@ on patch , a wristband and a signed lithograph of the album cover. iTunes in turn issued a deluxe edition that included a remix of " Rope " made by Deadmau5 , the outtake " Better Off " , the video for " White Limo " and a live performance of " Walk " .
= = Release and promotion = =
Extensive updates on the production of Wasting Light were up on the band 's website and Twitter , because , as put by RCA Records executive Aaron Borns , " the band wanted to be more engaged with the fans earlier this time . " Along with images of the sessions themselves and both a whiteboard and papers that showed the progress in recording , a live feed of the tape machine would be put on the Foo Fighters website .
On December 21 , 2010 , the same day the album was finished , the band played a secret gig at the Tarzana , California bar Paladino ’ s , on which four songs from the new record made their live debuts . The Wasting Light World Tour started in 2011 , with some concerts having the album played in its entirety along with other hit songs by the band . Given the album was recorded in a garage , the band held a contest for which some shows of the promotional tour would be performed in eight fans ' garages .
On January 17 , 2011 , the band released a 30 @-@ second teaser of the song " Bridge Burning " on their website , and on February 1 , the band revealed a teaser for " Miss the Misery " along with the album name and an April 12 release date . On February 12 , a music video was released for " White Limo " , featuring Lemmy of Motörhead . On February 23 , 2011 , " Rope " was made available for online stream . It debuted at # 1 on Billboard 's Rock Chart , making it only the second single to do so since the chart 's advent in 2009 , and would later top the Alternative Songs chart as well . Another part of the promotional campaign was a contest held by Fuse TV where fans created their own videos for the Wasting Light tracks .
After " Rope " , four other songs were issued as singles : " Walk " , " Arlandria " , " These Days " , and " Bridge Burning " . The most successful was " Walk " , which also topped the Rock and Alternative charts . Five songs on the album were licensed for ESPN and two others were featured in movies , " Miss the Misery " in Real Steel and " Walk " in Thor . In addition , " Bridge Burning " appears in the video game Madden NFL 12 . " Walk " was also featured in a video package that was put together by the WWE to be included for Edge 's induction into the 2012 WWE Hall of Fame and it was played again after he said he wanted real rock n ' roll to close out the ceremony .
= = Commercial performance = =
The album debuted at number one in twelve countries . Wasting Light was the first Foo Fighters album to top the United States ' Billboard 200 chart , with first @-@ week sales of 235 @,@ 000 copies , their second @-@ highest sales week , following In Your Honor 's first @-@ week sales of 311 @,@ 000 copies in 2005 . In Canada , the album debuted at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart , selling 21 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . In the UK , the album 's 114 @,@ 000 units broke Adele 's 11 @-@ week run atop the UK Album Charts .
On the week of Wasting Light 's release , 6 different tracks from the album made the UK Top 40 Rock Chart . These were the iTunes bonus track " Better Off " at number 5 , " Bridge Burning " at number 14 , " Walk " at number 24 , " White Limo " at number 28 , " Arlandria " at number 35 and " These Days " at number 39 . In both Australia and New Zealand Wasting Light had the biggest first week digital album sales in their chart histories . The album also topped the charts in Germany , Austria , Switzerland , Sweden , Finland , Norway , New Zealand , and Singapore . Wasting Light has sold 663 @,@ 000 copies in the US as of January 6 , 2012 , and closed 2011 with 380 @,@ 000 units sold in the UK .
= = Critical reception = =
Wasting Light received generally positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 78 , based on 37 reviews . Andrew Perry of The Daily Telegraph viewed it as by far the band 's best album and found it " tough but accessible , reliably catchy , yet also surprising at the last . " Allmusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine called its rock sound " untrammeled " and cited it as " the fiercest album they 've ever made ... the kind of record they 've always seemed on the verge of delivering but never have . " Mikael Wood of Spin observed a " back @-@ to @-@ basics aspiration " and dubbed the album " Grohl 's most memorable set of songs since 1997 's The Colour and the Shape . " Rob Parker of NME said that it " sounds phenomenal " on headphones or sound systems and is " both broad and focused enough to appeal to casuals and longhairs alike " . Paul Brannigan of Q praised Grohl 's lyrics and called Wasting Light " the most life @-@ affirming , positively @-@ charged album of his career . " David Fricke , writing for Rolling Stone , commended Grohl 's themes and Butch Vig 's " nuanced approach to weight and release . " Kyle Ryan of The A.V. Club said that , although it lacks recognizable hooks , the album also lacks the filler of the band 's previous albums and stated , " As a return to Foo Fighters ' specialty — melodic , hard @-@ hitting rock with soaring choruses — Wasting Light is a success . "
In a mixed review , Slant Magazine 's Kevin Liedel criticized the band 's " growing aversion to anthemic songs , " writing that " the obvious high points of Wasting Light are those that strive for stadium @-@ pleasing melodies . " Dave Simpson of The Guardian noted an " undue " arena influence and called the album " a typically supersized arena @-@ rock barrage , with lots of howling and wailing , every chorus tailored to imaginary walls of pyrotechnics and some tracks seemingly specifically constructed to accommodate a guitar spot or drum solo . " Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune felt that , although it is " competently " performed , the songs are not innovative and suffer from " clichés " , including " hardcore punk screed " , " streamlined rocker " , and " melodramatic power ballad " . Pitchfork Media 's David Bevan commented that " there just isn 't a melody or hook to really amplify . " Andy Gill of The Independent criticized its " bombastic level " and stated " the presumed desire for back @-@ to @-@ the @-@ roots simplicity ... jettisons the diversity of Echoes , Silence , Patience & Grace . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Wasting Light and its songs were nominated for five Grammy Awards , including Album of the Year . The record won the Best Rock Album award , while " White Limo " was chosen as the Best Hard Rock / Metal Performance and " Walk " won both Best Rock Performance and Best Rock Song . The album was chosen as the 4th best album of 2011 by Kerrang ! , and listed in three rankings of the 50 best albums of the year : 20th by Rolling Stone , 43rd by NME , and 46th by Spin . It was also listed among The Hollywood Reporter 's ten best albums of 2011 , and chosen as the album of the year by iTunes .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Dave Grohl , Taylor Hawkins , Nate Mendel , Chris Shiflett and Pat Smear .
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = = Singles = = =
A ^ " Rope " and " These Days " charted only on the Belgian combined sales and airplay chart ( Ultratip ) . " Walk " charted on the Belgian singles sales chart ( Ultratop 50 ) .
B ^ " These Days " did not enter the Billboard Hot 100 but peaked on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart at number 11 .
= = Certifications = =
= = = Certifications = = =
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= Hurricane Ginny =
Hurricane Ginny in the 1963 Atlantic hurricane season was the latest North Atlantic hurricane on record to affect the U.S. state of Maine . It developed on October 16 over the Bahamas , although it was not initially a fully tropical cyclone . As it moved to the North and later northwest , Ginny intensified to hurricane status as it became more tropical . For eight days , it was located within 250 mi ( 400 km ) of the United States coastline . After approaching North Carolina , Ginny looped to the southwest and approached within 50 mi ( 80 km ) of the Florida coastline . It turned to the North , to the East , and later to the northeast , strengthening late in its duration to peak winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) . Ginny became an extratropical cyclone shortly before striking Nova Scotia on October 29 .
Although it remained close to the United States coastline , its impact was minor . Beach erosion and light rainfall was reported along much of the coastline , although the precipitation was beneficial in ending droughts in South Carolina and New England . High waves destroyed one house in North Carolina . Damage was heaviest in New England , where several buildings were damaged and thousands were left without power . The passage of Ginny resulted in a snow storm across eastern New England , particularly in northern Maine , where it killed two people . In Atlantic Canada , the extratropical storm produced high wind and waves , causing damage to boats and resulting in power outages .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Hurricane Ginny were from a trough that extended from the Bahamas to Bermuda in the middle of October . On October 16 , a depression formed near the Turks and Caicos islands after a tropical wave interacted with the trough , although initially it was not tropical in nature due to the widespread presence of cold air . The system initially moved generally northward , attaining gale – force winds on October 19 as it turned to the northwest . For several days , Ginny maintained a hybrid @-@ type structure , and although it attained winds of 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) on October 20 , it was not a true hurricane . It closely approached the North Carolina coastline , passing 135 mi ( 220 km ) southeast of Cape Lookout before turning abruptly to the northeast . It executed a small loop and began a steady motion to the southeast while located over the Gulf Stream . This motion was due to a large ridge located over New England . On October 21 , the hurricane became better organized and began transitioning into a tropical cyclone . By early on October 22 , Hurricane Hunters indicated that Ginny completed the transition into a fully tropical cyclone , observing an eye 20 mi ( 32 km ) in diameter .
On October 23 , Ginny briefly weakened to tropical storm status as it was moving toward Florida , although within 10 hours it regained hurricane intensity . Its motion to the southwest was unusual but not unique , and resembled the tracks of the 1935 Yankee hurricane and Hurricane Able in 1951 . On October 24 , it turned sharply northeastward off the northeast Florida coast , coming within 50 mi ( 80 km ) of Daytona Beach . The hurricane continued paralleling the coast of the Southeastern United States , turning northeast away from Georgia and South Carolina . On October 26 , Ginny turned to the east away from the United States , having been located within 250 mi ( 400 km ) of the country 's coast for eight consecutive days . The next day , the hurricane began a motion to the northeast , accelerating in advance of an approaching trough . It gradually intensified , reaching peak winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) on October 29 . Later that day , Ginny became extratropical before making landfall on southwestern Nova Scotia ; its remnants dissipated on October 30 in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence .
= = Impact = =
Early in its duration , the precursor to Ginny dropped high amounts of rainfall . Monción in the Dominican Republic reported 6 @.@ 83 in ( 173 mm ) , and Green Turtle Cay in the Bahamas reported 4 @.@ 20 in ( 107 mm ) .
Despite Ginny 's proximity to the United States for over a week , a hurricane warning was only issued from Charleston , South Carolina , and Cape Fear , North Carolina , as well as Cape Hatteras . This represented about one @-@ sixth of the entire coastline that was threatened by the storm . In Jacksonville , Florida , Ginny produced winds of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) . Rainfall in the state peaked at 1 @.@ 32 in ( 34 mm ) at Saint Augustine . Tides in Daytona Beach were 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) above normal , which caused beach erosion and minor property damage . Further north , minor damage and beach erosion was likewise reported in Georgia . Along the South Carolina coast , Ginny dropped beneficial rainfall , which alleviated the state 's worst drought conditions on record . The rainfall peaked at 5 @.@ 06 in ( 129 mm ) in Isle of Pines .
The hurricane approached North Carolina twice . During the second time , residents in low @-@ lying areas and along the coast evacuated . As it passed the area , Ginny produced sustained winds that were estimated at 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) on Cape Fear , with gusts to 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . These were the highest winds related to the hurricane , although they may have been overestimated . In addition , the heaviest rainfall related to the storm occurred near Southport , where 6 @.@ 71 in ( 170 mm ) of precipitation fell . Tides along the coast were 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) above normal , which caused minor flooding and destroyed one house in Carolina Beach . In Virginia , the hurricane caused minor flooding and minimal beach erosion . During Ginny 's first approach through the region , it produced gale force winds along the Virginia coast , although it did not do so during its second approach .
Later , a gale warning was issued for New England due to Ginny 's threat , as well as a hurricane watch for Long Island and southern New England . Across the region , the strongest winds on land were 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) along Nantucket , where a gust of 76 mph ( 122 km / h ) was also reported . However , a boat offshore Portland , Maine reported 40 ft ( 12 m ) seas and winds of at least 105 mph ( 169 km / h ) . In New York City , the outskirts of the storm dropped 0 @.@ 10 in ( 2 @.@ 5 mm ) of precipitation , and tides were 1 ft ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) above normal . Rainfall in eastern New England surpassed 1 in ( 25 mm ) , peaking at 3 @.@ 92 in ( 100 mm ) in Machias , Maine . The rainfall was beneficial across the region , ending a 28 @-@ day drought . Along Cape Cod and in Maine , high winds from the storm downed several trees , some of which fell onto power lines . About 1 @,@ 000 homes in Chatham , Massachusetts lost power . In Nantucket , high waves caused additional erosion in an area affected by Hurricane Esther two years prior . Damage was heavier in Maine , where many boats were damaged or broke from their moorings . One person died from a heart attack while trying to rescue his boat . Several small buildings in the state were destroyed , and the post office in Calais , Maine lost its roof . Ginny was the latest hurricane on record to affect Maine . During its passage , Ginny brought an influx of cold air over New England that produced the first snowfall of the season across Massachusetts , Maine , and New Hampshire . In most locations , the snow quickly melted , although higher totals occurred in northern Maine , the highest being 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) on Mount Katahdin . The snow killed a mountain climber and a park ranger . Damage from Ginny in the United States was estimated at $ 400 @,@ 000 .
As the remnants of Ginny moved across Atlantic Canada , they produced heavy rainfall , peaking at 4 @.@ 53 in ( 113 mm ) in southern New Brunswick . Winds peaked at 99 mph ( 160 km / h ) in Greenwood , Nova Scotia . The winds blew down trees in the Halifax area , and there were power outages reported there and in Antigonish . High waves broke boats from their moorings , causing them to either wash ashore or float out to sea . Ferry service across the region was canceled . In neighboring New Brunswick , the storm caused outages to telephone and electric services . Several injuries were reported , although there were no fatalities . The entirety of Prince Edward Island was also left without power .
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= Harriet Frank , Jr . =
Harriet Frank , Jr . ( born March 2 , 1917 ) is an American film writer and producer . Working alongside her husband , Irving Ravetch , Frank received numerous awards during her lengthy career , including the New York Film Critics Circle Awards and the Writers Guild of America Award , and several nominations . Frank and Ravetch are considered one of the all @-@ time great screenwriting couples , and many of their works are recognised classics of their genres .
Frank began her writing career after World War II , under Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer 's young writer 's training program , where she first met her future husband . She married Ravetch in 1946 but worked independently for ten years , finally collaborating with him in 1957 , a relationship that continued for the remainder of her career . During 33 years of collaboration , they created the screenplays for a variety of films , mainly adaptations of the works of American authors .
Frank and Ravetch maintained a close working relationship with director Martin Ritt throughout their career , collaborating with him on eight occasions ; after initially being suggested by Ravetch to direct The Long , Hot Summer ( 1958 ) , Ritt would eventually draw the couple out of inactivity on three occasions , hiring them to write the screenplays for Norma Rae ( 1979 ) , Murphy 's Romance ( 1985 ) and Stanley & Iris ( 1990 ) . The latter was both the last film directed by Ritt ( who died later that year ) and the last for which Frank and Ravetch wrote the screenplay .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early life = = =
Harriet Frank , Jr. was born and raised in Portland , Oregon . While her mother worked as a Hollywood story editor , Frank attended the University of California , Los Angeles ( UCLA ) , at the same time as her future husband , Irving Ravetch . Having graduated at different times from UCLA , the two met in the Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer young writer 's training program after World War II .
The couple soon married in 1946 , but worked independently for over ten years , with Frank writing for projects such as A Really Important Person ( 1947 ) , Whiplash ( 1948 ) and Run for Cover ( 1955 ) . The couple first collaborated on the script of an adaptation of William Faulkner 's novel The Hamlet in 1957 ( released as The Long , Hot Summer ) , although Frank later said , " ... in the end , we created mostly new material , so it wasn 't really a true adaptation " .
= = = Collaborations and awards = = =
Martin Ritt , having directed The Long , Hot Summer on suggestion by Ravetch , then directed the couple 's next collaboration , The Sound and the Fury ( 1959 ) , once again an adaptation of a William Faulkner novel . In 1960 , Frank and Ravetch collaborated on two films , Home from the Hill , an adaptation of the novel of the same name , and The Dark at the Top of the Stairs , an adaptation of a Tony award @-@ winning play .
In 1963 , Frank and Ravetch reunited with Martin Ritt to write the screenplay for Hud , adapted from the novel Horseman , Pass By . The film garnered critical acclaim , with the couple sharing a New York Film Critics Circle Award for " Best Screenplay " and a Writers Guild of America Award ( WGA Award ) for " Best Written American Drama " . They were also nominated for an Academy Award in the category of " Best Writing , Screenplay Based on Material from Another Medium " .
In 1967 , Frank worked alongside her husband and Ritt on Hombre , a Revisionist Western film based on the novel of the same name . The next year , Frank and Ravetch wrote the screenplay for House of Cards , a mystery film directed by John Guillermin . For House of Cards , Frank was credited , together with her husband , under the pen name of " James P. Bonner " . In 1969 , Frank and Revitch returned to the works of William Faulkner , writing the screenplay for a film adaptation of his last novel The Reivers .
1972 saw Frank and Ravetch write the screenplay for The Cowboys , based on the novel of the same name , and The Carey Treatment , based on the novel A Case of Need by Michael Crichton . For the latter , the couple were credited under " James P. Bonner " , the last time they would adopt the pen name . Two years later , the couple reunited once again with Martin Ritt to write the screenplay for Conrack , based on the autobiographical book The Water Is Wide , with Frank also working as producer . The film was commercially and critically well @-@ received , winning a BAFTA award . In the same year the couple wrote for an adaptation of the novel The Bank Robber , released as The Spikes Gang . Around this time , Frank also wrote two novels , Single : a novel ( 1977 ) , and Special Effects ( 1979 ) .
= = = Return to screenwriting = = =
In 1979 , following five years of inactivity , Frank and Ravetch returned to screen writing for Norma Rae , with Martin Ritt directing . The film tells the story of a factory worker from the Southern United States who becomes involved in labour union activities . Unusually , for the couple , the film was based on a true story , that of Crystal Lee Jordan . It was arguably their best received film , winning numerous awards , including two Academy Awards .
Six years passed before the couple returned to screen writing , this time for the romantic comedy Murphy 's Romance , based on a novel by Max Schott . Once again they worked with director Martin Ritt , their seventh project together , and Sally Field , who had played the titular lead role in Norma Rae . Despite Murphy 's Romance being well @-@ received ( it was nominated for two Academy Awards ) it would be another five years before Frank and Ravetch wrote another screenplay ; hired by Martin Ritt , the couple wrote the screenplay for Stanley & Iris , loosely based on the novel Union Street .
= = = Legacy = = =
Ten months after the release of Stanley & Iris , on December 8 , 1990 , Martin Ritt died . Together , the trio of Frank , Ravetch and Ritt had collaborated on eight films and achieved considerable successes . As well as being the last film Ritt worked on , Stanley & Iris also marked the end of Frank and Ravetch 's writing careers .
In a career spanning 43 years and 21 film productions ( despite lengthy periods of absence ) , Harriet Frank , Jr. won 4 awards and received many more nominations , sharing them all with her husband . As well as with her husband and Martin Ritt , Frank collaborated extensively with other well @-@ known actors , such as Paul Newman , writing for three of his film appearances ( The Long , Hot Summer , Hud and Hombre ) .
Many of their films not only received critical acclaim upon release , in the form of awards ( Norma Rae and Stanley & Iris ) , but those such as Hud ( 1963 ) are considered classics of their genres . The legacy of Harriet Frank , Jr. is today considered inseparable with that of her husband , Ravetch , and together they are considered one of the all @-@ time great screenwriting teams .
= = Filmography = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
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= Bahamas at the 2008 Summer Olympics =
The Bahamas sent a delegation of athletes to compete in the 2008 Summer Olympics , which were held in Beijing , People 's Republic of China from 8 to 24 August 2008 . Its Beijing appearance marked its fourteenth time at the Olympics since its début at the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki . The delegation included 25 athletes across four sports ( track and field , boxing , swimming and tennis ) and nineteen distinct events . Its athletes advanced to semifinals in eight events and finals in five events , medaling in two of them ( a silver in men 's 4x400 meters relay by Andretti Bain , Michael Mathieu , Andrae Williams , Chris Brown , Avard Moncur and Ramon Miller , and a bronze in men 's triple jump by Leevan Sands ) . The Bahamian delegation was one of the largest sent between its début and 2008 . The country 's flag bearer was Debbie Ferguson @-@ McKenzie .
= = Background = =
Before Beijing , the Bahamas had participated in the Summer Olympics thirteen times . This included every single Summer Olympics starting from the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki , Finland , but excluding the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow , the Soviet Union . The Bahamas had , as of 2008 , never had an appearance in any Winter Olympics . The Bahamian delegation in Beijing included twenty @-@ five athletes , one of its largest delegations in its history up to that point . Prior to Beijing , Bahamian athletes had won four gold medals , one silver and four bronze ; a total of nine medals . Bahama 's delegation in Beijing added one silver and one bronze medal to the tally , increasing the total number of Bahamian medals to eleven . The flag bearer at ceremonies was Debbie Ferguson @-@ McKenzie . The Bahamian delegation was 41st in line during the flagbearing ceremonies .
Bahamian Olympic coach Keith Parker , prior to the start of the Olympic track events , said that Derrick Atkins held a strong chance of medaling in his events , having considered Atkin 's unexpected medaling at the 2007 World Championships , tying Jamaica 's Asafa Powell and the United States ' Tyson Gay for second place . Similar expectations were held for Chris Brown . Henry Rolle , the track coach at Auburn University , traveled to Beijing to train former athletes at Tianjin University . Several Bahamians were included in this group .
= = Medalists = =
= = Athletics = =
= = = Men 's competition = = =
Eleven male athletes competed in track and field events on behalf of the Bahamas . Of those athletes , three participated in the 4 × 400 meters relay only ( Williams , Moncur , Miller ) ; five participated only in events other than the 4 × 400 meters relay ( Atkins , Rolle , L. Sands , S. Sands , and Thomas ) , and three participated in both an individual event and the 4 × 400 meters relay . Of the individual events , Bahamian athletes were involved in six distinct events ( 100 meters , 40 meters , 200 meters , triple jump , 110 meters hurdles , and high jump ) . The two Bahamian medals won at Beijing were won by men in track and field events ( 4 × 400 meters relay and triple jump ) .
= = = = Men 's high jump = = = =
Donald Thomas was the sole Bahamian athlete participating in the men 's high jump event of the Beijing Olympics . During the event 's qualification round on 17 August , Thomas was placed in the first heat versus competitors that included the Czech Republic 's Jaroslav Baba and Great Britain 's Germaine Mason . Thomas ' best height cleared during this preliminary round was 2 @.@ 20 meters , the same height as Israeli Nikita Palli ; Pole Michal Bieniek ; Syrian Majed Aldin Gazal ; and American Dusty Jonas . However , Thomas tied Palli for twelfth place and scored ahead of Bieniek , Gazal and Jonas because Palli and Thomas had no misses at the high jump bar ; the other three athletes did . Overall , Thomas tied Ukrainian Dmytro Dem 'yanyuk and also Palli for twenty @-@ first place out of the forty competing athletes . Thomas did not advance to the final round .
= = = = Men 's 200 meters = = = =
Jamaal Rolle ( or Jamial Rolle ) competed on behalf of the Bahamas in the men 's 200 meters . Rolle was placed in the seventh heat of eight heats during the 17 August qualification round . Facing competitors that included the Dutch Antillean Churandy Martina , Azerbaijani Ramil Guliyev , and Nigerian Obinna Metu , Rolle ranked fifth out of eight athletes in his heat after completing his event in 20 @.@ 93 seconds . Rolle scored ahead of sixth @-@ place finalist Shingo Suetsugu of Japan , and behind fourth @-@ place finalist Sandro Viana of Brazil , falling 0 @.@ 09 seconds behind the latter . Overall , Rolle ranked thirty @-@ fourth out of the sixty @-@ six athletes who participated in the first round . He did not progress to further rounds .
= = = = Men 's 110 meters hurdles = = = =
Auburn University graduate Shamar Sands reached the quarterfinals in the 110 meter hurdles . During the qualification round on 17 August , Sands was placed in the second heat , facing competitors that included America 's David Oliver and Spain 's Jackson Quiñónez . Sands ranked third out of seven athletes , completing his event in 13 @.@ 45 seconds . He placed 0 @.@ 04 seconds behind second @-@ place heat finalist Quiñónez , and 0 @.@ 15 seconds behind heat leader Oliver . Overall , Sands ranked eighth out of the forty @-@ three athletes who participated in the qualification round . Sands progressed to quarterfinals , where he was again placed in the second heat . Completing the event with a time of 13 @.@ 55 seconds , Sands ranked seventh in the heat of eight athletes behind South Korea 's Lee Jeong @-@ Jun and ahead of Georgia 's David Ilariani . Sands fell behind heat leader Dayron Robles of Cuba by 0 @.@ 36 seconds and did not progress further .
= = = = Men 's 100 meters = = = =
Jamaican @-@ born runner Derrick Atkins was the only Bahamian to participate in the men 's 100 meters race at the Beijing Olympics . Atkins was placed in the eighth heat during the 14 August qualification round , facing athletes that included Russia 's Andrey Epishin and Norway 's Jaysuma Saidy Ndure . Atkins ranked first in his heat of eight athletes with a time of 10 @.@ 28 seconds , defeating second @-@ place heat finalist Epishin by 0 @.@ 06 seconds . Of the 80 athletes who participated in the qualification round of the event , Atkins tied Cuban Jenris Vizcaino for eighteenth place . He advanced to quarterfinals on 15 August . At quarterfinals , Atkins participated in the fifth heat against athletes that included Walter Dix of the United States and Asafa Powell of Jamaica . Atkins finished in third place in his heat with a time of 10 @.@ 14 seconds , falling behind Walter Dix , who ranked second with a time of 10 @.@ 08 seconds ; and placing ahead of Antigua and Barbuda 's Daniel Bailey , who ranked fourth with a time of 10 @.@ 23 seconds . Of the forth quarterfinalists , Atkins tied Ndure for fourteenth place , and advanced to the 16 August semifinals . Atkins competed in the first heat against , among other athletes , Dix and Usain Bolt . With a time of 10 @.@ 13 seconds , Atkins finished in sixth place in his heat , behind Saint Kitts and Nevis ' Kim Collins ( who earned a time of 10 @.@ 05 seconds ) and ahead of Great Britain 's Tyrone Edgar ( who earned a time of 10 @.@ 18 seconds ) . Overall , Atkins ranked twelfth out of sixteen athletes in semifinals , and did not advance to the final round .
= = = = Men 's triple jump = = = =
Auburn University graduate and two @-@ time Olympian Leevan Sands , the cousin of Shamar Sands , was the sole Bahamian participant in the men 's triple jump event . During the qualification round on 17 August , Sands was placed in the second heat against competitors that included Li Yanxi of China , Onochie Achike of Great Britain , and Hector Fuentes of Cuba . Sands ranked second in his heat of twenty athletes , jumping a distance of 17 @.@ 25 meters . Li , the heat leader , beat Sands by 0 @.@ 05 meters , while Achike del behind Sands by 0 @.@ 07 meters . Overall , Sands ranked fifth out of the thirty @-@ nine participating athletes . He progressed to the final round on 21 August . During that round , Sands jumped a distance of 17 @.@ 59 meters , medaling bronze behind silver medalist Phillips Idowu of Great Britain ( who jumped 17 @.@ 62 meters ) and gold medalist Nelson Évora of Portugal ( who jumped 17 @.@ 67 meters ) .
= = = = Men 's 400 meters = = = =
Oral Roberts University athlete Andretti " Dretti " Bain , two @-@ time medalist and three @-@ time Olympian Chris Brown , and Adidas @-@ sponsored athlete Michael Mathieu participated in the men 's 400 meters dash . Brown was placed in the second heat , and finished first with a time of 44 @.@ 79 seconds , ahead of second @-@ place finalist Australian Joel Milburn . Bain was placed in the third heat , and placed third out of eight athletes after gaining a time of 45 @.@ 96 seconds , placing behind Nigeria 's Godday James ( who finished with 45 @.@ 49 seconds ) and ahead of Fiji 's Niko Verekauta ( who finished with 46 @.@ 32 seconds ) . Mathieu participated in the sixth heat and ranked third out of eight athletes , earning a time of 45 @.@ 17 seconds . He placed ahead of Jamaica 's Michael Blackwood ( who earned 45 @.@ 56 seconds ) and behind Trinidad and Tobago 's Renny Quow ( who earned 45 @.@ 13 seconds ) . Out of all fifty @-@ six athletes participating in the event , Chris Brown ranked first ; Michael Mathieu tied Australia 's Sean Wroe for tenth ; and Bain ranked thirty @-@ first . All three advanced to semifinals , which took place on 19 August . During the course of semifinals , Brown was placed in the first heat ; Bain was placed in the second ; and Mathieu was placed in the third . Chris Brown finished the event in 44 @.@ 59 seconds , ranking second in the heat behind American Jeremy Wariner and ahead of Belgian Kevin Borlee . Bain completed the event in 45 @.@ 42 seconds , placing seventh in his heat , ahead of Briton Andrew Steele and Nigerian Godday James . Mathieu completed the race in 45 @.@ 56 seconds , placing sixth in his heat out of eight competitors . Mathieu ranked ahead of seventh @-@ place finisher Wroe and behind Congolese competitor Senga Gary Kikaya . Out of the 24 competitors who advanced to semifinals , Brown finished third ; Bain finished nineteenth ; and Mathieu finished twentieth . Only Brown advanced to the final round on 21 August . Brown finished the event in 44 @.@ 84 seconds , placing forth behind the three American medalists ( Lashawn Merritt , Jeremy Wariner and David Neville ) .
= = = = Men 's 4 × 400 meters relay = = = =
The men 's 4 × 400 meters relay included a Bahamian team that , in total , included six Bahamian athletes . Of those athletes , Avard Moncur and Ramon Miller participated only in the qualification round alongside Michael Mathieu and Andrae Williams . In the qualification round , which took place on 22 August , the Bahamian team participated on the second heat against the British , Jamaican , Trinidadian , Japanese , Greek and Dominican teams . Overall , the Bahamian team ranked second in the heat with a time of 2 : 59 @.@ 88 behind the British team ( which earned a time of 2 : 59 @.@ 33 ) and ahead of the Jamaican team ( which earned a time of 3 : 00 @.@ 09 ) . Out of all sixteen teams participating in the event , the Bahamian team ranked second . The Bahamas ' relay proceeded to the final round on 23 August . During the final round , the Bahamian relay replaced Avard Moncur and Ramon Miller with Chris Brown and Andretti Bain . Chris Brown started the relay , followed by Mathieu ; Bain ; and Williams . With a time of 2 : 58 @.@ 03 , the relay medaled silver behind the American relay ( which earned 2 : 55 @.@ 39 and set an Olympic record ) and ahead of the Russian relay ( which earned 2 : 58 @.@ 06 ) .
= = = = Summary = = = =
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
Men
Track & road events
* Runners who participated in the heats only and received medals .
Field events
= = = Women 's competition = = =
= = = = Women 's 400 meters = = = =
Southeastern Louisiana University alumnus and three @-@ time Olympian Christine Amertil was the only Bahamian athlete participating in the women 's 400 meters dash during the 2008 Summer Olympics . During the qualification round , which took place on 16 August , Amertil was placed in the first heat , which included seven athletes . Among them were Jamaica 's Rosemarie Whyte and Nigeria 's Ajoke Odumosu . Amertil ranked second in her heat , with a time of 51 @.@ 25 seconds , between Whyte ( first place at 51 @.@ 00 seconds ) and Odumosu ( third place at 51 @.@ 39 seconds ) . Overall , Amertil ranked tenth out of fifty athletes . She advanced to the semifinal round . During the 17 August semifinal round , Amertil was placed in the second heat , which included American Sanya Richards and Russian Anastasia Kapachinskaya . Amertil ranked fourth in the heat of eight athletes , completing her event in 51 @.@ 51 seconds . Jamaica 's Novelene Williams ranked ahead of her ( third place at 51 @.@ 06 seconds ) , and Nigeria 's Joy Amechi Eze ranked behind her ( at 51 @.@ 87 seconds ) . Out of the 24 athletes that progressed to semifinals , Amertil ranked 15th . She did not progress to the final round .
= = = = Women 's javelin throw = = = =
Five @-@ time Olympian and former Louisiana State University athlete Laverne Eve , the oldest Bahamian athlete in the Beijing delegation , was the sole Bahamian participant in women 's javelin throw . The event 's qualification round , which took place on 18 August , included Eve in its second heat . During qualifications , Eve participated in three rounds . She threw the javelin 55 @.@ 22 meters during the first round ( placing thirteenth ) , and improved to 57 @.@ 36 meters in her second round ( placing fourth ) . She threw 55 @.@ 15 meters the third round , but did not place . Out of the twenty @-@ seven participants in the heat , Eve 's best time placed her ninth in the event between Cuba 's Yanet Cruz ( 58 @.@ 06 meters on her best attempt ) and the Czech Republic 's Jarmila Klimesova ( 57 @.@ 25 meters on her best attempt ) . Out of all 54 competitors in the qualification round , Eve ranked twentieth . She did not progress to the final round .
= = = = Women 's 100 meters = = = =
Two @-@ time Olympian Tamicka Clarke ( or Tamica Clarke ) two @-@ time medalist and three @-@ time Olympian Chandra Sturrup , and three @-@ time medalist and four @-@ time Olympian Debbie Ferguson @-@ McKenzie participated in the women 's 100 meters race . Clarke was placed in the sixth heat , where she competed against athletes like Jamaica 's Shelly @-@ Ann Frazer . Clarke ranked sixth of eight athletes in the heat when she ran the event in 12 @.@ 16 seconds . Clarke ranked 56th out of 85 athletes , and did not progress . Sturrup , who competed in the fourth heat , defeated Trinidad and Tobago 's Kelly Ann Baptiste and took first with a time of 11 @.@ 30 seconds . Overall , Sturrup tied Great Britain 's Jeanette Kwakye for seventh place . Ferguson participated in the eighth heat and completed the event in 11 @.@ 17 seconds , ranking second behind Nigeria 's Damola Osayomi ( who earned first in 11 @.@ 13 seconds ) . Ferguson placed second overall out of all combined heats . Both Sturrup and Ferguson progressed to quarterfinals , which took place later that day .
Sturrup was placed in the second heat and completed the event in 11 @.@ 16 seconds . Out of the eight heat competitors , Sturrup ranked third behind Jamaica 's Sherone Simpson ( 11 @.@ 02 seconds ) and the United States ' Muna Lee ( 11 @.@ 18 seconds ) . Out of the forty quarterfinalists , Sturrup ranked ninth . Ferguson competed in the third heat and finished in 11 @.@ 21 seconds and ranked first , defeating Osayomi ( 11 @.@ 28 seconds ) and Ghana 's Vida Anim ( 11 @.@ 32 seconds ) . Overall , Ferguson placed eleventh . Both progressed to semifinals on 17 August .
Chandra Sturrup competed in the first heat of the semifinal round and finished the event in 11 @.@ 22 seconds . She placed fifth behind Simpson ( 11 @.@ 11 seconds ) , Lauryn Williams ( 11 @.@ 10 seconds ) , Muna Lee ( 11 @.@ 06 seconds ) , and Frazer ( 11 @.@ 00 seconds ) . Debbie Ferguson competed in the second heat of the semifinal round . She also finished the event in 11 @.@ 22 seconds and took fourth place immediately behind Kwakye ( 11 @.@ 19 seconds ) and also behind the United States ' Torri Edwards ( 11 @.@ 18 seconds ) and heat leader Kerron Stewart of Jamaica ( 11 @.@ 05 seconds ) . The two athletes tied each other for eighth place out of sixteen athletes , although Ferguson progressed to finals . At finals , which took place later on 17 August , Ferguson finished in 11 @.@ 19 seconds and placed seventh in the event ahead of the United States ' Torri Edwards ( 11 @.@ 20 seconds ) and behind Kwakye ( 11 @.@ 14 seconds ) .
= = = = Women 's 200 meters = = = =
The women 's 200 meters freestyle had two competitors : Sheniqua Ferguson and Debbie Ferguson . Sheniqua Ferguson competed in the fifth heat of the 18 August qualification round , where she competed against athletes like Jamaica 's Veronica Campbell ( 23 @.@ 04 seconds ) , Mali 's Kadiatou Camara ( 23 @.@ 06 seconds ) , and Russia 's Natalia Rusakova ( 23 @.@ 21 seconds ) . Sheniqua Ferguson ranked fourth in her heat , behind the aforementioned athletes . Overall , she tied Colombia 's Darlenys Obregon for 24th place out of the qualification round 's 48 competitors . Debbie Ferguson , who was in the third heat , completed her race in 23 @.@ 22 seconds and placed second in her heat behind the United States ' Marshevet Hooker ( 23 @.@ 07 seconds ) and ahead of Nigeria 's Damola Osayomi . Out of all qualification round competitors , Debbie Ferguson placed twentieth . Both Sheniqua and Debbie Ferguson progressed to the quarterfinal round , which took place on 19 August .
Sheniqua Ferguson competed in the third heat . She finished last with a time of 23 @.@ 61 seconds , falling behind seventh @-@ place finalist Vincenza Cali of Italy ( 23 @.@ 56 seconds ) . The leader of her heat was Russian Yulia Chermoshanskaya ( at 22 @.@ 63 seconds ) . Sheniqua Ferguson ranked 29th out of the 32 athletes who progressed to quarterfinals . Debbie Ferguson was placed in the first heat , and finished her event in 22 @.@ 77 seconds behind American Allyson Felix ( 22 @.@ 74 seconds ) and Jamaican Veronica Campbell ( 22 @.@ 64 seconds ) . She ranked ninth overall . Although Sheniqua Ferguson did not , Debbie Ferguson progressed to semifinals .
Debbie Ferguson competed in the first heat during the 20 August semifinal round . She finished the dash in 22 @.@ 51 seconds , ranking fourth behind American Muna Lee ( 22 @.@ 29 seconds , 3rd place ) , Jamaican Kerron Stewart ( 22 @.@ 29 seconds , 2nd place ) and Jamaican Veronica Campbell ( 22 @.@ 19 seconds , 1st place ) . Out of the sixteen semifinalists , Ferguson ranked seventh , and progressed to finals . At the final round , which took place on 21 August , Ferguson ran her event in 22 @.@ 61 seconds . She ranked seventh in her event overall ahead of the Cayman Islands ' Cydonie Mothersille and behind Jamaica 's Sherone Simpson .
= = = = Women 's long jump = = = =
Former Stanford University athlete and five @-@ time Olympian ( the first four times for the United States ) Jackie Edwards participated in the Olympics on behalf of the Bahamas in women 's long jump . On 18 August , Edwards was placed in the second qualifying heat with 20 other people , including American Brittney Reese and Russian and eventual silver medalist Tatiana Lebedeva , who were the heat 's leaders . However , Edwards did not receive a mark and , thus , did not score or rank in her heat . She was one of three athletes to receive no mark during the qualification round ( the others were Slovakia 's Jana Velďáková and India 's Anju Bobby George ) .
= = = = Summary = = = =
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
Women
Track & road events
Field events
= = Boxing = =
The Bahamas qualified one boxer for the Olympic boxing tournament . Johnson qualified for the welterweight class at the 2nd American qualifying event .
Toureano Johnson was the only boxer to participate on behalf of the Bahamas during the Beijing Olympics . He participated in the welterweight class , which includes competitors of a weight below 69 kilograms . Boxing preliminaries in Beijing took place on 10 August . Johnson was matched with Rolande Moses of Grenada in the second bout of the round . Johnson scored 18 punches on Moses , while Moses only scored three in return . Johnson advanced to the Round of 16 , which was staggered across several days . Toureano Johnson challenged the Ukraine 's Olexandr Strets 'kyy during the third bout on 16 August , scoring nine punches on him and receiving four in return and defeating him . He advanced to quarterfinals on 17 August , where he challenged and was defeated by China 's Hanati Silamu during the second bout . Johnson scored four punches on his opponent , who scored 14 in return .
= = Swimming = =
= = = Men 's competition = = =
= = = = Men 's 50 meters freestyle = = = =
University of Kentucky student Elvis Burrows was the only Bahamian swimmer to participate in the 50 meters freestyle event during the Beijing Olympics . Burrows participated in the eighth heat of the event during the 14 August preliminary rounds . Other swimmers in his heat included Flori Lang of Switzerland and Jacinto de Jesus Ayala Benjamin of the Dominican Republic , who respectively took first and second in the heat . Burrows ranked seventh , completing his event in 23 @.@ 19 seconds . Burrows ranked ahead of eighth @-@ place heat finisher Rolandas Gimbutis of Lithuania by 0 @.@ 83 seconds and behind sixth @-@ place heat finisher Francisco Picasso of Uruguay by 0 @.@ 18 seconds . Overall , Burrows ranked 52nd out of 97 event participants . He did not progress to the semifinal rounds .
= = = = Men 's 100 meters butterfly = = = =
Former Auburn University athlete and three @-@ time Olympian Jeremy Knowles competed in three events at the Beijing Olympics : The 100 meters butterfly , the 200 meters butterfly , and the 200 meters individual medley . In the 100 meters butterfly , Knowles participated in the third heat of the 14 August preliminary round , competing against athletes that included Israel 's Alon Mandel and Lithuania 's Rimvydas Salcius . Knowles ranked third in his heat after completing the event in 53 @.@ 72 seconds , falling behind Mandel by 0 @.@ 27 seconds but beating Hungarian Adam Madrassy by 0 @.@ 21 seconds . Overall , Knowles ranked 49th out of 66th participating athletes , and did not advance .
= = = = Men 's 200 meters butterfly = = = =
Jeremy Knowles ' participation in the 200 meters butterfly took place during the 11 August preliminary round . He was placed in the third heat , which was led by Hsu Chi @-@ Chieh of Taiwan and Pedro Oliveira of Portugal . Knowles completed the event in 2 : 01 @.@ 08 , placing sixth in the event . He fell behind Omar Pinzon of Columbia ( who finished in 2 : 01 @.@ 08 ) and ahead of Malaysia 's Daniel Bego ( who finished in 2 : 01 @.@ 28 ) . Out of the 44 competitors in the preliminary round , Knowles ranked 35th . He did not advance to further rounds .
= = = = Men 's 200 meters individual medley = = = =
Knowles competed on behalf of the Bahamas in the 200 meters individual medley , an event that combines all the competitive swimming strokes . The event 's preliminary round took place on 13 August . Knowles competed in the third heat , which was led by Israel 's Gal Nevo ; Bulgaria 's Mihail Alexandrov ' and Greece 's Ioannis Kokkodis . Knowles ranked fourth in the heat with a time of 2 : 01 @.@ 35 , falling behind Kokkodis ( who completed the event in 2 : 01 @.@ 22 ) but placing ahead of Croatia 's Sasa Impric ( who completed the event in 2 : 01 @.@ 83 ) . Out of the 47 competing athletes , Knowles placed 24th . He did not advance .
= = = Women 's competition = = =
= = = = Women 's 100 meters backstroke = = = =
Canada @-@ born Auburn University alumnus Alana Dillette was the only swimmer to participate in the women 's 100 meters backstroke while representing the Bahamas at the Beijing Olympics . Dillette participated in the preliminary rounds of her event on 10 August , when she swam in the third heat versus swimmers that included Columbia 's Carolina Colorado and Israel 's Anna Gostomelsky , who ranked , respectively , first and second in that heat . Dillette ranked fourth in the heat with a time of 1 : 02 @.@ 56 behind Sweden 's Sarah Sjöström by 0 @.@ 24 seconds , and ahead of Hong Kong 's Hiu Wai Sherry Tsai by 0 @.@ 12 seconds . Out of the total of 49 swimmers that took part in the preliminary rounds , Dillette ranked 32nd . She did not advance to semifinals later that day .
= = = = Women 's 50 meters freestyle = = = =
Auburn University student Arianna Vanderpool @-@ Wallace participated in two events at Beijing : the 50 meters freestyle , and the 100 meters freestyle . In the 50 meters freestyle , preliminary rounds took place on 15 August . Vanderpool @-@ Wallace was placed in the eighth heat , which was led by Israel 's Anna Gostomelsky , Vanderpool @-@ Wallace , and the Czech Republic 's Sandra Kazikova . She ranked second with a time of 25 @.@ 40 seconds , whereas heat leader Gostomelsky finished at 25 @.@ 23 seconds , and third @-@ place finalist Kazikova finished at 25 @.@ 54 seconds . Overall , out of the 92 participating athletes , Vanderpool @-@ Wallace ranked 24th . She did not advance to later rounds .
= = = = Women 's 100 meters freestyle = = = =
Vanderpool @-@ Wallace 's performance in the 100 meters freestyle took place during the preliminary round on 13 August . She was placed in the third heat , which included athletes like Hong Kong 's Hannah Jane Arnett Wilson and Austria 's Birgit Koschischek . With a time of 55 @.@ 61 seconds , Vanderpool @-@ Wallace placed second , behind heat leader Wilson ( who finished at 55 @.@ 32 seconds ) and ahead of third @-@ place finalist Koschischek ( who finished at 55 @.@ 62 seconds ) . Of the 49 participants , Vanderpool @-@ Wallace ranked 28th . She did not advance past preliminaries .
= = = Summary = = =
Men
Qualifiers for the latter rounds of all events were decided on a time only basis , therefore positions shown are overall results versus competitors in all heats .
Women
Qualifiers for the latter rounds of all events were decided on a time only basis , therefore positions shown are overall results versus competitors in all heats .
= = Tennis = =
Mark Knowles ( a five @-@ time Olympian ) and Devin Mullings participated in men 's doubles tennis on behalf of the Bahamas . Their entrance constituted the only Bahamian participation in any tennis event , and the only tennis entry by any nation in the Caribbean . The pair participated in the first match of the event 's first round on 11 August , where they faced a team from the United States that included Bob and Mike Bryan . The Bryan brothers won two sets against the Bahamian team and defeated them , eventually winning the bronze medal in the event .
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= Lambertia formosa =
Lambertia formosa , commonly known as mountain devil , is a shrub of the family Proteaceae , endemic to New South Wales , Australia . First described in 1798 by English botanist James Edward Smith , it is the type species of the small genus Lambertia . It is generally found in heathland or open forest , growing in sandstone @-@ based soils . It grows as a multistemmed shrub to around 2 m ( 7 ft ) with a woody base known as a lignotuber , from which it regrows after bushfire . It has stiff narrow leaves , and the pink to red flowerheads , made up of seven individual tubular flowers , generally appear in spring and summer . It gains its common name from the horned woody follicles , which were used to make small devil @-@ figures .
The flowers hold profuse amounts of nectar and are pollinated by honeyeaters . Although L. formosa is uncommon in cultivation , it is straightforward to grow in soils with good drainage and a partly shaded to sunny aspect . It is readily propagated by seed . Unlike all other members of the genus Lambertia , L. formosa is greatly resistant to the soil pathogen Phytophthora cinnamomi .
= = Taxonomy = =
Specimens of Lambertia formosa were collected by botanists Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander during Lieutenant James Cook 's landing at Botany Bay between April and May in 1770 . These are thought to have been obtained from vegetation currently known as the Eastern Suburbs Banksia Scrub that occurs in sandy areas near present @-@ day La Perouse . The shrub was first described in 1798 by English botanist James Edward Smith who concurrently erected the new genus Lambertia , the name honouring English botanist Aylmer Bourke Lambert . The specific name formosa is the Latin adjective for ' handsome ' . English plantsman Henry Charles Andrews wrote in 1799 , " Of all the plants yet introduced from New Holland , that have hitherto flowered with us , this unquestionably takes the lead for beauty , considering the plant altogether " , although his countryman Joseph Knight in his 1809 work On the cultivation of the plants belonging to the natural order of Proteeae added that the species name " applies only to the flowers , the foliage being generally of a sickly hue " . French botanist Michel Gandoger described specimens collected at Hornsby and Port Jackson as Lambertia proxima , and material sent to him by plant collector Charles Walter as L. barbata in 1919 ; these turned out to be L. formosa . Gandoger described 212 taxa of Australian plants , almost all of which turned out to be species already described .
One of ten species of the genus Lambertia within the family Proteaceae , Lambertia formosa is the only one found in eastern Australia as the others are all restricted to southwest Western Australia . Common names include mountain devil and honey flower , the former from the fruit 's resemblance to a devil 's head . No subspecies are recognised , although plants in the southern part of its range from Bargo River to Braidwood have longer leaves .
= = Description = =
Lambertia formosa grows as a spreading shrub to 2 m ( 7 ft ) tall , with one or more stems arising from a woody base known as a lignotuber . The new growth is covered with a fine brownish hair . The stiff leaves are arranged in whorls of 3 , or sometimes up to 4 to 6 , on the stems , and are linear to narrow @-@ oblanceolate in shape . Measuring anywhere from 1 to 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 3 in ) in length and 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 7 cm wide , they have a pointed tip or apex . Flowers are seen at any time of the year , but more often over spring and summer ( September to January ) . Their bases are covered by greenish and reddish bracts . The inflorescences are almost always made up of seven smaller individual flowers ( less than 1 % of flowerheads have either six or eight flowers ) , known as florets , and can be shades of red or pink in colour . The tubular perianths are 4 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) long , with the styles protruding another 1 – 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) beyond . Flowering is followed by the development of woody fruit which measure 2 – 3 by 1 – 2 cm . They have two 1 – 1 @.@ 5 cm sharp horny protuberances , and a 0 @.@ 5 cm ' beak ' , initially pale green in colour before fading to a grey @-@ brown . These woody follicles each have two flat , winged seeds that are retained until burnt by fire .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Endemic to New South Wales , Lambertia formosa is found on or east of the Great Dividing Range from the vicinity of Braidwood north to Port Stephens , as well as some parts of northern New South Wales around Grafton and between Red Rock and Yamba . In the Sydney Basin , it is found from altitudes of zero to 1100 m ( 3600 ft ) above sea level , and in areas of rainfall from 800 to 1400 mm ( 32 – 55 in ) annually .
Lambertia formosa grows in heathland , mallee shrubland and dry sclerophyll forest , predominantly found on sandy or rocky soils . Associated heathland species include dwarf apple ( Angophora hispida ) , paperbark teatree ( Leptospermum trinervium ) , rusty banksia ( Banksia oblongifolia ) and heath banksia ( Banksia ericifolia ) , while woodland trees include silvertop ash ( Eucalyptus sieberi ) , smooth @-@ barked apple ( Angophora costata ) , narrow @-@ leaved apple ( A. bakeri ) , red bloodwood ( Corymbia gummifera ) , yellow bloodwood ( C. eximia ) , scribbly gum ( Eucalyptus sclerophylla ) , and Sydney peppermint ( E. piperita ) . One heathland community located between Lake Munmorah and Redhead grows at least partly on clayey soils . Here , L. formosa grows under mallee forms of brown stringybark ( Eucalyptus capitellata ) and broad @-@ leaved white mahogany ( E. umbra ) and alongside shrubby forms of prickly @-@ leaved paperbark ( Melaleuca nodosa ) , dagger hakea ( Hakea teretifolia ) , scrub she @-@ oak ( Allocasuarina distyla ) , rusty banksia and swathes of kangaroo grass ( Themeda triandra ) .
= = Ecology = =
Lambertia formosa regenerates after bushfire by resprouting from its woody lignotuber , but is also serotinous in that it has a seed bank held in its canopy to be released after fire . The number of flowers produced by plants growing back from fire peaks two or three years afterwards . A field study in Brisbane Water National Park north of Sydney found that plants that had experienced two short ( less than seven @-@ year ) intervals between bushfires had reduced reproductive output as measured by lower numbers of follicles , compared with plants in areas which had had no or one short inter @-@ fire interval . Plants can live for over 60 years .
The red / pink colour , length of the tube and properties of the nectar indicate that the flower is pollinated by honeyeaters , which perch as they consume the nectar . Species observed foraging include the white @-@ eared honeyeater ( Lichenostomus leucotis ) , white @-@ cheeked honeyeater ( Phylidonyris niger ) , New Holland honeyeater ( Phylidonyris novaehollandiae ) , noisy miner ( Manorina melanocephala ) , little wattlebird ( Acanthochaera chrysoptera ) , eastern spinebill ( Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris ) , and yellow @-@ faced honeyeater ( Lichenostomus chrysops ) . Honeyeaters are found in greater numbers in the vicinity of plants with more flowers .
Caterpillars of the Australian cup moth species Xylorycta strigata eat the leaves and make burrows in the wood . The plant also hosts caterpillars of the cup moth species Mecytha fasciata .
= = Cultivation = =
Lambertia formosa was one of the earliest introductions of Australian plant species to cultivation in England . In 1788 , seed was sent from Botany Bay to the Lee and Kennedy 's nursery in Hammersmith , west London . Two varieties were raised , one designated as " var. longifolia " . The first recorded flowering was a plant grown by J. Robertson of Stockwell in July 1798 . Andrews wrote the following year that it is " without difficulty raised by cuttings , and thrives in peat earth . " Knight reported in 1809 that it required more heat and close care than other Australian plants and hence would never be widely cultivated in England .
Lambertia formosa is readily grown in cultivation given a sunny position and fair drainage , though it tolerates a range of soils and some shade . Its flowers attract birds , especially important as this can provide a source of food year @-@ round . The plant responds well to pruning . Seeds germinate within 25 to 60 days of sowing , and firm young growth makes the best cutting material for propagation . Fertilisers generally are not needed , but slow release low @-@ phosphorus fertilisers are tolerated . The species is frost @-@ hardy and grows in temperate to subtropical climates .
Inoculation experiments show that Lambertia formosa is resistant to dieback ( Phytophthora cinnamomi ) , unlike all other members of the genus . Hence it has potential as a rootstock for grafting Lambertia species of Western Australian origin , all of which are highly sensitive to root rot .
= = Uses and cultural references = =
The common name " honey flower " is derived from the flowers which produce a clear nectar in large quantities . This was a source of nourishment for Aborigines and , following European colonisation , explorers , escaped convicts and children were recorded sucking the flowers . Explorer Ludwig Leichhardt wrote that " often when I 've been tired and thirsty , I 've bitten off the base of a tuft of Lambertia formosa flowers to suck the delightfully sweet honey out of them " . Headaches and nausea have been reported from ingesting large quantities of the fluid , though it is not known to contain a toxic substance .
The species was the subject of an illustration by Sydney Parkinson , artist on HM Bark Endeavour 's voyage to the Pacific from 1769 to 1771 . A colour botanical engraving based on Parkinson 's work is part of Banks ' Florilegium . First Fleet midshipman and artist George Raper depicted the species in two works : an untitled watercolour study ( c . 1788 ) and Bird Of Point Jackson ( 1789 ) . Writer and illustrator George Collingridge incorporated the flower in several of his designs and unsuccessfully championed it as the floral emblem of Australia .
Hand @-@ crafted figures have been made utilising the mature woody fruit for a head , together with pipe cleaners , wool and fabric scraps . Known as " mountain devils " , these were sold as tourist souvenirs in the Blue Mountains .
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= Where No Man Has Gone Before =
" Where No Man Has Gone Before " is the second pilot episode of the science fiction television series Star Trek . It was produced in 1965 after the first pilot , " The Cage " , had been rejected by NBC . Reportedly , Lucille Ball , who owned Desilu Studios ( where the pilot was produced ) , persuaded NBC management to consider a second pilot , thereby exercising a special option agreement it had with Desilu , because she liked Gene Roddenberry and believed in the project . The episode was eventually broadcast third in sequence on September 22 , 1966 , and re @-@ aired on April 20 , 1967 . On July 12 , 1969 , it was the first episode to be shown in the UK by the BBC .
" Where No Man Has Gone Before " was written by Samuel A. Peeples , directed by James Goldstone , and filmed in July 1965 . It was the first episode of Star Trek to feature William Shatner as Captain James Kirk , James Doohan as Chief Engineer Montgomery Scott ( later called " Scotty " ) , and George Takei as Lt. Sulu ( the ship 's physicist , whose character became helmsman in subsequent episodes ) . The episode title was adopted as the final phrase in the opening voice @-@ over which characterizes the series and has entered popular culture .
= = Plot = =
The starship USS Enterprise is on an exploratory mission to leave the galaxy . En route , a damaged ship 's recorder of the SS Valiant , an Earth spaceship lost 200 years earlier , is found . Its record is incomplete , but it reveals that the Valiant had been swept from its path by a " magnetic space storm , " and that the crew had frantically searched for information about extra @-@ sensory perception ( ESP ) in the ship 's library computer . The recording ends with the captain of the Valiant apparently giving a self @-@ destruct order .
Kirk decides that they need to know what happened to the Valiant , and the Enterprise crosses the edge of the galaxy where it encounters a strange barrier which damages the ship 's systems and warp drive , forcing a retreat . At the same time , nine crewmembers are killed and both helmsman Gary Mitchell and ship 's psychiatrist Dr. Elizabeth Dehner are knocked unconscious by the barrier 's effect . When he awakens , Mitchell 's eyes glow silver , and he begins to display remarkable psychic powers .
Mitchell becomes increasingly arrogant and hostile toward the rest of the crew , declaring that he has become godlike , enforcing his desires with fearsome displays of telepathic and telekinetic power . Science Officer Spock ( Leonard Nimoy ) comes to believe that Valiant crew members may have experienced the same phenomenon , and destroyed the ship to keep the power from spreading . He advises Kirk that Mitchell may have to be killed before his powers develop further , but Kirk angrily disagrees .
Alarmed that Mitchell may take over the Enterprise , Kirk decides to maroon him on an unmanned lithium @-@ cracking facility on the remote planet of Delta Vega . Once there , the landing party tries to confine Mitchell , but his powers have become great . He goes on a rampage , kills navigator Lt. Lee Kelso and escapes , taking with him Dr. Dehner , who has now developed similar powers .
Kirk follows and appeals to Dr. Dehner 's humanity for help . Before Mitchell can kill Kirk , the doctor attacks and weakens him . Mitchell fatally injures Dehner , but before he can recover from the effort , Kirk uses a phaser rifle to create a rock slide , killing Mitchell .
Back on the Enterprise , Kirk makes a log entry that both Dehner and Mitchell gave their lives " in performance of duty , " rationalizing that they did not ask for what happened to them . Spock admits to feeling sympathy for Mitchell too , and Kirk comments that there is hope for him .
= = Production = =
The original pilot of Star Trek , " The Cage " , was rejected in February 1965 by NBC executives . The show had been sold to them as a " Wagon Train to the stars " , and they thought the first pilot did not match the adventure format they had been promised and was " too cerebral " for the general audience . However , NBC , having been persuaded by Desilu management ( and reportedly by Lucille Ball herself ) , maintained sufficient interest in the format to order a second pilot episode in March 1965 .
Roddenberry wrote two story outlines , " The Omega Glory " and " Mudd 's Women . " He wrote the teleplay for the former , and gave the latter to Stephen Kandel . Roddenberry asked long @-@ time associate and veteran scriptwriter Samuel Peeples to submit ideas for another . Peeples came up with the premise and episode title for " Where No Man Has Gone Before , " and was assigned to write it .
Kandel had fallen ill and his script was not finished in time ; the other two were submitted to NBC for consideration . NBC preferred " Where No Man Has Gone Before " as a pilot . " Mudd 's Women " was later made as the second episode in regular production , and " The Omega Glory " was made towards the end of the second season .
While " The Cage " has a running time of approximately 63 minutes , " Where No Man Has Gone Before " , ran just over 55 minutes with additional footage and formatting later cut to reduce it to the usual series running time of around 50 minutes ( excluding commercials ) .
Casting took place in June 1965 . Jeffrey Hunter was unwilling to reprise his role as Captain Christopher Pike . Lloyd Bridges and Jack Lord were considered , but William Shatner was finally cast as Pike 's replacement , Captain James Kirk . The character of Number One , the female second @-@ in @-@ command , was dropped on the insistence of the NBC network , and Science Officer Spock was given Number One 's unemotional demeanor . NBC was worried about Leonard Nimoy 's " satanic " appearance and pressured for his removal .
Apart from Captain Kirk , the episode introduced two other regular characters to the show : James Doohan , a friend of director James Goldstone , was cast as the Chief Engineer Montgomery Scott ( the name chosen after Doohan had tried various accents , and had decided that an engineer ought to be Scottish ) and George Takei was cast as Ship 's Physicist Sulu , who would become the helmsman in the regular series . Lieutenant Uhura and Dr. Leonard McCoy do not feature ; the ship 's doctor is instead Mark Piper ( Paul Fix ) . Piper was intended as a regular ; DeForest Kelley , who played McCoy in the series proper , had been considered for the role .
Gary Lockwood , as Lt. Commander Gary Mitchell , had starred in the title role of Roddenberry 's earlier series on NBC , The Lieutenant ; Sally Kellerman was cast as Dr. Elizabeth Dehner . Both actors needed silver eyes , which were produced by an expert contact lens fabricator who sandwiched wrinkled tinfoil between two sclera contact lenses which covered the entire eye . These were outdated even in the 1960s and dangerous to the health of the actors ' eyes . Although Kellerman could insert and remove the prosthetics easily with no discomfort , Lockwood found them almost impossible to use . He needed to raise his face and sight along his nose in order to see through tiny holes in the foil . He was able to use this to enhance his performance as the mutating Mitchell , the unusual gaze giving him an arrogant and haughty demeanor .
Other cast members included Paul Carr as Navigator Lee Kelso , Lloyd Haynes as Communications Officer Alden and Andrea Dromm as Yeoman Smith ( Alden and Smith were intended to be regulars in the show , but were replaced by Uhura and Janice Rand , respectively ) . The episode also is the first time long @-@ running background actor Eddie Paskey appeared ; his character would later be identified as Lt. Leslie .
The costumes from the first pilot were used in " Where No Man Has Gone Before " with the exception of the insignias in two respects - the outlines were gold in first pilot but black in the second , and the insignia symbols for engineering and sciences were reversed compared to both the pilot and the series proper . Completely new uniforms and insignias would be unveiled when the series was green @-@ lighted , with the colors altered and black collars introduced . Most of the Enterprise sets were also reused from " The Cage " , while Sickbay was the only major set constructed for the episode . Like " The Cage " , the episode was shot at Desilu 's Culver City studios .
The episode was directed by James Goldstone . Ernest Haller , who had won the Oscar for Best Color Cinematography on the movie Gone with the Wind ( 1939 ) , served as director of photography for the episode . He had been brought in out of semi @-@ retirement at Goldstone 's recommendation at the last minute , after attempts to locate a cameraman had proved problematic . Robert H. Justman was credited as assistant director .
Shooting started on July 19 , 1965 , several days later than originally scheduled . During the filming of this episode , a wasp 's nest high in the rafters of the studio was somehow disturbed , and many cast and crew members suffered stings as a result . As this happened on a Friday , the weekend break allowed time for the swelling to go down ; Shatner , however , required additional makeup to hide the stings during shooting the following Monday . Filming finished late on July 28 , 1965 ; the final footage filmed was part of the fight between Kirk and Mitchell . While the schedule allowed seven days to shoot the episode , it required nine , which was Justman 's original estimate . The episode cost around $ 300 @,@ 000 , around half the money spent on making " The Cage " .
In a 1988 TV special , series creator Gene Roddenberry said that , as with the first pilot , this one still had a lot of science @-@ fiction elements in it , but at least it ended with Kirk in a bare knuckle fistfight with Mitchell and that 's what sold NBC on Star Trek .
= = Original cut = =
Post @-@ production on the episode was delayed by Roddenberry 's involvement in another pilot , Police Story . Post @-@ production finished in January 1966 and the episode was presented to NBC for approval ( which finally came in February 1966 ) ; this original version ( production number 02a ) differed from the later final broadcast cut ( production number 02b , airing on September 22 , 1966 ) in that each of the four acts had on @-@ screen titles ( " Act I " , " Act II " , etc . ) , as well as an epilogue , in the manner of Quinn Martin 's television productions . It also featured a much longer opening narration by Shatner . In part , also alternate musical scores were used . In total almost 5 minutes of additional footage was removed to accommodate the original series 50 @-@ minute network broadcast format , allowing for commercials .
The studio did not retain a print of this original " alternate " version , and it was officially thought to be lost , though many fans knew that it existed somewhere , having purchased a poor quality VHS tape at a convention . In 2009 , a German film collector discovered a print of it and brought it to the attention of CBS / Paramount , which then released it under the title " Where No Fan Has Gone Before " – The Restored , Unaired Alternate Pilot Episode as part of the TOS season 3 box set on Blu @-@ ray ; it has not yet been released on DVD .
The original " alternate " version also remains unaired ( in both normal or still undone remastered form ) , thus still awaiting canon status ( both in contrast to TOS 's earlier other concept @-@ as @-@ pilot episode 's version , " The Cage " – later reworked into the two @-@ part " The Menagerie " of the original run of TOS , which was finally broadcast in 1988 during the original run and in the regular time slot of Star Trek : The Next Generation ) .
The episode in its original " alternate " version was known to the public before the aired version , having been shown ( receiving a standing ovation ) at the 24th Worldcon in Cleveland , Ohio , on September 3 , 1966 — shortly before the premiere broadcast of Star Trek on NBC .
= = Continuity = =
The episode 's title is the first usage of the phrase " Where No Man Has Gone Before " in Star Trek . The phrase would be incorporated into the opening credits sequence in following episodes , as part of the " Space : The Final Frontier ... " speech given by Captain Kirk . The phrase would also be used ( with " man " changed to the gender @-@ neutral " one " ) , in the credits voice @-@ over of Star Trek : The Next Generation . That series also referred to it with the title of one of its episodes , " Where No One Has Gone Before " . It was also referred to in the final episode of Star Trek : Enterprise as part of a voice @-@ over spoken by Picard , Kirk , and Archer .
Kirk 's middle initial is given as " R. " in " Where No Man Has Gone Before " and is seen clearly on the gravestone fashioned by Mitchell for Kirk ; subsequent episodes use " James T. Kirk " . His middle name was revealed to be " Tiberius " in " Bem " , an episode from the animated series , and in Star Trek VI : The Undiscovered Country . Various suggestions have been made to explain this discrepancy ; Michael Jan Friedman 's My Brother 's Keeper trilogy speculates this results from an in @-@ joke between Mitchell and Kirk . Roddenberry cited human error on Mitchell 's part .
The episode contains the first stardate ( 1312 @.@ 4 ) and makes the first reference to the Academy , at which Kirk taught Mitchell . The " lithium crystals " mentioned in the episode would later be renamed to the fictional " dilithium crystals " . The episode opens with Kirk and Spock playing a game of three @-@ dimensional chess .
= = Sequels and adaptations = =
The episode was adapted into a short story by James Blish for Star Trek 8 , published in 1972 . It also became the second in Bantam 's series of Fotonovels , published in 1977 .
The Galactic Barrier is later associated with the Q , in two unrelated and noncanon novels : 1994 's Q @-@ Squared by Peter David , and Greg Cox 's 1998 Q Continuum novels .
Gary Mitchell does not appear again in the show . Several books , including Michael Jan Friedman 's My Brother 's Keeper , Vonda N. McIntyre 's Enterprise : The First Adventure , and Margaret Wander Bonanno 's Strangers from the Sky , feature the Mitchell character in adventures set before the events of the episode . The 2005 Star Trek : Vanguard book Harbinger is set immediately after the events of " Where No Man Has Gone Before " and features a troubled Kirk musing on his friend 's death . Friedman 's Stargazer book The Valiant features two people who claim to be descended from the Valiant 's crew .
= = Reception = =
Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club gave the episode a ' B + ' rating , describing it as " an awkward episode " but that " it 's not without its charms . "
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= Alexander Berkman =
Alexander Berkman ( November 21 , 1870 – June 28 , 1936 ) was a leading member of the anarchist movement in the early 20th century , famous for both his political activism and his writing .
Berkman was born in Vilna in the Russian Empire ( present @-@ day Vilnius , Lithuania ) and emigrated to the United States in 1888 . He lived in New York City , where he became involved in the anarchist movement . He was the one @-@ time lover and lifelong friend of anarchist Emma Goldman . In 1892 , undertaking an act of propaganda of the deed , Berkman made an unsuccessful attempt to assassinate businessman Henry Clay Frick , for which he served 14 years in prison . His experience in prison was the basis for his first book , Prison Memoirs of an Anarchist .
After his release from prison , Berkman served as editor of Goldman 's anarchist journal , Mother Earth , and later established his own journal , The Blast . In 1917 , Berkman and Goldman were sentenced to two years in jail for conspiracy against the newly instated draft . After their release from prison , they were arrested — along with hundreds of others — and deported to Russia . Initially supportive of that country 's Bolshevik revolution , Berkman and Goldman soon became disillusioned , voicing their opposition to the Soviet 's use of terror after seizing power and their repression of fellow revolutionaries . In 1925 , he published a book about his experiences , The Bolshevik Myth .
While living in France , Berkman continued his work in support of the anarchist movement , producing the classic exposition of anarchist principles , Now and After : The ABC of Communist Anarchism . Suffering from ill health , Berkman committed suicide in 1936 .
= = Life = =
= = = Early years = = =
Berkman was born Ovsei Osipovich Berkman in the Lithuanian city of Vilnius ( then called Vilna , and part of the Vilna Governorate in the Russian Empire ) . He was the youngest of four children born into a well @-@ off Jewish family . Berkman 's father , Osip Berkman , was a successful leather merchant , and his mother , Yetta Berkman ( née Natanson ) , came from a prosperous family .
In 1877 , Osip Berkman was granted the right , as a successful businessman , to move from the Pale of Settlement to which Jews were generally restricted in the Russian Empire . The family moved to Saint Petersburg , a city previously off @-@ limits to Jews . There , Ovsei adopted the more Russian name Alexander ; he was known among family and friends as Sasha , a diminutive for Alexander . The Berkmans lived comfortably , with servants and a summer house . Berkman attended the gymnasium , where he received a classical education with the youth of Saint Petersburg 's elite .
As a youth , Berkman was influenced by the growing radicalism that was spreading among workers in the Russian capital . A wave of political assassinations culminated in a bomb blast that killed Tsar Alexander II in 1881 . While his parents worried — correctly , as it turned out — that the tsar 's death might result in repression of the Jews and other minorities , Berkman became intrigued by the radical ideas of the day , including populism and nihilism . He became very upset when his favorite uncle , his mother 's brother Mark Natanson , was sentenced to death for revolutionary activities .
Soon after Berkman turned 12 , his father died . The business had to be sold , and the family lost the right to live in Saint Petersburg . Yetta moved the family to Kovno , where her brother Nathan lived . Berkman had shown great promise as a student at the gymnasium , but his studies began to falter as he spent his time reading novels . One of the books that interested him was Ivan Turgenev 's novel Fathers and Sons ( 1862 ) , with its discussion of nihilist philosophy . But what truly moved him was Nikolay Chernyshevsky 's 1863 novel , What Is to Be Done ? , and Berkman felt inspired by Rakhmetov , its puritanical protagonist who is willing to sacrifice personal pleasure and family ties in single @-@ minded pursuit of his revolutionary aims .
Soon , Berkman joined a group at school that was reading and discussing revolutionary literature , which was prohibited under the new tsar , Alexander III . He distributed banned material to other students and wrote some radical tracts of his own , which he printed using supplies pilfered from the school . He turned in a paper titled " There Is No God " , which resulted in a one @-@ year demotion as punishment on the basis of " precocious godlessness , dangerous tendencies and subordination " .
Berkman 's mother died in 1887 ( he was 18 ) , and his uncle Nathan Natanson became responsible for him . Berkman had contempt for Natanson for his desire to maintain order and avoid conflict . Natanson could not understand what Berkman found appealing in his radical ideas , and he worried that Berkman would bring shame to the family . Late that year , Berkman was caught stealing copies of the school exams and bribing a handyman . He was expelled and labelled a " nihilist conspirator " .
Berkman decided to emigrate to the United States . When his brother left for Germany in early 1888 to study medicine , Berkman took the opportunity to accompany him and from there made his way to New York City .
= = = New York City = = =
Soon after his arrival in New York , where he knew nobody and spoke no English , Berkman became an anarchist through his involvement with groups that had formed to campaign to free the men convicted of the 1886 Haymarket bombing . He joined the Pioneers of Liberty , the first Jewish anarchist group in the U.S. The group was affiliated with the International Working People 's Association , the organization to which the Haymarket defendants had belonged , and they regarded the Haymarket men as martyrs . Since most of its members worked in the garment industry , the Pioneers of Liberty took part in strikes against sweatshops and helped establish some of the first Jewish labor unions in the city . Before long , Berkman was one of the prominent members of the organization .
Berkman soon came under the influence of Johann Most , the best known anarchist in the United States and an advocate of propaganda of the deed — attentat , or violence carried out to encourage the masses to revolt . He became a typesetter for Most 's newspaper Freiheit .
In 1889 , Berkman met and began a romance with Emma Goldman , another Russian immigrant . He invited her to Most 's lecture . Soon Berkman and Goldman fell in love and became inseparable . Despite their disagreements and separations , Goldman and Berkman would share a mutual devotion for decades , united by their anarchist principles and love for one another .
By the end of the year , they moved into a communal apartment with Berkman 's cousin , Modest Aronstam ( referred to as " Fedya " in both Berkman 's Prison Memoirs of an Anarchist and Goldman 's Living My Life ) , and Goldman 's friend , Helene Minkin , along principles inspired by What Is to Be Done ? Living according to the example of Rakhmetov , Berkman denied himself even the smallest pleasures — and he expected his comrades to be the same . Aronstam , on the other hand , occasionally brought home flowers . Frictions between the two grew : " Every penny spent for ourselves was so much taken from the Cause , " Berkman fumed . " Luxury is a crime , a weakness . " With time , however , the two cousins reconciled .
Berkman eventually broke with Most and aligned himself with the autonomists . The autonomists , an anarchist group associated with Josef Peukert , emphasized individual freedom . They feared the dominance of the anarchist movement by a single individual and opposed the establishment of anarchist organizations . Consequently , the autonomists were opposed to Most . Soon , Berkman was working for the autonomists ' publications , Der Anarchist and Die Autonomie , but he remained committed to the concept of violent action as a tool for inspiring revolutionary change .
At the end of 1891 , Berkman learned that Russian anarchist Peter Kropotkin , whom he admired , had cancelled an American speaking tour on the basis that it was too expensive for the struggling anarchist movement . While Berkman was disappointed , the frugality of the action further elevated Kropotkin 's stature in his eyes .
= = = Attentat = = =
In 1892 , Berkman , Goldman , and Aronstam relocated to Worcester , Massachusetts , where they operated a successful luncheonette . At the end of June , Goldman saw a newspaper headline that brought to her attention the trio 's first opportunity for political action : the Homestead Strike . In June 1892 , workers at a steel plant in Homestead , Pennsylvania were locked out when negotiations between the Carnegie Steel Company and the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers failed . Henry Clay Frick , the factory 's notoriously anti @-@ union manager , hired 300 armed guards from the Pinkerton Detective Agency to break the union 's picket lines . When the Pinkerton guards arrived at the factory on the morning of July 6 , a gunfight broke out . Nine union workers and seven guards were killed in the 12 @-@ hour fight .
Newspapers across the country defended the union workers , and the trio decided to assassinate Frick . They believed the assassination would arouse the working class to unite and revolt against the capitalist system . Berkman 's was to assassinate Frick and then kill himself ; Goldman was to explain Berkman 's motives after his death ; and Aronstam was to follow Berkman in the event that he failed in his mission . Emulating his Russian idols , Berkman tried to make a bomb , but when that failed , he went to Pittsburgh with the plan to use a handgun .
Arriving in Pittsburgh on July 14 , Berkman sought out anarchists Henry Bauer and Carl Nold . They were followers of Most , but supported the Homestead strike . Berkman had never met either man but counted on their support . Nold invited Berkman to stay with him , and he and Bauer introduced Berkman to several local anarchists .
Berkman was ready to carry out the assassination on July 21 . He wore a new suit and a black derby hat , and in his pockets he had a gun and a dagger fashioned from a steel file . He went to Frick 's office and asked to see him , saying he was the representative of a New York hiring agency , but he was told Frick was too busy to meet him . The following night , Berkman checked into a hotel under the name Rakhmetov , his role model from What Is to Be Done ? On July 23 , he returned to Frick 's office . While the attendant told Frick that the New York employment agent had returned to see him , Berkman burst into the office and took aim at Frick 's head . After two shots , Berkman was tackled to the ground . Still , he managed to pull out the dagger and stab Frick three times .
A carpenter who was working nearby heard the commotion and hit Berkman in the head with his hammer , but the blow only stunned him . The gunshots and struggle could be heard and seen from the street , and within minutes Frick 's office had attracted all sorts of people , but Berkman continued to resist . A deputy sheriff aimed his gun at Berkman , but Frick said , " Don 't shoot . Leave him to the law . " As the police led Berkman to the jail , an angry crowd gathered and shouted at Berkman . When he was questioned by police , Berkman said he had arrived in Pittsburgh on July 21 and that he had acted alone . A dynamite capsule was discovered in his mouth after a policeman noticed that he was chewing on something .
On July 24 , a police officer took Berkman for a portrait . He lent Berkman his own tie for the picture . The following day , Aronstam arrived in Pittsburgh with pockets full of dynamite to finish Berkman 's botched assassination attempt . Somehow rumors of his arrival had preceded him , and he saw a newspaper headline that read " Was Not Alone . Berkmann [ sic ] Had Accomplices in His Mission of Murder . Is Aaron Stamm Here ? " Aronstam became frightened , hid the dynamite in an outhouse , and returned to New York .
Berkman stayed in jail for two months awaiting his trial . He had one hour per day of exercise with other prisoners . They could not understand his motive for the attack on Frick . Surely it must have been a personal dispute or a business quarrel . His explanations were met with condescending smiles . One fellow prisoner , a Homestead worker who was about to stand trial for throwing dynamite at the Pinkertons , told him the workers did not believe in violence . Berkman had no connection with Homestead , and the strike was none of his business . He had only hurt the workers ' cause with his action .
Most of the anarchists in Pittsburgh were questioned by police . Bauer and Nold were arrested and charged with complicity in Berkman 's plot . Everywhere , anarchists took sides for or against Berkman and his attentat . The autonomists supported him , as did many anarchists across the country . Peukert spoke out in his defense . Also defending Berkman was Dyer Lum , an anarchist who had been a comrade of the Haymarket defendants , and Lucy Parsons . Among those who criticized Berkman were Jo Labadie , Benjamin Tucker , and many other anarchists who believed the anarchist struggle should be peaceful . Berkman 's most prominent critic was Most , who belittled Berkman as a nuisance or a flunky hired by Frick himself to garner sympathy . Most published an article in his newspaper titled " Reflections on Attentats " in which he wrote that propaganda of the deed was doomed to be misunderstood in the U.S. and that it could only backfire . Most wrote that Berkman 's action had proven this ; while Berkman may have demonstrated a certain heroism , in all other respects his attempt was a " total failure " .
Berkman was deeply interested in the debate concerning his action . He was almost heartbroken by the rebuke from Most , who had " preached propaganda by deed all his life — now he repudiates the first attentat in this country " . He was encouraged by the words of Kropotkin , who wrote that " Berkman has done more to spread the anarchist idea among the masses who do not read our papers than all the writings that we may publish . He has shown that there are among the anarchists , men capable of being revolted by the crimes of capitalism to the point of giving their life to put an end to these crimes , or at least to open a way to such an end . "
= = = Trial = = =
Berkman declined the services of a lawyer for his trial . The warden cautioned him against this choice , but Berkman replied " I don 't believe in your laws . I don 't acknowledge the authority of your courts . I am innocent morally " . Bauer and Nold visited him with their lawyers , who offered to represent him at no charge , but Berkman politely refused . As the trial approached , Berkman drafted a speech that he would read in court . Written in German because his English was still poor , it was 40 pages long and took two hours to read . Berkman tried to learn the date of his trial , but it was kept secret by the district attorney out of fear of an attack by Berkman 's comrades . Berkman therefore was unaware of his trial until the morning it began .
When Berkman was brought to the courtroom on September 19 , the jury had already been empaneled . The district attorney had selected the jury without allowing Berkman to examine prospective jurors , and the judge had no objection to the unusual procedure . Berkman was charged with six counts : felonious assault with the intent to kill Frick ; felonious assault with the intent to kill Lawrence Leishman , who had been in Frick 's office at the time of the attack ; feloniously entering the offices of the Carnegie Steel Company on three occasions ; and unlawfully carrying concealed weapons . Berkman pleaded not guilty to all charges .
Frick told the jury about the attempt on his life . The clothes he wore that day , bloody and riddled with holes , were shown to the jury . A physician testified that both of Berkman 's weapons , the gun and the dagger , could have caused death . Leishman testified that Berkman fired his pistol at him once and Berkman asked , " Well , did I intend to kill you ? " " I think so " , Leishman replied , to which Berkman said , " Well that 's not true . I didn 't intend to do it . " Several witnesses told the jury that Berkman had visited the Carnegie offices three times . Berkman 's dagger and gun were placed into evidence , and the prosecution rested .
Berkman was asked to call his witnesses , but he had none . Instead , he asked to read his statement to the jury . A German translator was brought to the court . As an atheist , Berkman refused to be sworn in . He began reading his prepared statement . When the translator began to speak on his behalf to the jury , Berkman discovered the man was incompetent . He thought the man 's voice was " cracked and shrill " as he spoke to the jury in broken English . The effect of the statement , Berkman thought , was being lost . After about an hour , the judge told Berkman it was time to finish his oration .
Without leaving the jury box , the jurors found Berkman guilty on all charges . The judge gave Berkman the maximum sentence for each count : a total of 21 years in prison and one year in the workhouse , to be served consecutively . Berkman argued that he should only be sentenced for the attempt on Frick 's life , that the other charges were elements of the main crime of assault with the intent to kill , but the judge overruled his objection . In four hours , Berkman had been tried , convicted , and sentenced . He was brought to serve his sentence at Pennsylvania 's Western Penitentiary .
= = = Prison = = =
Within weeks of his arrival at prison , Berkman began planning his suicide . He tried to sharpen a spoon into a blade , but his attempt was discovered by a guard and Berkman spent the night in the dungeon . He thought about beating his head against the bars of his cell , but worried that his efforts might injure him but leave him alive . Berkman wrote a letter to Goldman , asking her to secure a dynamite capsule for him . A letter was smuggled out of the prison and arrangements were made for her to visit Berkman in November 1892 , posing as his sister . Berkman knew as soon as he saw Goldman that she had not brought the dynamite capsule .
Between 1893 and 1897 , the years when Bauer and Nold were also in the Western Penitentiary for their part in the assassination attempt , the three men surreptitiously produced 60 issues of a hand @-@ written anarchist newsletter by transferring their work from cell to cell . They managed to send the completed newsletters , which they called Prison Blossoms , to friends outside the prison . Participating in Prison Blossoms , initially written in German and later in English , helped Berkman improve his English . He developed a friendship with the prison chaplain , John Lynn Milligan , who was a strong advocate on behalf of the prison library . Milligan encouraged Berkman to read books from the library , a process that furthered his knowledge of English .
Berkman frequently clashed with the prison 's management over the mistreatment of his fellow prisoners . Sometimes he was put into solitary confinement , with one stay lasting 16 months . When Berkman smuggled reports of corruption and brutality outside the prison , resulting in an investigation , he was taken to the dungeon and put in a straitjacket .
Letters from friends were like lifelines to Berkman . " The very arrival of a letter is momentous , " he wrote . " It brings a glow into the prisoner 's heart to feel that he is remembered . " Goldman and anarchist Voltairine de Cleyre were regular correspondents , and other friends wrote frequently .
In 1897 , as Berkman finished the fifth year of his sentence , he applied to the Pennsylvania Board of Pardons . Having served as his own attorney , Berkman had failed to object to the trial judge 's rulings and thus had no legal basis for an appeal ; a pardon was his only hope for early release . The Board of Pardons denied his application in October 1897 . A second application was rejected in early 1899 .
Now an escape seemed like Berkman 's only option . The plan was to rent a house across the street from the prison and dig an underground tunnel from the house to the prison . Berkman had been given access to a large portion of the prison and had grown familiar with its layout . In April 1900 , a house was leased . The tunnel would be dug from the cellar of the house to the stable inside the prison yard . When the digging was complete , Berkman would sneak into the stable , tear open the wooden flooring , and crawl through the tunnel to the house .
Digging the tunnel turned out to be more difficult than expected . The soil was rocky , which forced the men to dig deeper than planned . There , they discovered a leaking gas main , which required the installation of special pumps to bring fresh air to the men . To hide the noise from the digging , one of the crew played piano and sang in the house while the others worked below . On July 5 , Berkman visited the prison stable , planning to make his escape . He was horrified to discover that the entrance was blocked by a large load of stones and bricks recently dumped for a construction project .
Three weeks later , some children playing in the street wandered into the yard of the now @-@ vacant house . One of them fell into the cellar and discovered the tunnel . While the prison 's Board of Inspectors was unable to identify the inmate involved in the escape attempt , the warden punished Berkman by sending him to solitary confinement for nearly a year . Days after he was released from solitary , Berkman tried to hang himself with a strip of his blanket .
Soon things began looking up for Berkman . He received word that his sentence had been reduced by two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years , thanks to a new law . He also received his first visitor in nine years . A month later , Goldman was able to visit under an assumed name . The warden retired and his successor improved the prison for all prisoners .
Early in his incarceration , Berkman questioned whether two men could love one another . He was aware , as he later wrote , that incidents of rape or attempted rape took place " almost every week , yet no one has ever been taken to court ... on such charges " . Some of Berkman 's own friendships within the prison became physical . He became intimate with one prisoner , " Johnny " , when the two were confined to the dungeon . He discussed homosexuality with another prisoner , " George " , a formerly married physician who told Berkman about his own homosexual prison affair .
In 1905 , Berkman was transported from the Western Penitentiary to the Allegheny County Workhouse , where he spent the final 10 months of his sentence . He found conditions in the workhouse " a nightmare of cruelty , infinitely worse than the most inhuman aspects of the penitentiary . " The guards beat inmates for the slightest provocation , and one particularly sadistic guard shoved prisoners down the stairs . Berkman felt mixed emotions ; he was concerned about the friends he had made in the prison , he was excited about the prospect of freedom , and he was worried about what life as a free man would be like .
= = = Freedom = = =
Berkman was released from the workhouse on May 18 , 1906 , after serving 14 years of his sentence . He was met at the workhouse gates by newspaper reporters and police , who recommended that he leave the area . He took the train to Detroit , where Goldman met him . She found herself " seized by terror and pity " at his gaunt appearance . Later , at a friend 's house , Berkman felt overwhelmed by the presence of well @-@ wishers . He became claustrophobic and almost suicidal . Nevertheless , he agreed to a joint lecture tour with Goldman .
Back in New York after the tour , Berkman and Goldman tried to rekindle their intimate relationship , but each had lost passion for the other . Instead , Berkman was attracted to some of the younger women in the movement , including a teenager named Becky Edelsohn .
Berkman continued to suffer from depression and increasingly spoke about committing suicide . He began a new lecture tour , but when he failed to appear in Cleveland , concerned friends sent a telegram to Goldman in New York . She worried that he had killed himself . Anarchists across the country searched for Berkman in police stations , hospitals , and morgues . Even newspapers wondered where he was , speculating that he might have been kidnapped by Pittsburgh detectives , by Secret Service agents , or by " agents of millionaires " who opposed his message . Three days later , Berkman appeared in New York and contacted Goldman . He said the lecture tour had made him feel miserable . He had purchased a handgun in Cleveland with the intention of killing himself in a city where nobody knew him , but he was unable to complete the act .
After resting for several months , Berkman began to recover . He remained anxious about his lack of employment . He considered returning to his old job as a printer , but his skills had become obsolete in light of innovations in linotype machines . With Goldman 's encouragement , Berkman began to write an account of his prison years , Prison Memoirs of an Anarchist , and she invited him to become the editor of her journal , Mother Earth . He served as editor from 1907 to 1915 , and took the journal in a more provocative and practical direction , in contrast to the more theoretical approach which had been favored by the previous editor , Max Baginski . Under Berkman 's stewardship , circulation of Mother Earth rose as high as 10 @,@ 000 and it became the leading anarchist publication in the U.S.
= = = Ferrer Center = = =
Berkman helped establish the Ferrer Center in New York during 1910 and 1911 , and served as one of its teachers . The Ferrer Center , named in honor of Spanish anarchist Francisco Ferrer , included a free school that encouraged independent thinking among its students . The Ferrer Center also served as a community center for adults .
= = = The Ludlow massacre and the Lexington Avenue explosion = = =
In September 1913 , the United Mine Workers called a strike against coal @-@ mining companies in Ludlow , Colorado . The largest mining company was the Rockefeller family @-@ owned Colorado Fuel & Iron Company . On April 20 , 1914 , the Colorado National Guard attacked a tent colony of striking miners and their families and , during a day @-@ long fight , 26 people were killed .
During the strike , Berkman organized demonstrations in New York in support of the miners . In May and June , he and other anarchists led several protests against John D. Rockefeller , Jr . The protests eventually moved from New York City to Rockefeller 's home in Tarrytown , New York , and resulted in the beatings , arrests , and imprisonments of a number of anarchists . The strong police response to the Tarrytown protests led to a bomb plot by several Ferrer Center anarchists .
In July , three associates of Berkman — Charles Berg , Arthur Caron , and Carl Hanson — began collecting dynamite and storing it at the apartment of another conspirator , Louise Berger . Some sources , including Charles Plunkett , one of the surviving conspirators , say that Berkman was the chief conspirator , the oldest and most experienced member of the group . Berkman denied any involvement or knowledge of the plan .
At 9 a.m. on July 4 , Berger left her apartment for the Mother Earth offices . Fifteen minutes later a deadly explosion took place . The bomb had exploded prematurely , shaking the sixth story of Berger 's tenement building , wrecking the three upper floors and killing Berg , Caron , Hanson , and a woman , Marie Chavez , who apparently was not involved in the conspiracy . Berkman arranged the dead men 's funerals .
= = = The Blast and the Preparedness Day Bombing = = =
In late 1915 , Berkman left New York and went to California . In San Francisco the following year , he started his own anarchist journal , The Blast . Although it was published for just 18 months , The Blast was considered second only to Mother Earth in its influence among U.S. anarchists .
On July 22 , 1916 , a bomb exploded during the San Francisco Preparedness Day Parade , killing ten people and wounding 40 . Police suspected Berkman , although there was no evidence , and ultimately their investigation focused on two local labor activists , Thomas Mooney and Warren Billings . Although neither Mooney nor Billings were anarchists , Berkman came to their aid : raising a defense fund , hiring lawyers , and beginning a national campaign on their behalf . Mooney and Billings were convicted , with Mooney sentenced to death and Billings to life imprisonment .
Berkman arranged for Russian anarchists to protest outside the American embassy in Petrograd during the Russian Revolution , which led U.S. President Woodrow Wilson to ask California 's governor to commute Mooney 's death sentence . When the governor reluctantly did so , he said that " the propaganda in [ Mooney 's ] behalf following the plan outlined by Berkman has been so effective as to become world @-@ wide . " Billings and Mooney both were pardoned in 1939 .
= = = World War I = = =
In 1917 the U.S. entered World War I and Congress enacted the Selective Service Act , which required all men between the ages of 21 and 30 to register for military conscription . Berkman moved back to New York , where he and Goldman organized the No Conscription League of New York , which proclaimed : " We oppose conscription because we are internationalists , anti @-@ militarists , and opposed to all wars waged by capitalistic governments . " The organization was at the forefront of anti @-@ draft activism , and chapters were established in other cities . The No Conscription League changed its focus from public meetings to disseminating pamphlets after police started disrupting the group 's public events in search of young men who had not registered for the draft .
Berkman and Goldman were arrested during a raid of their offices on June 15 , 1917 , during which police seized what The New York Times described as " a wagon load of anarchist records and propaganda material " . The pair were charged under Espionage Act of 1917 with " conspiracy to induce persons not to register " , and were held on $ 25 @,@ 000 bail each .
Berkman and Goldman defended themselves during their trial . Berkman invoked the First Amendment , asking how the government could claim to fight for " liberty and democracy " in Europe while suppressing free speech at home :
Will you proclaim to the world that you who carry liberty and democracy to Europe have no liberty here , that you who are fighting for democracy in Germany , suppress democracy right here in New York , in the United States ? Are you going to suppress free speech and liberty in this country , and still pretend that you love liberty so much that you will fight for it five thousand miles away ?
The jury found them guilty and Judge Julius M. Mayer imposed the maximum sentence : two years ' imprisonment , a $ 10 @,@ 000 fine , and the possibility of deportation after their release from prison . Berkman served his sentence in the Atlanta Federal Penitentiary , seven months of which were in solitary confinement for protesting the beating of other inmates . When he was released on October 1 , 1919 , Berkman looked " haggard and pale " ; according to Goldman , the 21 months Berkman served in Atlanta took a greater toll on him than his 14 @-@ year incarceration in Pennsylvania .
= = = Russia = = =
Berkman and Goldman were released at the height of the first U.S. Red Scare ; the Russian Revolutions of 1917 , combined with anxiety about the war , produced a climate of anti @-@ radical and anti @-@ foreign sentiment . The U.S. Justice Department 's General Intelligence Division , headed by J. Edgar Hoover and under the direction of Attorney General Alexander Mitchell Palmer , initiated a series of raids to arrest leftists . While they were in prison , Hoover wrote : " Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman are , beyond doubt , two of the most dangerous anarchists in this country and if permitted to return to the community will result in undue harm . " Under the 1918 Anarchist Exclusion Act , the government deported Berkman , who had never applied for U.S. citizenship , along with Goldman and more than two hundred others , to Russia aboard the Buford .
At a farewell banquet in Chicago , Berkman and Goldman were told the news of the death of Henry Clay Frick , whom Berkman had tried to kill more than 25 years earlier . Asked for a comment by a reporter , Berkman said Frick had been " deported by God " .
Berkman 's initial reaction to the Bolshevik revolution was enthusiastic . When he first heard of their coup , he exclaimed " this is the happiest moment of my life " , and he wrote that the Bolsheviks were the " expression of the most fundamental longing of the human soul " . Arrival in Russia stirred great emotions in Berkman , and he described it as " the most sublime day in my life " , surpassing even his release after 14 years in prison .
Berkman and Goldman spent much of 1920 traveling through Russia collecting material for a proposed Museum of the Revolution . As the pair traveled around the country , they found repression , mismanagement , and corruption instead of the equality and worker empowerment they had dreamed of . Those who questioned the government were demonized as counter @-@ revolutionaries , and workers labored under severe conditions . They met with Lenin , who assured them that government suppression of press liberties was justified . " When the Revolution is out of danger , " he told them , " then free speech might be indulged in " .
Strikes broke out in Petrograd in March 1921 when workers demonstrated for better food rations and more autonomy for their unions . Berkman and Goldman supported the strikers , writing : " To remain silent now is impossible , even criminal . " The unrest spread to the port of Kronstadt , where Trotsky ordered a military response . In the battle that ensued , 600 sailors were killed ; 2 @,@ 000 more were arrested ; and 500 to 1 @,@ 500 Soviet troops died . In the wake of these events , Berkman and Goldman decided there was no future in the country for them . Berkman wrote in his diary :
Gray are the passing days . One by one the embers of hope have died out . Terror and despotism have crushed the life born in October . ... Dictatorship is trampling the masses under foot . The Revolution is dead ; its spirit cries in the wilderness . ... I have decided to leave Russia .
Berkman and Goldman left the country in December 1921 . Berkman moved to Berlin and almost immediately began to write a series of pamphlets about the Russian Revolution . " The Russian Tragedy " , " The Russian Revolution and the Communist Party " , and " The Kronstadt Rebellion " were published during the summer of 1922 .
Berkman planned to write a book about his experience in Russia , but he postponed it while he assisted Goldman as she wrote a similar book , using as sources material he had collected . Work on Goldman 's book , My Two Years in Russia , was completed in December 1922 , and the book was published in two parts with titles not of her choosing : My Disillusionment in Russia ( 1923 ) and My Further Disillusionment in Russia ( 1924 ) . Berkman worked on his book , The Bolshevik Myth , throughout 1923 and it was published in January 1925 .
= = = Now and After = = =
Berkman moved to Saint @-@ Cloud , France , in 1925 . He organized a fund for aging anarchists including Sébastien Faure , Errico Malatesta , and Max Nettlau . He continued to fight on behalf of anarchist prisoners in the Soviet Union , and arranged the publication of Letters from Russian Prisons , which detailed their persecution .
In 1926 , the Jewish Anarchist Federation of New York asked Berkman to write an introduction to anarchism intended for the general public . By presenting the principles of anarchism in plain language , the New York anarchists hoped that readers might be swayed to support the movement or , at a minimum , that the book might improve the image of anarchism and anarchists in the public 's eyes . Berkman produced Now and After : The ABC of Communist Anarchism , first published in 1929 and reprinted many times since ( often under the title What Is Communist Anarchism ? or What Is Anarchism ? ) . Anarchist Stuart Christie wrote that Now and After is " among the best introductions to the ideas of anarchism in the English language " and historian Paul Avrich described it as " the clearest exposition of communist anarchism in English or any other language " .
= = = Final years and death = = =
Berkman spent his last years eking out a precarious living as an editor and translator . He and his companion , Emmy Eckstein , relocated frequently within Nice in search of smaller and less expensive quarters . Aronstam , who had changed his name to Modest Stein and attained success as an artist , became a benefactor , sending Berkman a monthly sum to help with expenses . In the 1930s his health began to deteriorate , and he underwent two unsuccessful operations for a prostate condition in early 1936 . After the second surgery , he was bed @-@ ridden for months . In constant pain , forced to rely on the financial help of friends and dependent on Eckstein 's care , Berkman decided to commit suicide . In the early hours of June 28 , 1936 , unable to endure the physical pain of his ailment , Berkman tried to shoot himself in the heart with a handgun , but he failed to make a clean job of it . The bullet punctured a lung and his stomach and lodged in his spinal column , paralyzing him . Goldman rushed to Nice to be at his side . Berkman recognized her but was unable to speak . He sank into a coma in the afternoon , and died at 10 o 'clock that night .
Goldman made funeral arrangements for Berkman . It had been his desire to be cremated and have his ashes buried in Waldheim Cemetery in Chicago , near the graves of the Haymarket defendants who had inspired him , but she could not afford the expense . Instead , Berkman was buried in a common grave in Cochez Cemetery in Nice .
Berkman died weeks before the start of the Spanish Revolution , modern history 's clearest example of an anarcho @-@ syndicalist revolution . In July 1937 , Goldman wrote that seeing his principles in practice in Spain " would have rejuvenated [ Berkman ] and given him new strength , new hope . If only he had lived a little longer ! "
= = = Books by Berkman = = =
Prison Memoirs of an Anarchist . New York : Mother Earth Publishing Association . 1912 . OCLC 228677284 .
The Bolshevik Myth ( Diary 1920 @-@ 1922 ) . New York : Boni and Liveright . 1925 . OCLC 1144036 .
Now and After : The ABC of Communist Anarchism . New York : Vanguard Press . 1929 . OCLC 83572649 .
= = = Edited collections = = =
Berkman , Alexander , ed . ( 2005 ) . The Blast : Complete Collection of the Incendiary San Francisco Bi @-@ Monthly Anarchist Newspaper . Introduction by Barry Pateman . Oakland , Calif . : AK Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 904859 @-@ 08 @-@ 6 .
Berkman , Alexander ; et al . , eds . ( 2010 ) . The Tragic Procession : Alexander Berkman and Russian Prisoner Aid . Kate Sharpley Library and Alexander Berkman Social Club . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 873605 @-@ 90 @-@ 5 .
Berkman , Alexander ; Bauer , Henry ; Nold , Carl ( 2011 ) . Brody , Miriam ; Buettner , Bonnie , eds . Prison Blossoms : Anarchist Voices from the American Past . Cambridge , Mass . : Harvard University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 674 @-@ 05056 @-@ 3 .
Fellner , Gene , ed . ( 1992 ) . Life of an Anarchist : The Alexander Berkman Reader . New York : Four Walls Eight Windows . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 941423 @-@ 78 @-@ 6 .
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= Maryland Route 410 =
Maryland Route 410 ( MD 410 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . Known for most of its length as East – West Highway , the highway runs 13 @.@ 92 miles ( 22 @.@ 40 km ) from MD 355 in Bethesda east to Pennsy Drive in Landover Hills . MD 410 serves as a major east – west commuter route through the inner suburbs on the north side of Washington , D.C. ( hence its name ) , connecting the commercial districts of Bethesda , Silver Spring , and Hyattsville ; in addition , the highway serves the industrial area of Landover Hills and the residential suburbs of Chevy Chase , Takoma Park , Chillum , Riverdale. and East Riverdale . The road connects many of the arterial highways and freeways that head out of Washington as well as transit hubs centered on stations of the Washington Metro in Bethesda , Silver Spring , Hyattsville , and New Carrollton , with additional connections to MARC and Amtrak .
MD 410 was originally built along mostly new alignment between Bethesda and Silver Spring in the late 1920s . The highway was extended east to Hyattsville in the mid @-@ 1930s . While the Montgomery County portion has not changed much in the ensuing decades , MD 410 has been realigned and extended multiple times within Prince George 's County . These changes include an extension along existing roads further into Hyattsville in the mid @-@ 1940s , a realignment within Hyattsville in the mid @-@ 1950s , an extension through Riverdale in the late 1960s , and the final extension to Landover Hills in the early 1990s .
= = Route description = =
MD 410 is maintained by the Maryland State Highway Administration ( MDSHA ) except for three municipally maintained segments in the city of Takoma Park and a short stretch maintained by Prince George 's County in East Riverdale . The segments maintained by the city of Takoma Park run from Chestnut Avenue to near Cedar Avenue for 0 @.@ 17 miles ( 0 @.@ 27 km ) ; from Maple Avenue to MD 195 for 0 @.@ 27 miles ( 0 @.@ 43 km ) ; and from the second junction with MD 195 to Elm Avenue , the longest non – state maintained portion with a length of 0 @.@ 53 miles ( 0 @.@ 85 km ) . MD 410 is county maintained for 0 @.@ 35 miles ( 0 @.@ 56 km ) from the Baltimore – Washington Parkway to its turn onto Veterans Parkway in East Riverdale . The highway is a part of the National Highway System as a principal arterial for its entire length except for between US 50 and its eastern terminus at Pennsy Drive .
= = = Montgomery County = = =
MD 410 begins at a pair of junctions with MD 355 ( Wisconsin Avenue ) and MD 187 ( Old Georgetown Road ) on either side of Bethesda Station on the Washington Metro 's Red Line in downtown Bethesda . Westbound MD 410 ends at the intersection of two @-@ way MD 355 and the southern terminus of MD 187 , which begins one @-@ way northbound along Old Georgetown Road . Traffic from the southbound direction of MD 187 follows Woodmont Avenue and Montgomery Lane to the start of eastbound MD 410 at the intersection of MD 355 and Montgomery Avenue . MD 410 heads east as a one @-@ way pair — East – West Highway westbound and Montgomery Avenue eastbound — to the eastern edge of downtown Bethesda , where the two directions converge east of Bethesda @-@ Chevy Chase High School . From that intersection , which includes a U @-@ turn ramp from Montgomery Avenue to westbound East – West Highway , the state highway continues east as four @-@ lane undivided East – West Highway and crosses over the Capital Crescent Trail .
MD 410 follows the northern edge of the town of Chevy Chase and crosses Coquellin Run , then follows the southern edge of Columbia Country Club to its intersection with MD 185 ( Connecticut Avenue ) . The highway leaves the town of Chevy Chase and passes through an unincorporated area of Chevy Chase , within which the highway meets the northern end of MD 186 ( Brookville Road ) and descends into the valley of Rock Creek . At the bottom of the hill , MD 410 intersects Jones Mill Road and Beach Drive , the main road through Rock Creek Park . The state highway crosses Rock Creek , passes to the north of Meadowbrook Park and leaves the valley as a four @-@ lane road with narrow median and flanking service roads . MD 410 reaches the top of the hill at Grubb Road and descends into the valley of a branch of Rock Creek . The highway becomes undivided at Sundale Drive and crosses the stream just west of the northern corner of the District of Columbia and its attendant boundary marker , then leaves the stream valley and ascends to an intersection with MD 390 ( 16th Street ) at the western edge of downtown Silver Spring .
MD 410 intersects MD 384 ( Colesville Road ) next to the headquarters of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and just south of Silver Spring Station , which serves the Washington Metro 's Red Line and the MARC Brunswick Line . The highway parallels CSX 's Metropolitan Subdivision and the Red Line southeast to a five @-@ way intersection with US 29 ( Georgia Avenue ) and 13th Street ; there is no direct access from eastbound MD 410 to northbound US 29 or from southbound US 29 to eastbound MD 410 . MD 410 continues east on three @-@ lane Burlington Avenue – two lanes westbound and one lane eastbound — to cross the rail and metro lines . At Fenton Street , the highway veers southeast onto two @-@ lane Philadelphia Avenue and enters the city of Takoma Park as it passes by the Takoma Park / Silver Spring campus of Montgomery College . MD 410 intersects MD 320 ( Piney Branch Road ) and has a four @-@ way stop at Holly Avenue next to Takoma Park Elementary School . The highway continues through an intersection with Maple Avenue next to the Takoma Park Library , then follows Philadelphia Avenue to its end at MD 195 ( Carroll Avenue ) at Takoma Junction . MD 410 runs concurrently with MD 195 for one block , then continues east along Ethan Allen Avenue , which the highway follows through a three @-@ way stop at Jackson Avenue to the eastern city limit of Takoma Park and the Montgomery — Prince George 's county line at MD 650 ( New Hampshire Avenue ) .
= = = Prince George 's County = = =
MD 410 's name becomes East – West Highway again as it heads east from MD 650 as a four @-@ lane undivided highway through the northern part of Chillum . The highway has frontage roads on either side of its crossing of Sligo Creek , then becomes divided ahead of its intersection with MD 212 ( Riggs Road ) . MD 410 briefly has six lanes as it heads southeast to Ager Road , which leads toward the West Hyattsville Station on the Washington Metro 's Green Line . MD 410 has a partial intersection with Ager Road ; the missing movements between MD 410 and Ager Road are made via 23rd Avenue to the east . MD 410 crosses Northwest Branch Anacostia River and enters the city of Hyattsville . The highway expands to six lanes as it passes between The Mall at Prince George 's and Prince George 's Plaza Station on the Green Line . East of University Town Center and the headquarters of the National Center for Health Statistics , MD 410 has a four @-@ way intersection with the northern end of MD 500 ( Queens Chapel Road ) and the southern end of Adelphi Road .
MD 410 continues east between Hyattsville to the south and the town of University Park to the north ; the south side of the six @-@ lane divided highway becomes flanked by the town of Riverdale Park ahead of its intersection with US 1 ( Baltimore Avenue ) . The highway fully enters Riverdale Park east of US 1 , where it reduces to four lanes and crosses over CSX 's Capital Subdivision , which carries MARC 's Camden Line . The Camden Line is accessed by the Riverdale railroad station within the Riverdale Park Historic District to the south , which contains the Riversdale Mansion . A tributary of Northeast Branch Anacostia River briefly runs within the median of the highway shortly before the highway crosses over Northeast Branch . MD 410 intersects MD 201 ( Kenilworth Avenue ) and leaves the town of Riverdale Park . The highway continues as Riverdale Road , a four @-@ lane road with center turn lane , through the unincorporated area of East Riverdale on its way to a diamond interchange with the Baltimore – Washington Parkway ( unsigned MD 295 ) .
MD 410 continues east on Riverdale Road then turns southeast onto Veterans Parkway , a four @-@ lane divided highway , while Riverdale Road continues toward New Carrollton . The highway briefly enters the city of New Carrollton around its intersection with MD 450 ( Annapolis Road ) . MD 410 continues south and intersects Ellin Road before passing through a diamond interchange with US 50 ( John Hanson Highway ) . The highway crosses over the Amtrak Northeast Corridor , MARC 's Penn Line , and the Washington Metro 's Orange Line . South of the railroad tracks , MD 410 reaches its eastern terminus at Pennsy Drive , which leads to Ardwick Ardmore Road and the primary entrance to New Carrollton Station , which serves as the eastern terminus of the Orange Line and hosts MARC and Amtrak service . Secondary access to the station is provided by Ellin Road north of US 50 .
= = History = =
The Bethesda – Silver Spring Highway was conceived in the late 1920s as a means of directly connecting the two inner suburbs on the north side of Washington . The highway was under construction between 1927 and 1929 and signed as MD 410 by 1930 . When completed , MD 410 extended between what was then US 240 in Bethesda and 16th Street in Silver Spring , which had been extended north from the District of Columbia in 1928 . Continuing to the present center of Silver Spring required heading south on 16th Street to Blair Portal , then east on Colesville Road , which had been extended to Blair Portal in 1927 , to Georgia Avenue . Most of MD 410 was built on a new alignment with the exception of the part between present day MD 186 and Jones Mill Road , which followed the old Brookville Road .
By 1933 , the new state highway was the busiest road in Montgomery County . The road , which became known as East – West Highway , was originally built with a width of 20 feet , but the heavy traffic led the Maryland State Roads Commission ( SRC ) , the predecessor of MDSHA , to suggest in 1934 that the road be widened to 40 feet in the near future . SRC also recommended extending East – West Highway through Silver Spring and Takoma Park to Hyattsville . By 1935 , the highway was extended along new alignment east from 16th Street to Takoma Park , then placed on Philadelphia Avenue and Ethan Allen Avenue within Takoma Park . The extension to MD 212 in Hyattsville was completed in 1936 .
After World War II , MD 410 was extended even further east and saw significant improvement on its extant sections . By 1946 , MD 410 was extended over Ager Road , Hamilton Street , 38th Avenue , and Jefferson Avenue , roads then designated MD 209 , to a new eastern terminus at US 1 in Hyattsville . In addition , the pre @-@ 1946 course saw completion of efforts to widen the road to 40 feet . The highway between Connecticut Avenue ( then MD 193 ) and Georgia Avenue ( US 29 ) was widened in 1946 and 1947 . The two segments between Wisconsin Avenue ( US 240 ) and Connecticut Avenue ( MD 193 ) and between MD 650 in Takoma Park and US 1 in Hyattsville were widened in 1950 .
Beyond minor improvements , MD 410 in Montgomery County has remained in much the same state since 1950 . The only major change was the highway being split onto a one @-@ way pair of streets in Bethesda in 1988 . The Prince George 's County section has seen more substantial changes over the intervening decades . The first major change in alignment occurred in 1956 , when MD 410 was completed on a new alignment as a four @-@ lane divided highway between Ager Road just east of MD 212 and MD 500 at what is now Adelphi Road . The state highway was subsequently extended east over what was previously MD 403 , known as Colesville Road , to US 1 in Riverdale .
The next change occurred between 1967 and 1970 , when MD 410 was extended as a four @-@ lane divided highway on a new alignment east past MD 201 to the Baltimore – Washington Parkway . This extension bypassed and replaced MD 412 between US 1 and the B @-@ W Parkway . The adjoining segment of MD 410 between MD 500 and US 1 was also upgraded to a multi @-@ lane divided highway by 1970 . Finally , MD 410 was extended east on Veterans Parkway past US 50 to its current terminus at Pennsy Drive when that section of highway was completed in 1991 .
= = Junction list = =
= = Auxiliary route = =
MD 410 has one former auxiliary route . MD 410A was the designation for the 0 @.@ 25 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) portion of Belcrest Road between MD 500 and MD 410 in Hyattsville . The route was assigned by 1999 . MD 410A was transferred to county maintenance in 2004 .
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= Negro Casas =
José Casas Ruiz ( born January 10 , 1960 ) is a Mexican professional wrestler ( called a Luchador in Spanish ) and trainer working for Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre ( CMLL ) under the ring name Negro Casas . He is the son of former wrestler turned referee Pepe Casas , and part of the large Casas wrestling family ; brother of professional wrestlers El Felino and Heavy Metal and uncle of Puma , Tiger , Canelo Casas , Rocky Casas , Danny Casas and many more .
Casas has trained several wrestlers , including Mephisto , Kazushige Nosawa , T.J. Perkins , Rocky Romero , and Ricky Marvin . Casas has worked all over the world , making appearances for the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) in the United States of America as well as touring with New Japan Pro Wrestling ( NJPW ) in Japan for over a decade .
In Mexico Casas has worked for CMLL since the 1990s but has also wrestled for the Universal Wrestling Association ( UWA ) , World Wrestling Association ( WWA ) and International Wrestling Revolution Group ( IWRG ) . In 2008 Negro Casas joined with Mr. Niebla and Heavy Metal to form the group La Peste Negra ( Spanish for " the Black Plague " ) , a group that would later be joined by El Felino .
= = Biography = =
Casas was born in 1960 , the son of professional wrestler Pepe " Tropi " Casas , and grew up around Tlalpan . Casas described his childhood as a happy and normal one , even though his father would be away from home for long stretches as he wrestled all over Mexico and the United States . Casas ' father first took him to a wrestling show when Casas was five years old , bringing him to an event across the border in the United States . Casas became hooked on wrestling from the moment he saw the first match , with his first idols being his father , Aníbal and El Solitario . Casas played football , soccer , volleyball and baseball while still in school and even started training in professional wrestling classes taught by his father and Raúl Reyes . José and his brothers , Heavy Metal and El Felino , often sat at ringside during their father 's matches , pretending to be upset or cry whenever their father looked like he was getting beat up in the ring , a ploy that their father had taught them to help gain crowd sympathy .
= = = Professional wrestling career = = =
Casas debut came in 1979 as a bit of a strange turn of events . José Casas was in an arena where his father was supposed to compete when the promoter told Casas that his father had not shown and that he needed the young Casas to fill in for him or he would have Pepe Casas banned from wrestling . Casas wrestled and won his first match using the ring name " Pepe Casas Jr . " , wearing street clothes only to discover Pepe Casas and Raúl Reyes waiting in the dressing room . The two had played a joke on Casas to see how he handled himself in the ring . Casas chose the name " Negro Casas " ( " Black Casas " ) as his ring name and decided not to wear a mask . In 1980 Casas worked a low card match at a " Coliseo Naucalpan " against an equally young Fuerza Guerrera , the match was so well liked by the audience that they threw money into the ring to show their appreciation . Promoter Paco Alonso even entered the ring and asked the crowd to show their appreciation for the match they just saw , earning both Negro Casas and Fuerza Guerrera a regular job with Empresa Mexicana de Lucha Libre ( EMLL ) . By 1984 Casas had begun working for Universal Wrestling Association , winning the UWA World Lightweight Championship from Black Terry on January 1 , 1984 . Casas held the championship for 301 days before losing it to El Hijo del Santo . The loss to El Hijo del Santo was part of a long running , very intense storyline between Casas and Hijo del Santo that drew favorable reviews and helped establish both wrestlers as future main eventers . The storyline included Hijo del Santo forcing Negro Casas to be shaved bald after losing a Luchas de Apuestas , or bet match .
In the late 1980s Negro Casas began working for the Mexican @-@ based World Wrestling Association ( WWA ) where he became the first man to hold the WWA Welterweight Championship , holding it from sometime in 1987 until he was defeated by Tornado Negro on April 14 , 1989 . Casas regained the title , but only held it briefly before losing again as he was leaving the WWA . Casas returned to the UWA in 1990 and on January 29 , 1991 , he won the UWA World Middleweight Championship from Super Astro . Casas held the title for 787 days , finally losing it to Último Dragón .
= = = Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre = = =
By the mid 1990s Casas worked regularly for CMLL and toured Japan several times a year , wrestling for New Japan Pro Wrestling ( NJPW ) . In April 1994 Casas took part in the first Super J @-@ Cup tournament ; he lost to Ricky Fuji in the first round . On December 1 , 1995 , Negro Casas defeated longtime rival Hijo del Santo in the finals of a tournament to crown a new NWA World Welterweight Championship . Casas held the title for over 200 days , rarely defending until he participated in a tournament to unify 8 lightweight titles in NJPW 's J @-@ Crown tournament . Casas put the Welterweight title on the line but lost to Shinjiro Otani in the first round . Casas and El Hijo del Santo resumed their feud in 1997 , culminating in another Lucha de Apuestas between the two . Negro Casas once again ended up on the losing side , losing two falls to one in the main event of the CMLL 63rd Anniversary Show . Negro Casas would later state that El Hijo del Santo was one of his favorite rivals and good friends backstage . Following the Apuesta loss Negro Casas and El Hijo del Santo began teaming together in 1998 and in early 1999 the team defeated Bestia Salvaje and Scorpio Jr. by disqualification , but refused to accept the CMLL World Tag Team Championship as they did not win by pinfall . After the refusal the title the two teams faced a few weeks later and this time Casas and Hijo del Santo won by pinfall to claim the title . The team reigned for over 400 days , until El Hijo del Santo left CMLL ; forcing Negro Casas to vacate the title . When El Hijo del Santo returned in 2001 the duo picked up where they left off by defeating Último Guerrero and Rey Bucanero to win the tag team championship once again . After 210 days and several title defenses Guerrero and Bucanero finally regained the titles , ending the third and final reign of the Casas / Hijo del Santo team . Following the loss of the tag team title Negro Casas began focusing on his singles career once again , winning the CMLL World Middleweight Championship from Emilio Charles Jr. on April 26 , 2004 . On August 28 , 2005 , Negro Casas became a double champion when he won the IWRG Intercontinental Trios Championship , teaming with his brothers El Felino and Heavy Metal to defeat Black Tiger III , Pentagon Black , and El Pantera to win the title . The trios title reign lasted 129 days , ended by the team of Cerebro Negro , Veneno , and Scorpio Jr . In 2006 Negro Casas was teamed up with CMLL 's rising star Místico , working together in a style very similar to Casas and Hijo del Santo . The two defeated Averno and Mephisto to win the CMLL Tag Team Championship , Casas ' fourth and Místico 's first , on April 14 , 2006 . On September 17 , 2006 , Negro Casas ' 874 day CMLL World Middleweight Championship reign ended at the hands of Averno . Casas and Místico lost the tag team titles to Último Guerrero and Dr. Wagner Jr. on July 13 , 2007 but quickly regained them a week later . The team of Último Guerrero and Atlantis finally dethroned the duo , keeping them away from the title in subsequent rematches . On November 11 , 2007 , Negro Casas won the IWRG Intercontinental Middleweight Championship by defeating Villano III in the finals of a tournament to find a new champion . Casas has not lost the title , but since CMLL and IWRG stopped working together in 2008 he is no longer promoted as the champion with the title technically being inactive .
= = = = La Peste Negra = = = =
In July 2008 Mr. Niebla returned to CMLL , forming a group with Negro Casas and Heavy Metal called La Peste Negra ( Spanish for " the Black Plague " ) , a Rudo group that had a more comical approach to wrestling . The trio started wearing large afro wigs , painting their faces black and dancing during their entrances and generally worked a less serious style of match than was unusual , especially for a serious wrestler like Negro Casas . On September 2 , 2008 , the last Casas brother , El Felinoa turned Rudo as well and joined La Peste Negra . After Felino joined the group Heavy Metal was quietly phased out as he was not comfortable working the comedic style . Felino 's wife Princesa Blanca joined the group in early 2009 , turning Rudo to work with La Pestra , the turn led to Princesa Blanca winning the Mexican National Women 's Championship from Marcela on January 30 , 2009 . La Pesta Negra 's biggest triumph to date is Negro Casas ' title win over Místico that brought the CMLL World Welterweight Championship into the group . After the title win , La Peste Negra continued their feud with Místico and his various allies . The feud led to Místico and Negro Casas facing off in a Lucha de Apuesta on the CMLL 76th Anniversary Show , where Casas lost two falls to one and had his hair shaved off . After the match Místico challenged El Felino , Casas ' cornerman , to an Apuesta some time in the future .
On January 29 , 2010 , Negro Casas teamed up with La Máscara to participate in CMLL 's " Torneo Nacional de Pareja Increíbles " ( " National Amazing Pairs tournament " ) , a tournament where CMLL teams up a Tecnico ( La Máscara ) and a Rudo ( Casas ) for a tournament . The two defeated El Texano Jr. and Rouge in the opening round , El Sagrado and Shocker in the second round , and Héctor Garza and Toscano in the semi @-@ final to earn a spot in the final of the tournament . On February 5 , 2010 , Casas and La Máscara lost to Máscara Dorada and Atlantis in the finals . On February 14 , 2010 , Casas defeated El Hijo del Fantasma to win the CMLL World Middleweight Championship for the second time . During most of April and into May Negro Casas tourned with NJPW in Japan . On May 3 , 2010 Casas lost the CMLL World Middleweight title to Jushin Thunder Liger during NJPW 's Wrestling Dontaku 2010 show . On October 15 , 2010 , Charly Manson defeated Negro Casas in a Lucha de Apuesta to take his hair . On February 14 , 2012 , Casas defeated La Sombra to win the NWA World Historic Welterweight Championship for the first time . On March 2 at Homenaje a Dos Leyendas , Casas and Blue Panther wrestled to a draw in a Lucha de Apuesta and were , as a result , both shaved bald . On October 21 , Casas returned to NJPW , when he and Bushi entered the 2012 Super Jr . Tag Tournament as " Grupo Cibernetico " . The team was eliminated from the tournament in the first round by Suzuki @-@ gun ( Taichi and Taka Michinoku ) . On December 25 , 2012 , Negro Casas successfully defended the NWA Historic Welterweight Championship against Guerrero Maya Jr. on a special Christmas show in Arena Mexico after Maya Jr. had defeated Casas in a series of matches leading up to the show . In early 2013 Negro Casas and Guerrero Maya Jr. were teamed up for the 2013 CMLL Torneo Nacional de Parejas Increibles , a tournament where the concept was that rivals or at least wrestlers from opposite sides of the tecnico / rudo divide . The team lost in the first round to eventual tournament winners La Sombra and Volador Jr . On June 2 , Casas lost the NWA World Historic Welterweight Championship to Máscara Dorada , ending his reign at 475 days , the longest in the title 's history . On January 3 , 2014 , Casas defeated Titán in the finals to win the 2014 Leyenda de Plata . On February 18 , Casas , El Felino and Mr. Niebla defeated La Máscara , Rush and Titán to win the Mexican National Trios Championship . On June 13 , Casas and Shocker defeated La Máscara and Rush to win the CMLL World Tag Team Championship . On August 1 at El Juicio Final , Casas lost his hair to Rush in a Lucha de Apuestas . On April 26 , 2015 , La Peste Negra lost the Mexican National Trios Championship to Los Reyes de la Atlantida ( Atlantis , Delta and Guerrero Maya Jr . ) . On May 22 , Casas defeated Dragon Lee to win the 2015 Leyenda de Plata , his second in a row and third overall .
= = Personal life = =
José Casas is a member of an extensive wrestling family , founded by his father Pepe " Tropi " Casas and also consists of his brothers Erick , who wrestles as " Heavy Metal " and El Felino ( real name unrevealed ) , and a brother who is not a professional wrestler . Casas ' sister @-@ in @-@ law ( Felino 's wife ) is former Mexican National Women 's Champion Princessa Blanca . Casas ' wife is the daughter of a Panamania wrestling promoter that Casas once worked for , currently working for CMLL as well , using the ring name Dalys la Caribeña . His two daughters are training in Olympic style wrestling , also hoping to turn professional one day . José Casas does not train his daughters , entrusting that task to Ringo Mendoza , Tony Salazar , Arturo Beristain and Franco Colombo . One of Casas ' daughters is married to professional wrestler Diamante who works for CMLL . Casas also has two nephews who work as Tiger and Puma , the sons of El Felino . Wrestler Canelo Casas is also credited with being a nephew of Negro Casas , but it is unclear if he is the son of Erick Casas or the son of one of their non @-@ wrestling brothers or sisters .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
La Casita ( Arm wrench inside cradle )
Rikilariato ( Lariat )
Scorpion Deathlock
Signature moves
Arm trap crossface
Black Fantasy ( Matrix evasion )
Black Pain ( Casas applies an Ankle lock and then drops and smashes the leg onto his knee )
Jab
Kneeling jawbreaker
La Silla ( seated senton onto the shoulders of a standing opponent at ringside )
Multiple kick variations :
4 : 40 Volada ( Running corner drop to a seated opponent )
Drop
Missile drop
Patada a la Rodilla ( Low @-@ angle drop to the opponent 's knee )
Savate
Shoot
Soccer
Spinning back
Multiple knife – edged chops & overhand slaps to the chest of a cornered opponent
Running ankle pick
Senton
Nickname
" El 4 : 40 "
Wrestlers trained
Mephisto
Kazushige Nosawa
T.J. Perkins
Rocky Romero
Ricky Marvin
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre
CMLL World Middleweight Championship ( 2 times )
CMLL World Tag Team Championship ( 6 times , current ) – with El Hijo del Santo ( 3 ) , Místico ( 2 ) , and Shocker ( 1 , current )
CMLL World Trios Championship ( 1 time ) – with último Guerrero and Atlantis
CMLL World Welterweight Championship ( 1 time )
Mexican National Trios Championship ( 1 time ) - with El Felino and Mr. Niebla
NWA World Historic Welterweight Championship ( 1 time )
NWA World Welterweight Championship ( 1 time )
Torneo Gran Alternativa ( 1994 ) – with Héctor Garza
Leyenda de Plata ( 2000 , 2014 , 2015 )
Copa Bobby Bonales ( 2010 )
International Wrestling Revolution Group
IWRG Intercontinental Middleweight Championship ( 1 time )
IWRG Intercontinental Trios Championship ( 1 time ) – with El Felino and Heavy Metal
Mexican Provincial Championships
Estado de Guerrero Lightweight Championship ( 1 time )
Estado de México heavyweight championship ( 42 times )
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked him # 33 of the 500 best singles wrestlers of the PWI 500 in 1999
PWI ranked him # 148 of the top 500 singles wrestlers of the " PWI Years " in 2003
Universal Wrestling Association
UWA World Lightweight Championship ( 1 time )
UWA World Middleweight Championship ( 1 time )
World Wrestling Association
WWA World Welterweight Championship ( 1 time )
Wrestling Observer Newsletter awards
Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame ( Class of 1996 )
5 Star Match ( 1992 ) with Tim Patterson and Horace Boulder vs. El Hijo del Santo , Atsushi Onita and Tarzan Goto on May 16
= = = Luchas de Apuestas record = = =
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= Washington State Route 410 =
State Route 410 ( SR 410 , partially named the Chinook Scenic Byway , and also named the Stephen Mather Memorial Parkway ) is a 107 @.@ 44 @-@ mile ( 172 @.@ 91 km ) long state highway that traverses Pierce , King , and Yakima counties in the US state of Washington . It begins at an interchange with SR 167 in Sumner and travels southeast across the Cascade Range to a junction with U.S. Route 12 ( US 12 ) in Naches . While the western part of SR 410 is a freeway that serves built @-@ up , urban areas , the remainder of the route is a surface road that traverses mostly rural areas as it passes through the mountains .
The route starts as a limited @-@ access southerly bypass of Downtown Sumner , but becomes a surface road east of the city . Traveling eastward , the roadway serves Bonney Lake and Buckley , and crosses and eventually parallels the White River into Enumclaw and Greenwater . SR 410 enters the Mount Baker @-@ Snoqualmie National Forest and later heads into Mount Rainier National Park , crossing the Cayuse and Chinook passes , and leaves the park southeast along the American River into Wenatchee National Forest . SR 410 leaves the national forest and travels parallel to the Naches River to end in Naches , a city located west of Yakima . The Chinook Scenic Byway begins in Enumclaw and follows the highway through the two national forests and Mount Rainier National Park to US 12 in Naches .
Modern SR 410 was parts of various state wagon roads until 1926 when US 410 was established , extending from Aberdeen to Lewiston , Idaho . US 410 was decommissioned after US 12 was extended over the majority of the highway in 1967 , bypassing Olympia and Chinook Pass . A segment of former US 410 from Elma to Olympia became SR 8 and the Tacoma to Naches segment became SR 410 . The highway was later shortened to end in Sumner and was replaced by SR 167 from Tacoma to Sumner .
= = Route description = =
SR 410 begins as a freeway at an interchange with SR 167 near Downtown Sumner . The highway travels southeast across suburban areas , crossing the Stuck River and passing a partial cloverleaf interchange with Linden Drive , also named Traffic Avenue . After a second partial cloverleaf interchange with Thompson Avenue , SR 410 goes under a railroad trestle owned by BNSF Railway and used by Amtrak 's Cascades rail service , near the northern bank of the Puyallup River . After turning northeast , SR 410 encounters the western terminus of SR 162 by way of a diamond interchange . SR 162 travels north into Downtown Sumner as Valley Avenue and south over the Puyallup River towards Orting . The freeway section near the interchange was the busiest recorded part of SR 410 in 2008 with a daily average of 59 @,@ 000 motorists using the freeway . Continuing northeast , SR 410 connects to 166th Avenue and turns southeast as an undivided highway into the community of Bonney Lake . East of Bonney Lake , the roadway heads east , passing two shopping centers before entering Buckley and intersecting SR 165 . In Buckley , the street travels northeast through Downtown and turns north to cross the White River and enter King County .
After leaving Pierce County , the highway travels northeast through rural areas into Enumclaw and passes Enumclaw High School before turning east and being renamed Roosevelt Avenue . As Roosevelt Avenue , the street intersects Griffin Avenue , also designated SR 164 , which travels northwest to SR 169 and Auburn . The roadway , now named the Chinook Scenic Byway , passes by the King County Fairgrounds and Enumclaw King County Park . Leaving Enumclaw in a southeastern direction , SR 410 begins to parallel the White River upriver into Federation Forest State Park , a 619 @-@ acre ( 2 @.@ 51 km2 ; 0 @.@ 967 sq mi ) state park consisting of old growth evergreen forests . The highway crosses the Greenwater River , northeast of its confluence with the White River , and re @-@ enters Pierce County .
The bridge ends in the community of Greenwater , named for the river , where the roadway encounters Forest Road 70 , which has been proposed to become SR 168 over Naches Pass as an alternative to the Chinook Scenic Byway . From Greenwater , the road travels south alongside the White River into Mount Baker @-@ Snoqualmie National Forest , passing Ranger Creek State Airport , a state @-@ owned airport that is open in the summer and early fall . The byway travels south into Mount Rainier National Park . SR 410 is closed at the gate to Morse Creek , about 5 miles east of the Chinook Pass Summit during the winter and early spring due to high wind , limited cell service and avalanche danger . It intersects SR 123 at Cayuse Pass . SR 410 turns east at the intersection and heads through a series of hairpin turns , passing Tipsoo Lake , to Chinook Pass .
Chinook Pass is the border between Pierce and Yakima counties and Mount Rainier National Park and the Wenatchee National Forest . The pass is also where the highway crosses the Pacific Crest Trail , a National Scenic Trail that was completed in 1993 . East of Chinook Pass , the roadway begins to parallel the American River northeast to follow the Little Naches River , which becomes the Naches River . After a junction with the other end of the proposed SR 168 , named Little Naches Road , the highway exits the Wenatchee National Forest and enters Naches . The byway ends at US 12 in Naches near the Naches Selah Canal .
= = History = =
The first portion of SR 410 that was defined under law to be built by the state of Washington was a state wagon road that extended from a county road in King County to a county road near Naches . The road ran up alongside the White River until it reached the summit of the Cascades and continued traveling down parallel to the American River before ending at the county road connecting to Naches . This road was approved and built in 1897 , making it one of the oldest state roads in Washington state . In 1905 , the road became known as State Road 1 and was incorporated into the first state highway system . By 1907 , the road was named the White River – Natches Road and was shortened to end at Cedar Springs . The rest of the road was transferred to State Road 5 , called the Cowlitz – Natches Road , which ran from Napavine to Naches .
In 1913 , the state highway system was adjusted again , and several new roads were added to the system , including parts of what would become US 410 . The Olympic Highway traveled around the Olympic Peninsula and a section from Aberdeen to Olympia was later used as part of US 410 . The Pacific Highway would later have a brief concurrency with US 410 from Olympia to Tacoma , and US 410 would later connect to the National Park Highway in Tacoma and follow it to Buckley , where State Road 5 , now a secondary highway maintained by the counties , began . From the end of State Road 5 in Naches , the Inland Empire Highway is concurrent with the future US 410 to Dayton , where a branch of the highway travels to Clarkston . State Road 5 became the McClellan Pass Highway in 1919 and was aligned further south to Chinook Pass . The McClellan Pass Highway was renamed the Naches Pass Highway in 1921 to reflect the realignment in 1919 . Despite the name , the road did not cross Naches Pass , as no highway ever has .
In 1923 , the state highway system was restructured completely , incorporating numbers instead of names . The Olympic Highway became State Road 9 , the Pacific Highway became State Road 1 , the National Park Highway absorbed the Naches Pass Highway and remained State Road 5 , and the Inland Empire Highway became State Road 3 , but its branch from Dayton to Clarkston remained a branch of the now non @-@ existent Inland Empire Highway . A system of national highways that improved on the concept of auto trails was formed in late 1925 . The final plan for the system — which became the U.S. routes — was approved on November 11 , 1926 . One of the routes included in the plan was US 410 , which extended from US 101 in Aberdeen to US 95 in Lewiston , Idaho . Parts of US 410 were concurrent with other new highways , including US 99 from Olympia to Tacoma and US 97 in Yakima . In 1937 , the state highway system changed to a primary and secondary system . US 410 remained the same , but its concurrent state highways had their designations changed by the state . State Road 9 became Primary State Highway 9 ( PSH 9 ) , State Road 1 and US 99 became PSH 1 , State Road 5 became PSH 5 , State Road 3 became PSH 3 , and the Inland Empire Highway branch from Dayton to Clarkston became a branch of PSH 3 .
In 1964 , Washington unveiled a new numbering system for highways . Concurrencies with state primary state highways would be repealed in 1970 and US 410 would be a non @-@ concurrent highway . On June 20 , 1967 , US 12 was extended west from Lewiston , Idaho , over White Pass to Aberdeen , eliminating most of the original route of the highway . The remaining sections were split amongst other routes . The segment from Elma to Olympia became State Route 8 ( SR 8 ) . Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) took the Olympia – Tacoma segment , and the Tacoma – Naches segment became SR 410 . The last reassurance markers for US 410 were taken down by December 1967 .
Originally , SR 410 passed through downtown Puyallup and Sumner , following several surface streets ( including Main Avenue in Puyallup and Traffic Avenue and Main Street in Sumner ) across the two cities . In the late 1960s , construction began on a limited @-@ access bypass of the two city centers . SR 410 was moved onto the new freeway by 1972 . In 1973 , SR 410 was shortened to its current length after SR 167 was extended to Tacoma . On October 11 , 2009 , a massive landslide buried about 0 @.@ 25 miles ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) of SR 410 west of Naches in the Nile Valley . The landslide also blocked off the Naches River and caused warnings of severe flooding . A detour was set up on Nile Road that was for residential use only until October 20 . SR 410 was permanently rerouted onto Nile Road sometime afterward , and the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) completed paving on the new segment of SR 410 on November 20 . After three years , SR 410 was re @-@ routed back to the east side of the Naches River along the toe of the landslide with a permanent , 55 @-@ mph route opened in August 2012 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Hotel Chevalier =
Hotel Chevalier is a 2007 American @-@ French short film written and directed by Wes Anderson and released in 2007 . Starring Jason Schwartzman and Natalie Portman as former lovers who reunite in a Paris hotel room , the 13 @-@ minute film acts as a prologue to Anderson 's 2007 feature The Darjeeling Limited . It was shot on location in a Parisian hotel by a small crew and self @-@ financed by Anderson , who initially intended it to be a stand @-@ alone work . Its first showing was at the Venice Film Festival première of the feature film on September 2 , 2007 , and it made its own debut later that month at Apple Stores in four American cities . The day after its première , it was made available for free from the iTunes Store for one month , during which it was downloaded more than 500 @,@ 000 times . The film garnered near @-@ universal critical acclaim from reviewers who compared it favorably with The Darjeeling Limited and praised its richness , poignancy , and careful construction .
= = Plot = =
In a hotel lobby , the concierge answers a phone call from one of the guests ' rooms . A man ( Jason Schwartzman ) lies on a hotel bed in a yellow bathrobe , watching the black @-@ and @-@ white American war film Stalag 17 and reading the newspaper . After ordering room service from the concierge in broken French , he receives a call from a woman whose voice he recognizes . She tells him she is on her way from the airport and asks for his room number . Despite objecting that he did not tell her she could come , the man consents nevertheless . He then hurriedly attempts to tidy the room – pausing to play the opening bars of the song " Where Do You Go To ( My Lovely ) ? " by Peter Sarstedt on his stereo system – and runs a bath .
The man is again lying on the bed , now in a gray suit . Hearing a knock , he starts the song playing again before opening the door to a woman ( Natalie Portman ) . After staring at him for several seconds , the woman breaks the silence by asking what music is playing . Receiving no response , she steps into the room and presents the man with a bouquet of flowers . When she moves to kiss him on the mouth , he turns his head away and they embrace instead . He closes the door and asks how she found him ; she replies that it " wasn 't actually that hard " . She moves around the room browsing through his possessions , brushes her teeth with his toothbrush and declines to take the bath he had run for her .
Stepping back into the bedroom , the woman turns to face the man and confronts him , asking slowly " what the fuck is going on ? " He motions to her to join him on the bed and at her prompting , he reveals in the ensuing conversation that he has been living in the hotel room for " more than a month " , and that he had left to escape their relationship . They lie back on the bed looking at one another before being interrupted by the arrival of room service . Once alone again , the two kiss and the man begins to undress the woman . They have an uncomfortable exchange about not having slept with other people and when he notices bruises on her arm after undressing her further , the woman chooses not to comment on them . Lying on top of him , she tells the man that she does not want to lose his friendship , that she loves him and never meant to hurt him . He responds coldly that he " will never be [ her ] friend " , but holds her when she embraces him . " Where Do You Go To ( My Lovely ) ? " starts again and the man offers to show the woman his view of Paris .
The woman is perched against an armoire , the man approaching and covering her naked body with the yellow bathrobe , and the two moving towards the window . After they step out on the balcony , the man draws a toothpick from his pocket and hands it to her with an upwards nod , which she reciprocates . After looking out for another few seconds she clasps his neck lightly and they step back inside .
= = Background and production = =
Director Wes Anderson first approached actors Schwartzman and Portman about Hotel Chevalier in 2005 . Schwartzman and Anderson had previously worked on Rushmore ( 1998 ) , Anderson 's cult second feature , and had been living together in Schwartzman 's Paris apartment in the months leading up to the shoot . Portman was approached after the director obtained her email address from Scott Rudin , producer of 2004 's Closer in which she starred . The actors appeared for free , and Anderson financed the remainder of the production himself .
It was filmed at the Hôtel Raphael in Paris , on Avenue Kléber , two blocks south @-@ southwest of the Arc de Triomphe . The Hôtel Raphael had previously been used as a setting for the films Love in Paris ( 1996 ) and Place Vendôme ( 1998 ) . It was shot by a crew of 15 in Panavision and used props from Anderson 's apartment . Filming took two and a half days , and editing ( done on Anderson 's computer ) another week . Despite his use of a wardrobe from prestigious fashion designer Marc Jacobs and a handmade suitcase from Louis Vuitton , the director described the production as " like making a student film " .
Anderson initially intended it to be a stand @-@ alone short film , but shortly before filming commenced , he realized that Schwartzman 's character bore a close resemblance to one of the protagonists of a feature film he was writing at the time . That film would begin production a year later as The Darjeeling Limited . Chevalier takes place two weeks before Schwartzman 's character ( named Jack Whitman in the feature ) joins his two older brothers on a journey in India in Darjeeling . The dialogue between the characters at the end of Chevalier is recounted by Schwartzman 's character to his brothers at the close of the feature film , in the form of an excerpt from a short story he has composed . Portman 's character has a brief cameo in the feature . Fox Searchlight Pictures , the studio that backed Darjeeling , was unaware of the short until the feature had been made and claimed to have no financial interest in it .
= = Release = =
Hotel Chevalier was screened as part of the program at the world première of The Darjeeling Limited at the 64th Annual Venice Film Festival on September 2 , 2007 . The short had its own première at Apple Stores in New York City , Chicago , San Francisco and Santa Monica , California , on September 25 . Anderson , Schwartzman and Portman appeared at the New York screening in SoHo , after which they held a questions @-@ and @-@ answers session with the audience . The short was made available the following day as a free download from Apple 's iTunes Store . On September 28 , it preceded the showing of the feature on the opening night of the 2007 New York Film Festival . A press release posted before the première described the short as " the brief coda to a doomed romance and the prologue to The Darjeeling Limited " .
The film was withdrawn from iTunes after having been available for download for a month . Although it had been dismissed by USA Today columnist Susan Wloszczyna before its iTunes release as an amuse @-@ bouche that was " destined to be a mere footnote " , it was downloaded nearly 500 @,@ 000 times during its run , and received wide acclaim . Following its withdrawal from iTunes , the short was distributed in theaters as the prologue to the feature @-@ length film . Although The New York Times reported in October 2007 that distributor Fox Searchlight Pictures intended to promote Chevalier as a competitor for the Best Live Action Short Film of the Academy Awards , it was not among that year 's nominations . It was included as an extra feature on the Darjeeling 2008 DVD release , and Anderson 's screenplay for the short was published in the Winter 2007 issue of the literary magazine Zoetrope : All @-@ Story .
= = Critical reception = =
Along with being one of the year 's most discussed short films , Hotel Chevalier attracted considerable critical praise , with reviewers comparing it favorably to The Darjeeling Limited . Entertainment Weekly 's Gary Susman described it as " an exquisite short story where we learn not much but exactly enough about these two characters " , adding that " Chevalier sees Anderson working in his customary jewel @-@ box / dollhouse mode , but the form and length really suit each other here . " In New York Press , Armand White judged the short " moving and genuinely contemporary " , citing its " lost @-@ girl poignancy " . The film drew some attention for co @-@ star Natalie Portman 's extended nude scene , and for her character 's bruised body . Portman expressed disappointment at this focus , saying " It really depressed me that half of every review ... was about the nudity " . The episode made the actress reconsider the wisdom of this aspect of her performance , and she subsequently swore off nude appearances in film .
While The Darjeeling Limited received generally positive reviews , with review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes showing that 68 % of critics gave the film positive reviews , many of the positive reviews for Hotel Chevalier tended to combine praise of Chevalier with subtle shots at Darjeeling . Portman 's performance was praised by TIME reviewer Richard Corliss , who declared her to be " a comic actress in fresh bloom " in the " beguiling vignette " , and expressed his wish that her role in Darjeeling had been greater . The feature , he felt , lacked " the feeling and wit of the short film " . Salon.com 's Stephanie Zacharek concurred , stating that " the untold story of Hotel Chevalier is 10 times more interesting , and infinitely richer , than the one told outright in The Darjeeling Limited " , and calling the short " very close to perfect " . The Guardian columnist Danny Leigh contrasted the lukewarm reception of the feature among bloggers and critics with the " genuine ardour " that greeted the " perfectly measured narrative " of Chevalier . He proposed that the constraints of the short @-@ film format suited Anderson , whose trademark deadpan humor , idiosyncratic set designs and choice of soundtrack inclined to exhaust the viewers ' patience in a feature @-@ length work . A. O. Scott of The New York Times hailed Chevalier as " a small gem " in comparison to the " overstuffed suitcase " of the feature , and wrote that " It is worth seeking out , not only because it fleshes out part of the story of the Whitman brothers but also because , on its own , it is an almost perfect distillation of Mr. Anderson 's vexing and intriguing talents , enigmatic , affecting and wry . "
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= Polikarpov I @-@ 5 =
The Polikarpov I @-@ 5 was a single @-@ seat biplane which became the primary Soviet fighter between its introduction in 1931 through 1936 , after which it became the standard advanced trainer . Following Operation Barbarossa , which destroyed much of the Soviet Air Forces ( VVS ) , surviving I @-@ 5s were equipped with four machine guns and bomb racks and pressed into service as light ground @-@ attack aircraft and night bombers in 1941 . They were retired in early 1942 as Soviet aircraft production began to recover and modern ground @-@ attack aircraft like the Ilyushin Il @-@ 2 became available . A total of 803 built ( including 3 prototypes ) .
= = Development = =
The 1928 Five @-@ Year Plan ordered the Tupolev design bureau to develop a mixed @-@ construction ( metal and wood / fabric ) biplane fighter powered by a Bristol Jupiter VII engine with the first prototype completed by 1 September 1929 . The new fighter was designated I @-@ 5 ( Istrebitel ' — Fighter ) , but had the internal Tupolev designation of ANT @-@ 12 . Concurrently , Nikolai Nikolaevich Polikarpov 's group was tasked with creating a wood @-@ construction aircraft designated as the Polikarpov I @-@ 6 to the same specification . The I @-@ 5 design , begun by Pavel Sukhoi , under the supervision of Andrei Tupolev , lagged because the Tupolev bureau was preoccupied with large bombers . As the result the I @-@ 5 and I @-@ 6 projects were unified in 1929 under Polikarpov 's leadership , although neither project met its specified completion date .
Nikolai Polikarpov was arrested by the OGPU in September 1929 for the crime of industrial sabotage for these failures and sentenced to death , although this was commuted to ten years imprisonment in a labor camp . In December 1929 the OGPU gathered a number of aircraft engineers together at Butyrka prison , including Polikarpov , and formed the Internal Prison Design Bureau ( Konstruktorskoye Byuro Vnutrenniya Tyurma — KB VT ) under the leadership of Dmitry Pavlovich Grigorovich . The KB VT was transferred to quarters on the grounds of Factory ( Zavod ) Nr. 30 in Moscow @-@ Khodinka in early 1930 . Shortly afterwards Polikarpov replaced Grigorovich as the head designer when his concept for the I @-@ 5 was approved by the OGPU . The full @-@ scale mock @-@ up was approved on 28 March 1930 and the first prototype , designated VT @-@ 11 ( Vnutrenniya Tyurma — Internal Prison ) , was completed a month later .
It made its first flight on 30 April 1930 and was fitted with an imported supercharged 450 @-@ horsepower ( 340 kW ) Jupiter VII . It was painted in silver with a red cheat line ; a red " VT " was superimposed on the red star on the rudder . The second prototype , known as the VT @-@ 12 , had a Jupiter VI engine , and took to the air on 22 May , bearing the name " Klim Voroshilov . " The two prototypes also differed in minor details regarding the shape of the tail and the construction of the landing gear . All this meant a slight difference in weight and performance between the two prototypes was present , with the second being slightly heavier and faster , while the first had a slight range advantage and a higher service ceiling . The third prototype , designated as the VT @-@ 13 and inscribed with " A Gift for the XVIth Congress of the Party " , was powered by a 600 @-@ horsepower ( 450 kW ) Soviet @-@ built M @-@ 15 engine with a NACA cowling , but this proved to be unreliable and was not put into production .
The second prototype passed its State acceptance trials on 13 August 1931 and was ordered into production a month later on 13 September . One problem noted during the trials was a tendency to make an uncontrolled 180 ° turn when landing in light winds . Shortening the landing gear by 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) and moving them 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) cured the problem . The engineer who suggest the change was awarded the Order of the Red Star for his ingenuity . Ten pre @-@ production aircraft had already been ordered and they were assembled between August and October . They all had imported engines fitted , but trialled various small improvements for the production aircraft that included cooling vents for the crankcase , introduction of a pitot tube and static vent in the starboard upper wing , a faired headrest for the pilot , and a metal propeller whose pitch could be adjusted on the ground .
= = Design = =
The I @-@ 5 was a single @-@ seat biplane with staggered wings in a sesquiplane configuration with fixed landing gear and a tailskid . The aircraft was of mixed construction , with the fuselage being made of a framework of welded steel tubes covered by a fabric skin over the rear fuselage , with the front fuselage section being covered by detachable duralumin panels as far back as the rear of the cockpit . There were also detachable panels allowing easy access to the tailskid shock absorber . The fabric skin was laced for tightness and the seams were covered with calico . A fireproof bulkhead separated the 165 litres ( 36 imp gal ; 44 US gal ) fuel tank from the engine and a fire extinguisher was fitted with outlets to the fuel pump , inlet pipe and carburetor . The conventional landing gear was connected by a one @-@ piece axle and some aircraft were fitted with teardrop @-@ shaped spats covering the wheels . Initially the tailskid was fixed , but later aircraft had smaller skids that moved in concert with the rudder . Rubber rings were used as shock absorbers on the landing gear .
The wings were built with two spars . The upper wing was made in three parts , with the middle section being of duralumin and the outer ones being made of wood . The wooden lower wings were built in single sections , using a Göttingen @-@ 436 profile . The duralumin N @-@ type struts that separated the wings , and attached the upper wing to the fuselage , had a teardrop profile and were reinforced with steel bracing wires . Laced lacquered fabric covered the empennage and wings , except for the roots of the lower wings which were covered in plywood and the leading edges of the wings were skinned in duralumin for the first 150 cm ( 59 in ) . Ailerons were fitted only to the upper wing . All movable control surfaces and the tail section were built with doped fabric over metal framing . Bracing wires above and below the tail were fitted on the prototypes , but production aircraft replaced the lower wires with a strut on each side . The horizontal tail was offset 3 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 14 in ) to port to compensate for the engine 's torque , but it could be adjusted on the ground .
Some early production aircraft had imported Bristol Jupiter VI engines with a metal cowling , but the bulk of the production aircraft used the M @-@ 22 license @-@ built copy , both of 480 horsepower ( 358 kW ) , with a Townend ring . Early aircraft usually had a fixed @-@ pitch wooden propeller with a diameter of 2 @.@ 9 meters ( 9 ft 6 in ) , but these were replaced by a 2 @.@ 7 meters ( 8 ft 10 in ) duralumin propeller without a spinner that could have its pitch adjusted on the ground .
Two synchronized 7 @.@ 62 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 300 in ) PV @-@ 1 machine guns were fitted in the fuselage with 600 rounds apiece with an OP @-@ 1 telescopic sight . It was hoped to fit another pair , but the extra weight adversely affected the aircraft 's performance during tests . Two small Der @-@ 5 underwing bomb racks were fitted that could carry one 10 @-@ kilogram ( 22 lb ) bomb apiece . Beam @-@ type bomb racks were evaluated on the I @-@ 5 that could carry a pair of 250 @-@ kilogram ( 551 lb ) bombs , but these had such adverse effects on its performance that they were rejected for service use . One of the tests with these racks had the aircraft diving down upon the target ; the first example of dive bombing in the Soviet Union . The I @-@ 5 was also used to evaluate the accuracy of the RS @-@ 82 rocket , although they are not known to have been used by the aircraft in service .
I @-@ 5s called up during the emergency in 1941 were converted for use as fighter @-@ bombers by adding two more machine guns , and some aircraft were fitted with the heavy bombs that had been rejected earlier . The ground @-@ attack version is sometimes referred to as the I @-@ 5LSh .
Test pilot Mark Gallai described the flying qualities of the I @-@ 5 thus : " After flying it I was convinced that the I @-@ 5 is quite a handful , a capricious aircraft . However , if you are careful with the controls and do not offend the machine with rough actions , it will not depart controlled flight . "
= = Operational history = =
54 I @-@ 5s were delivered to the VVS by 1 October 1931 , and 66 by the end of the year . These were all aircraft from Zavod Nr. 1 at Khodinka , but Zavod Nr. 21 in Gorkii began deliveries the following year . It delivered ten in 1932 , 321 in 1933 and 330 in 1934 . Zavod Nr. 1 delivered 76 in 1932 before beginning production of the Heinkel HD 37 as the I @-@ 7 . The I @-@ 5 was first delivered to units in the Leningrad , Ukraine and Transbaikal Military Districts and comprised 20 % of the VVS 's fighter force by the end of 1932 . During 1933 deliveries began to units in the Far Eastern , Belorussian and Moscow Military Districts and they comprised 40 % of the fighter strength by the end of the year . By the end of 1934 most of the Polikarpov I @-@ 3s and Tupolev I @-@ 4s had been replaced and deliveries had begun to Naval Aviation . The I @-@ 5 began to be replaced by the Polikarpov I @-@ 15 in 1936 , and was completely phased out from front @-@ line use by the end of 1937 , but continued to be employed as an advanced trainer .
Following the German Invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941 , the heavy losses of front @-@ line aircraft endured by the VVS together with the disruption of aircraft production resulted in I @-@ 5s being removed from training units and returned to combat service as ground @-@ attack aircraft or night bombers until early 1942 . Some I @-@ 5s were used by the 605th and 606th Fighter Regiments ( Istrebitel 'nyye Aviatsionyye Polki ( IAP ) ) during the defence of Moscow as night bombers until re @-@ equipping in February 1942 . The 2nd Ground Attack Regiment ( Shturmovoy Aviatsionyye Polki ( ShAP ) ) was raised in September 1941 in the Crimea from reservists and the Kachin Flying School . By 10 October thirty @-@ two I @-@ 5s were on hand , although attrition had reduced them to sixteen serviceable . They were down to a total of a dozen aircraft by 18 October . They served until 1 February 1942 when the regiment was withdrawn for conversion to Ilyushin Il @-@ 2s and redesignated as the 766th ShAP . The 11th ShAP was raised by the Air Force of the Black Sea Fleet on 22 September 1941 . On 18 October it mustered eighteen serviceable and fifteen unserviceable I @-@ 5s , although this was reduced to eleven serviceable and eight unserviceable aircraft by 7 November . It kept the I @-@ 5s in service until 1 February 1942 when the regiment was reorganized .
= = Variants = =
The I @-@ 5 was involved in tests of the Zveno project where a Tupolev TB @-@ 3 heavy bomber carried three I @-@ 5s as parasite fighters . One I @-@ 5 was carried was on each wing and a third over the fuselage . Ramps were used to get the wing @-@ mounted aircraft to their places , but the fuselage @-@ mounted aircraft had to be lifted by hand . This was so cumbersome that they were generally used solely as an extra powerplant for the TB @-@ 3 later in the program . The aircraft used in these trials used the longer landing gear with smaller tires originally used in the prototypes .
A two @-@ seat conversion trainer , designated the I @-@ 5UTI ( Uchebno @-@ Trenirovochnyy Istrebitel ' — Fighter Trainer ) , was built by one of the factories . Only about twenty are believed to have been built . The cockpit was moved back and a second one inserted in front of it .
= = Users = =
Soviet Union
VVS
Naval Aviation
= = Specifications = =
Data from Gordon and Dexter , Polikarpov 's Biplane Fighters , p . 22
General characteristics
Crew : 1
Length : 6 @.@ 78 m ( 22 ft 3 in )
Upper wingspan : 10 @.@ 24 m ( 33 ft 7 in )
Lower wingspan : 7 @.@ 4 m ( 24 ft 3 in )
Wing area : 21 @.@ 3 m2 ( 229 sq ft )
Airfoil : Göttingen @-@ 436
Empty weight : 934 kg ( 2 @,@ 059 lb )
Gross weight : 1 @,@ 355 kg ( 2 @,@ 987 lb )
Fuel capacity : 165
Powerplant : 1 × Shvetsov M @-@ 22 9 @-@ cylinder , single @-@ row radial engine , 358 kW ( 480 hp )
Propellers : 2 @-@ bladed duralumin , 2 @.@ 7 m ( 8 ft 10 in ) diameter
Performance
Maximum speed : 278 km / h ( 173 mph ; 150 kn ) at sea level
Range : 660 km ( 410 mi ; 356 nmi )
Service ceiling : 7 @,@ 500 m ( 24 @,@ 606 ft )
Time to altitude : 1 @.@ 6 minutes to 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 ft )
Horizontal turn time : 10 sec
Armament
Guns : 2 × 7 @.@ 62 @-@ mm PV @-@ 1 machine guns
Bombs : 2 × 22 @-@ lb ( 10 @-@ kg )
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= A Very Gaga Holiday =
A Very Gaga Holiday is a live EP released by Lady Gaga , containing songs performed at the ABC Christmas special A Very Gaga Thanksgiving . It was made available for purchase in the US on November 22 , 2011 , exclusively on the iTunes Store and Amazon , and on November 26 in the rest of the world . The EP is made up of jazz covers of the songs " Orange Colored Sky " and " White Christmas " , the latter featuring an extra verse , and acoustic versions of " You and I " and " The Edge of Glory " , both songs originally from the singer 's second studio album , Born This Way ( 2011 ) . A recurring theme on the EP is Gaga stopping midway through singing to engage in conversations with the listeners .
Following its release , A Very Gaga Holiday received mixed reviews from music critics . Reviewer Stephen Thomas Erlewine , writing for Allmusic , listed " White Christmas " and " Orange Colored Sky " as highlights , while Amelia Proud , writing for the Daily Mail , found the release to be uninspiring and weaker than Gaga 's other works . A Very Gaga Holiday entered the album charts of Canada , France and the United States , while " White Christmas " entered the singles chart of Belgium , Japan and the United Kingdom .
= = Background and recording = =
Gaga covered " Orange Colored Sky " during a surprise appearance at The Oak Room in New York City on September 29 , 2010 , and again on January 5 , 2011 . Brian Newman served as a guest performer on trumpet for performances at the Robin Hood Gala on May 9 , 2011 , to benefit the Robin Hood Foundation , and at BBC Radio 1 's Big Weekend in Carlisle , England on May 15 , 2011 . Gaga later performed it on the ABC Christmas special A Very Gaga Thanksgiving , along with a cover version of " White Christmas " . Gaga put emphasis on the jazz side of the song . She added a second verse , describing the original song as " too short " . In the verse , Gaga describes a snowman , saying that Santa Claus is on his way to meet him . The lyrics end with Gaga saying , " Okay , so I suppose it 's not very white outside yet . " The songs on A Very Gaga Holiday were recorded during the shooting of A Very Gaga Thanksgiving at the Convent of the Sacred Heart , New York City .
On November 22 , 2011 , A Very Gaga Holiday was released as a digital EP . Both " Orange Colored Sky " and " White Christmas " were included in the release , along with two other tracks which were also performed : minimalist versions of Gaga 's 2011 singles " The Edge of Glory " and " You and I " , both songs which originally featured on Gaga 's second studio album , Born This Way . Interscope Records announced the release after the opening of the Holiday Wonderland Gaga Workshop at Barneys New York . It was released in the United States to the iTunes Store and Amazon and had a worldwide release to iTunes after four days .
= = Composition = =
Gaga 's cover of " White Christmas " is a " jazzy rendition " and features an extra verse about a snowman . Halfway into the cover , before beginning the new verse , Gaga says , " So as you can tell , I 'm very outgoing and a little bit shy , but I 've decided that this song is just too short . It 's such a beautiful Christmas song but it 's only one verse , so I added an extra one . " " You and I " is devoid of the musical arrangements from the version in Born This Way , and features instrumentation from a piano and a trumpet , which is played halfway through the song . From time to time , Gaga shouts the word " America " while singing the song . Her acoustic version of " The Edge of Glory " begins with a monologue , explaining her dedication of the song to her grandfather : " It 's the second Thanksgiving I 'm spending without my grandpa , and I wrote this song about him , so here it is . So Grandma , if you 're watching at home , this one 's for you . " Following the first chorus , Gaga stops playing her piano and tells a story about Italian cookies . A recurring theme for the songs is Gaga stopping midway through singing to engage in conversation with the listeners .
= = Release and reception = =
In the United States , the EP debuted at number 52 on the Billboard 200 with sales of 22 @,@ 000 copies , for the week ending December 10 , 2011 . The same week , the special also had an impact on Gaga 's second studio album , Born This Way , which moved up the Billboard 200 chart from position 72 to 21 , with sales of 47 @,@ 000 ; copies ( up 416 % from previous week ) . As of April 2016 , A Very Gaga Holiday has sold 44 @,@ 000 copies in the US according to Nielsen SoundScan . Gaga 's version of " White Christmas " entered the UK Singles Chart at number 87 , for the week ending December 3 , 2011 . The same version also entered the Belgium ( Flanders ) Singles Chart at number 86 , for the week ending dated December 24 , 2011 , and the Japan Hot 100 singles at number 93 . In Canada , A Very Gaga Holiday debuted at number 74 on the Canadian Albums Chart and in France , it entered the SNEP Download Albums Chart at number 26 .
Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic awarded the EP three out of five stars , saying that the release was an " attractive holiday bauble " and that although Gaga 's main persona was about authenticity , she appeared to " push her affectations " much more than required on the songs . Erlewine picked " White Christmas " and " Orange Colored Sky " as his top choices from the EP . Evigshed Magazine 's Sylvia Lesas complimented the musical arrangement of the tracks , saying that Gaga 's vocals were a highlight of the EP and adding , " ' The Edge of Glory ' featuring beautiful piano line gives me chills . It is a truly moving version . [ Gaga ] makes every song special . " Erin Strecker from Entertainment Weekly gave a glowing review of the release , explaining that Gaga 's fans might have been expecting a release like A Very Gaga Holiday which gave prominence to the singer 's vocals . She added that the songs showed " how much her voice really is well @-@ suited for the big @-@ band and jazz @-@ era stylings on these tunes " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Lady Gaga – vocals , producer , piano
Phil DeTolve – sound editor , recording at Convent of the Sacred Heart , New York City
Brian Riordan – sound re @-@ recording mixer
Alex Smith – piano
Brian Newman – trumpet
Paul Francis – drums
Scott Ritchie – bass
Steven Kortyka – saxophone
Credits and personnel adapted from digital booklet .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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