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= Syphilis =
Syphilis is a sexually transmitted infection caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum subspecies pallidum . The signs and symptoms of syphilis vary depending in which of the four stages it presents ( primary , secondary , latent , and tertiary ) . The primary stage classically presents with a single chancre ( a firm , painless , non @-@ itchy skin ulceration ) but there may be multiple sores . In secondary syphilis a diffuse rash which frequently involves the palms of the hands and soles of the feet occurs . There may also be sores in the mouth or vagina . In latent syphilis there are little to no symptoms which can last for years . In tertiary syphilis there are gummas ( soft non @-@ cancerous growths ) , neurological , or heart symptoms . Syphilis has been known as " the great imitator " as it may cause symptoms similar to many other diseases .
Syphilis is most commonly spread through sexual activity . It may also be transmitted from mother to baby during pregnancy or at birth , resulting in congenital syphilis . Other human diseases caused by related Treponema pallidum include yaws ( subspecies pertenue ) , pinta ( subspecies carateum ) , and bejel ( subspecies endemicum ) . Diagnosis is usually made by using blood tests ; the bacteria can also be detected using dark field microscopy . The Center for Disease Control recommends all pregnant women be tested .
The risk of syphilis can be decreased by latex condom use or not having sex . Syphilis can be effectively treated with antibiotics . The preferred antibiotic for most cases is benzathine penicillin G injected into a muscle . In those who have a severe penicillin allergy , doxycycline or tetracycline may be used . In those with neurosyphilis intravenous penicillin G potassium or ceftriaxone is recommended . During treatment people may develop fever , headache , and muscle pains , a reaction known as Jarisch @-@ Herxheimer .
In 2013 syphilis infected about 315 @,@ 000 people . During 2010 it caused about 113 @,@ 000 deaths down from 202 @,@ 000 in 1990 . After decreasing dramatically with the availability of penicillin in the 1940s , rates of infection have increased since the turn of the millennium in many countries , often in combination with human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV ) . This is believed to be partly due to increased promiscuity , prostitution , decreasing use of condoms , and unsafe sexual practices among men who have sex with men . In 2015 , Cuba became the first country in the world to eliminate mother @-@ to @-@ child transmission of syphilis .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Syphilis can present in one of four different stages : primary , secondary , latent , and tertiary , and may also occur congenitally . It was referred to as " the great imitator " by Sir William Osler due to its varied presentations .
= = = Primary = = =
Primary syphilis is typically acquired by direct sexual contact with the infectious lesions of another person . Approximately 3 to 90 days after the initial exposure ( average 21 days ) a skin lesion , called a chancre , appears at the point of contact . This is classically ( 40 % of the time ) a single , firm , painless , non @-@ itchy skin ulceration with a clean base and sharp borders between 0 @.@ 3 and 3 @.@ 0 cm in size . The lesion may take on almost any form . In the classic form , it evolves from a macule to a papule and finally to an erosion or ulcer . Occasionally , multiple lesions may be present ( ~ 40 % ) , with multiple lesions more common when coinfected with HIV . Lesions may be painful or tender ( 30 % ) , and they may occur outside of the genitals ( 2 – 7 % ) . The most common location in women is the cervix ( 44 % ) , the penis in heterosexual men ( 99 % ) , and anally and rectally relatively commonly in men who have sex with men ( 34 % ) . Lymph node enlargement frequently ( 80 % ) occurs around the area of infection , occurring seven to 10 days after chancre formation . The lesion may persist for three to six weeks without treatment .
= = = Secondary = = =
Secondary syphilis occurs approximately four to ten weeks after the primary infection . While secondary disease is known for the many different ways it can manifest , symptoms most commonly involve the skin , mucous membranes , and lymph nodes . There may be a symmetrical , reddish @-@ pink , non @-@ itchy rash on the trunk and extremities , including the palms and soles . The rash may become maculopapular or pustular . It may form flat , broad , whitish , wart @-@ like lesions known as condyloma latum on mucous membranes . All of these lesions harbor bacteria and are infectious . Other symptoms may include fever , sore throat , malaise , weight loss , hair loss , and headache . Rare manifestations include liver inflammation , kidney disease , joint inflammation , periostitis , inflammation of the optic nerve , uveitis , and interstitial keratitis . The acute symptoms usually resolve after three to six weeks ; about 25 % of people may present with a recurrence of secondary symptoms . Many people who present with secondary syphilis ( 40 – 85 % of women , 20 – 65 % of men ) do not report previously having had the classic chancre of primary syphilis .
= = = Latent = = =
Latent syphilis is defined as having serologic proof of infection without symptoms of disease . It is further described as either early ( less than 1 year after secondary syphilis ) or late ( more than 1 year after secondary syphilis ) in the United States . The United Kingdom uses a cut @-@ off of two years for early and late latent syphilis . Early latent syphilis may have a relapse of symptoms . Late latent syphilis is asymptomatic , and not as contagious as early latent syphilis .
= = = Tertiary = = =
Tertiary syphilis may occur approximately 3 to 15 years after the initial infection , and may be divided into three different forms : gummatous syphilis ( 15 % ) , late neurosyphilis ( 6 @.@ 5 % ) , and cardiovascular syphilis ( 10 % ) . Without treatment , a third of infected people develop tertiary disease . People with tertiary syphilis are not infectious .
Gummatous syphilis or late benign syphilis usually occurs 1 to 46 years after the initial infection , with an average of 15 years . This stage is characterized by the formation of chronic gummas , which are soft , tumor @-@ like balls of inflammation which may vary considerably in size . They typically affect the skin , bone , and liver , but can occur anywhere .
Neurosyphilis refers to an infection involving the central nervous system . It may occur early , being either asymptomatic or in the form of syphilitic meningitis , or late as meningovascular syphilis , general paresis , or tabes dorsalis , which is associated with poor balance and lightning pains in the lower extremities . Late neurosyphilis typically occurs 4 to 25 years after the initial infection . Meningovascular syphilis typically presents with apathy and seizure , and general paresis with dementia and tabes dorsalis . Also , there may be Argyll Robertson pupils , which are bilateral small pupils that constrict when the person focuses on near objects but do not constrict when exposed to bright light .
Cardiovascular syphilis usually occurs 10 – 30 years after the initial infection . The most common complication is syphilitic aortitis , which may result in aneurysm formation .
= = = Congenital = = =
Congenital syphilis is that which is transmitted during pregnancy or during birth . Two @-@ thirds of syphilitic infants are born without symptoms . Common symptoms that develop over the first couple of years of life include enlargement of the liver and spleen ( 70 % ) , rash ( 70 % ) , fever ( 40 % ) , neurosyphilis ( 20 % ) , and lung inflammation ( 20 % ) . If untreated , late congenital syphilis may occur in 40 % , including saddle nose deformation , Higoumenakis sign , saber shin , or Clutton 's joints among others .
= = Cause = =
= = = Bacteriology = = =
Treponema pallidum subspecies pallidum is a spiral @-@ shaped , Gram @-@ negative , highly mobile bacterium . Three other human diseases are caused by related Treponema pallidum , including yaws ( subspecies pertenue ) , pinta ( subspecies carateum ) and bejel ( subspecies endemicum ) . Unlike subtype pallidum , they do not cause neurological disease . Humans are the only known natural reservoir for subspecies pallidum . It is unable to survive without a host for more than a few days . This is due to its small genome ( 1 @.@ 14 MDa ) failing to encode the metabolic pathways necessary to make most of its macronutrients . It has a slow doubling time of greater than 30 hours .
= = = Transmission = = =
Syphilis is transmitted primarily by sexual contact or during pregnancy from a mother to her fetus ; the spirochete is able to pass through intact mucous membranes or compromised skin . It is thus transmissible by kissing near a lesion , as well as oral , vaginal , and anal sex . Approximately 30 to 60 % of those exposed to primary or secondary syphilis will get the disease . Its infectivity is exemplified by the fact that an individual inoculated with only 57 organisms has a 50 % chance of being infected . Most ( 60 % ) of new cases in the United States occur in men who have sex with men . It can be transmitted by blood products . It is tested for in many countries and thus the risk is low . The risk of transmission from sharing needles appears limited .
It is not generally possible to contract syphilis through toilet seats , daily activities , hot tubs , or sharing eating utensils or clothing . This is mainly because the bacteria die very quickly outside of the body , making transmission by objects extremely difficult .
= = Diagnosis = =
Syphilis is difficult to diagnose clinically early in its presentation . Confirmation is either via blood tests or direct visual inspection using microscopy . Blood tests are more commonly used , as they are easier to perform . Diagnostic tests are unable to distinguish between the stages of the disease .
= = = Blood tests = = =
Blood tests are divided into nontreponemal and treponemal tests . Nontreponemal tests are used initially , and include venereal disease research laboratory ( VDRL ) and rapid plasma reagin tests . As these tests are occasionally false positives , confirmation is required with a treponemal test , such as treponemal pallidum particle agglutination ( TPHA ) or fluorescent treponemal antibody absorption test ( FTA @-@ Abs ) . False positives on the nontreponemal tests can occur with some viral infections such as varicella ( chickenpox ) and measles , as well as with lymphoma , tuberculosis , malaria , endocarditis , connective tissue disease , and pregnancy . Treponemal antibody tests usually become positive two to five weeks after the initial infection . Neurosyphilis is diagnosed by finding high numbers of leukocytes ( predominately lymphocytes ) and high protein levels in the cerebrospinal fluid in the setting of a known syphilis infection .
= = = Direct testing = = =
Dark ground microscopy of serous fluid from a chancre may be used to make an immediate diagnosis . Hospitals do not always have equipment or experienced staff members , whereas testing must be done within 10 minutes of acquiring the sample . Sensitivity has been reported to be nearly 80 % , thus can only be used to confirm a diagnosis but not rule one out . Two other tests can be carried out on a sample from the chancre : direct fluorescent antibody testing and nucleic acid amplification tests . Direct fluorescent testing uses antibodies tagged with fluorescein , which attach to specific syphilis proteins , while nucleic acid amplification uses techniques , such as the polymerase chain reaction , to detect the presence of specific syphilis genes . These tests are not as time @-@ sensitive , as they do not require living bacteria to make the diagnosis .
= = Prevention = =
= = = Vaccine = = =
As of 2010 , there is no vaccine effective for prevention . Several vaccines based on treponemal proteins reduce lesion development in an animal model , and research is ongoing .
= = = Sex = = =
Abstinence from intimate physical contact with an infected person is effective at reducing the transmission of syphilis , as is the proper use of a latex condom . Condom use does not completely eliminate the risk . Thus , the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends a long @-@ term , mutually monogamous relationship with an uninfected partner and the avoidance of substances such as alcohol and other drugs that increase risky sexual behavior .
= = = Congenital disease = = =
Congenital syphilis in the newborn can be prevented by screening mothers during early pregnancy and treating those who are infected . The United States Preventive Services Task Force ( USPSTF ) strongly recommends universal screening of all pregnant women , while the World Health Organization recommends all women be tested at their first antenatal visit and again in the third trimester . If they are positive , they recommend their partners also be treated . Congenital syphilis is still common in the developing world , as many women do not receive antenatal care at all , and the antenatal care others receive does not include screening , and it still occasionally occurs in the developed world , as those most likely to acquire syphilis ( through drug use , etc . ) are least likely to receive care during pregnancy . Several measures to increase access to testing appear effective at reducing rates of congenital syphilis in low- to middle @-@ income countries . Point @-@ of @-@ care testing to detect syphilis appeared to be good although more research is needed to assess its effectiveness and into improving outcomes in mothers and babies .
= = = Screening = = =
The CDC recommends that sexually active men who have sex with men be tested at least yearly . The USPSTF also recommends screening among those at high risk .
Syphilis is a notifiable disease in many countries , including Canada the European Union , and the United States . This means health care providers are required to notify public health authorities , which will then ideally provide partner notification to the person 's partners . Physicians may also encourage patients to send their partners to seek care . Several strategies have been found to improve follow @-@ up for STI testing including email and text messaging as reminders of appointments .
= = Treatment = =
= = = Early infections = = =
The first @-@ choice treatment for uncomplicated syphilis remains a single dose of intramuscular benzathine penicillin G. Doxycycline and tetracycline are alternative choices for those allergic to penicillin ; due to the risk of birth defects these are not recommended for pregnant women . Resistance to macrolides , rifampin , and clindamycin is often present . Ceftriaxone , a third @-@ generation cephalosporin antibiotic , may be as effective as penicillin @-@ based treatment . It is recommended that a treated person avoid sex until the sores are healed .
= = = Late infections = = =
For neurosyphilis , due to the poor penetration of penicillin G into the central nervous system , those affected are recommended to be given large doses of intravenous penicillin for a minimum of 10 days . If a person is allergic , ceftriaxone may be used or penicillin desensitization attempted . Other late presentations may be treated with once @-@ weekly intramuscular penicillin G for three weeks . If allergic , as in the case of early disease , doxycycline or tetracycline may be used , albeit for a longer duration . Treatment at this stage limits further progression but has only slight effect on damage which has already occurred .
= = = Jarisch @-@ Herxheimer reaction = = =
One of the potential side effects of treatment is the Jarisch @-@ Herxheimer reaction . It frequently starts within one hour and lasts for 24 hours , with symptoms of fever , muscle pains , headache , and a fast heart rate . It is caused by cytokines released by the immune system in response to lipoproteins released from rupturing syphilis bacteria .
= = = Pregnancy = = =
Penicillin is an effective treatment for syphilis in pregnancy but there is no agreement on which dose or way of giving it is most effective . More research is needed into how much antibiotic to give and when to give it .
= = Epidemiology = =
In 2013 syphilis infected about 315 @,@ 000 people . Syphilis is believed to have infected 12 million additional people in 1999 , with greater than 90 % of cases in the developing world . It affects between 700 @,@ 000 and 1 @.@ 6 million pregnancies a year , resulting in spontaneous abortions , stillbirths , and congenital syphilis . During 2010 it caused about 113 @,@ 000 deaths down from 202 @,@ 000 in 1990 . In sub @-@ Saharan Africa , syphilis contributes to approximately 20 % of perinatal deaths . Rates are proportionally higher among intravenous drug users , those who are infected with HIV , and men who have sex with men . In the United States , rates of syphilis as of 2007 were six times greater in men than women ; they were nearly equal in 1997 . African Americans accounted for almost half of all cases in 2010 . As of 2014 , syphilis infections continue to increase in the United States .
Syphilis was very common in Europe during the 18th and 19th centuries . Flaubert found it universal among nineteenth @-@ century Egyptian prostitutes . In the developed world during the early 20th century , infections declined rapidly with the widespread use of antibiotics , until the 1980s and 1990s . Since 2000 , rates of syphilis have been increasing in the USA , Canada , the UK , Australia and Europe , primarily among men who have sex with men . Rates of syphilis among American women have remained stable during this time , and rates among UK women have increased , but at a rate less than that of men . Increased rates among heterosexuals have occurred in China and Russia since the 1990s . This has been attributed to unsafe sexual practices , such as sexual promiscuity , prostitution , and decreasing use of barrier protection .
Untreated , it has a mortality of 8 % to 58 % , with a greater death rate in males . The symptoms of syphilis have become less severe over the 19th and 20th centuries , in part due to widespread availability of effective treatment and partly due to decreasing virulence of the spirochaete . With early treatment , few complications result . Syphilis increases the risk of HIV transmission by two to five times , and coinfection is common ( 30 – 60 % in some urban centers ) . In 2015 Cuba became the first country in the world to eradicate mother to child transmission of syphilis .
= = History = =
The exact origin of syphilis is disputed . Syphilis was indisputably present in the Americas before European contact . The dispute is over whether or not syphilis was also present elsewhere in the world at that time . One of the two primary hypotheses proposes that syphilis was carried from the Americas to Europe by the returning crewmen from Christopher Columbus 's voyage to the Americas . The other hypothesis says that syphilis existed in Europe previously , but went unrecognized until shortly after Columbus ' return . These are referred to as the Columbian and pre @-@ Columbian hypotheses , respectively . The Columbian hypothesis is best supported by the available evidence . The first written records of an outbreak of syphilis in Europe occurred in 1494 or 1495 in Naples , Italy , during a French invasion ( Italian War of 1494 – 98 ) . As it was claimed to have been spread by French troops , it was initially known as the " French disease " by the people of Naples . In 1530 , the pastoral name " syphilis " ( the name of a character ) was first used by the Italian physician and poet Girolamo Fracastoro as the title of his Latin poem in dactylic hexameter describing the ravages of the disease in Italy . It was also known historically as the " Great Pox " .
The causative organism , Treponema pallidum , was first identified by Fritz Schaudinn and Erich Hoffmann in 1905 . The first effective treatment ( Salvarsan ) was developed in 1910 by Paul Ehrlich , which was followed by trials of penicillin and confirmation of its effectiveness in 1943 . Before the discovery and use of antibiotics in the mid @-@ twentieth century , mercury and isolation were commonly used , with treatments often worse than the disease .
Many famous historical figures , including Franz Schubert , Arthur Schopenhauer , and Édouard Manet , are believed to have had the disease . Friedrich Nietzsche was long believed to have gone mad as a result of tertiary syphilis , but that diagnosis has recently come into question .
= = = Arts and literature = = =
The earliest known depiction of an individual with syphilis is Albrecht Dürer 's Syphilitic Man , a woodcut believed to represent a Landsknecht , a Northern European mercenary . The myth of the femme fatale or " poison women " of the 19th century is believed to be partly derived from the devastation of syphilis , with classic examples in literature including John Keats ' La Belle Dame sans Merci .
The artist Jan van der Straet painted a scene of a wealthy man receiving treatment for syphilis with the tropical wood guaiacum sometime around 1580 . The title of the work is " Preparation and Use of Guayaco for Treating Syphilis " . That the artist chose to include this image in a series of works celebrating the New World indicates how important a treatment , however ineffective , for syphilis was to the European elite at that time . The richly colored and detailed work depicts four servants preparing the concoction while a physician looks on , hiding something behind his back while the hapless patient drinks .
= = = Tuskegee and Guatemala studies = = =
One of the most infamous United States cases of questionable medical ethics in the 20th century was the Tuskegee syphilis study . The study took place in Tuskegee , Alabama , and was supported by the U.S. Public Health Service ( PHS ) in partnership with the Tuskegee Institute . The study began in 1932 , when syphilis was a widespread problem and there was no safe and effective treatment . The study was designed to measure the progression of untreated syphilis . By 1947 , penicillin had been shown to be an effective cure for early syphilis and was becoming widely used to treat the disease . Its use in later syphilis was still unclear . Study directors continued the study and did not offer the participants treatment with penicillin . This is debated , and some have found that penicillin was given to many of the subjects .
In the 1960s , Peter Buxtun sent a letter to the CDC , who controlled the study , expressing concern about the ethics of letting hundreds of black men die of a disease that could be cured . The CDC asserted that it needed to continue the study until all of the men had died . In 1972 , Buxton went to the mainstream press , causing a public outcry . As a result , the program was terminated , a lawsuit brought those affected nine million dollars , and Congress created a commission empowered to write regulations to deter such abuses from occurring in the future .
On 16 May 1997 , thanks to the efforts of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study Legacy Committee formed in 1994 , survivors of the study were invited to the White House to be present when President Bill Clinton apologized on behalf of the United States government for the study .
Syphilis experiments were also carried out in Guatemala from 1946 to 1948 . They were United States @-@ sponsored human experiments , conducted during the government of Juan José Arévalo with the cooperation of some Guatemalan health ministries and officials . Doctors infected soldiers , prisoners , and mental patients with syphilis and other sexually transmitted diseases , without the informed consent of the subjects , and then treated them with antibiotics . In October 2010 , the U.S. formally apologized to Guatemala for conducting these experiments .
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= Yale Union Laundry Building =
The Yale Union Laundry Building , also known as the Yale Laundry Building , the City Linen Supply Co . Building , Perfect Fit Manufacturing and simply Yale Union ( YU ) , in southeast Portland in the U.S. state of Oregon is a two @-@ story commercial structure listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Built largely of brick in 1908 and embellished with Italian Revival and Egyptian Revival decorations , it was added to the register in 2007 . Two @-@ story additions in 1927 and 1929 changed the original building into an L @-@ shaped structure that shares a party wall with a commercial building to the east .
Preservation of elements of Portland 's industrial laundry era and its relation to the women ’ s labor movement and the rise of the middle class in the United States are factors in the building 's listing on the National Register . Built and first operated by Charles F. Brown , an individual businessman , the building was bought in 1927 by Home Services Company , a power @-@ laundry consortium . American Linen Supply and then Perfect Fit Manufacturing , a maker of automotive fabrics , used the building after Home Services sold it in 1950 . Acquired by Alter LLC in 2008 , the building is home to Yale Union ( YU ) , a contemporary arts center .
= = Description = =
Located at 800 Southeast 10th Avenue , the building occupies the west half of the block between Southeast Belmont and Southeast Morrison streets . The southwest corner entry features a stylized Egyptian temple of cast stone . Italianate Renaissance influence is seen in the large arched windows on the ground floor and tall narrow windows on the second . The west facade is lined with banks of large windows that helped illuminate and cool the work areas . Other important features of the exterior include a large garage door along Belmont Street and a paved parking lot and water @-@ tower pedestal on the Morrison Street side .
The original building 's main floor has vaulted ceilings , large windows , brick walls , a flat roof , and wooden cross beams . The mezzanine consists of three rooms . The second floor has large windows and vaulted ceilings , restrooms , and a lunchroom . Stairs and elevators connect the levels , including the basement and its boiler room . A lobby and office in the southwest corner of the main floor can be entered from inside or via the original main door off Southeast 10th Avenue .
Following purchase in 2008 , renovations began to convert the building into a contemporary arts center . Architects designed gallery spaces , a bookstore and cafe , a 100 @-@ seat room , library and kitchen . Geothermal heating supplied by an aquifer underneath the building will contribute to the goal of LEED Platinum status .
= = History = =
The Yale Union Laundry Building was built to house a commercial laundry during an era , roughly 1900 to 1950 , in which many urban U.S. households sent out their laundry for cleaning rather than doing it at home . Before the invention of the steam laundry machine in the mid @-@ 19th century , women did most domestic washing at home using simple machines such as scrub boards , wooden tubs , and clothes lines . Steam @-@ driven washing machines and equipment for starching , ironing , and related tasks made industrial laundries feasible by the turn of the century .
In 1908 , Charles F. Brown , who entered the laundry business in the Midwest in 1892 , moved to Portland to build the Yale Laundry Building and to operate an industrial power laundry on its premises . The building 's basement contained boilers to heat wash water , and the main part of the first floor had beams capable of supporting heavy washing machines . The first and second floor had large windows to admit light and to release heat and steam . At the time of the building 's construction , Portland had 68 commercial laundries of varied types and sizes . By 1916 , the Yale Laundry , one of the larger laundries , employed 125 people , many of whom were women .
Federal and state laws regulating hours , wages , and working conditions changed markedly in the United States during the early 20th century . The state 's Industrial Welfare Commission , established in 1913 , ruled in 1914 that women could not work in laundries for more than 54 hours a week and that work days were not to exceed 9 hours . The commission established a minimum weekly wage of $ 8 @.@ 25 for women working in Portland 's laundries . By 1917 , the work day was reduced to an eight @-@ hour maximum . In 1920 , to lower costs related to regulations and the rise of organized labor , several industrial laundries in Portland combined to form the Home Services Company . The new company lowered overhead by sharing resources and added a pickup and delivery service popular among middle @-@ class families . The company acquired the Yale Union Laundry in 1927 .
By 1931 , more than 80 percent of the services offered by industrial laundries were sold to individual families . However , as the Great Depression continued , many people could no longer afford the services , and business declined . The decline continued after World War II , when electric washers and dryers meant for home use became affordable to a large fraction of the populace . As individual customers disappeared , factory laundries turned to specialized services such as washing of diapers or linens . In 1950 , the American Linen Supply Company bought the Yale Laundry Company . In 1959 , Perfect Fit Manufacturing began to use the building to make auto seat covers , tire covers , and other automotive fabrics . Perfect Fit remained in the building through 2006 .
= = = Yale Union = = =
Since 2008 , the building has housed Yale Union ( YU ) , a contemporary arts center . Alter LLC , associated with the Monfort Family Foundation , purchased the building for $ 3 @.@ 5 million and intended to fund renovations and operations until the arts center generated revenue on its own . Renovations costing an additional $ 7 @.@ 2 million , also funded by Alter , included a bookstore and cafe , a 100 @-@ seat room . The center was officially unveiled in November 2010 with a renovated kitchen and additional improvements planned . More than 600 people attended YU 's first public exhibit in May 2011 .
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= Zapata rail =
The Zapata rail ( Cyanolimnas cerverai ) is a medium @-@ sized , dark @-@ coloured rail , the only member of the monotypic genus Cyanolimnas . It has brown upperparts , greyish @-@ blue underparts , a red @-@ based yellow bill , white undertail coverts , and red eyes and legs . Its short wings render it almost flightless . It is endemic to the wetlands of the Zapata Peninsula in southern Cuba , where its only known nest was found in sawgrass tussocks . Little is known of its diet or reproductive behaviour , and its described calls may belong to a different species .
The Zapata rail was discovered by Spanish zoologist Fermín Zanón Cervera in March 1927 in the Zapata Swamp near Santo Tomás , in the southern Matanzas Province of Cuba . The swamp holds one other bird found nowhere else , the Zapata wren , and also gives its name to the Zapata sparrow . Due to ongoing habitat loss in its limited range , its small population size , and predation by introduced mammals and catfish , the Zapata rail is evaluated as critically endangered on the IUCN Red List of threatened species . Tourism and climate change may pose threats in the future .
= = Discovery and taxonomy = =
The Zapata rail was formally described by American herpetologist Thomas Barbour and his compatriot , ornithologist James Lee Peters , in 1927 . They considered it distinctive enough to merit its own genus , Cyanolimnas . The genus name derives from Ancient Greek kuanos " dark blue " and Modern Latin limnas " rail or crake " ; the specific name cerverai honours the rail 's discoverer , Fermín Zanón Cervera , a Spanish soldier who had stayed on after the Spanish – American War and became a professional naturalist .
Barbour had been accompanied by the Spaniard on his previous visits to Cuba , and on hearing of the strange birds to be found in the Zapata area , he sent Cervera on a series of trips into the region . Cervera eventually found the rail near the very small settlement which is commemorated in the Spanish name for the rail , " Gallinuela de Santo Tomás " . Cervera also discovered the Zapata wren and the Zapata sparrow , and his name is commemorated by the new ecological centre in the Ciénaga de Zapata National Park .
The rail family contains more than 150 species divided into at least 50 genera , the exact number depending on the authority . The Zapata rail is the only member of the genus Cyanolimnas , and is considered to be intermediate between two other New World genera , Neocrex and Pardirallus . All six species in the three genera are long @-@ billed , five have drab plumage , and all but one have a red spot at the bill base . They are believed to be descended from Amaurornis @-@ like ancestral stock .
= = Description = =
The Zapata rail is a medium @-@ sized , dark rail , approximately 29 cm ( 11 @.@ 4 in ) long . The upperparts are olive @-@ brown and the forehead , head sides and underparts are slate @-@ grey , with some white barring on the lower belly . The flanks are grey @-@ brown and the undertail is white . The iris , legs and feet are red , and the bill is yellow with a red base . The tail feathers are only sparsely barbed , and the wings are very short and rounded . The sexes are similar in appearance , but immature birds are duller and have olive feet and bill ; the chicks , as with all rails , are covered with blackish down . The Zapata rail 's call is described as a bouncing cutucutu @-@ cutucutu @-@ cutucutu similar to that of the bare @-@ legged owl , and a loud limpkin @-@ like kuvk kuck . However , these calls may actually be those of the spotted rail .
There are no similar species in Cuba ; the sympatric spotted rail is much the same size , but is heavily spotted and barred with white . The Zapata rail 's plumage is intermediate between those of Colombian crake and plumbeous rail , but these are mainland birds of Central and South America .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Zapata rail is a Cuban endemic restricted to the northern part of the 4500 km2 ( 1740 mi2 ) Zapata Swamp , which is also the only location for the Zapata wren , and the nominate subspecies of the Zapata sparrow . The favoured habitat of the Zapata rail is flooded vegetation , 1 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 0 m ( 60 – 80 in ) tall , consisting of tangled , bush @-@ covered swamp and low trees , and preferably near higher ground . Typical plants of the swamp are wax myrtle , the willow Salix longipes , the sawgrass Cladium jamaicensis , and the narrow leaf cattail .
The rail was once more widespread , with fossil bones found at Havana , Pinar del Río and the Isla de la Juventud . Barbour did not believe that the rail , Zapata sparrow and Zapata wren were relics in the sense that they once ranged widely over Cuba ( as did , for example , the dwarf hutia and the Cuban crocodile ) , since the birds are so highly modified for swamp conditions . He considered that conditions similar to those found today may once have extended over the large submerged area now represented by the shallow banks , with scattered mangrove keys , which stretch towards the Isla de la Juventud and perhaps eastward along the southern Cuban coast . The birds fossilized at Isla de la Juventud are smaller than the single extant specimen , but the paucity of available material makes it impossible to establish whether the populations were genuinely different .
= = Behaviour = =
The Zapata rail usually breeds in Cladium jamaicensis sawgrass , building the nest above water @-@ level on a raised tussock . Breeding occurs around September , and possibly also in December and January . American ornithologist James Bond found a nest containing three white eggs 60 cm ( 2 ft ) above water level in sawgrass , but little else is known of the breeding biology . Rails are usually monogamous , and all have precocial chicks which are fed and guarded by the adults .
The animal prefers to feed in sawgrass . The diet is not recorded , but most marsh rails are omnivorous , feeding on invertebrates and plant material . The rails may disperse in the rainy season , returning to permanently flooded areas in the dry months .
Like other rails , this species is difficult to observe as it moves through the sawgrass , and may crouch to avoid detection , but is not usually particularly wary . When disturbed , it may run a short distance and then stop with its tail raised and the conspicuous white undertail showing . Despite its short wings , the Zapata rail may not be completely flightless . On morphological grounds it would be classed as a flightless species , since the pectoral girdle and wing are as reduced as in other species of rails that are considered to be flightless , but Bond reported that he saw one flutter about ten feet across a canal .
= = Conservation status = =
Island species of rails are particularly vulnerable to population loss since they frequently and rapidly evolve to become flightless or very weak fliers , and are very susceptible to introduced predators . Fifteen species have become extinct since 1600 , and more than 30 are endangered .
The Zapata rail appears to have been easily found in the Santo Tomás area until 1931 , but there were no further records until the 1970s when birds were found 65 km ( 40 mi ) away at Laguna del Tesoro . The few records in subsequent years suggest that numbers remain low , although after no official sightings for two decades , a 1998 survey found the birds at two new locations in the Zapata Swamp . Ten rails were detected at Peralta , and seven at Hato de Jicarita . On the basis of this sample it was estimated that 70 – 90 rails were present in the 230 hectares ( 570 acres ) between the two sites .
The Zapata rail is restricted to a single area , with an extent of about 1 @,@ 000 km2 ( 400 mi2 ) , and its small population , estimated on the basis of recent surveys and local assessments of population densities at between 250 – 1 @,@ 000 individuals , is assessed as decreasing . In the past , grass @-@ cutting for roof thatch was a cause of extensive loss of breeding habitat , and habitat loss through dry @-@ season burning of the vegetation continues . Predation by introduced small Asian mongooses and rats is a problem and , more recently , introduced African sharptooth catfish ( Clarias gariepinus ) have been identified as major predators of rail chicks .
The Zapata rail was classified as an endangered species on the IUCN Red List until 2011 , when its status was uplisted to critically endangered . This had already been suggested since , given the lack of knowledge about its calls , the rail 's population may be lower than currently estimated .
Two remaining sites are in protected areas : the Corral de Santo Tomás Faunal Refuge , and the Laguna del Tesoro nature tourism area . Surveys have recently been conducted throughout the species ' range and proposed conservation measures include the control of dry season burning .
= = = Future threats = = =
There are plans to encourage more tourists to visit the Zapata area , particularly from Europe , and if the United States allows its citizens to visit Cuba in the future this could further increase the effects of ecotourism . This might have a dangerous impact on the wetland , but Cuba 's Tourism Minister , Manuel Marrero , and Pablo Bouza , the director of the Ciénaga de Zapata National Park , both said that the increase in tourism would be sustainable .
In the longer term , the Ramsar @-@ listed swamp itself may be threatened . Rising sea levels due to global warming could contaminate the wetland with saltwater , damaging the plants and fauna , and by 2100 the area of Ciénaga de Zapata would be reduced by one @-@ fifth . Higher ocean temperatures resulting from climate change could also lead to stronger hurricanes and drought . Bouza warned that the fallen vegetation left by hurricanes could act as fuel for further damaging fires once it had dried out .
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= Mount Osmond , South Australia =
Mount Osmond is a small suburb of 2 @,@ 497 people in the South Australian capital city of Adelaide . It is part of the City of Burnside local government area and located in the foothills of the Adelaide Hills , five kilometres south east of the city centre . The suburb is high on the hill of the same name , which is the last hill on the right when approaching Adelaide down the South Eastern Freeway before the road levels out onto the Adelaide Plains . It is bounded to the north by the suburb of Beaumont , to the north @-@ east by Burnside , to the east by Waterfall Gully , to the south by Leawood Gardens / Eagle On The Hill , to the south @-@ west by Urrbrae , to the west by Glen Osmond and to the north @-@ west by St Georges .
The suburb is at a high elevation in the Mount Lofty Ranges , and provides views over Adelaide as well as containing a renowned golf course and country club . Mining operations in the 19th century gave the area notoriety , but it has since developed slowly into a small , quiet and secluded suburb .
= = History = =
= = = Aboriginal culture = = =
Mount Osmond is within the traditional lands of the Kaurna people , and forms part of the Mount Lofty Ranges and is therefore part of the Dreamtime story of the ancestor @-@ creator Nganno . According to the legend , Nganno was wounded in a battle and laid down to die , forming the Mount Lofty Ranges .
= = = European settlement = = =
When Adelaide was first planned and mapped out by Col. William Light , Mount Osmond received the three allotments 1070 , 1277 and 1278 . While much of Adelaide was relatively quickly bought ( but not necessarily settled ) Mount Osmond did not enjoy any early buyers . The first reported activity in the area was after the mining rush of Glen Osmond due to the Wheal Watkins and Wheal Gawler mines . Lot 1277 yielded a mine in Slaughterhouse Gully but it was worked only briefly . Subsequent finds of bluestone proved fruitful and the mineral was extracted until 1900 , when mining ended and the last of the mines were either filled in or cordoned off .
Developers eventually bought the lots that composed Mount Osmond but once again interest in the suburb was minor . Attempts to bring in settlers culminated in the construction of Mount Osmond Road in 1882 . It wound around the hills from where it began as an offshoot of Mount Barker Road in the South . Developers broke down the three large lots into roughly two hundred 1 @-@ acre ( 4 @,@ 000 m2 ) ones in the hope of sales . A few lots were sold to quarrymen and gardeners around Mount Barker Road , but the vast remainder was leased to stockowners as pasture for their livestock . Much of Mount Osmond , along with a large portion of the surrounding area , was bought in 1907 by Ernest C. Sanders . His family made great use of the land , with his sons building houses on the vast property while raising sheep and growing hay . Considerable time was spent by the Sanders family in naming and mapping the area .
The Sanders family eventually decided to sell much of their portion of Mount Osmond , and around 1922 – 23 it was put on the market . Like earlier attempts at sales on Mount Osmond , little interest was received and none was sold until 1925 . The land was developed into a golf course and Country Club with the assistance of the Burnside Council and its engineers . Credit to the novel idea went to H.E.S. Melbourne , Burnside 's chief engineer at the time – who found support among numerous Burnside Councillors . The golf course and country club were developed on the highest part of the mount , on 85 acres ( 34 ha ) of former Sanders estate . The remaining land was sold by the country club to buyers with strict rules on the development and maintenance of the properties – specific rules applying to aesthetic features , particularly gardens , are of note . Even with a golf course and country club in the vicinity , as well as electricity and a water supply from Waterfall Gully 's first creek the eighteen marketed lots once again sold poorly .
One of the last large land purchases was that of Ross Thiem in the 1940s . A club member , C.W. Lloyd , sold 200 acres ( 0 @.@ 81 km2 ) around the golf course , which was again used as pasture by Thiem , who ran sheep on the property – and was the last to do so . The then Highways Department also acquired land in 1951 , buying 200 acres ( 0 @.@ 81 km2 ) of land above Beaumont for future transport planning . Thiem 's land was eventually sold in the 1950s , to the Rossdale Property Co . Their subsequent attempts at selling the land were just as fruitless as those before , and once again the property changed hands to the Mount Osmond Heights Pty Ltd . The land was newly subdivided , and it was in the late 1960s that finally much of Mount Osmond was sold to residential buyers . Fifty @-@ two out of the 116 new sites had been sold by 12 October 1968 at an average of $ 3 @,@ 500 , according to the Adelaide daily The Advertiser . Since the land sales of that era , Mount Osmond has developed slowly because of the scarcity of land and the housing and development restrictions of the Hills Face Zone . Now the suburb is home to large , extravagant , tree @-@ filled houses and properties . With the upgrade of Mount Barker Road to become part of the South Eastern Freeway from 1997 , Mount Osmond received its own freeway interchange as part of the development .
= = Geography = =
Mount Osmond is composed of the Mount itself and a ridge ( Long Ridge ) stretching out to the south @-@ east between the valley of the South Eastern Freeway and that of Waterfall Gully . Much of the suburb is more than 300 metres above sea level , with the Mount Osmond peak itself ( located in the Golf Course grounds near the club house ) at 384 metres . Between the north @-@ east and north @-@ west are slopes leading down to the suburbs of Beaumont , Glen Osmond and Waterfall Gully , most of which is owned as public land by various government departments – either as parks , tracks or vacant land for possible future use . A somewhat " ring " of reserves exist on the slopes anti @-@ clockwise from the Old Bullock Track to Mount Osmond Road near the freeway interchange . The South Australian Department of Environment , Water and Natural Resources is responsible for maintaining the Mount Osmond Reserve , which is accessible via Dashwood Gully Reserve and Waterfall Gully Road .
The Old Bullock / Long Ridge track runs along Long Ridge towards Eagle on the Hill . Much of the housing and residential properties are on the North @-@ West side of the Mount , as to enable views over Adelaide . A few small settlements and paddocks with livestock ( sheep , goats and deer ) are still present on the slopes between the South Eastern Freeway and the Long Ridge Track .
While the suburb still contains a notable amount of native vegetation , and has not been exposed to invasive introduced species like other areas have , much of it was originally cleared for grazing and has yet to grow back to the same extent . Before European Settlement Grey Box , SA Blue Gum , Sheoak , Manna Gum and River Red Gum trees were native to and grew in the area , particularly on the slopes leading down to the Adelaide Plains .
= = Transport = =
Due to the suburb 's relative isolation and hilly geography , it contains very few roads and does not conform to Adelaide 's typical grid pattern – despite the suburb 's age . The earliest road to be built was Mount Osmond Road , and done so by early developers in 1882 to make the suburb more attractive to prospective buyers . Mount Osmond Road remains one of two sealed roads which can today access Mount Osmond and is located to the south of the suburb . It begins as the first interchange on the South Eastern Freeway ( formerly Mount Barker Road ) and then winds around the Mount to the top of the mount and around the golf course . The other sealed road that provides access to Mount Osmond is Hayward Drive , which starts in Beaumont and then winds around the hills to meet the rest of the suburb 's road network .
Numerous fire and walking tracks , among them the Old Bullock Track and the Pioneer Women 's Heritage Trail , also access Mount Osmond from Waterfall Gully , Eagle On The Hill , Beaumont and Glen Osmond . Public transport is provided by the Adelaide Metro , but no buses run through Mount Osmond itself . Stops can be found in neighbouring suburbs . The bikeway adjacent to the South Eastern Freeway winds past at the foot of Mount Osmond and can be accessed through the interchange .
= = Residents = =
In the 2001 Australian Bureau of Statistics Census of Population and Housing , the population of the Mount Osmond census area ( which includes the suburbs of Glen Osmond , Leawood Gardens and Waterfall Gully ) was 2 @,@ 497 people , in an area of 6 @.@ 08 square kilometres . Females outnumbered males 54 @.@ 2 % to 45 @.@ 8 % , and some 21 @.@ 4 % of the population was born overseas ( see chart for a breakdown ) . There was only a slight change in the 2006 census , with the population increasing by 25 to 2 @,@ 522 . Mount Osmond itself had a population of 612 during the 2006 census .
The eight strongest religious affiliations in the area ( based on the 2006 census figures ) were ( in descending order ) : Anglican , Catholic , Uniting , Lutheran , Orthodox Christian , Buddhist , Presbyterian , Church of Christ and Baptist ( a combination of other Christian faiths came in somewhere between Presbyterians and the Church of Christ , with 31 adherents ) . Also of note is the high occurrence of religious affiliation ( 67 @.@ 3 % ) in the region in comparison to the Adelaide ( and national ) average . Christian belief ( 64 @.@ 4 % ) is most prominent , with little growth in other religions .
Residents in these four suburbs are more affluent than the Adelaide average , with a high occurrence of incomes over A $ 1000 per week , which is also above the average for the City of Burnside . A majority of workers are employed in professional or white collar fields .
The census area that incorporates Mount Osmond has a larger proportion of those in both the younger ( 0 – 17 ) and older ( 60 + ) age ranges than in the City of Burnside as a whole , and there have been no " numerically significant " changes in the age distribution between the 2001 and 2006 censuses . Similarly , family numbers are also stable , with almost no change between 2001 and 2006 .
= = Attractions = =
Mount Osmond contains a number of historical attractions ; notably in the former mines and mining infrastructure that remains on the hillside as a reminder of its past . The mines continue up throughout the hills from Glen Osmond . While Wheal Gawler and Wheal Watkins are former open @-@ cut mines ( located in Glen Osmond ) , Mount Osmond contains more mineshafts which are up to sixty metres deep .
Mount Osmond Golf Course is located on the very top of the suburb , and includes its peak . Open only to members , the course 's fairways and greens provide a spectacular backdrop of the Adelaide Plains , Mount Lofty Ranges and Gulf of St. Vincent . The English @-@ Manor style clubrooms offer restaurant quality meals , coffee and also cater for functions and special events. and is open to members and public visitors .
Walking trails are abundant . While a historical walk through the mines can be taken from Beaumont or Glen Osmond , longer walks provide access to numerous attractions including Waterfall Gully 's falls , the Cleland Wildlife Park and the Adelaide Hills town of Crafers . Walking the Long Ridge track , between the valley of the South Eastern Freeway and Waterfall Gully provides spectacular views of Adelaide . Walking trail maps can be obtained from Burnside council and trails have been well mapped on OpenStreetmap.org
The Old Toll House is located at the start of the South Eastern Freeway below Mount Osmond . The Suburb also has a small bed and breakfast , located at the northern end of Mount Osmond Road .
= = Politics = =
Mount Osmond is part of the state electoral district of Bragg , which has been held since 2002 by Liberal MP Vickie Chapman . In federal politics , the suburb is part of the division of Sturt , and has been represented by Christopher Pyne since 1993 . The results shown are from the closest polling station to Mount Osmond — which is located outside of the suburb — at St Saviour 's Church Hall on Pridmore Road in Glen Osmond . Both electorates have traditionally gone to the Liberal Party , and Bragg in particular is regarded as a very safe Liberal seat . However , in the 2007 federal election , a strong swing towards the Labor Party and their candidate , Mia Handshin , resulted in the electorate transforming from a " safe [ federal ] Liberal seat into a marginal one " .
In local government , Mount Osmond is part of the ward of Beaumont within the City of Burnside , and the current Mayor for the district is Wendy Greiner . Beaumont is currently represented by councilors Andrew Hillier and Davina Quirke .
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= Collybia cirrhata =
Collybia cirrhata is a species of fungus in the Tricholomataceae family of the Agaricales order ( gilled mushrooms ) . The species was first described in the scientific literature in 1786 , but not validly named until 1803 . Found in Europe , Northern Eurasia , and North America , it is known from temperate , boreal , and alpine or arctic habitats . It is a saprobic species that grows in clusters on the decaying or blackened remains of other mushrooms . The fruit bodies are small , with whitish convex to flattened caps up to 11 mm ( 0 @.@ 43 in ) in diameter , narrow white gills , and slender whitish stems 8 – 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 0 in ) long and up to 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 08 in ) thick . C. cirrhata can be distinguished from the other two members of Collybia by the absence of a sclerotium at the base of the stem . The mushroom , although not poisonous , is considered inedible because of its insubstantial size .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The species first appeared in the scientific literature in 1786 as Agaricus amanitae by August Johann Georg Karl Batsch ; Agaricus amanitae subsp. cirrhatus , proposed by Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1800 , is considered synonymous . A later combination based on this name , Collybia amanitae , was published by Hanns Kreisel in 1987 . However , Kreisel noted the combination to be " ined . " , indicating that he did not believe the name to be validly published , according to article 34 @.@ 1 of the rules for botanical nomenclature , which states : " A name is not validly published ... when it is not accepted by the author in the original publication . "
The first correct name was published in 1803 by Heinrich Christian Friedrich Schumacher , who called the species Agaricus cirrhatus . French mycologist Lucien Quélet transferred it to Collybia in 1879 , resulting in the binomial by which it is currently known . The species had also been transferred to Microcollybia by Georges Métrod in 1952 and again by Lennox in 1979 ( because Métrod 's transfer was considered a nomen nudum , and thus invalid according to nomenclatural rules ) ; the genus Microcollybia has since been wrapped into Collybia .
Molecular phylogenetics have shown that C. cirrhata forms a monophyletic clade with the remaining two species of Collybia . Because C. cirrhata is the only one of the three Collybia species lacking sclerotia , it has been suggested that this character trait is an anapomorphy — that is , unique to a single , terminal species within a clade .
The specific epithet is derived from the Latin cirrata , meaning " curled " . Charles Horton Peck called it the " fringed @-@ rooted Collybia " . In the United Kingdom , it is commonly known as the " piggyback shanklet " .
= = Description = =
The cap is initially convex when young , later becoming convex to flattened or slightly depressed in the center , reaching a diameter of 3 – 11 mm ( 0 @.@ 12 – 0 @.@ 43 in ) . The cap margin starts out rolled or curved inward , but straightens out as it matures . The cap surface ranges from dry to moist , smooth to covered with fine whitish hairs , and is mostly even with translucent radial grooves at the margin . It is subhygrophanous ( changing color somewhat depending on hydration ) , becoming a grayish @-@ orange when watery or old , and usually is white with a very faint pinkish flush when fresh . The flesh is whitish , quite thin , and has no distinctive taste or odor . The gills are adnate to slightly arcuate ( curved into the shape of a bow ) with a tooth ( meaning that the gills curve up to join the stem but then , very close to the stem , the gill edge curves down again ) . There are between 12 and 20 gills that extend completely from the cap edge to the stem , and three to five tiers of lamellulae ( shorter gills that do not extend completely from the cap edge to the stem ) . The gills are thin , narrow to moderately broad , and white to pinkish @-@ buff . The gill edges are even , and the same color as the gill faces .
The stem is 8 – 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 0 in ) long and up to 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 08 in ) thick , equal in width throughout to slightly enlarged downward , flexible and filamentous but not fragile . The stem surface is dry , whitish to grayish @-@ orange , sometimes with tiny hairs on the upper portion that become coarser near the base . The stem base often has rhizomorph @-@ like strands or copious whitish mycelia . The stem , unlike the other two species of Collybia , do not originate from a sclerotium . The stem becomes hollow as it matures . Although it is not considered poisonous , C. cirrhata is too small and insubstantial to be considered edible .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
In deposit , the spores appear white . Individual spores are ellipsoid to tear @-@ shaped in profile , obovoid to ellipsoid or roughly cylindric in face or back view , with dimensions of 4 @.@ 8 – 6 @.@ 4 by 2 – 2 @.@ 8 ( sometimes up to 3 @.@ 5 ) µm . They are smooth , inamyloid , and acyanophilous ( unreactive to staining with Melzer 's reagent and methyl blue , respectively ) . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells of the hymenium ) are roughly club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored , and measure 17 @.@ 5 – 21 by 4 @.@ 8 – 5 @.@ 6 µm . The gills do not have cystidia . The gill tissue is made of hyphae that are interwoven to roughly parallel , and inamyloid . The hyphae are 2 @.@ 8 – 8 @.@ 4 µm in diameter and smooth . The cap tissue is made of interwoven hyphae beneath the center of the cap , but radially oriented over the gills ; it too is inamyloid . These hyphae are 3 @.@ 5 – 8 @.@ 4 µm in diameter , smooth , but have irregularly thickened walls . The cap cuticle is an ixocutis — a gelatinized layer of hyphae lying parallel to the cap surface . The hyphae comprising this layer are 2 @.@ 8 – 6 @.@ 4 µm in diameter , smooth , and thin @-@ walled . They are covered with scattered , short pouch @-@ like outgrowths . The cuticle of the stem is a layer of parallel , vertically oriented hyphae ; the hyphae measure 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 2 µm , and are smooth , slightly thick @-@ walled , and pale yellowish @-@ brown in alkaline solution . They give rise to a covering of tangled and branched caulocystidia ( cystidia on the stem ) that have multiple septa . The caulocystidia are 2 @.@ 8 – 4 @.@ 8 µm in diameter , smooth , thin walled , and shaped like contorted cylinders . Clamp connections are present in the hyphae of all tissues .
= = = Similar species = = =
Collybia cirrhata is most likely to be confused with the remaining members of Collybia , which have a similar external appearance . C. tuberosa is distinguished by its dark reddish @-@ brown sclerotia that resemble apple seeds , while C. cookei has wrinkled , often irregularly shaped sclerotia that are pale yellow to orange . Other similar mushrooms include Baeospora myosura and species of Strobilurus , but these species only grow on pine cones .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Like all species remaining in the genus Collybia , C. cirrhata is saprobic , and is typically found growing on the decaying or blackened remains of other mushrooms ; occasionally the fruit bodies may be found growing on moss or soil without any apparent connection to decaying mushrooms , although these observations may represent instances where the remnant host tissue — possibly from a previous season — has decayed to such an extent that it remains as buried fragments in the substrate . Known hosts include Lactarius , Russula , Meripilus giganteus , and Bovista dermoxantha .
Collybia cirrhata is known from temperate , boreal , and alpine or arctic habitats . The fungus is widespread in Europe , including Bulgaria , Denmark , Germany , Greece , Latvia , Scandinavia , Slovakia , Switzerland , Turkey , and the United Kingdom . The mushroom is also common in northern montane regions of North America . In Asia , the fungus has been reported in Korea , and in Hokkaido , northern Japan . It is also known from Greenland . A 2009 publication suggested that based on the known evidence , the species ' distribution may be circumboreal .
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= Terri Runnels =
Terri Lynne Boatright Runnels ( born October 5 , 1966 ) is a retired professional wrestling manager , television host , and occasional professional wrestler . Runnels began her professional wrestling career in World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) as Miss Alexandra York , manager of The York Foundation . She later joined the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) , later renamed World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , where she worked for eight years .
In the early years of her career with the WWF , she managed her ( then ) real @-@ life husband Dustin Runnels ( known on @-@ screen as Goldust ) and was a member of the Pretty Mean Sisters alliance . She also managed both The Hardy Boyz and Edge and Christian following the Terri Invitational Tournament in 1999 . Subsequently , she had an on @-@ screen rivalry with The Kat , managed The Radicalz stable , and worked as a host and interviewer . During her time with the WWF / E , she briefly held the Hardcore Championship , her only championship during her career . After leaving the wrestling business , Runnels became involved in philanthropic work .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = World Championship Wrestling ( 1988 – 1991 ) = = =
Runnels was originally a make @-@ up artist for CNN from 1985 to 1991 , where she worked on Larry King 's make @-@ up . On the weekends , she did makeup for the wrestlers of Jim Crockett Promotions ( JCP ) . When the company was purchased by Ted Turner in 1988 and renamed World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) , she moved to Atlanta and continued doing make @-@ up for some of the wrestlers . Booker Ole Anderson eventually asked her to become part of the roster as a manager . Runnels debuted in 1990 as Alexandra York , a laptop @-@ carrying accountant who led an alliance known as the York Foundation , a group of wrestlers with finance @-@ themed gimmicks . The York character was created over a lunch with Tony Schiavone , one of WCW 's announcers . She worked at WCW for two years .
= = = World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment = = =
= = = = Managing Goldust ( 1996 – 1998 ) = = = =
Runnels debuted in the World Wrestling Federation at the Royal Rumble in 1996 as Marlena , a character modeled after Marlene Dietrich . She debuted as a coolly unconcerned and indifferent manager . With her cigar @-@ smoking , seductive , nonchalant and mysterious gimmick , she acted as the manager of her then real @-@ life husband Dustin , who was wrestling under the gimmick of Goldust . The cigar @-@ smoking aspect of the character came about because Runnels enjoyed smoking them in real life . The risque characters helped bring about The Attitude Era of the late @-@ 1990s and the Diva division . During a feud between Goldust and Triple H over the Intercontinental Championship , on February 16 , 1997 at In Your House 13 : Final Four , Marlena was choked by Chyna , who debuted as a plant from a ringside seat and later became the bodyguard for Triple H. Later , Brian Pillman feuded with Goldust over Marlena . As part of the angle , Pillman won Marlena in a match and sent Goldust a picture of her handcuffed in a bed . Pillman , however , died in the middle of the storyline . Originally , the plan was to have the rivalry culminate in an on @-@ air wedding where Marlena would leave Goldust for Pillman . After the Marlena @-@ Goldust alliance dissolved , Goldust revealed Luna Vachon as his new manager .
= = = = Pretty Mean Sisters ( 1998 – 1999 ) = = = =
Runnels later re @-@ emerged in 1998 , under her real name , as the on @-@ screen girlfriend of Val Venis . When Runnels claimed to be pregnant with Venis 's baby , he dumped her . She later joined forces with Jacqueline Moore , who had just ended her alliance with Marc Mero , to form the Pretty Mean Sisters ( P.M.S. ) . They later formed an alliance with D 'Lo Brown and Mark Henry , accompanying them to the ring for a match against Venis and The Godfather in December at Rock Bottom : In Your House . In January , Runnels claimed to have suffered a miscarriage after she was knocked off the ring apron by Brown . Weeks later , Brown discovered that Runnels had never been pregnant . P.M.S. gained a " love slave " named Meat in May , whom Runnels controlled using sex . As a part of the storyline , P.M.S. used Meat for his body , forcing him to have sex with them . The alliance , however , broke up by July , when Jacqueline Moore became frustrated with Runnels ' infatuation with Meat .
= = = = Various storylines ( 1999 – 2001 ) = = = =
In late 1999 , Runnels arranged the Terri Invitational Tournament , a best @-@ of @-@ five series , between Edge and Christian and The Hardy Boyz , with the winner receiving her managerial services and the sum of $ 100 @,@ 000 . The Hardy Boyz won the tournament , which culminated in a ladder match at No Mercy ( with the prize money suspended above the ring in a bag ) . Runnels spent the next few months as their manager until she was injured when Bubba Ray Dudley powerbombed her through a table . She returned on February 27 at No Way Out and cost the Hardy Boyz a match . She then became the manager of Edge and Christian , and the storyline originally called for her to come between the duo , resulting in them becoming singles wrestlers with Runnels managing Christian . The storyline , however , was rewritten , and on an episode of SmackDown ! , Edge and Christian — who would now continue wrestling as a tag team — revealed they no longer wanted Runnels 's services . She , therefore , slapped Edge , who responded by spearing her .
Runnels began a rivalry with The Kat , and at WrestleMania 2000 , Runnels ( accompanied by The Fabulous Moolah ) defeated The Kat ( with Mae Young ) in a catfight . Val Venis was the Special Guest Referee , but was distracted when Young kissed him in response to Venis making out with both Runnels and The Kat . This distraction allowed Moolah to pull The Kat out of the ring , and when Venis saw her out of the ring , he declared Runnels the winner . Post @-@ match , The Kat attacked Runnels by stripping her black body suit off to expose her nude colored thong . The rivalry continued in an arm wrestling match at Insurrextion . They later participated in a " Stink Face match " at SummerSlam , which The Kat won by first performing the move on Runnels .
Runnels later became the onscreen girlfriend and manager of Perry Saturn , who was a member of The Radicalz alliance . She accompanied Saturn to the ring at Fully Loaded in July 2000 , where Saturn defeated Eddie Guerrero for the European Championship . Saturn , Runnels , and Radicalz member Dean Malenko also had a series of matches with Team Xtreme ( The Hardy Boyz and Lita ) . The on @-@ screen partnership lasted until Saturn , who had hit his head during a match , opted to continue seeing " Moppy " ( a mop he believed was alive ) instead of Runnels . As a result , she then became the manager of Raven , a member of The Alliance , who stole Saturn 's mop and fed it into a woodchipper .
= = = = WWE host and departure ( 2001 – 2004 ) = = = =
In late @-@ 2001 , Terri replaced Trish Stratus as the host of the WWF recap program Excess . She briefly feuded with Stratus , resulting in a wet T @-@ shirt contest between the two on Raw . During this time , she also became the backstage interviewer on Raw and began to wrestle occasionally . On May 27 , 2002 , she briefly held the perpetually contested Hardcore Championship when she pinned a dazed Stevie Richards , though he immediately pinned her to regain the title .
After eight years with the company , in March 2004 , Runnels was released from WWE prior to a massive firing spree . In an April 2015 interview with Vince Russo , Runnels stated that she was flown up on April 1 , 2004 to the WWE offices for a meeting with WWE executives Kevin Dunn and John Laurinaitis where she was told that they were parting ways with her ; the reason she was told that she was flown up was because that the WWE respected her . After leaving the company , Runnels spent time traveling the world .
= = = = Part @-@ time appearances ( 2016 ) = = = =
Terri appeared at the WWE Hall of Fame ceremony , for Big Boss Man and Jacqueline 's induction in the 2016 class , and could be seen sitting in the audience , while Jacqueline acknowledged her as well as other divas for her success . WWE.com also conducted an interview with Terri later that night .
= = Post @-@ wrestling = =
After leaving the wrestling business , she began working with various charities , including the Make @-@ a @-@ Wish Foundation , Big Brothers Big Sisters of America , Boys & Girls Clubs of America , Children 's Miracle Network , and Hermie & Elliott Sadler Foundation and Fit Kids Marathon . In 2008 , she began a contest , " Make the World Write " , where the contestants wrote about how they would make the world a better place .
= = Other media = =
Runnels has appeared in three WWE video games . She made her in @-@ game debut at WWF WrestleMania 2000 and appears in WWF No Mercy and WWE Raw 2 .
= = Personal life = =
Boatright grew up in Florida . She grew up as a Southern Baptist , but later became non @-@ denominational .
She dated Brian Pillman in 1990 while they were both in WCW . In 1993 , she married Dustin Runnels , whom she met while they were both working for WCW , taking his last name as her own . They have a daughter , Dakota , who was born in 1994 . Dustin Runnels ' strained relationship with his father Dusty Rhodes caused problems in their marriage , and Terri alleges that Dusty spread rumors about her that included infidelity and gold @-@ digging . The couple divorced in 1999 after six years of marriage . Years after the divorce , they were able to have a " better relationship " .
She was briefly married again in 2002 to a life coach , whom she met when her mother convinced her to hire him . They dated for two weeks before he proposed ; they were married six months later , and the marriage ended two months after that . At the wedding , Ray Traylor ( also known as Big Boss Man ) , her friend and traveling partner , gave her away . In 2003 , she began a relationship with Tyree Clowe , a US soldier 15 years her junior . The couple remained together for over 5 years .
Terri began dating former professional wrestler New Jack in 2009 . Jack professed his love for her in an interview with host Fat Man After Dark on the Future Endeavors wrestling radio show and described some of the pitfalls , even today , of a mixed race relationship . As of July 2011 , the couple is no longer together .
In August 2011 , a Florida judge ordered Jack to stop selling nude photographs of Runnels . Runnels filed suit accusing Jack of making libelous comments about her and requested that a court ban him from distributing sexually explicit photographs of her . Jack said that he took the photos , that they belonged to him and he should be free to pass them on to whoever he pleases . A judge in Sanford , Fla . , temporarily banned Jack from distributing photographs of Runnels ahead of a hearing .
During her tenure in the WWF , Runnels appeared on the show The Weakest Link in 2002 as part of a charity show where all the contestants were WWF personalities . On the show , she played for the Ronald McDonald House charity , which houses parents of hospitalized children for reduced or no cost . Runnels was the fourth contestant voted out of the game .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Diving crossbody
Frankensteiner
Signature moves
Bronco buster
Low blow
Standing hair pull
Stink Face
Slap
Bulldog
Wrestlers managed
Nicknames
" She Devil "
Entrance themes
" Pretty Mean Sisters " by Jim Johnston
" Rings Of Saturn " by Jim Johnston
" Electron " by Jim Johnston
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment
WWE Hardcore Championship ( 1 time )
Slammy Award ( 1 time )
Best Couple ( 1997 ) – with Goldust
|
= Muhammad Ali Jinnah =
Muhammad Ali Jinnah ( Urdu : محمد علی جناح ALA @-@ LC : Muḥammad ʿAlī Jināḥ , born Mahomedali Jinnahbhai ; 25 December 1876 – 11 September 1948 ) was a lawyer , politician , and the founder of Pakistan . Jinnah served as leader of the All @-@ India Muslim League from 1913 until Pakistan 's creation on 14 August 1947 , and then as Pakistan 's first Governor @-@ General until his death . He is revered in Pakistan as Quaid @-@ i @-@ Azam ( Urdu : قائد اعظم ; Great Leader ) and Baba @-@ i @-@ Qaum ( Urdu : بابائے قوم ; Father of the Nation ) . His birthday is observed as a national holiday .
Born in Karachi and trained as a barrister at Lincoln 's Inn in London , Jinnah rose to prominence in the Indian National Congress in the first two decades of the 20th century . In these early years of his political career , Jinnah advocated Hindu – Muslim unity , helping to shape the 1916 Lucknow Pact between the Congress and the All @-@ India Muslim League , in which Jinnah had also become prominent . Jinnah became a key leader in the All India Home Rule League , and proposed a fourteen @-@ point constitutional reform plan to safeguard the political rights of Muslims . In 1920 , however , Jinnah resigned from the Congress when it agreed to follow a campaign of satyagraha , or non @-@ violent resistance , advocated by Mohandas Gandhi .
By 1940 , Jinnah had come to believe that Indian Muslims should have their own state . In that year , the Muslim League , led by Jinnah , passed the Lahore Resolution , demanding a separate nation . During the Second World War , the League gained strength while leaders of the Congress were imprisoned , and in the elections held shortly after the war , it won most of the seats reserved for Muslims . Ultimately , the Congress and the Muslim League could not reach a power @-@ sharing formula for a united India , leading all parties to agree to separate independence of a predominantly Hindu India , and for a Muslim @-@ majority state , to be called Pakistan .
As the first Governor @-@ General of Pakistan , Jinnah worked to establish the new nation 's government and policies , and to aid the millions of Muslim migrants who had emigrated from the new nation of India to Pakistan after independence , personally supervising the establishment of refugee camps . Jinnah died at age 71 in September 1948 , just over a year after Pakistan gained independence from the United Kingdom . He left a deep and respected legacy in Pakistan . According to his biographer , Stanley Wolpert , he remains Pakistan 's greatest leader .
= = Early years = =
= = = Background = = =
Jinnah 's given name at birth was Mahomedali Jinnahbhai , and was born most likely in 1876 , to Jinnahbhai Poonja and his wife Mithibai , in a rented apartment on the second floor of Wazir Mansion , Karachi now in Sind , Pakistan , but then within the Bombay Presidency of British India . Jinnah 's family was from a Gujarati , Khoja ( Shia ) Ismaili background , though Jinnah later followed the Twelver Shi 'a teachings . Jinnah was from a middle @-@ income background , his father was a merchant and was born to a family of weavers in the village of Paneli in the princely state of Gondal ( Kathiawar , Gujarat ) ; his mother was also of that village . They had moved to Karachi in 1875 , having married before their departure . Karachi was then enjoying an economic boom : the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 meant it was 200 nautical miles closer to Europe for shipping than Bombay . Jinnah was the second child ; he had three brothers and three sisters , including his younger sister Fatima Jinnah . The parents were native Gujarati speakers , and the children also came to speak Kutchi and English . Except for Fatima , little is known of his siblings , where they settled or if they met with their brother as he advanced in his legal and political careers .
As a boy , Jinnah lived for a time in Bombay with an aunt and may have attended the Gokal Das Tej Primary School there , later on studying at the Cathedral and John Connon School . In Karachi , he attended the Sindh @-@ Madrasa @-@ tul @-@ Islam and the Christian Missionary Society High School . He gained his matriculation from Bombay University at the high school . In his later years and especially after his death , a large number of stories about the boyhood of Pakistan 's founder were circulated : that he spent all his spare time at the police court , listening to the proceedings , and that he studied his books by the glow of street lights for lack of other illumination . His official biographer , Hector Bolitho , writing in 1954 , interviewed surviving boyhood associates , and obtained a tale that the young Jinnah discouraged other children from playing marbles in the dust , urging them to rise up , keep their hands and clothes clean , and play cricket instead .
= = = In England = = =
In 1892 , Sir Frederick Leigh Croft , a business associate of Jinnahbhai Poonja , offered young Jinnah a London apprenticeship with his firm , Graham 's Shipping and Trading Company . He accepted the position despite the opposition of his mother , who before he left , had him enter an arranged marriage with a girl two years his junior from the ancestral village of Paneli , Emibai Jinnah . Jinnah 's mother and first wife both died during his absence in England . Although the apprenticeship in London was considered a great opportunity for Jinnah , one reason for sending him overseas was a legal proceeding against his father , which placed the family 's property at risk of being sequestered by the court . In 1893 , the Jinnahbhai family moved to Bombay .
Soon after his arrival in London , Jinnah gave up the apprenticeship in order to study law , enraging his father , who had , before his departure , given him enough money to live for three years . The aspiring barrister joined Lincoln 's Inn , later stating that the reason he chose Lincoln 's over the other Inns of Court was that over the main entrance to Lincoln 's Inn were the names of the world 's great lawgivers , including Muhammad . Jinnah 's biographer Stanley Wolpert notes that there is no such inscription , but instead inside is a mural showing Muhammad and other lawgivers , and speculates that Jinnah may have edited the story in his own mind to avoid mentioning a pictorial depiction which would be offensive to many Muslims . Jinnah 's legal education followed the pupillage ( legal apprenticeship ) system , which had been in force there for centuries . To gain knowledge of the law , he followed an established barrister and learned from what he did , as well as from studying lawbooks . During this period , he shortened his name to Muhammad Ali Jinnah .
During his student years in England , Jinnah was influenced by 19th @-@ century British liberalism , like many other future Indian independence leaders . This political education included exposure to the idea of the democratic nation , and progressive politics . He became an admirer of the Parsi Indian political leaders Dadabhai Naoroji and Sir Pherozeshah Mehta . Naoroji had become the first British Member of Parliament of Indian extraction shortly before Jinnah 's arrival , triumphing with a majority of five votes in Finsbury Central . Jinnah listened to Naoroji 's maiden speech in the House of Commons from the visitor 's gallery .
The Western world not only inspired Jinnah in his political life , but also greatly influenced his personal preferences , particularly when it came to dress . Jinnah abandoned Indian garb for Western @-@ style clothing , and throughout his life he was always impeccably dressed in public . He came to own over 200 suits , which he wore with heavily starched shirts with detachable collars , and as a barrister took pride in never wearing the same silk tie twice . Even when he was dying , he insisted on being formally dressed , " I will not travel in my pyjamas . " In his later years he was usually seen wearing a Karakul hat which subsequently came to be known as the " Jinnah cap " .
Dissatisfied with the law , Jinnah briefly embarked on a stage career with a Shakespearean company , but resigned after receiving a stern letter from his father . In 1895 , at age 19 , he became the youngest Indian to be called to the bar in England . Although he returned to Karachi , he remained there only a short time before moving to Bombay .
= = Legal and early political career = =
= = = Barrister = = =
At the age of 20 , Jinnah began his practice in Bombay , the only Muslim barrister in the city . English had become his principal language and would remain so throughout his life . His first three years in the law , from 1897 to 1900 , brought him few briefs . His first step towards a brighter career occurred when the acting Advocate General of Bombay , John Molesworth MacPherson , invited Jinnah to work from his chambers . In 1900 , P. H. Dastoor , a Bombay presidency magistrate , left the post temporarily and Jinnah succeeded in getting the interim position . After his six @-@ month appointment period , Jinnah was offered a permanent position on a 1 @,@ 500 rupee per month salary . Jinnah politely declined the offer , stating that he planned to earn 1 @,@ 500 rupees a day — a huge sum at that time — which he eventually did . Nevertheless , as Governor @-@ General of Pakistan , he would refuse to accept a large salary , fixing it at 1 rupee per month .
As a lawyer , Jinnah gained fame for his skilled handling of the 1907 " Caucus Case " . This controversy arose out of Bombay municipal elections , which Indians alleged were rigged by a " caucus " of Europeans to keep Sir Pherozeshah Mehta out of the council . Jinnah gained great esteem from leading the case for Sir Pherozeshah , himself a noted barrister . Although Jinnah did not win the Caucus Case , he posted a successful record , becoming well known for his advocacy and legal logic . In 1908 , his factional foe in the Indian National Congress , Bal Gangadhar Tilak , was arrested for sedition . Before Tilak unsuccessfully represented himself at trial , he engaged Jinnah in an attempt to secure his release on bail . Jinnah did not succeed , but obtained an acquittal for Tilak when he was charged with sedition again in 1916 .
One of Jinnah 's fellow barristers from the Bombay High Court remembered that " Jinnah 's faith in himself was incredible " ; he recalled that on being admonished by a judge with " Mr. Jinnah , remember that you are not addressing a third @-@ class magistrate " , Jinnah shot back , " My Lord , allow me to warn you that you are not addressing a third @-@ class pleader . " Another of his fellow barristers described him , saying :
He was what God made him , a great pleader . He had a sixth sense : he could see around corners . That is where his talents lay ... he was a very clear thinker ... But he drove his points home — points chosen with exquisite selection — slow delivery , word by word .
= = = Rising leader = = =
In 1857 , many Indians had risen in revolt against British rule . In the aftermath of the conflict , some Anglo @-@ Indians , as well as Indians in Britain , called for greater self @-@ government for the subcontinent , resulting in the founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885 . Most founding members had been educated in Britain , and were content with the minimal reform efforts being made by the government . Muslims were not enthusiastic about calls for democratic institutions in British India , as they constituted a quarter to a third of the population , outnumbered by the Hindus . Early meetings of the Congress contained a minority of Muslims , mostly from the elite .
Jinnah devoted much of his time to his law practice in the early 1920s , but remained politically involved . Jinnah began political life by attending the Congress 's twentieth annual meeting , in Bombay in December 1904 . He was a member of the moderate group in the Congress , favouring Hindu – Muslim unity in achieving self @-@ government , and following such leaders as Mehta , Naoroji , and Gopal Krishna Gokhale . They were opposed by leaders such as Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai , who sought quick action towards freedom . In 1906 , a delegation of Muslim leaders headed by the Aga Khan called on the new Viceroy of India , Lord Minto , to assure him of their loyalty and to ask for assurances that in any political reforms they would be protected from the " unsympathetic [ Hindu ] majority " . Dissatisfied with this , Jinnah wrote a letter to the editor of the newspaper Gujarati , asking what right the members of the delegation had to speak for Indian Muslims , as they were unelected and self @-@ appointed . When many of the same leaders met in Dacca in December of that year to form the All @-@ India Muslim League to advocate for their community 's interests , Jinnah was again opposed . The Aga Khan later wrote that it was " freakishly ironic " that Jinnah , who would lead the League to independence , " came out in bitter hostility toward all that I and my friends had done ... He said that our principle of separate electorates was dividing the nation against itself . " In its earliest years , however , the League was not influential ; Minto refused to consider it as the Muslim community 's representative , and it was ineffective in preventing the 1911 repeal of the partition of Bengal , an action seen as a blow to Muslim interests .
Although Jinnah initially opposed separate electorates for Muslims , he used this means to gain his first elective office in 1909 , as Bombay 's Muslim representative on the Imperial Legislative Council . He was a compromise candidate when two older , better @-@ known Muslims who were seeking the post deadlocked . The council , which had been expanded to 60 members as part of reforms enacted by Minto , recommended legislation to the Viceroy . Only officials could vote in the council ; non @-@ official members , such as Jinnah , had no vote . Throughout his legal career , Jinnah practised probate law ( with many clients from India 's nobility ) , and in 1911 introduced the Wakf Validation Act to place Muslim religious trusts on a sound legal footing under British Indian law . Two years later , the measure passed , the first act sponsored by non @-@ officials to pass the council and be enacted by the Viceroy . Jinnah was also appointed to a committee which helped to establish the Indian Military Academy in Dehra Dun .
In December 1912 , Jinnah addressed the annual meeting of the Muslim League , although he was not yet a member . He joined the following year , although he remained a member of the Congress as well and stressed that League membership took second priority to the " greater national cause " of a free India . In April 1913 , he again went to Britain , with Gokhale , to meet with officials on behalf of the Congress . Gokhale , a Hindu , later stated that Jinnah " has true stuff in him , and that freedom from all sectarian prejudice which will make him the best ambassador of Hindu – Muslim Unity " . Jinnah led another delegation of the Congress to London in 1914 , but due to the start of the First World War found officials little interested in Indian reforms . By coincidence , he was in Britain at the same time as a man who would become a great political rival of his , Mohandas Gandhi , a Hindu lawyer who had become well known for advocating satyagraha , non @-@ violent non @-@ cooperation , while in South Africa . Jinnah attended a reception for Gandhi , and returned home to India in January 1915 .
= = = Break from the Congress = = =
Jinnah 's moderate faction in the Congress was undermined by the deaths of Mehta and Gokhale in 1915 ; he was further isolated by the fact that Naoroji was in London , where he remained until his death in 1917 . Nevertheless , Jinnah worked to bring the Congress and League together . In 1916 , with Jinnah now president of the Muslim League , the two organisations signed the Lucknow Pact , setting quotas for Muslim and Hindu representation in the various provinces . Although the pact was never fully implemented , its signing ushered in a period of cooperation between the Congress and the League .
During the war , Jinnah joined other Indian moderates in supporting the British war effort , hoping that Indians would be rewarded with political freedoms . Jinnah played an important role in the founding of the All India Home Rule League in 1916 . Along with political leaders Annie Besant and Tilak , Jinnah demanded " home rule " for India — the status of a self @-@ governing dominion in the Empire similar to Canada , New Zealand and Australia , although , with the war , Britain 's politicians were not interested in considering Indian constitutional reform . British Cabinet minister Edwin Montagu recalled Jinnah in his memoirs , " young , perfectly mannered , impressive @-@ looking , armed to the teeth with dialectics , and insistent on the whole of his scheme " .
In 1918 , Jinnah married his second wife Rattanbai Petit ( " Ruttie " ) , 24 years his junior . She was the fashionable young daughter of his friend Sir Dinshaw Petit , of an elite Parsi family of Bombay . There was great opposition to the marriage from Rattanbai 's family and the Parsi community , as well as from some Muslim religious leaders . Rattanbai defied her family and nominally converted to Islam , adopting ( though never using ) the name Maryam Jinnah , resulting in a permanent estrangement from her family and Parsi society . The couple resided in Bombay , and frequently travelled across India and Europe . The couple 's only child , daughter Dina , was born on 15 August 1919 . The couple separated prior to Ruttie 's death in 1929 , and subsequently Jinnah 's sister Fatima looked after him and his child .
Relations between Indians and British were strained in 1919 when the Imperial Legislative Council extended emergency wartime restrictions on civil liberties ; Jinnah resigned from it when it did . There was unrest across India , which worsened after the Jallianwala Bagh massacre in Amritsar , in which British troops fired upon a protest meeting , killing hundreds . In the wake of Amritsar , Gandhi , who had returned to India and become a widely respected leader and highly influential in the Congress , called for satyagraha against the British . Gandhi 's proposal gained broad Hindu support , and was also attractive to many Muslims of the Khilafat faction . These Muslims , supported by Gandhi , sought retention of the Ottoman caliphate , which supplied spiritual leadership to many Muslims . The caliph was the Ottoman Emperor , who would be deprived of both offices following his nation 's defeat in the First World War . Gandhi had achieved considerable popularity among Muslims because of his work during the war on behalf of killed or imprisoned Muslims . Unlike Jinnah and other leaders of the Congress , Gandhi did not wear western @-@ style clothing , did his best to use an Indian language instead of English , and was deeply rooted in Indian culture . Gandhi 's local style of leadership gained great popularity with the Indian people . Jinnah criticised Gandhi 's Khilafat advocacy , which he saw as an endorsement of religious zealotry . Jinnah regarded Gandhi 's proposed satyagraha campaign as political anarchy , and believed that self @-@ government should be secured through constitutional means . He opposed Gandhi , but the tide of Indian opinion was against him . At the 1920 session of the Congress in Nagpur , Jinnah was shouted down by the delegates , who passed Gandhi 's proposal , pledging satyagraha until India was free . Jinnah did not attend the subsequent League meeting , held in the same city , which passed a similar resolution . Because of the action of the Congress in endorsing Gandhi 's campaign , Jinnah resigned from it , leaving all positions except in the Muslim League .
= = Wilderness years ; interlude in England = =
The alliance between Gandhi and the Khilafat faction did not last long , and the campaign of resistance proved less effective than hoped , as India 's institutions continued to function . Jinnah sought alternative political ideas , and contemplated organising a new political party as a rival to the Congress . In September 1923 , Jinnah was elected as Muslim member for Bombay in the new Central Legislative Assembly . He showed much skill as a parliamentarian , organising many Indian members to work with the Swaraj Party , and continued to press demands for full responsible government . In 1925 , as recognition for his legislative activities , he was offered a knighthood by Lord Reading , who was retiring from the Viceroyalty . He replied : " I prefer to be plain Mr. Jinnah . "
In 1927 , the British Government , under Conservative Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin , undertook a decennial review of Indian policy mandated by the Government of India Act 1919 . The review began two years early as Baldwin feared he would lose the next election ( which he did , in 1929 ) . The Cabinet was influenced by minister Winston Churchill , who strongly opposed self @-@ government for India , and members hoped that by having the commission appointed early , the policies for India which they favoured would survive their government . The resulting commission , led by Liberal MP John Simon , though with a majority of Conservatives , arrived in India in March 1928 . They were met with a boycott by India 's leaders , Muslim and Hindu alike , angered at the British refusal to include their representatives on the commission . A minority of Muslims , though , withdrew from the League , choosing to welcome the Simon Commission and repudiating Jinnah . Most members of the League 's executive council remained loyal to Jinnah , attending the League meeting in December 1927 and January 1928 which confirmed him as the League 's permanent president . At that session , Jinnah told the delegates that " A constitutional war has been declared on Great Britain . Negotiations for a settlement are not to come from our side ... By appointing an exclusively white Commission , [ Secretary of State for India ] Lord Birkenhead has declared our unfitness for self @-@ government . "
Birkenhead in 1928 challenged Indians to come up with their own proposal for constitutional change for India ; in response , the Congress convened a committee under the leadership of Motilal Nehru . [ 1 ] The Nehru Report favoured constituencies based on geography on the ground that being dependent on each other for election would bind the communities closer together . Jinnah , though he believed separate electorates , based on religion , necessary to ensure Muslims had a voice in the government , was willing to compromise on this point , but talks between the two parties failed . He put forth proposals that he hoped might satisfy a broad range of Muslims and reunite the League , calling for mandatory representation for Muslims in legislatures and cabinets . These became known as his Fourteen Points . He could not secure adoption of the Fourteen Points , as the League meeting in Delhi at which he hoped to gain a vote instead dissolved into chaotic argument .
After Baldwin was defeated at the 1929 British parliamentary election , Ramsay MacDonald of the Labour Party became prime minister . MacDonald desired a conference of Indian and British leaders in London to discuss India 's future , a course of action supported by Jinnah . Three Round Table Conferences followed over as many years , none of which resulted in a settlement . Jinnah was a delegate to the first two conferences , but was not invited to the last . He remained in Britain for most of the period 1930 through 1934 , practising as a barrister before the Privy Council , where he dealt with a number of Indian @-@ related cases . His biographers disagree over why he remained so long in Britain — Wolpert asserts that had Jinnah been made a Law Lord , he would have stayed for life , and that Jinnah alternatively sought a parliamentary seat . Early biographer Hector Bolitho denied that Jinnah sought to enter the British Parliament , while Jaswant Singh deems Jinnah 's time in Britain as a break or sabbatical from the Indian struggle . Bolitho called this period " Jinnah 's years of order and contemplation , wedged in between the time of early struggle , and the final storm of conquest " .
In 1931 , Fatima Jinnah joined her brother in England . From then on , Muhammad Jinnah would receive personal care and support from her as he aged and began to suffer from the lung ailments which would kill him . She lived and travelled with him , and became a close advisor . Muhammad Jinnah 's daughter , Dina , was educated in England and India . Jinnah later became estranged from Dina after she decided to marry a Christian , Neville Wadia from a prominent Parsi business family . When Jinnah urged Dina to marry a Muslim , she reminded him that he had married a woman not raised in his faith . Jinnah continued to correspond cordially with his daughter , but their personal relationship was strained , and she did not come to Pakistan in his lifetime , but only for his funeral .
= = Jinnah 's conversion by Iqbal = =
The well documented influence of Muhammad Iqbal on Jinnah , with regards to taking the lead in creating Pakistan , has been described as " significant " , " powerful " and even " unquestionable " by scholars . He 's also cited as an influential force in convincing Jinnah to end his self @-@ imposed exile in London and re @-@ enter the politics of India . Initially , however , Iqbal and Jinnah were opponents , as Iqbal believed Jinnah was aloof from the crises facing the Muslim community in India . According to Akbar S. Ahmed , this began to change in Iqbal 's last days , before his death in 1938 . Iqbal gradually succeeded in converting Jinnah over to his view , who eventually accepted Iqbal as his " mentor " . Ahmed comments that in his notes to Iqbal 's letters , Jinnah expressed unanimity with Iqbal 's views : That Muslims required a separate homeland .
Iqbal 's influence also brought about a deeper appreciation for Muslim identity within Jinnah . Ahmed states that this unanimity Jinnah expressed with Iqbal did not only extend to his politics but his general convictions . The evidence of this influence began to be revealed from 1937 onwards . Jinnah began to echo Iqbal in his speeches , he started using Islamic symbolism and speaking to the underprivileged . According to Ahmed , " something had clearly changed " in Jinnah 's words and deeds . While Jinnah still advocated freedom of religion and protection of the minorities , the model he was now aspiring to was that of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ . Ahmed further claims that those scholars who have painted a secular picture of Jinnah have misread his speeches which , he argues , must be read in the context of Islamic History and culture . As such , the homeland Jinnah asked for following his " conversion " was of an " unequivocal Islamic nature . " This change has been seen to last for the rest of Jinnah 's life , who continued to frequently borrow ideas " directly from Iqbal- including his thoughts on Muslim unity , on Islamic ideals of liberty , justice and equality , on economics , and even on practices such as prayers . "
In a public speech in 1940 following the death of Iqbal , Jinnah expressed his preference for implementing Iqbal 's vision even at the expense of becoming a ruler . He stated : " If I live to see the ideal of a Muslim state being achieved in India , and I was then offered to make a choice between the works of Iqbal and the rulership of the Muslim state , I would prefer the former . "
= = Return to politics = =
Beginning in 1933 , Indian Muslims , especially from the United Provinces , began to urge Jinnah to return to India and take up again his leadership of the Muslim League , an organisation which had fallen into inactivity . He remained titular president of the League , but declined to travel to India to preside over its 1933 session in April , writing that he could not possibly return there until the end of the year .
Among those who met with Jinnah to seek his return was Liaquat Ali Khan , who would be a major political associate of Jinnah in the years to come and the first Prime Minister of Pakistan . At Jinnah 's request , Liaquat discussed the return with a large number of Muslim politicians and confirmed his recommendation to Jinnah . In early 1934 , Jinnah relocated to the subcontinent , though he shuttled between London and India on business for the next few years , selling his house in Hampstead and closing his legal practice in Britain .
Muslims of Bombay elected Jinnah , though then absent in London , as their representative to the Central Legislative Assembly in October 1934 . The British Parliament 's Government of India Act 1935 gave considerable power to India 's provinces , with a weak central parliament in New Delhi , which had no authority over such matters as foreign policy , defence , and much of the budget . Full power remained in the hands of the Viceroy , however , who could dissolve legislatures and rule by decree . The League reluctantly accepted the scheme , though expressing reservations about the weak parliament . The Congress was much better prepared for the provincial elections in 1937 , and the League failed to win a majority even of the Muslim seats in any of the provinces where members of that faith held a majority . It did win a majority of the Muslim seats in Delhi , but could not form a government anywhere , though it was part of the ruling coalition in Bengal . The Congress and its allies formed the government even in the North @-@ West Frontier Province ( N.W.F.P. ) , where the League won no seats despite the fact that almost all residents were Muslim .
According to Singh , " the events of 1937 had a tremendous , almost a traumatic effect upon Jinnah " . Despite his beliefs of twenty years that Muslims could protect their rights in a united India through separate electorates , provincial boundaries drawn to preserve Muslim majorities , and by other protections of minority rights , Muslim voters had failed to unite , with the issues Jinnah hoped to bring forward lost amid factional fighting . Singh notes the effect of the 1937 elections on Muslim political opinion , " when the Congress formed a government with almost all of the Muslim MLAs sitting on the Opposition benches , non @-@ Congress Muslims were suddenly faced with this stark reality of near @-@ total political powerlessness . It was brought home to them , like a bolt of lightning , that even if the Congress did not win a single Muslim seat ... as long as it won an absolute majority in the House , on the strength of the general seats , it could and would form a government entirely on its own ... "
In the next two years , Jinnah worked to build support among Muslims for the League . He secured the right to speak for the Muslim @-@ led Bengali and Punjabi provincial governments in the central government in New Delhi ( " the centre " ) . He worked to expand the league , reducing the cost of membership to two annas ( ⅛ of a rupee ) , half of what it cost to join the Congress . He restructured the League along the lines of the Congress , putting most power in a Working Committee , which he appointed . By December 1939 , Liaquat estimated that the League had three million two @-@ anna members .
= = Struggle for Pakistan = =
= = = Background to independence = = =
Until the late 1930s , most Muslims of the British Raj expected , upon independence , to be part of a unitary state encompassing all of British India , as did the Hindus and others who advocated self @-@ government . Despite this , other nationalist proposals were being made . In a speech given at Allahabad to a League session in 1930 , Sir Muhammad Iqbal called for a state for Muslims in India . Choudhary Rahmat Ali published a pamphlet in 1933 advocating a state " Pakistan " in the Indus Valley , with other names given to Muslim @-@ majority areas elsewhere in India . Jinnah and Iqbal corresponded in 1936 and 1937 ; in subsequent years , Jinnah credited Iqbal as his mentor , and used Iqbal 's imagery and rhetoric in his speeches .
Although many leaders of the Congress sought a strong central government for an Indian state , some Muslim politicians , including Jinnah , were unwilling to accept this without powerful protections for their community . Other Muslims supported the Congress , which officially advocated a secular state upon independence , though the traditionalist wing ( including politicians such as Madan Mohan Malaviya and Vallabhbhai Patel ) believed that an independent India should enact laws such as banning the killing of cows and making Hindi a national language . The failure of the Congress leadership to disavow Hindu communalists worried Congress @-@ supporting Muslims . Nevertheless , the Congress enjoyed considerable Muslim support up to about 1937 .
Events which separated the communities included the failed attempt to form a coalition government including the Congress and the League in the United Provinces following the 1937 election . According to historian Ian Talbot , " The provincial Congress governments made no effort to understand and respect their Muslim populations ' cultural and religious sensibilities . The Muslim League 's claims that it alone could safeguard Muslim interests thus received a major boost . Significantly it was only after this period of Congress rule that it [ the League ] took up the demand for a Pakistan state ... "
Balraj Puri in his journal article about Jinnah suggests that the Muslim League president , after the 1937 vote , turned to the idea of partition in " sheer desperation " . Historian Akbar S. Ahmed suggests that Jinnah abandoned hope of reconciliation with the Congress as he " rediscover [ ed ] his own [ Islamic ] roots , his own sense of identity , of culture and history , which would come increasingly to the fore in the final years of his life " . Jinnah also increasingly adopted Muslim dress in the late 1930s . In the wake of the 1937 balloting , Jinnah demanded that the question of power sharing be settled on an all @-@ India basis , and that he , as president of the League , be accepted as the sole spokesman for the Muslim community .
= = = Second World War and Lahore Resolution = = =
On 3 September 1939 , British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain announced the commencement of war with Nazi Germany . The following day , the Viceroy , Lord Linlithgow , without consulting Indian political leaders , announced that India had entered the war along with Britain . There were widespread protests in India . After meeting with Jinnah and with Gandhi , Linlithgow announced that negotiations on self @-@ government were suspended for the duration of the war . The Congress on 14 September demanded immediate independence with a constituent assembly to decide a constitution ; when this was refused , its eight provincial governments resigned on 10 November and governors in those provinces thereafter ruled by decree for the remainder of the war . Jinnah , on the other hand , was more willing to accommodate the British , and they in turn increasingly recognised him and the League as the representatives of India 's Muslims . Jinnah later stated , " after the war began , ... I was treated on the same basis as Mr. Gandhi . I was wonderstruck why I was promoted and given a place side by side with Mr. Gandhi . " Although the League did not actively support the British war effort , neither did they try to obstruct it .
With the British and Muslims to some extent cooperating , the Viceroy asked Jinnah for an expression of the Muslim League 's position on self @-@ government , confident that it would differ greatly from that of the Congress . To come up with such a position , the League 's Working Committee met for four days in February 1940 to set out terms of reference to a constitutional sub @-@ committee . The Working Committee asked that the sub @-@ committee return with a proposal that would result in " independent dominions in direct relationship with Great Britain " where Muslims were dominant . On 6 February , Jinnah informed the Viceroy that the Muslim League would be demanding partition instead of the federation contemplated in the 1935 Act . The Lahore Resolution ( sometimes called the " Pakistan Resolution " , although it does not contain that name ) , based on the sub @-@ committee 's work , embraced the Two @-@ Nation Theory and called for a union of the Muslim @-@ majority provinces in the northwest of British India , with complete autonomy . Similar rights were to grant the Muslim @-@ majority areas in the east , and unspecified protections given to Muslim minorities in other provinces . The resolution was passed by the League session in Lahore on 23 March 1940 .
Gandhi 's reaction to the Lahore Resolution was muted ; he called it " baffling " , but told his disciples that Muslims , in common with other people of India , had the right to self @-@ determination . Leaders of the Congress were more vocal ; Jawaharlal Nehru referred to Lahore as " Jinnah 's fantastic proposals " while Chakravarti Rajagopalachari deemed Jinnah 's views on partition " a sign of a diseased mentality " . Linlithgow met with Jinnah in June 1940 , soon after Winston Churchill became the British prime minister , and in August offered both the Congress and the League a deal whereby in exchange for full support for the war , Linlithgow would allow Indian representation on his major war councils . The Viceroy promised a representative body after the war to determine India 's future , and that no future settlement would be imposed over the objections of a large part of the population . This was satisfactory to neither the Congress nor the League , though Jinnah was pleased that the British had moved towards recognising Jinnah as the representative of the Muslim community 's interests . Jinnah was reluctant to make specific proposals as to the boundaries of Pakistan , or its relationships with Britain and with the rest of the subcontinent , fearing that any precise plan would divide the League .
The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 brought the United States into the war . In the following months , the Japanese advanced in Southeast Asia , and the British Cabinet sent a mission led by Sir Stafford Cripps to try to conciliate the Indians and cause them to fully back the war . Cripps proposed giving some provinces what was dubbed the " local option " to remain outside of an Indian central government either for a period of time or permanently , to become dominions on their own or be part of another confederation . The Muslim League was far from certain of winning the legislative votes that would be required for mixed provinces such as Bengal and Punjab to secede , and Jinnah rejected the proposals as not sufficiently recognising Pakistan 's right to exist . The Congress also rejected the Cripps plan , demanding immediate concessions which Cripps was not prepared to give . Despite the rejection , Jinnah and the League saw the Cripps proposal as recognising Pakistan in principle .
The Congress followed the failed Cripps mission by demanding , in August 1942 , that the British immediately " Quit India " , proclaiming a mass campaign of satyagraha until they did . The British promptly arrested most major leaders of the Congress and imprisoned them for the remainder of the war . Gandhi , however , was placed on house arrest in one of the Aga Khan 's palaces prior to his release for health reasons in 1944 . With the Congress leaders absent from the political scene , Jinnah warned against the threat of Hindu domination and maintained his Pakistan demand without going into great detail about what that would entail . Jinnah also worked to increase the League 's political control at the provincial level . He helped to found the newspaper Dawn in the early 1940s in Delhi ; it helped to spread the League 's message and eventually became the major English @-@ language newspaper of Pakistan .
In September 1944 , Jinnah and Gandhi , who had by then been released from his palatial prison , met for the very first time at the Muslim leader 's home on Malabar Hill in Bombay . Two weeks of talks followed , which resulted in no agreement . Jinnah insisted on Pakistan being conceded prior to the British departure , and to come into being immediately on their departure , while Gandhi proposed that plebiscites on partition occur sometime after a united India gained its independence . In early 1945 , Liaquat and the Congress leader Bhulabhai Desai met , with Jinnah 's approval and agreed that after the war , the Congress and the League should form an interim government and that the members of the Executive Council of the Viceroy should be nominated by the Congress and the League in equal numbers . When the Congress leadership was released from prison in June 1945 , they repudiated the agreement and censured Desai for acting without proper authority .
= = = Postwar = = =
Field Marshal Viscount Wavell succeeded Linlithgow as Viceroy in 1943 . In June 1945 , following the release of the Congress leaders , Wavell called for a conference , and invited the leading figures from the various communities to meet with him at Simla . He proposed a temporary government along the lines which Liaquat and Desai had agreed . However , Wavell was unwilling to guarantee that only the League 's candidates would be placed in the seats reserved for Muslims . All other invited groups submitted lists of candidates to the Viceroy . Wavell cut the conference short in mid @-@ July without further seeking an agreement ; with a British general election imminent , Churchill 's government did not feel it could proceed .
The British people returned Clement Attlee and his Labour Party later in July . Attlee and his Secretary of State for India , Lord Frederick Pethick @-@ Lawrence , immediately ordered a review of the Indian situation . Jinnah had no comment on the change of government , but called a meeting of his Working Committee and issued a statement calling for new elections in India . The League held influence at the provincial level in the Muslim @-@ majority states mostly by alliance , and Jinnah believed that , given the opportunity , the League would improve its electoral standing and lend added support to his claim to be the sole spokesman for the Muslims . Wavell returned to India in September after consultation with his new masters in London ; elections , both for the centre and for the provinces , were announced soon after . The British indicated that formation of a constitution @-@ making body would follow the votes .
The Muslim League declared that they would campaign on a single issue : Pakistan . Speaking in Ahmedabad , Jinnah echoed this , " Pakistan is a matter of life or death for us . " In the December 1945 elections for the Constituent Assembly of India , the League won every seat reserved for Muslims . In the provincial elections in January 1946 , the League took 75 % of the Muslim vote , an increase from 4 @.@ 4 % in 1937 . According to his biographer Bolitho , " This was Jinnah 's glorious hour : his arduous political campaigns , his robust beliefs and claims , were at last justified . " Wolpert wrote that the League election showing " appeared to prove the universal appeal of Pakistan among Muslims of the subcontinent " . The Congress dominated the central assembly nevertheless , though it lost four seats from its previous strength . During this time Muhammad Iqbal introduced Jinnah to Ghulam Ahmed Pervez , whom Jinnah appointed to edit a magazine , Tolu @-@ e @-@ Islam , to propagate the idea of a separate Muslim state .
In February 1946 , the British Cabinet resolved to send a delegation to India to negotiate with leaders there . This Cabinet Mission included Cripps and Pethick @-@ Lawrence . The highest @-@ level delegation to try to break the deadlock , it arrived in New Delhi in late March . Little negotiation had been done since the previous October because of the elections in India . The British in May released a plan for a united Indian state comprising substantially autonomous provinces , and called for " groups " of provinces formed on the basis of religion . Matters such as defence , external relations and communications would be handled by a central authority . Provinces would have the option of leaving the union entirely , and there would be an interim government with representation from the Congress and the League . Jinnah and his Working Committee accepted this plan in June , but it fell apart over the question of how many members of the interim government the Congress and the League would have , and over the Congress 's desire to include a Muslim member in its representation . Before leaving India , the British ministers stated that they intended to inaugurate an interim government even if one of the major groups was unwilling to participate .
The Congress soon joined the new Indian ministry . The League was slower to do so , not entering until October 1946 . In agreeing to have the League join the government , Jinnah abandoned his demands for parity with the Congress and a veto on matters concerning Muslims . The new ministry met amid a backdrop of rioting , especially in Calcutta . The Congress wanted the Viceroy to immediately summon the constituent assembly and begin the work of writing a constitution and felt that the League ministers should either join in the request or resign from the government . Wavell attempted to save the situation by flying leaders such as Jinnah , Liaquat , and Jawaharlal Nehru to London in December 1946 . At the end of the talks , participants issued a statement that the constitution would not be forced on any unwilling parts of India . On the way back from London , Jinnah and Liaquat stopped in Cairo for several days of pan @-@ Islamic meetings .
The Congress endorsed the joint statement from the London conference over the angry dissent from some elements . The League refused to do so , and took no part in the constitutional discussions . Jinnah had been willing to consider some continued links to Hindustan ( as the Hindu @-@ majority state which would be formed on partition was sometimes referred to ) , such as a joint military or communications . However , by December 1946 , he insisted on a fully sovereign Pakistan with dominion status .
Following the failure of the London trip , Jinnah was in no hurry to reach an agreement , considering that time would allow him to gain the undivided provinces of Bengal and Punjab for Pakistan , but these wealthy , populous provinces had sizeable non @-@ Muslim minorities , complicating a settlement . The Attlee ministry desired a rapid British departure from India , but had little confidence in Wavell to achieve that end . Beginning in December 1946 , British officials began looking for a viceregal successor to Wavell , and soon fixed on Admiral Lord Mountbatten of Burma , a war leader popular among Conservatives as the great @-@ grandson of Queen Victoria and among Labour for his political views .
= = = Mountbatten and independence = = =
On 20 February 1947 , Attlee announced Mountbatten 's appointment , and that Britain would transfer power in India not later than June 1948 . Mountbatten took office as Viceroy on 24 March 1947 , two days after his arrival in India . By then , the Congress had come around to the idea of partition . Nehru stated in 1960 , " the truth is that we were tired men and we were getting on in years ... The plan for partition offered a way out and we took it . " Leaders of the Congress decided that having loosely tied Muslim @-@ majority provinces as part of a future India was not worth the loss of the powerful government at the centre which they desired . However , the Congress insisted that if Pakistan were to become independent , Bengal and Punjab would have to be divided .
Mountbatten had been warned in his briefing papers that Jinnah would be his " toughest customer " who had proved a chronic nuisance because " no one in this country [ India ] had so far gotten into Jinnah 's mind " . The men met over six days beginning on 5 April . The sessions began lightly when Jinnah , photographed between Louis and Edwina Mountbatten , quipped " A rose between two thorns " which the Viceroy took , perhaps gratuitously , as evidence that the Muslim leader had pre @-@ planned his joke but had expected the vicereine to stand in the middle . Mountbatten was not favourably impressed with Jinnah , repeatedly expressing frustration to his staff about Jinnah 's insistence on Pakistan in the face of all argument .
Jinnah feared that at the end of the British presence in India , they would turn control over to the Congress @-@ dominated constituent assembly , putting Muslims at a disadvantage in attempting to win autonomy . He demanded that Mountbatten divide the army prior to independence , which would take at least a year . Mountbatten had hoped that the post @-@ independence arrangements would include a common defence force , but Jinnah saw it as essential that a sovereign state should have its own forces . Mountbatten met with Liaquat the day of his final session with Jinnah , and concluded , as he told Attlee and the Cabinet in May , that " it had become clear that the Muslim League would resort to arms if Pakistan in some form were not conceded . " The Viceroy was also influenced by negative Muslim reaction to the constitutional report of the assembly , which envisioned broad powers for the post @-@ independence central government .
On 2 June , the final plan was given by the Viceroy to Indian leaders : on 15 August , the British would turn over power to two dominions . The provinces would vote on whether to continue in the existing constituent assembly or to have a new one , that is , to join Pakistan . Bengal and Punjab would also vote , both on the question of which assembly to join , and on the partition . A boundary commission would determine the final lines in the partitioned provinces . Plebiscites would take place in the North @-@ West Frontier Province ( which did not have a League government despite an overwhelmingly Muslim population ) , and in the majority @-@ Muslim Sylhet district of Assam , adjacent to eastern Bengal . On 3 June , Mountbatten , Nehru , Jinnah and Sikh leader Baldev Singh made the formal announcement by radio . Jinnah concluded his address with " Pakistan zindabad " ( Long live Pakistan ) , which was not in the script . In the weeks which followed Punjab and Bengal cast the votes which resulted in partition . Sylhet and the N.W.F.P. voted to cast their lots with Pakistan , a decision joined by the assemblies in Sind and Baluchistan .
On 4 July 1947 , Liaquat asked Mountbatten on Jinnah 's behalf to recommend to the British king , George VI , that Jinnah be appointed Pakistan 's first governor @-@ general . This request angered Mountbatten , who had hoped to have that position in both dominions — he would be India 's first post @-@ independence governor @-@ general — but Jinnah felt that Mountbatten would be likely to favour the new Hindu @-@ majority state because of his closeness to Nehru . In addition , the governor @-@ general would initially be a powerful figure , and Jinnah did not trust anyone else to take that office . Although the Boundary Commission , led by British lawyer Sir Cyril Radcliffe , had not yet reported , there were already massive movements of populations between the nations @-@ to @-@ be , as well as sectarian violence . Jinnah arranged to sell his house in Bombay and procured a new one in Karachi . On 7 August , Jinnah , with his sister and close staff , flew from Delhi to Karachi in Mountbatten 's plane , and as the plane taxied , he was heard to murmur , " That 's the end of that . " On 11 August , he presided over the new constituent assembly for Pakistan at Karachi , and addressed them , " You are free ; you are free to go to your temples , you are free to go to your mosques or to any other place of worship in this State of Pakistan ... You may belong to any religion or caste or creed — that has nothing to do with the business of the State ... I think we should keep that in front of us as our ideal and you will find that in course of time Hindus would cease to be Hindus and Muslims would cease to be Muslims , not in the religious sense , because that is the personal faith of each individual , but in the political sense as citizens of the State . " On 14 August , Pakistan became independent ; Jinnah led the celebrations in Karachi . One observer wrote , " here indeed is Pakistan 's King Emperor , Archbishop of Canterbury , Speaker and Prime Minister concentrated into one formidable Quaid @-@ e @-@ Azam . "
= = Governor @-@ General = =
The Radcliffe Commission , dividing Bengal and Punjab , completed its work and reported to Mountbatten on 12 August ; the last Viceroy held the maps until the 17th , not wanting to spoil the independence celebrations in both nations . There had already been ethnically charged violence and movement of populations ; publication of the Radcliffe Line dividing the new nations sparked mass migration , murder , and ethnic cleansing . Many on the " wrong side " of the lines fled or were murdered , or murdered others , hoping to make facts on the ground which would reverse the commission 's verdict . Radcliffe wrote in his report that he knew that neither side would be happy with his award ; he declined his fee for the work . Christopher Beaumont , Radcliffe 's private secretary , later wrote that Mountbatten " must take the blame — though not the sole blame — for the massacres in the Punjab in which between 500 @,@ 000 to a million men , women and children perished " . As many as 14 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 people relocated between India and Pakistan during and after partition . Jinnah did what he could for the eight million people who migrated to Pakistan ; although by now over 70 and frail from lung ailments , he travelled across West Pakistan and personally supervised the provision of aid . According to Ahmed , " What Pakistan needed desperately in those early months was a symbol of the state , one that would unify people and give them the courage and resolve to succeed . "
Jinnah had a troublesome ordeal with NWFP . The referendum of NWFP July 1947 , whether to be a part of Pakistan or India , had been tainted with low electoral turnout as less than 10 % of the total population were allowed to partake in the referendum . On 22 August 1947 , just after a week of becoming governor general Jinnah dissolved the elected government of Dr. Khan Abdul Jabbar Khan . Later on , Abdul Qayyum Khan was put in place by Jinnah in the Pukhtoon dominated province despite him being a Kashmiri . On 12 August 1948 the Babrra massacre in Charsadda was ordered resulting in the death of 400 people aligned with the Khudai Khidmatgar movement .
Along with Liaquat and Abdur Rab Nishtar , Jinnah represented Pakistan 's interests in the Division Council to appropriately divide public assets between India and Pakistan . Pakistan was supposed to receive one @-@ sixth of the pre @-@ independence government 's assets , carefully divided by agreement , even specifying how many sheets of paper each side would receive . The new Indian state , however , was slow to deliver , hoping for the collapse of the nascent Pakistani government , and reunion . Few members of the Indian Civil Service and the Indian Police Service had chosen Pakistan , resulting in staff shortages . Crop growers found their markets on the other side of an international border . There were shortages of machinery , not all of which was made in Pakistan . In addition to the massive refugee problem , the new government sought to save abandoned crops , establish security in a chaotic situation , and provide basic services . According to economist Yasmeen Niaz Mohiuddin in her study of Pakistan , " although Pakistan was born in bloodshed and turmoil , it survived in the initial and difficult months after partition only because of the tremendous sacrifices made by its people and the selfless efforts of its great leader . "
The Indian Princely States , of which there were several hundred , were advised by the departing British to choose whether to join Pakistan or India . Most did so prior to independence , but the holdouts contributed to what have become lasting divisions between the two nations . Indian leaders were angered at Jinnah 's courting the princes of Jodhpur , Bhopal and Indore to accede to Pakistan — these princely states did not border Pakistan , and each had a Hindu @-@ majority population . The coastal princely state of Junagadh , which had a majority @-@ Hindu population , did accede to Pakistan in September 1947 , with its ruler 's dewan , Sir Shah Nawaz Bhutto , personally delivering the accession papers to Jinnah . The Indian army occupied the principality in November , forcing its former leaders , including Bhutto , to flee to Pakistan , beginning the politically powerful Bhutto family .
The most contentious of the disputes was , and continues to be , that over the princely state of Kashmir . It had a Muslim @-@ majority population and a Hindu maharaja , Sir Hari Singh , who stalled his decision on which nation to join . With the population in revolt in October 1947 , aided by Pakistani irregulars , the maharaja acceded to India ; Indian troops were airlifted in . Jinnah objected to this action , and ordered that Pakistani troops move into Kashmir . The Pakistani Army was still commanded by British officers , and the commanding officer , General Sir Douglas Gracey , refused the order , stating that he would not move into what he considered the territory of another nation without approval from higher authority , which was not forthcoming . Jinnah withdrew the order . This did not stop the violence there , which has broken into war between India and Pakistan from time to time since .
Some historians allege that Jinnah 's courting the rulers of Hindu @-@ majority states and his gambit with Junagadh are evidence of ill @-@ intent towards India , as Jinnah had promoted separation by religion , yet tried to gain the accession of Hindu @-@ majority states . In his book Patel : A Life , Rajmohan Gandhi asserts that Jinnah hoped for a plebiscite in Junagadh , knowing Pakistan would lose , in the hope the principle would be established for Kashmir . However , when Mountbatten proposed to Jinnah that , in all the princely States where the ruler did not accede to a Dominion corresponding to the majority population ( which would have included Junagadh , Hyderabad as well Kashmir ) , the accession should be decided by an `impartial reference to the will of the people ' , Jinnah rejected the offer . Despite the United Nations Security Council Resolution 47 , issued at India 's request for a plebiscite in Kashmir after the withdrawal of Pakistani forces , this has never occurred .
In January 1948 , the Indian government finally agreed to pay Pakistan its share of British India 's assets . They were impelled by Gandhi , who threatened a fast until death . Only days later , Gandhi was assassinated by Nathuram Godse , a Hindu nationalist , who believed that Gandhi was pro @-@ Muslim . Jinnah made a brief statement of condolence , calling Gandhi " one of the greatest men produced by the Hindu community " .
In a radio talk addressed to the people of USA broadcast in February 1948 , Jinnah said :
The Constitution of Pakistan is yet to be framed by the Pakistan Constituent Assembly , I do not know what the ultimate shape of the constitution is going to be , but I am sure that it will be of a democratic type , embodying the essential principles of Islam . Today these are as applicable in actual life as these were 1300 years ago . Islam and its idealism have taught us democracy . It has taught equality of man , justice and fair play to everybody . We are the inheritors of these glorious traditions and are fully alive to our responsibilities and obligations as framers of the future constitution of Pakistan .
In March , Jinnah , despite his declining health , made his only post @-@ independence visit to East Pakistan . In a speech before a crowd estimated at 300 @,@ 000 , Jinnah stated ( in English ) that Urdu alone should be the national language , believing a single language was needed for a nation to remain united . The Bengali @-@ speaking people of East Pakistan strongly opposed this policy , and in 1971 the official language issue was a factor in the region 's secession to form Bangladesh .
After the establishment of Pakistan , Pakistani currency notes had the image of George V printed on them . These notes were in circulation till 30 June 1949 . But on 1 April 1949 , these notes were stamped with " Government of Pakistan " and were used as legal tenders . On the same day , the then Finance Minister of Pakistan , Malik Ghulam Muhammad , presented a new set of seven coins ( Re . 1 , ₨ . 1 ⁄ 2 , ₨ . 1 ⁄ 4 , A. 2 , A. 1 , A. 1 ⁄ 2 and Pe . 1 ) to Jinnah in the Governor House and were issued as the first coins minted by the Government of Pakistan .
= = Illness and death = =
From the 1930s , Jinnah suffered from tuberculosis ; only his sister and a few others close to him were aware of his condition . Jinnah believed public knowledge of his lung ailments would hurt him politically . In a 1938 letter , he wrote to a supporter that " you must have read in the papers how during my tours ... I suffered , which was not because there was anything wrong with me , but the irregularities [ of the schedule ] and over @-@ strain told upon my health " . Many years later , Mountbatten stated that if he had known Jinnah was so physically ill , he would have stalled , hoping Jinnah 's death would avert partition . Fatima Jinnah later wrote , " even in his hour of triumph , the Quaid @-@ e @-@ Azam was gravely ill ... He worked in a frenzy to consolidate Pakistan . And , of course , he totally neglected his health ... " Jinnah worked with a tin of Craven " A " cigarettes at his desk , of which he had smoked 50 or more a day for the previous 30 years , as well as a box of Cuban cigars . As his health got worse , he took longer and longer rest breaks in the private wing of Government House in Karachi , where only he , Fatima and the servants were allowed .
In June 1948 , he and Fatima flew to Quetta , in the mountains of Baluchistan , where the weather was cooler than in Karachi . He could not completely rest there , addressing the officers at the Command and Staff College saying , " you , along with the other Forces of Pakistan , are the custodians of the life , property and honour of the people of Pakistan . " He returned to Karachi for the 1 July opening ceremony for the State Bank of Pakistan , at which he spoke . A reception by the Canadian trade commissioner that evening in honour of Dominion Day was the last public event he attended .
On 6 July 1948 , Jinnah returned to Quetta , but at the advice of doctors , soon journeyed to an even higher retreat at Ziarat . Jinnah had always been reluctant to undergo medical treatment , but realising his condition was getting worse , the Pakistani government sent the best doctors it could find to treat him . Tests confirmed tuberculosis , and also showed evidence of advanced lung cancer . Jinnah was informed and asked for full information on his disease and for care in how his sister was told . He was treated with the new " miracle drug " of streptomycin , but it did not help . Jinnah 's condition continued to deteriorate despite the Eid prayers of his people . He was moved to the lower altitude of Quetta on 13 August , the eve of Independence Day , for which a statement ghost @-@ written for him was released . Despite an increase in appetite ( he then weighed just over 36 kilograms [ 79 lb ] ) , it was clear to his doctors that if he was to return to Karachi in life , he would have to do so very soon . Jinnah , however , was reluctant to go , not wishing his aides to see him as an invalid on a stretcher .
By 9 September , Jinnah had also developed pneumonia . Doctors urged him to return to Karachi , where he could receive better care , and with his agreement , he was flown there on 11 September . Dr. Ilahi Bux , his personal physician , believed that Jinnah 's change of mind was caused by foreknowledge of death . The plane landed at Karachi that afternoon , to be met by Jinnah 's limousine , and an ambulance into which Jinnah 's stretcher was placed . The ambulance broke down on the road into town , and the Governor @-@ General and those with him waited for another to arrive ; he could not be placed in the car as he could not sit up . They waited by the roadside in oppressive heat as trucks and buses passed by , unsuitable for transporting the dying man and with their occupants not knowing of Jinnah 's presence . After an hour , the replacement ambulance came , and transported Jinnah to Government House , arriving there over two hours after the landing . Jinnah died at 10 : 20 pm at his home in Karachi on 11 September 1948 at the age of 71 , just over a year after Pakistan 's creation .
Indian Prime Minister Jawahar Lal Nehru stated upon Jinnah 's death , " How shall we judge him ? I have been very angry with him often during the past years . But now there is no bitterness in my thought of him , only a great sadness for all that has been ... he succeeded in his quest and gained his objective , but at what a cost and with what a difference from what he had imagined . " Jinnah was buried on 12 September 1948 amid official mourning in both India and Pakistan ; a million people gathered for his funeral . Indian Governor @-@ General Rajagopalachari cancelled an official reception that day in honour of the late leader . Today , Jinnah rests in a large marble mausoleum , Mazar @-@ e @-@ Quaid , in Karachi .
= = Aftermath = =
Dina Wadia , Jinnah 's daughter , remained in India after independence before ultimately settling in New York City . In the 1965 presidential election , Fatima Jinnah , by then known as Madar @-@ e @-@ Millat ( " Mother of the Nation " ) , became the presidential candidate of a coalition of political parties that opposed the rule of President Ayub Khan , but was not successful .
The Jinnah House in Malabar Hill , Bombay , is in the possession of the Government of India , but the issue of its ownership has been disputed by the Government of Pakistan . Jinnah had personally requested Prime Minister Nehru to preserve the house , hoping one day he could return to Bombay . There are proposals for the house be offered to the government of Pakistan to establish a consulate in the city as a goodwill gesture , but Dina Wadia has also asked for the property .
After Jinnah died , his sister Fatima asked the court to execute Jinnah 's will under Shia Islamic law . This subsequently became the part of the argument in Pakistan about Jinnah 's religious affiliation . Vali Nasr says Jinnah " was an Ismaili by birth and a Twelver Shia by confession , though not a religiously observant man . " In a 1970 legal challenge , Hussain Ali Ganji Walji claimed Jinnah had converted to Sunni Islam , but the High Court rejected this claim in 1976 , effectively accepting the Jinnah family as Shia . According to the journalist Khaled Ahmed , Jinnah publicly had a non @-@ sectarian stance and " was at pains to gather the Muslims of India under the banner of a general Muslim faith and not under a divisive sectarian identity . " Ahmed reports a 1970 Pakistani court decision stating that Jinnah 's " secular Muslim faith made him neither Shia nor Sunni " , and one from 1984 maintaining that " the Quaid was definitely not a Shia " . Liaquat H. Merchant , Jinnah 's grandnephew , elaborates that " he was also not a Sunni , he was simply a Muslim " .
= = Legacy and historical view = =
Jinnah 's legacy is Pakistan . According to Mohiuddin , " He was and continues to be as highly honored in Pakistan as [ first US president ] George Washington is in the United States ... Pakistan owes its very existence to his drive , tenacity , and judgment ... Jinnah 's importance in the creation of Pakistan was monumental and immeasurable . " Stanley Wolpert , giving a speech in honour of Jinnah in 1998 , deemed him Pakistan 's greatest leader . His birthday is observed as a national holiday in Pakistan . Jinnah earned the title Quaid @-@ e @-@ Azam ( meaning " Great Leader " ) . His other title is Baba @-@ i @-@ Qaum ( Father of the Nation ) . The former title was reportedly given to Jinnah at first by Mian Ferozuddin Ahmed . It became an official title by effect of a resolution passed on 11 August 1947 by Liaquat Ali Khan in the Pakistan Constituent Assembly . There are some sources which endorse that Gandhi gave him that title .
According to Singh , " With Jinnah 's death Pakistan lost its moorings . In India there will not easily arrive another Gandhi , nor in Pakistan another Jinnah . " Malik writes , " As long as Jinnah was alive , he could persuade and even pressure regional leaders toward greater mutual accommodation , but after his death , the lack of consensus on the distribution of political power and economic resources often turned controversial . " According to Mohiuddin , " Jinnah 's death deprived Pakistan of a leader who could have enhanced stability and democratic governance ... The rocky road to democracy in Pakistan and the relatively smooth one in India can in some measure be ascribed to Pakistan 's tragedy of losing an incorruptible and highly revered leader so soon after independence . "
Jinnah is depicted on all Pakistani rupee currency , and is the namesake of many Pakistani public institutions . The former Quaid @-@ i @-@ Azam International Airport in Karachi , now called the Jinnah International Airport , is Pakistan 's busiest . One of the largest streets in the Turkish capital Ankara , Cinnah Caddesi , is named after him , as is the Mohammad Ali Jenah Expressway in Tehran , Iran . The royalist government of Iran also released a stamp commemorating the centennial of Jinnah 's birth in 1976 . In Chicago , a portion of Devon Avenue was named " Mohammed Ali Jinnah Way " . The Mazar @-@ e @-@ Quaid , Jinnah 's mausoleum , is among Karachi 's landmarks . The " Jinnah Tower " in Guntur , Andhra Pradesh , India , was built to commemorate Jinnah .
There is a considerable amount of scholarship on Jinnah which stems from Pakistan ; according to Akbar S. Ahmed , it is not widely read outside the country and usually avoids even the slightest criticism of Jinnah . According to Ahmed , nearly every book about Jinnah outside Pakistan mentions that he drank alcohol , but this is omitted from books inside Pakistan . Ahmed suggests that depicting the Quaid drinking alcohol would weaken Jinnah 's Islamic identity , and by extension , Pakistan 's . Some sources allege he gave up alcohol near the end of his life .
According to historian Ayesha Jalal , while there is a tendency towards hagiography in the Pakistani view of Jinnah , in India he is viewed negatively . Ahmed deems Jinnah " the most maligned person in recent Indian history ... In India , many see him as the demon who divided the land . " Even many Indian Muslims see Jinnah negatively , blaming him for their woes as a minority in that state . Some historians such as Jalal and H. M. Seervai assert that Jinnah never wanted the partition of India — it was the outcome of the Congress leaders being unwilling to share power with the Muslim League . They contend that Jinnah only used the Pakistan demand in an attempt to mobilise support to obtain significant political rights for Muslims . Jinnah has gained the admiration of Indian nationalist politicians such as Lal Krishna Advani , whose comments praising Jinnah caused an uproar in his Bharatiya Janata Party .
The view of Jinnah in the West has been shaped to some extent by his portrayal in Sir Richard Attenborough 's 1982 film , Gandhi . The film was dedicated to Nehru and Mountbatten and was given considerable support by Nehru 's daughter , the Indian prime minister , Indira Gandhi . It portrays Jinnah ( played by Alyque Padamsee ) in an unflattering light , who seems to act out of jealousy of Gandhi . Padamsee later stated that his portrayal was not historically accurate .
In a journal article on Pakistan 's first governor @-@ general , historian R. J. Moore wrote that Jinnah is universally recognised as central to the creation of Pakistan . Wolpert summarises the profound effect that Jinnah had on the world :
Few individuals significantly alter the course of history . Fewer still modify the map of the world . Hardly anyone can be credited with creating a nation @-@ state . Mohammad Ali Jinnah did all three .
In the research , Yousaf ( 2015 ) indicates Jinnah 's style of leadership that he followed to be a sole leader of Indian Muslims and aftermath of his politics after the independence
= = = Books = = =
Ahmed , Akbar S. ( 1997 ) . Jinnah , Pakistan , and Islamic Identity : The Search for Saladin . London : Routledge . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 14966 @-@ 2 .
Bolitho , Hector ( 1954 ) . Jinnah : Creator of Pakistan . London : John Murray .
Cohen , Stephen Philip ( 2004 ) . The Idea of Pakistan . Washington , D.C. : Brookings Institution Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8157 @-@ 1503 @-@ 0 .
Gandhi , Rajmohan ( 1990 ) . Patel : A Life . Ahmedabad : Navajivan . ASIN B0006EYQ0A .
Hibbard , Scott ( 1994 ) . Religious Politics and Secular States : Egypt , India , and the United States . Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 8018 @-@ 9669 @-@ X.
Jalal , Ayesha ( 1994 ) . The Sole Spokesman : Jinnah , the Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan ( paperback ed . ) . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 45850 @-@ 4 .
Jinnah , Fatima ( 1987 ) . My Brother . Quaid @-@ i @-@ Azam Academy . ISBN 978 @-@ 969 @-@ 413 @-@ 036 @-@ 1 .
Khan , Yasmin ( 2008 ) [ 2007 ] . The Great Partition : The Making of India and Pakistan ( paperback ed . ) . New Haven , Conn . : Yale University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 300 @-@ 12078 @-@ 3 .
Malik , Iftikar H. ( 2008 ) . The History of Pakistan . The Greenwood Histories of the Modern Nations . Westport , Conn . : Greenwood Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 313 @-@ 34137 @-@ 3 .
Mohiuddin , Yasmeen Niaz ( 2007 ) . Pakistan : A Global Studies Handbook . Santa Barbara , Calif . : ABC @-@ CLIO . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 85109 @-@ 801 @-@ 9 .
Read , Anthony ( 1997 ) . The Proudest Day : India 's Long Road to Independence . New York , NY : W.W. Norton & Co . ISBN 0 @-@ 393 @-@ 04594 @-@ 3 .
Singh , Jaswant ( 2009 ) . Jinnah : India — Partition — Independence . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 547927 @-@ 0 .
Wolpert , Stanley ( 1984 ) . Jinnah of Pakistan . New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 503412 @-@ 7 .
= = = Journals and other media = = =
Moore , R. J. ( 1983 ) . " Jinnah and the Pakistan Demand " . Modern Asian Studies ( Cambridge , U.K. : Cambridge University Press ) 17 ( 4 ) : 529 – 561 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / S0026749X00011069 . JSTOR 312235 .
Puri , Balraj ( 1 – 7 March 2008 ) . " Clues to understanding Jinnah " . Economic and Political Weekly ( Bombay : Sameeksha Trust ) 43 ( 9 ) : 33 – 35 . JSTOR 40277204 .
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= SummerSlam ( 2003 ) =
SummerSlam ( 2003 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) and presented by Stacker 2 's YJ Stinger . It took place on August 24 , 2003 , at the America West Arena in Phoenix , Arizona . It was the 16th annual SummerSlam event and starred wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown ! brands .
Nine professional wrestling matches were set on the event 's supercard , a scheduling of multiple high @-@ level matches . The first main event was an Elimination Chamber match , in which World Heavyweight Champion Triple H defeated Chris Jericho , Goldberg , Kevin Nash , Randy Orton , and Shawn Michaels to retain his championship . In the other main event , defending WWE Champion Kurt Angle defeated Brock Lesnar in a standard wrestling match . The undercard included Kane defeating Rob Van Dam in a No Holds Barred match , and Eddie Guerrero defending his United States Championship against Chris Benoit , Rhyno and Tajiri .
The event marked the second time the Elimination Chamber format was used by WWE ; the first was at Survivor Series 2002 . SummerSlam ( 2003 ) grossed over $ 715 @,@ 000 ticket sales from an attendance of 16 @,@ 113 and received about 415 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys , more than the following year 's event . This event helped WWE increase its pay @-@ per @-@ view revenue by $ 6 @.@ 2 million from the previous year .
= = Storylines = =
The professional wrestling matches at SummerSlam featured professional wrestlers performing as characters in scripted events pre @-@ determined by the hosting promotion , World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) . Storylines between the characters were produced on WWE 's weekly television shows Raw and SmackDown ! with the Raw and SmackDown ! brands — storyline divisions in which WWE assigned its employees to different programs .
In the first main event of SummerSlam wrestlers from the Raw brand competed in an Elimination Chamber match , in which the ring is surrounded by a steel structure of chain and girders . The match was contested for the World Heavyweight Championship , in which Triple H defended the title against Chris Jericho , Goldberg , Kevin Nash , Randy Orton , and Shawn Michaels . The buildup to the match began on July 22 , 2003 , when during the SummerSlam press conference , the authority figure Eric Bischoff , announced that Triple H would defend the championship against Goldberg in a standard wrestling match at the event . On August 4 , 2003 during a television episode of Raw , Bischoff changed the stipulations of the match to No disqualification regulations . Later during the episode , another authority figure , Steve Austin , altered Bischoff ’ s announcement , stating that the championship would be contested in an Elimination Chamber match , with Triple H defending his title against Goldberg , Chris Jericho , Kevin Nash , Randy Orton , and Shawn Michaels . Six days before SummerSlam , during an episode of Raw on August 18 , 2003 , the rivalry among the six competitors intensified during a promotional interview segment , in which each participant in the Elimination Chamber discussed the match and taunted the other wrestlers . During the show 's main event , in which Orton wrestled Goldberg , Nash interfered in the match and attacked Goldberg . Michaels then came down to the ring , but as he was about to hit Triple H with the World Heavyweight Championship belt , Jericho ran into the ring and hit Michaels with a chair .
The second main event resulted from events on SmackDown ! , WWE 's other main television program . In the match , Kurt Angle defended his WWE Championship against Brock Lesnar . The build @-@ up to the match began on July 31 , 2003 on an episode of SmackDown ! . During an interview promotion in the ring , Lesnar challenged Angle to a rematch of their bout at Vengeance , WWE 's previous pay @-@ per @-@ view event . The WWE Chairman , Vince McMahon , decided that Lesnar would have to earn his rematch by competing in a steel cage match against McMahon himself , and would take place on SmackDown ! the following week , with Angle officiating as a special guest referee . The Steel Cage match resulted in neither wrestler winning the match , after McMahon and Lesnar attacked Angle . On August 14 , 2003 during an episode of SmackDown ! , McMahon announced that Angle would defend the championship against Lesnar at SummerSlam .
In a preliminary match involving wrestlers from the Raw brand , Rob Van Dam wrestled Kane under No disqualification regulations . The events leading up to this match began on the June 23 , 2003 edition of Raw , when Kane took his mask off and exposed his face in front of RVD and the crowd after he lost to Triple H during a World Heavyweight Championship match . Then , on July 7 , 2003 , when Kane attacked Van Dam backstage during an episode of Raw . The following week on an episode of Raw , Eric Bischoff granted Van Dam a standard match against Kane , which took place the following week on Raw and ended in neither wrestler winning the match . On August 4 , 2003 , Shane McMahon , the son of Mr. McMahon , scheduled a No Disqualification match between the two wrestlers for SummerSlam .
In another prelimary match , wrestlers from the SmackDown ! brand competed in a match between four wrestlers for the WWE United States Championship : Eddie Guerrero defended the title against Chris Benoit , Rhyno , and Tajiri . The buildup to the match began with two different rivalries , one between Guerrero and Tajiri , and the other between Benoit and Rhyno . On August 7 , 2003 during an episode of SmackDown ! , Guerrero and Benoit wrestled in a standard match . However , during the match , Rhyno and Tajiri interfered , resulting in neither wrestler winning the match . Sgt. Slaughter , a WWE official , scheduled a tag team match between the team of Guerrero and Benoit and the team of Rhyno and Tajiri , which Guerrero and Benoit won . The following week on an episode of SmackDown ! , a SummerSlam advertisement announced that Guerrero would defend the WWE United States Championship against Benoit , Rhyno , and Tajiri .
= = Event = =
Before the event began and aired live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , an episode of Sunday Night Heat , one of WWE 's secondary television programs , was shown live . The first scheduled match was Matt Hardy versus Zach Gowen . Gowen , however , was unable to participate in the match due to legit injuries he sustained on the August 21 , 2003 episode of SmackDown ! . As a result , Hardy was declared the winner via forfeit . The other scheduled match for Sunday Night Heat was a standard match for the WWE Cruiserweight Championship , in which Rey Mysterio defended the title against Shannon Moore . Mysterio defeated Moore via pinfall to retain the title after he performed a 619 on Moore .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
After Sunday Night Heat , the pay @-@ per @-@ view event began with a tag team match for the World Tag Team Championship . The champions , La Résistance ( René Duprée and Sylvain Grenier ) , defended their titles against The Dudley Boyz ( Bubba Ray and D @-@ Von ) . Throughout the match , both teams performed many offensive maneuvers , though The Dudley Boyz were able to gain the upper hand when they executed a 3D on Duprée . As D @-@ Von covered Duprée , Rob Conway , who was disguised as a cameraman , hit D @-@ Von with a camera while the referee was distracted . Duprée then covered D @-@ Von for a successful pinfall to retain the championship .
The following match pitted The Undertaker against A @-@ Train in a standard match . In the early stages both competitors wrestled inconclusively before The Undertaker gained the advantage . He attempted to lift A @-@ Train Tombstone piledriver . A @-@ Train countered it , in the process knocking the referee down . He attempted to take advantage of the situation by trying to hit The Undertaker with a chair . The Undertaker , however , countered the attack with his boot , causing the chair to hit A @-@ Train in the face . The Undertaker then chokeslam A @-@ Train and , since the referee had recuperated , covered his opponent for the pinfall .
The third contest had Shane McMahon against Eric Bischoff in a standard match . McMahon and Bischoff began by brawling on the arena ramp , as Jonathan Coachman appeared from the backstage area and hit McMahon with a folding chair . Bischoff grabbed a microphone and announced that the match would be contested under no disqualification , falls count anywhere regulations ; as a result , Bischoff could not be disqualified for Coachman 's interference . Coachman and Bischoff performed double @-@ team attacks on McMahon until Steve Austin interfered by performing a Stone Cold Stunners on Coachman and Bischoff . After Austin 's interference , McMahon positioned Bischoff on the television commentators ' table , performed a Leap of Faith onto Bischoff 's chest , thereby breaking the table and covered Bischoff for the pinfall .
The next match involved four wrestlers from the Smackdown ! brad in a match for the WWE United States Championship ; Eddie Guerrero defended the title against Chris Benoit , Rhyno , and Tajiri . The match began with Guerrero wrestling with Tajiri , while Benoit wrestled with Rhyno . During the encounter Guerrero applied a Lasso From El Passo on Tajiri , while Benoit employed a Crippler Crossface on Rhyno . Afterwards , Tajiri applied a Tarantula on Benoit . The hold distracted the referee , which allowed Guerrero to hit Rhyno with the United States Championship belt . Tajiri then attempted to hit Benoit with a Buzzsaw Kick , but Benoit countered the maneuver by lifting and sitting Tajiri onto his shoulders . Tajiri , however , countered by tossing both himself and Benoit over the top rope onto the arena floor . Capitalizing on the situation , Guerrero then performed a Frog splash on Rhyno , after which he scored the pinfall , thus retaining the WWE United States Championship .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The fifth match was the main event from the SmackDown brand , a standard match for the WWE Championship , in which Kurt Angle defended the title against Brock Lesnar . At the beginning of the match , Lesnar tried to walk away from the ring , but Angle brought him back . There , Angle performed many offensive maneuvers , including DDT and Angle Slam . He then applied an ankle lock on Lesnar . During this tussle , Lesnar countered the hold but knocked down the referee . Angle applied a guillotine choke on Lesnar , which brought Lesnar down onto his knees and allowed Angle to perform another ankle lock . Mr. McMahon , who had accompanied Lesnar to the ring , came into the ring and hit Angle 's back with a folding chair to break the submission hold . Because the referee was incapacitated , Lesnar was not disqualified for the interference . Afterwards , Lesnar twice attempted to lift Angle onto his F @-@ 5 . During the second attempt , however , Angle countered the throw into another ankle lock , which forced Lesnar to submit . As a result , Angle retained the WWE Championship .
In a preliminary match from the Raw brand , Kane faced Rob Van Dam in a No Disqualification match . Both wrestlers used a ladder to their advantage early in the match . After Kane used the ladder on Van Dam , he attempted to hit Van Dam with a flying clothesline . However , Van Dam moved out of the way and Kane landed on the arena barricade . Van Dam performed a variation of a rolling thunder on Kane using a folding chair . Following this , Van Dam attempted to hit Kane with a Van Daminator with a chair , but Kane rolled out of the ring to avoid the attack . Van Dam then attempted an aerial technique from inside the ring towards Kane , but Kane caught Van Dam in mid @-@ air and executed a tombstone piledriver , after which he covered Van DAm for the pinfall .
The main event from the Raw brand was the Elimination Chamber match for the World Heavyweight Championship , in which Triple H defended the title against Chris Jericho , Goldberg , Kevin Nash , Randy Orton , and Shawn Michaels . The match began with Jericho and Michaels in the ring , while Goldberg , Nash , Orton , and Triple H were locked in the chambers . Michaels and Jericho wrestled , with neither of them gaining the advantage over the other . Orton and Nash were the third and fourth entrants into the match , respectively . Nash was the first wrestler eliminated from the match after Michaels executed a superkick and Chris Jericho covered him for a pinfall . Triple H and Goldberg were the fifth and sixth entrants . Michaels performed another superkick on Triple H as soon as he exited his chamber , and as a result , Triple H was knocked back into his chamber . As soon as Goldberg entered the match , he performed a spear for a pinfall to eliminate Orton . Next , Goldberg performed a Jackhammer on Michaels and Jericho , eliminating both via pinfall . This left Goldberg alone with and Triple H , who at the time had remained inside the chamber . Goldberg performed a spear on him through the glass of the chamber , in the process pushing him out of the chamber . Ric Flair , who was managing both Triple H and Orton , then handed Triple H a sledgehammer . Goldberg attempted another spear on Triple H , who countered the maneuver by hitting Goldberg with the sledgehammer and covered him for the pinfall . Triple H therefore retained the World Heavyweight Championship .
= = Aftermath = =
During an episode of Raw after SummerSlam , Goldberg challenged Triple H to another match for the World Heavyweight Championship . This match took place at the Unforgiven pay @-@ per @-@ view on September 21 , 2003 with a stipulation that , should he lose , Goldberg would retire from WWE . Goldberg defeated Triple H to become the new champion . After SummerSlam Kurt Angle focused his attention on The Undertaker , whom he wrestled in a match for the WWE Championship during an episode of SmackDown ! on September 4 , 2003 . During the match , Lesnar attacked both wrestlers with a folding chair , leading to an Iron Man match between Angle and Lesnar . Lesnar won five falls during the match , while Angle won four , and as a result Lesnar won the title .
The rivalry between Kane and Rob Van Dam stopped , as Kane engaged in a feud against Shane McMahon . In a scenario on the August 25 , 2003 episode of Raw , Kane attempted to throw McMahon into a dumpster that was set on fire , but McMahon avoided it and threw Kane into the dumpster . On September 8 , 2003 during an episode of Raw , Eric Bischoff scheduled a Last Man Standing match between Kane and McMahon for Unforgiven . In that match , Kane defeated McMahon after McMahon was unable to respond to a ten count . After SummerSlam , Eddie Guerrero began a rivalry with John Cena over the WWE United States Championship . Guerrero retained the championship in two title defenses that took place on SmackDown ! . Guerrero then engaged in a feud with Big Show . At No Mercy , Big Show defeated Guerrero via pinfall to win the WWE United States Championship .
= = = Reception = = =
The America West Arena has a maximum capacity of 19 @,@ 000 , but that was reduced for SummerSlam 2003 . The event grossed over $ 715 @,@ 000 in ticket sales from an attendance of 16 @,@ 113 , the maximum allowed . This was later confirmed by Linda McMahon , WWE CEO , in a press release on August 26 , 2003 . The event resulted in 415 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys ( a 0 @.@ 88 pay @-@ per @-@ view buyrate ) . The promotion 's pay @-@ per @-@ view revenue was $ 24 @.@ 7 million .
Canadian Online Explorer 's professional wrestling section rated the entire event a 7 out of 10 stars . The rating was higher than the SummerSlam event in 2004 , which was rated a 5 out of 10 stars . The Elimination Chamber main event match from the Raw brand was rated an 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 stars , with an additional rating of 1 out of 10 stars for the process in which the match ended . The SmackDown ! brand 's main event , a standard match for the WWE Championship , was rated a 9 out of 10 stars , a better reception than the Raw brand 's main event . Wade Keller reviewed the event for the Pro Wrestling Torch . He rated the Angle @-@ Lesnar match 4 @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of 5 stars , declaring it an " excellent match " . The Elimination Chamber match received a rating of 3 stars . The event was released on DVD on September 23 , 2003 by Sony Music Entertainment .
= = Results = =
= = = Elimination Chamber entrances and eliminations = = =
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= Kawasaki Heavy Industries C151 =
The Kawasaki Heavy Industries C151 is a type of train that is one of the four current types of electric multiple unit on the North South and East West Lines of Singapore 's Mass Rapid Transit ( MRT ) system . These are the oldest trains built for the system ; they were introduced in 1987 and are still in operation . Sixty @-@ six trainsets consisting of six cars each and a single money trainset consisting of four cars were purchased . These trains are operated by SMRT Trains .
These trains were manufactured from 1986 to 1989 in batches by a Japanese consortium consisting of Kawasaki Heavy Industries , Nippon Sharyo , Tokyu Car Corp and Kinki Sharyo following a round of intense competitive bidding by rolling stock manufacturers from around the world . No visible differences can be found in any of these batches , which were built to agreed specifications .
The trains underwent a two @-@ year mid @-@ life interior refurbishment programme by Hyundai Rotem . After major train disruptions on 15 and 17 December 2011 , further plans to upgrade its mechanical components to increase its reliability were made . The first trainset to receive this upgrade , which included a replacement traction system , entered service in July 2015 .
= = History = =
= = = Tendering process = = =
With construction of the Mass Rapid Transit system underway in 1983 , Contract 151 called for the procurement of rolling stock — 150 cars in Phase One and an option for 246 cars in Phase Two . In what Financial Times described as " a time when manufacturers were begging for orders " for the global rolling stock market , competition for the contract was intense . At least eight companies from around the world submitted bids for what they had nicknamed the " Big One " . Bidders included Metro @-@ Cammell with Singapore Automotive Engineering , Kawasaki Heavy Industries with three Japanese manufacturers , MAN AG with AEG , Siemens and Brown , Boveri & Cie , Francorail with Alsthom @-@ Alantique , SOFRETU and Singapore Shipbuilding and Engineering , ASEA with Sembawang Shipyard , and a Bombardier Transportation @-@ led consortium with Hawker Siddeley Canada and Brown Boveri Canada .
Competition for the contract was so fierce that it involved last @-@ minute discounts , offers of free parts and allegations of sabotage . Metro @-@ Cammell , Kawasaki and ASEA were shortlisted for the final round . Metro @-@ Cammell based its design on the Hong Kong MTR M @-@ Train EMU and proposed to use the GEC propulsion system had they won the contract . Metro @-@ Cammell also delivered a concept mock @-@ up and was originally the favourite to win the contract . However , analysts became concerned that a measuring error involving the London Underground 1983 Stock during the evaluation period could jeopardise their bid .
In 1984 , the Japanese consortium of Kawasaki Heavy Industries with Nippon Sharyo , Tokyu Car Corp and Kinki Sharyo was awarded Contract 151 at a cost of S $ 581 @.@ 5 million for the construction of 396 passenger cars . Kawasaki won the contract ; its bid — aided by favourable financing from Mitsui and positive economic conditions in Japan — was 12 % lower than those of other bidders . The award was the largest single contract awarded in the initial construction of the system . Kawasaki also promised to supply $ 20.9m worth of complimentary spare parts after delivery . The loss of Contract 151 was a massive financial blow to Metro @-@ Cammell , who were forced to reduce their workforce by half later that year .
= = = Initial construction = = =
A mock @-@ up was manufactured in Japan after Kawasaki won the contract . It was shipped to Singapore and put on public display during the 1984 National Exhibition held in November 1984 at World Trade Centre . The mock @-@ up featured three choices of seating arrangements and colour schemes ; members of the public were invited to give feedback on these options . The finalised interior design of the C151 trains consisted of a fully longitudinal seating arrangement . The bucket seats were made of plastic ; glass partitions separated the seating areas from the passenger doors . Strap lines for standing passengers were installed in the middle of every car . The colour scheme of each adjacent car 's interior is distinct to make car identification in cases of fault reporting easier for passengers . Originally the colour scheme of the driving trailer cars was orange , that of the second and fifth motor cars was blue , and that of the two centre motor cars was green . There were nine seats between two doors ; this was reduced to seven after the first round of refurbishment .
While the rolling stock and Mitsubishi Electric propulsion equipment were constructed in Japan , many parts were sourced from Europe . The trains were fitted with Stone Platt air @-@ conditioning , Duwag bogies , Sig gangways , Scharfenberg couplers and Westinghouse brakes . Mitsubishi Electric 's propulsion equipment was estimated to consume 50 % less electricity than Hong Kong 's existing MTR M @-@ Train EMU . Its Automatic Train Control ( ATC ) signalling system was supplied by Westinghouse , capable of running at pre @-@ programmed speeds and activated by the train driver . While theoretically possible to design for a fully driverless operation using this signalling technology , MRT Corporation ( MRTC , now SMRT Corporation ) decided against this option . The trainsets were assembled in Kobe , Japan , and then shipped to Singapore by Neptune Orient Lines . The first trainset was delivered to MRTC on 8 July 1986 at Bishan Depot , officiated by Yeo Ning Hong .
= = = First refurbishment = = =
On 3 September 2004 , Hyundai Rotem , Mitsui , RM Transit Technology and dU LexBuild received an order to refurbish all 396 carriages , costing S $ 142 @.@ 7 million in total . The works included the refurbishment of interior fixtures , the addition of wheelchair spaces , the upgrading of onboard communications equipment , enhancement of the public announcement system , and general improvement of the cars ' appearance . SMRT Corporation said the reasons for refurbishment were wear and damage of important components over the past two decades and water leaks from the air @-@ conditioning system on some trains . The company chose this option instead of buying new rolling stock , which would have cost S $ 792 million . The first refurbished train began revenue service on 5 November 2006 , and all remaining trainsets had been refurbished by the end of 2008 .
The exteriors of refurbished trains resemble those of the C751B rolling stock . The interior fittings were replaced with white walls and new seats and installed further back to allow more standing space . The colour of seats in the driving trailer was changed from orange to red . Seats of the refurbished cars were lengthened from 43 cm ( 17 in ) to 48 cm ( 19 in ) . Four of seven seats per row were designated as priority seats and were differentiated using a darker colour .
The Mitsubishi Electric propulsion system was retained , having performed better than expected . The wheelchair space was made available on the end of two mid @-@ train cars , nearest to the lifts in above @-@ ground stations . LED displays that blink to warn passengers of closing doors were introduced in the upper middle section of the door . Additional loudspeakers and advertisement panels were also introduced . Hand grips were moved to the support bars of the seats on the ceiling and grabpoles were located near the doors and at both ends of each carriage . The air @-@ conditioning system was modified to match the system used in the C751B cars , with air @-@ conditioning vents and in @-@ flow fans installed .
In November 2008 , SMRT Corporation and Land Transport Authority ( LTA ) announced that the last ten refurbished trainsets would have one @-@ third of their seats replaced with metal rails to create extra standing space . The move was justified on grounds of allowing more standing space onboard during peak @-@ hour services . The reduction of seats per row from nine to seven after refurbishment was already unpopular among commuters ; the decision to further reduce seating capacity drew sharp criticism against the operator and LTA . As of December 2015 , all 66 C151s from one @-@ third of their seats have been replaced by metal bars to create extra standing space .
= = = Second refurbishment = = =
Following major train disruptions on 15 and 17 December 2011 , the Committee of Inquiry ( COI ) found that despite the first refurbishment of the C151 rolling stock , " there does not appear to be any upgrade in terms of engineering components " . The COI was particularly critical of the inadequate and ageing emergency battery installed on the C151 and recommended the installation of a Train Integrated Management System ( TIMS ) found on the C751B and C151A trains .
In response , SMRT announced it was replacing important engineering components on all C151 trains by 2019 . This included changing the existing Mitsubishi Electric propulsion system for the newer Insulated @-@ gate bipolar transistor ( IGBT ) and Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor ( PMSM ) propulsion system by Toshiba , technology currently used in the Tokyo Metro 's 1000 series and 16000 series trains as well as Hankyu 1000 series trains . On 30 July 2015 , trainsets 055 / 056 and 131 / 132 began using this new propulsion system , distinguishable from the original fleet by the whining noise when accelerating or decelerating . In tandem with the replacement of the signalling system on the East @-@ West Line and North @-@ South Line with the newer Thales SelTrac signalling system , new equipment had to be installed in the passenger compartment of the trailer cars .
= = Operational details = =
= = = Money train = = =
Kawasaki built a four @-@ car unit to serve as a money train . This was decommissioned from service in 2007 and both set 301 and 302 are used by the Singapore Armed Forces ( SAF ) for training purposes . The mock @-@ up C751B is used for the ITE College West for training purposes .
= = = Passenger announcement and information systems = = =
These trains originally had no visual passenger information systems ; station announcements had to be made by the train operator . An automatic audio announcement system using voice synthesizers was installed on each train by September 1994 . The first iteration of the door closing buzzer announcements , which replaced the initial door chimes , was fully introduced by April 1997 .
SMRT first attempted to install a passenger information system SMRTime on trains using LCD displays in 1999 ; these have since been removed . In November 2006 the doors of three cars ( carriage number 3006 , 1006 and 2006 ) were installed with a dynamic , in @-@ train system displaying station information for testing ; these are similar to ones used by Hong Kong 's MTR . An initial prototype of STARIS based upon the existing Automatic Transit Info System was developed in @-@ house ; this was removed before the end of the year without entering service .
Two years later , four units of vacuum fluorescent displays ( VFD ) were mounted on the ceiling . Eight units of dynamic route maps were mounted above every door in each car in trainset 053 / 054 for a two @-@ month trial . This new SMRT Active Route Map Information System ( STARiS ) was then progressively introduced to all C151 trainsets , and subsequently to C651 and C751B trains for a cost of S $ 12 million — S $ 20 @,@ 000 per car . It became standard equipment on all new rolling stocks subsequently introduced on the East @-@ West Line and North @-@ South Line .
= = Livery and numbering = =
The cars had an aluminium @-@ alloy double @-@ skinned construction , and were delivered unpainted to save time . A red adhesive strip ran through the length of the cars in the middle to match the operator 's visual branding . The unpainted cars had a shiny appearance upon delivery , but as dirt and grime accumulated it became a recurring problem for the operator and attracted several public complaints . In response , MRT Corporation built a wash machine at Bishan Depot in an attempt to clean up the cars ' exterior proper . After refurbishment , the problem was solved by covering the cars ' exterior entirely with giant stickers , creating a livery that is similar to the newer C751B and C151A rolling stocks .
= = Train formation = =
A complete six @-@ car trainset consists of an identical twin set of one driving trailer ( DT ) and two motor cars ( M1 and M2 ) permanently coupled together . The configuration of a C151 trainset in revenue service is DT – M1 – M2 – M2 – M1 – DT .
The car numbers of the trains range from x001 to x132 , where x depends on the carriage type . Kawasaki Heavy Industries built sets 001 – 020 , 051 – 062 , and 093 – 102 , Kinki Sharyo co @-@ built sets 021 – 030 , 063 – 072 , and 103 – 112 , Nippon Sharyo co @-@ built sets 031 – 040 , 073 – 082 , and 113 – 122 , and Tokyu Car Corp co @-@ built sets 041 – 050 , 083 – 092 , and 123 – 132 . Individual cars are assigned a four @-@ digit serial number by the rail operator SMRT . A complete six @-@ car trainset consists of an identical twin set of one driving trailer and two motor cars permanently coupled together . For example , set 099 / 100 consists of carriages 3099 , 1099 , 2099 , 2100 , 1100 and 3100 .
= = Major incidents = =
Since its introduction , C151 rolling stock has been involved in three high @-@ profile incidents :
On 5 August 1993 two C151 trains collided at Clementi station because of a 50 @-@ litre ( 11 imp gal ; 13 US gal ) oil spillage on the track by a maintenance locomotive , resulting in 132 injuries .
On 17 May 2010 , Oliver Fricker trespassed and vandalised car 1048 ( trainset 047 / 048 ) with graffiti at Changi Depot . The graffiti was initially mistaken for an advertisement and was not spotted until the car was filmed and the video was uploaded to YouTube by a trainspotter . Fricker was convicted and sentenced to seven months ' imprisonment and caning . The public perceived this incident to have serious security implications , as the depot was considered a sensitive installation .
In the major MRT disruption of 15 December 2011 , one C151 train ( trainset 067 / 068 , T139 in the COI ) was stalled in the tunnel and its backup battery failed . The passenger compartments in T139 experienced a blackout and loss of ventilation , leading to one passenger smashing a train door window to avoid suffocation . The battery failure led to criticism by the COI on the condition of the aging emergency batteries installed on all C151 trains . SMRT has since proposed an upgrading plan to address this issue .
= = = Minor incidents = = =
On 25 May 2012 , a C151 train 's glass window panel was reportedly to be shattered on its own at Admiralty causing no injuries or death . This is unrelated to similar issue as well as other defects found on the C151A trains as acknowledged by the SMRT on 5 July 2016 .
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= Lisa the Iconoclast =
" Lisa the Iconoclast " is the sixteenth episode of The Simpsons ' seventh season . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on February 18 , 1996 . In the episode , Springfield 's bicentennial approaches , and Lisa writes an essay on town founder Jebediah Springfield . While doing research , she finds a confession revealing that Springfield was a murderous pirate named Hans Sprungfeld who never cared about the people of Springfield . Lisa and Homer decide to get the message out but instead anger the town council .
The episode was written by Jonathan Collier and directed by Mike B. Anderson . It was Anderson 's first directing role . The story was inspired by the 1991 exhumation of President Zachary Taylor . Donald Sutherland guest starred as the voice of Hollis Hurlbut , a part that was written specifically for him . The episode includes several references to Colonial and Revolutionary America , including Gilbert Stuart 's unfinished 1796 painting of George Washington . The episode features two neologisms , embiggen and cromulent , which were intended to sound like real words but are in fact completely fabricated ( although it was later discovered that C. A. Ward had used " embiggen " in 1884 ) . Embiggen , coined by Dan Greaney , has since been used in several scientific publications , while cromulent , coined by David X. Cohen , appeared in the Dictionary.com 's 21st Century Lexicon .
= = Plot = =
As Springfield celebrates its bicentennial , Lisa 's class at Springfield Elementary School are assigned essays . Lisa goes to the historical society to research Jebediah Springfield , the founder of Springfield . While trying to play Jebediah Springfield 's fife , she makes the shocking discovery that the town 's founder was actually a villainous pirate and enemy of George Washington who kept his dark past hidden . He had written his confession on the back side of a portrait of Washington and hidden it in his fife . Meanwhile , upon Lisa 's suggestion , Homer is elected the town crier after he demonstrated that he was better suited to the position than Ned Flanders .
Lisa conducts further research about Jebediah Springfield , and finds out that he once lost his tongue to a Turk in a groghouse fight and had it replaced with a prosthetic silver tongue . The town , including Marge , does not agree with Lisa 's revelations , resulting in an " F " on a report about Springfield while Ms. Hoover deems her to be a " PC Thug . " Homer believes her , and sympathizes with her story , claiming he 's been called a " greasy thug " too . However , when Lisa attempts to show the town historian Horace Hurlbut the confession , he dismisses it as an obvious forgery , and when she presses him , he bans her and her descendants from the museum for three months . Lisa tries to convince the town her claims are true , but is met with outright hostility everywhere . However , she convinces the municipal government to disinter Mr. Springfield 's body to search for evidence of a legendary silver tongue . Despite Lisa 's suspicions , when they open the coffin , the skeleton possesses no silver tongue . Lisa is forced into admitting she was wrong and Mayor Quimby strips Homer of the role of town crier and reassigns it to Flanders .
That night , Lisa has a dream wherein the ghosts of Jebediah Springfield and George Washington appear . After seeing the incomplete portrait of George Washington in her classroom , Lisa soon figures out that the piece of paper upon which the confession is written is the bottom half of the portrait . She confronts Hurlbut with this piece of evidence . Hurlbut confesses that he stole the tongue while the dust cleared seconds after the coffin was opened and hid it in a cowboy maquette in the museum . He explained that he had done so to protect his career and the myth of Jebediah Springfield . After realizing the mistake of celebrating a pirate , the two decide to go public with their discovery . Just as Lisa is about to expose the " real Jebediah " to the parading townspeople , she realizes that Jebediah Springfield 's good image means too much to the town , and decides to keep the truth a secret , knowing they will lose hope and morale if the truth is revealed to the public . At the parade , Homer takes a tricorne and bell from Flanders and replaces him , marching through the parade with Lisa on his shoulder .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Jonathan Collier and directed by Mike B. Anderson . The story was inspired by the real events surrounding the exhumation of President Zachary Taylor . In the late 1980s , college professor and author Clara Rising theorized that Taylor was murdered by poison and was able to convince Taylor 's closest living relative and the Coroner of Jefferson County , Kentucky , to order an exhumation . On June 17 , 1991 , Taylor 's remains were exhumed and transported to the Office of the Kentucky Chief Medical Examiner , who found that the level of arsenic was much smaller than would be expected if Taylor had been thus poisoned . The remains were then returned to the cemetery and received appropriate honors at reinterment . Then @-@ show runner Bill Oakley said " Lisa the Iconoclast " is " essentially the same " story but with Lisa in the role as Rising . At the end of the episode there is an ode to Jebediah Springfield playing over the credits . The music and lyrics for this piece of music were all written by Jeff Martin .
Donald Sutherland voiced Hollis Hurlbut in this episode . The script was specifically written with him in mind playing that part . Sutherland wanted to do the voice recordings as one would do a film and start in the middle of the script , so that he could get to know the character , but that idea was abandoned . In the episode , Lisa joked she was getting over her " Chester A. Arthuritis " , a play on the word " arthritis " and the name of Chester A. Arthur . Sutherland ad @-@ libbed the line " you had arthritis ? " , and the producers liked it so much that they kept it .
The episode opens with an old documentary on Jebediah Springfield , starring Troy McClure as Springfield . The writers tried to make this documentary seem as lousy and low @-@ budget as possible . One of these tricks was to have post @-@ production add scratches to the animation . The animators added production errors that would come in a low @-@ budget film . For example , a man in the crowd looks at the camera , some of the people are wearing wristwatches , McClure 's stuntman does not have the same sideburns as he does , and a boom microphone can be seen entering the frame . In the Historical Society , the animators spent a lot of time decorating the walls . Besides numerous historical references , they also decorated the walls with The Simpsons characters set in the 19th century . The first painting shows Otto Mann ( Springfield 's school bus driver ) driving children in a horse @-@ drawn carriage . Another painting shows Marge Simpson in silhouette . The last one shows Professor Frink holding a kite in the manner of Benjamin Franklin .
= = Cultural references = =
The Historical Society of Springfield contains references to historical figures and facts . The episode features Gilbert Stuart 's unfinished 1796 painting of George Washington and tells a fictional backstory of how it came to be . In reality , the painting was unfinished and it did not have a part torn off . Hurlbut mentions the American revolutionaries William Dawes and Samuel Allyne Otis as equals to Jebediah Springfield . When Lisa passes out the " Wanted for treason " posters , it is a reference to those featuring John F. Kennedy , which were circulated in Dallas prior to his assassination . Hurlbut claims Springfield 's confessions are " just as fake " as the will of Howard Hughes and the diaries of Adolf Hitler , both of which are proven forgeries . The episode also contains references to popular culture . The opening couch gag shows the Simpson family in blue boxes similar to the style of The Brady Bunch .
Chief Wiggum is singing " Camptown Races " from 1850 by Stephen Foster ventriloquised with the skull of Jebediah Springfield . Lisa 's dream in which Washington and Springfield are fighting is a reference to Lethal Weapon . When Lisa is telling the people at Moe 's Tavern about the real history of Jebediah Springfield , they all sit with their mouths open . This is a reference to a scene in the film The Producers from 1968 . When Homer knocks over Ned Flanders in order to take over his job as town crier , it is a reference to the film National Lampoon 's Animal House from 1978 ( in which Sutherland appeared . ) Lisa 's decision to hide the truth to preserve the myth of Jebediah Springfield is a reference to the film The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance . In addition to these cultural references , at least one author has compared this episode to Friedrich Nietzsche 's short work On the Advantage and Disadvantage of History for Life .
= = Embiggen and cromulent = =
The episode features two neologisms : embiggen and cromulent . The show runners asked the writers if they could come up with two words which sounded like real words , and these were what they came up with . The Springfield town motto is " A noble spirit embiggens the smallest man . " Schoolteacher Edna Krabappel comments that she never heard the word embiggens until she moved to Springfield . Miss Hoover , another teacher , replies , " I don 't know why ; it ’ s a perfectly cromulent word . " Later in the episode , while talking about Homer 's audition for the role of town crier , Principal Skinner states " He 's embiggened that role with his cromulent performance . "
Embiggen — in the context in which it is used in the episode — is a verb that was coined independently by Dan Greaney in 1996 . The literal meaning is to make something larger , with the morphology ( em- + big + -en ) being parallel to that of enlarge ( en- + large ) . The verb had in fact previously occurred in an 1884 edition of the British journal Notes and Queries : A Medium of Intercommunication for Literary Men , General Readers , Etc. by C. A. Ward , in the sentence " but the people magnified them , to make great or embiggen , if we may invent an English parallel as ugly . After all , use is nearly everything . " The word has made its way to common use and was included in Mark Peters ' Yada , Yada , Do 'h ! , 111 Television Words That Made the Leap From the Screen to Society , but as of 2014 it was not included in the authoritative Oxford English Dictionary . In particular , embiggen can be found in string theory . The first occurrence of the word was in the journal High Energy Physics in the article " Gauge / gravity duality and meta @-@ stable dynamical supersymmetry breaking " , which was published on January 23 , 2007 . For example , the article says : " For large P , the three @-@ form fluxes are dilute , and the gradient of the Myers potential encouraging an anti @-@ D3 to embiggen is very mild . " Later this usage was noted in the journal Nature , which explained that in this context , it means to grow or expand .
Cromulent is an adjective that was coined by David X. Cohen . Since it was coined , it has appeared in Dictionary.com 's 21st Century Lexicon . The meaning of cromulent is inferred only from its usage , which indicates that it is a positive attribute . Dictionary.com defines it as meaning fine or acceptable . Ben Macintyre has written that it means " valid or acceptable " . The United States government used the word " cromulent " ( and the alternate spelling " kromulent " ) in a U.S. Supreme Court brief about trademark law .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Lisa the Iconoclast " finished 70th in the ratings for the week of February 12 to 18 , 1996 . The episode was the sixth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files , Melrose Place , Beverly Hills , 90210 , Married ... with Children , and Fox Tuesday Night Movie : Cliffhanger .
The episode received positive reviews from television critics . DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson lauded it for the focus on Lisa , commenting that " Lisa @-@ centered episodes tend to be preachy , but I suppose that ’ s inevitable given her character . I like the fact Lisa takes the high road here , though , as she proves she doesn ’ t always have to be right . Homer ’ s turn as the town crier brings mirth to a solid show . " In addition , John Alberti praised the episode in his book Leaving Springfield as " an especially cromulent example of the narrative fissuring and disruptive disclosure ... Lisa spends the entire episode uncovering the truth about Jebediah and courageously defending her findings against a phalanx of authority figures ... a symbol of honesty , integrity , and courage . All in all , a spectacular episode revealing the truth behind our society . " The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , thought it was a " clever " episode , and highlighted Lisa 's fantasy of the fight between Springfeld and George Washington as " fantastic " . Dave Foster of DVD Times thought Sutherland offered a " memorable " guest appearance . Total Film 's Nathan Ditum ranked Sutherland 's performance as the 14th best guest appearance in the show 's history . Michael Moran of The Times ranked the episode as the eighth best in the show 's history .
= = Merchandise = =
The episode was included on April 28 , 1997 on the VHS set The Dark Secrets of the Simpsons , alongside " The Springfield Files " , " Homer the Great " , and " Homer Badman " . On September 8 , 2003 the VHS tape was released on DVD under the name The Simpsons : Dark Secrets in Region 2 and Region 4 , but " Homer the Great " was replaced by " Homer to the Max " . It was released again on DVD on December 13 , 2005 as part of The Simpsons Complete Seventh Season . Bill Oakley , Josh Weinstein , Jonathan Collier , Yeardley Smith , Mike B. Anderson , and David Silverman participated in the DVD 's audio commentary .
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= Linkin Park =
Linkin Park is an American rock band from Agoura Hills , California . Formed in 1996 , the band rose to international fame with their debut album Hybrid Theory ( 2000 ) , which was certified diamond by the RIAA in 2005 and multi @-@ platinum in several other countries . Their following studio album Meteora continued the band 's success , topping the Billboard 200 album chart in 2003 , and was followed by extensive touring and charity work around the world . In 2003 , MTV2 named Linkin Park the sixth @-@ greatest band of the music video era and the third @-@ best of the new millennium . Billboard ranked Linkin Park No. 19 on the Best Artists of the Decade chart . In 2012 , the band was voted as the greatest artist of the 2000s in a Bracket Madness poll on VH1 . In 2014 , the band was declared as the Biggest Rock Band in the World Right Now by Kerrang ! .
Having adapted nu metal and rap metal to a radio @-@ friendly yet densely layered style in Hybrid Theory and Meteora , the band explored other genres in their next studio album , Minutes to Midnight ( 2007 ) . The album topped the Billboard charts and had the third @-@ best debut week of any album that year . The band continued to explore a wider variation of musical types in their fourth album , A Thousand Suns ( 2010 ) , layering their music with more electronic sounds and beats . Their fifth album , Living Things ( 2012 ) , combines musical elements from all of their previous records . Their sixth and most recent album , The Hunting Party ( 2014 ) , returned to a heavier rock sound . The band has collaborated with several other artists , most notably with rapper Jay Z in their mashup EP Collision Course , and many others on the remix albums Reanimation and Recharged . Linkin Park has sold over 68 million albums worldwide and has won two Grammy Awards .
= = History = =
= = = Early years ( 1996 – 2000 ) = = =
Linkin Park was founded by three high school friends : Mike Shinoda , Rob Bourdon , and Brad Delson . The three attended Agoura High School in Agoura Hills , California , a suburb of Los Angeles . After graduating from high school , the three began to take their musical interests more seriously , recruiting Joe Hahn , Dave " Phoenix " Farrell , and Mark Wakefield to perform in their band , Xero . Though limited in resources , the band began recording and producing songs within Shinoda 's makeshift bedroom studio in 1996 , resulting in a four @-@ track demo tape , entitled Xero . Tensions and frustration within the band grew however after they failed to land a record deal . The lack of success and stalemate in progress prompted Wakefield , at that time the band 's vocalist , to leave the band in search of other projects . Farrell also left to tour with Tasty Snax , a Christian punk and Ska band .
After spending a considerable time searching for Wakefield 's replacement , Xero recruited Arizona vocalist , Chester Bennington , who was recommended by Jeff Blue , the vice president of Zomba Music in March 1999 . Bennington , formerly of a post @-@ grunge band by the name of Grey Daze , became a standout among applicants because of the dynamic in his singing style . The band then agreed on changing its name from Xero to Hybrid Theory ; the newborn vocal chemistry between Shinoda and Bennington helped revive the band , inciting them to work on new material . In 1999 the band released a self @-@ titled extended play , which they circulated across internet chat @-@ rooms and forums with the help of an online ' street team ' . The band 's renaissance culminated with a change in name ; from Hybrid Theory , the band once again changed its name , this time to Linkin Park , a play on and homage to Santa Monica 's Lincoln Park . The band initially wanted to utilize the name " Lincoln Park " , however they changed it to " Linkin " to acquire the internet domain " linkinpark.com " . However , despite these changes , the band still struggled to sign a record deal . After facing numerous rejections from several major record labels , Linkin Park turned to Jeff Blue for additional help . After failing to catch Warner Bros. Records on three previous reviews , Jeff Blue , now the vice president of Warner Bros. Records , helped the band sign a deal with the company in 1999 . The band released its breakthrough album , Hybrid Theory , the following year .
= = = Hybrid Theory and Reanimation ( 2000 – 02 ) = = =
Linkin Park released Hybrid Theory on October 24 , 2000 . The album , which represented half a decade 's worth of the band 's work , was edited by Don Gilmore . Hybrid Theory was a massive commercial success ; it sold more than 4 @.@ 8 million copies during its debut year , earning it the status of best @-@ selling album of 2001 , while singles such as " Crawling " and " One Step Closer " established themselves as staples among alternative rock radio play lists during the year . Additionally , other singles from the album were featured in films such as Dracula 2000 , Little Nicky , and Valentine . Hybrid Theory won a Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock Performance for the song " Crawling " and was nominated for two other Grammy Awards : Best New Artist and Best Rock Album . MTV awarded the band their Best Rock Video and Best Direction awards for " In the End " . Through the winning of the Grammy for Best Hard Rock Performance , Hybrid Theory 's overall success had catapulted the band into mainstream success .
During this time , Linkin Park received many invitations to perform on many high @-@ profile tours and concerts including Ozzfest , Family Values Tour , and KROQ Almost Acoustic Christmas . The band worked with Jessica Sklar to found their official fan club and street team , " Linkin Park Underground " , in November 2001 . Linkin Park also formed its own tour , Projekt Revolution , which featured other notable artists such as Cypress Hill , Adema , and Snoop Dogg . Within a year 's stretch , Linkin Park had performed at over 320 concerts . The experiences and performances of the precocious band were documented in its first DVD , Frat Party at the Pankake Festival , which debuted in November 2001 . Now reunited with former bassist Phoenix , the band began work on a remix album , dubbed Reanimation , which would include works from Hybrid Theory and non @-@ album tracks . Reanimation debuted on July 30 , 2002 , featuring the likes of Black Thought , Jonathan Davis , Aaron Lewis , and many others . Reanimation claimed the second spot on the Billboard 200 , and sold nearly 270 @,@ 000 copies during its debut week . Hybrid Theory is also in the RIAA 's Top 100 Albums .
= = = Meteora ( 2002 – 04 ) = = =
Following the success of Hybrid Theory and Reanimation , Linkin Park spent a significant amount of time touring around the United States . The band members began to work on new material amidst its saturated schedule , spending a sliver of their free time in their tour bus ' studio . The band officially announced the production of a new studio album in December 2002 , revealing its new work was inspired by the rocky region of Meteora in Greece , where numerous monasteries have been built on top of the rocks . Meteora features a mixture of the band 's nu metal and rap metal style with newer innovative effects , including the induction of a shakuhachi ( a Japanese flute made of bamboo ) and other instruments . Linkin Park 's second album debuted on March 25 , 2003 and instantly earned worldwide recognition , going to No. 1 in the US and UK , and No. 2 in Australia .
Meteora sold more than 800 @,@ 000 copies during its first week , and it ranked as the best selling album on the Billboard charts at the time . The album 's singles , including " Somewhere I Belong " , " Breaking the Habit " , " Faint " , and " Numb " , received significant radio attention . By October 2003 , Meteora sold nearly three million copies . The album 's success allowed Linkin Park to form another Projekt Revolution , which featured other bands and artists including Mudvayne , Blindside , and Xzibit . Additionally , Metallica invited Linkin Park to play at the Summer Sanitarium Tour 2003 , which included well @-@ known acts such as Limp Bizkit , Mudvayne and Deftones . The band released an album and DVD , titled Live in Texas , which featured some audio and video tracks from the band 's performances in Texas during the tour . In early 2004 , Linkin Park started a world tour titled the Meteora World Tour . Supporting bands on the tour included Hoobastank , P.O.D. , Story of the Year and Pia .
Meteora earned the band multiple awards and honors . The band won the MTV awards for Best Rock Video for " Somewhere I Belong " and the Viewer 's Choice Award for " Breaking the Habit " . Linkin Park also received significant recognition during the 2004 Radio Music Awards , winning the Artist of the Year and Song of the Year ( " Numb " ) awards . Although Meteora was not nearly as successful as Hybrid Theory , it was the third best selling album in the United States during 2003 . The band spent the first few months of 2004 touring around the world , first with the third Projekt Revolution tour , and later several European concerts . At the same time , the band 's relationship with Warner Bros. Records was deteriorating rapidly on account of several trust and financial issues . After months of feuding , the band finally negotiated a deal in December 2005 .
= = = Side projects ( 2004 – 06 ) = = =
Following Meteora 's success , the band worked on many side projects . Bennington appeared on DJ Lethal 's " State of the Art " and other work with Dead by Sunrise , while Shinoda did work with Depeche Mode . In 2004 , the band began to work with Jay @-@ Z to produce another remix album , titled Collision Course . The album , which featured intermixed lyrics and background tracks from both artists ' previous albums , debuted in November 2004 . Shinoda also formed Fort Minor as a side project . With the aid of Jay @-@ Z , Fort Minor released its debut album , The Rising Tied , to critical acclaim .
Linkin Park also participated in numerous charitable events , most notably raised money to benefit victims of Hurricane Charley in 2004 and later Hurricane Katrina in 2005 . The band donated $ 75 @,@ 000 to the Special Operations Warrior Foundation in March 2004 . They also helped relief efforts for the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami victims by staging several charity concerts and setting up an additional fund called Music for Relief . Most notably , however , the band participated at Live 8 , a series of charitable benefit concerts set up to raise global awareness . Alongside Jay @-@ Z , the band performed on Live 8 's stage in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , to a global audience . The band would later be reunited with Jay @-@ Z at the Grammy Award Ceremony 2006 , during which they performed " Numb / Encore " , en route to winning a Grammy for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration . They were joined on stage by Paul McCartney who added verses from the song " Yesterday " . They would later go on to play at the 2006 Summer Sonic music festival , which was hosted by Metallica in Japan .
= = = Minutes to Midnight ( 2006 – 08 ) = = =
Linkin Park returned to the recording studios in 2006 to work on new material . To produce the album , the band chose producer Rick Rubin . Despite initially stating the album would debut sometime in 2006 , the album was delayed until 2007 . The band had recorded thirty to fifty songs in August 2006 , when Shinoda stated the album was halfway completed . Bennington later added that the new album would stray away from its previous nu metal sound . Warner Bros. Records officially announced that the band 's third studio album , titled Minutes to Midnight , would be released on May 15 , 2007 in the United States . After spending fourteen months working on the album , the band members opted to further refine their album by removing five of the original seventeen tracks . The album 's title , a reference to the Doomsday Clock , foreshadowed the band 's new lyrical themes . Minutes to Midnight sold over 625 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , making it one of the most successful debut week albums in recent years . The album also took the top spot on the Billboard Charts .
The album 's first single , " What I 've Done " , was released on April 2 , and premiered on MTV and Fuse within the same week . The single was acclaimed by listeners , becoming the top @-@ ranked song on the Billboard 's Modern Rock Tracks and Mainstream Rock Tracks charts . The song is also used in soundtrack for the 2007 action film , Transformers . Mike Shinoda was also featured on the Styles of Beyond song " Second to None " , which was also included in the film . Later in the year , the band won the " Favorite Alternative Artist " in the American Music Awards . The band also saw success with the rest of the album 's singles , " Bleed It Out " , " Shadow of the Day " , " Given Up " , and " Leave Out All the Rest " , which were released throughout 2007 and early 2008 . The band also collaborated with Busta Rhymes on his single " We Made It " , which was released on April 29 .
Linkin Park embarked on a large world tour titled " Minutes to Midnight World Tour " . The band promoted the album 's release by forming their fourth Projekt Revolution tour in the United States which included many musical acts like My Chemical Romance , Taking Back Sunday , HIM , Placebo , and many others . They also played numerous shows in Europe , Asia , and Australia which included a performance at Live Earth Japan on July 7 , 2007 @.@ and headlining Download Festival in Donington Park , England and Edgefest in Downsview Park , Toronto , Canada . The band completed touring on its fourth Projekt Revolution tour before taking up an Arena tour around the United Kingdom , visiting Nottingham , Sheffield and Manchester , before finishing on a double night at the O2 arena in London . Bennington stated that Linkin Park plans to release a follow @-@ up album to Minutes to Midnight . However , he stated the band will first embark on a United States tour to gather inspiration for the album . Linkin Park embarked on another Projekt Revolution tour in 2008 . This was the first time a Projekt Revolution tour was held in Europe with three shows in Germany and one in the United Kingdom . A Projekt Revolution tour was also held in the United States which featured Chris Cornell , The Bravery , Ashes Divide , Street Drum Corps and many others . Linkin Park finished the tour with a final show in Texas . Mike Shinoda announced a live CD / DVD titled Road to Revolution : Live at Milton Keynes , which is a live video recording from the Projekt Revolution gig at the Milton Keynes Bowl on June 29 , 2008 , which was officially released on November 24 , 2008 .
= = = A Thousand Suns ( 2008 – 11 ) = = =
In May 2009 , Linkin Park announced they were working on a fourth studio album , which was planned to be released in 2010 . Shinoda told IGN that the new album would be ' genre @-@ busting , ' while building off of elements in Minutes to Midnight . He also mentioned that the album would be more experimental and " hopefully more cutting @-@ edge . " Bennington also addressed the media to confirm that Rick Rubin would return to produce the new album . The band later revealed the album would be called A Thousand Suns . While working on the new album , Linkin Park worked with successful film composer Hans Zimmer to produce the score for Transformers : Revenge of the Fallen . The band released a single for the movie , titled " New Divide " . Joe Hahn created a music video for the song , which featured clips from the film . On June 22 , Linkin Park played a short set in Westwood Village after the premier of the movie . After completing work for Transformers : Revenge of the Fallen , the band returned to the studio to finalize their album .
On April 26 , the band released an app for the iPhone , iPod Touch , and iPad , a game called 8 @-@ Bit Rebellion ! It featured the band as playable characters , and a new song called " Blackbirds " which was unlockable by beating the game . The song was also later released as an iTunes bonus track on A Thousand Suns .
A Thousand Suns was released on September 14 . The album 's first single , " The Catalyst " , was released on August 2 . The band promoted their new album by launching a concert tour , which started in Los Angeles on September 7 . Linkin Park also relied on MySpace to promote their album , releasing two additional songs , " Waiting for the End " and " Blackout " on September 8 . Furthermore , a documentary about the album 's production , titled Meeting of A Thousand Suns , was available for streaming on the band 's MySpace page . On August 31 , 2010 , it was announced that the band would perform the single live for the first time at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards on September 12 , 2010 . The venue of the debut live performance of the single was Griffith Observatory , an iconic location used in Hollywood movies . " Waiting for the End " was released as the second single of A Thousand Suns .
Linkin Park reached No.8 in Billboard Social 50 , a chart of the most active artists on the world 's leading social networking sites . In other Billboard Year @-@ End charts , the band reached No.92 in the " Top Artists " chart , as well as A Thousand Suns reaching No.53 in the Year @-@ End chart of the Billboard Top 200 albums and No.7 in the 2010 Year @-@ End Rock Albums , and " The Catalyst " reaching No.40 in the Year @-@ End Rock Songs chart .
The band was nominated for six Billboard Awards in 2011 for Top Duo or Group , Best Rock Album for A Thousand Suns , Top Rock Artist , Top Alternative Artist , Top Alternative Song for " Waiting for the End " and Top Alternative Album for A Thousand Suns , but did not win any award . The band charted in numerous Billboard Year @-@ End charts in 2011 . The band was No.39 in the Top Artists Chart , No.84 in the Billboard 200 Artists chart , No.11 in the Social 50 Chart , No.6 in the Top Rock Artists Chart , No.9 in the Rock Songs Artists Chart , No.16 in the Rock Albums Chart , No.4 in the Hard Rock Albums Chart , and No.7 in the Alternative Songs Chart .
= = = Living Things and Recharged ( 2011 – 13 ) = = =
In July 2011 , Bennington told Rolling Stone that Linkin Park aims to produce a new album every eighteen months , and that he would be shocked if a new album did not come out in 2012 . He later revealed in another interview in September 2011 that the band was still in the beginning phases of the next album , saying " We just kind of began . We like to keep the creative juices flowing , so we try to keep that going all the time ... we like the direction that we 're going in . " Later , on March 28 , 2012 , Shinoda confirmed that the band is filming a music video for " Burn It Down " . Joe Hahn directed the video . Shinoda spoke to Co.Create about the album 's art , saying that it will " blow them [ the fans ] away ... the average person is not going to be able to look at it and go , I understand that that 's completely new , like not just the image but the way they made the image is totally new . So there 's going to be that . "
On April 15 , 2012 , Shinoda announced that Living Things would be the title of Linkin Park 's fifth album . Shinoda stated that they chose the title Living Things because the album is more about people , personal interactions , and it is far more personal than their previous albums . The band promoted the album on the 2012 edition of the Honda Civic Tour , with co @-@ headliners Incubus . The band performed " Burn It Down " at 2012 Billboard Music Awards . On May 24 , the band released the music video for " Burn It Down " and debuted " Lies Greed Misery " , another song from Living Things , on BBC Radio 1 . " Powerless " , the twelfth and closing track of the album , was featured in the closing credits of the film Abraham Lincoln : Vampire Hunter .
Living Things sold over 220 @,@ 000 copies during its debut week , ranking No. 1 on the US Albums Charts . Linkin Park 's single , " Castle of Glass " , was nominated for ' Best Song in a Game ' at the 2012 Spike Video Game Awards . The band also performed at the award ceremony on December 7 , but lost the award to " Cities " by Beck . Linkin Park also played at the Soundwave music festival in Australia , where they shared the stage with Metallica , Paramore , Slayer and Sum 41 .
On August 10 , 2013 , the band collaborated with American musician Steve Aoki to record the song " A Light That Never Comes " for Linkin Park 's online puzzle @-@ action game LP Recharge ( short for Linkin Park Recharge ) , which was launched on Facebook and the official LP Recharge website on September 12 , 2013 . On the day of the game 's release , Linkin Park made a post on their Facebook explaining that the song used to promote the game would be included on a new remix album , entitled Recharged , which was released on October 29 , 2013 on CD , vinyl , and digital download . Similar to Reanimation , the album features remixes of ten of the songs from Living Things , with contributions from other artists , such as Ryu of Styles of Beyond , Pusha T , Datsik , KillSonik , Bun B , Money Mark , and Rick Rubin . The band also worked on the soundtrack for the film Mall , which was directed by Joe Hahn .
= = = The Hunting Party ( 2013 – 15 ) = = =
In an interview with Fuse , Shinoda confirmed that Linkin Park had begun recording their sixth studio album in May 2013 . The band released the first single from their upcoming album , titled , " Guilty All the Same " on March 6 , 2014 through Shazam . The single was later released on the following day by Warner Bros. Records and debut at No. 28 on the US Billboard Rock Airplay charts before peaking at No. 1 on the Mainstream Rock charts in the following weeks . Shortly after the single 's release , the band revealed their sixth album would be titled The Hunting Party . The album was produced by Shinoda and Delson , who wanted to explore musical elements from Hybrid Theory and the band 's earlier material . Shinoda commented the album is a " 90s style of rock record . " He elaborated , " It 's a Rock record . It 's loud and it 's Rock , but not in the sense of what you 've heard before , which is more like ' 90s Hardcore @-@ Punk @-@ Thrash . ' The album includes musical contributions from Rakim , Page Hamilton of Helmet , Tom Morello of Rage Against the Machine , and Daron Malakian of System of a Down . The Hunting Party was released on June 13 , 2014 in most countries , and later released in the United States on June 17 .
Linkin Park performed at Download Festival on June 14 , 2014 , where they played their debut album , Hybrid Theory , in its entirety . Linkin Park headlined Rock am Ring and Rock im Park in 2014 , along with Metallica , Kings of Leon , and Iron Maiden . They also headlined with Iron Maiden again at the Greenfield Festival in July . On June 22 , Linkin Park made an unscheduled headline appearance at the Vans Warped Tour , where they played with members of Issues , The Devil Wears Prada , A Day To Remember , Yellowcard , Breathe Carolina , Finch , and Machine Gun Kelly . In January 2015 , the band embarked on a tour to promote the release of The Hunting Party , consisting of 17 concerts across the United States and Canada . The tour was canceled after only three concerts when Bennington injured his ankle . On May 9 , Linkin Park performed at the first edition of Rock in Rio USA , in direct support for Metallica .
On November 9 , 2014 MTV Europe named Linkin Park the " Best Rock " act of 2014 at their annual music awards ceremony . The band won the ' Best Rock Band ' and ' Best Live Act ' titles of 2014 on Loudwire 's Music Awards . Revolver ranked The Hunting Party as the fourth best album of 2014 .
Linkin Park collaborated with Steve Aoki on the song " Darker Than Blood " for Aoki 's album Neon Future II , which was released in May 2015 . The first preview of the song came during Aoki 's performance on February 28 , 2015 at the Aragon Ballroom in Chicago , Illinois . The song was debuted on Twitch.tv on April 13 and released on April 14 .
In an interview with AltWire on May 4 , Shinoda reflected on The Hunting Party and commented on Linkin Park 's future , stating ; " I 'm really happy with the reaction from The Hunting Party , and I think we 're ready to move somewhere new on the next album , which will be coming [ in 2016 ] " .
Blizzard Entertainment announced on October 20 that Linkin Park will be performing at the closing ceremony of Blizzcon 2015 , Blizzard 's video game convention .
= = = Seventh studio album ( 2015 – present ) = = =
On November 25 , 2015 , Linkin Park updated their Facebook cover photo with a link to their website stating that they have started work on a new album .
= = Charity = =
On January 19 , 2010 , Linkin Park released a new song titled " Not Alone " as part of a compilation from Music for Relief called Download to Donate for Haiti in support of the Haiti Earthquake crisis . On February 10 , 2010 , Linkin Park released the official music video for the song on their homepage . The single itself was released on October 21 , 2011 .
On January 11 , 2011 , an updated version of Download to Donate for Haiti was launched , called Download to Donate for Haiti V2.0 , with more songs to download . For the updated compilation , the band released Keaton Hashimoto 's remix of " The Catalyst " from the " Linkin Park featuring YOU " contest .
Shinoda designed two T @-@ shirts , in which the proceeds will go to Music for Relief to help the victims of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami disasters . Music for Relief released Download to Donate : Tsunami Relief Japan , another compilation of songs , in which the proceeds will go to Save the Children . The band released the song titled as " Issho Ni " , meaning " we 're in this together " , on March 22 , 2011 via Download to Donate : Tsunami Relief Japan .
In the wake of Typhoon Haiyan , Linkin Park played at Club Nokia during the " Music for Relief : Concert for the Philippines " in Los Angeles , California , and raised donations for victims . The show was broadcast on AXS TV on February 15 . Other artists during the show included The Offspring , Bad Religion , Heart , and The Filharmonic .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Linkin Park combines elements of rock music , hip hop and electronica , and have been categorized as alternative metal and rap rock by AllMusic . They are also tagged as rap rock by About.com. Despite also being characterized as nu metal , the band never considered themselves as such . Their MusicMight biography lists them as alternative rock , nu metal and rap metal . WatchMojo.com identifies them as alternative rock , electronic rock and industrial rock , while Billboard characterizes them as alternative metal and electronic rock .
Both Hybrid Theory and Meteora combine the alternative metal , nu metal , and rap rock sound with influences and elements from hip hop , alternative rock , and electronica , utilizing programming and synthesizers . William Ruhlmann from AllMusic regarded it as " a Johnny @-@ come @-@ lately to an already overdone musical style , " whereas Rolling Stone described their song " Breaking the Habit " as " risky , beautiful art " .
In Minutes to Midnight the band experimented with their established sound and drew influences from a wider and more varied range of genres and styles , a process Los Angeles Times compares to a stage in U2 's work . In it , only two of the songs feature rapping , and the majority of the album can be considered alternative rock . NME magazine 's Dan Silver criticized the band 's approach , calling it the " sound of a band trying and failing to forge a new identity " , and referring to the song " Hands Held High " , a song about terrorist attacks and war , as " far and away the funniest thing you will hear all year " .
The vocal interplay between Chester Bennington and Mike Shinoda plays as a major part within Linkin Park 's music , with Bennington being the lead vocalist and Shinoda as the rapping vocalist . On Linkin Park 's third album , Minutes to Midnight , Shinoda sings lead vocals on " In Between " , " Hands Held High " , and on the B @-@ side " No Roads Left " . On numerous songs from band 's fourth album , A Thousand Suns , such as the album 's four singles ( " The Catalyst " , " Waiting for the End " , " Burning in the Skies " , " Iridescent " ) , both Shinoda and Bennington sing . On most of the record 's tracks , the band notably used electronic drumbeats along with outro drumbeats . The album has been regarded as a turning point in the band 's musical career , having a stronger emphasis on electronica . James Montgomery , of MTV , compared the record to Radiohead 's Kid A , while Jordy Kasko of Review , Rinse , Repeat likened the album to both Kid A and Pink Floyd 's landmark album The Dark Side of the Moon . Shinoda stated that he and the other band members were deeply influenced by Chuck D and Public Enemy . He elaborated : " Public Enemy were very three @-@ dimensional with their records because although they seemed political , there was a whole lot of other stuff going on in there too . It made me think how three @-@ dimensional I wanted our record to be without imitating them of course , and show where we were at creatively " . One of the record 's political elements is its samples of notable speeches by American political figures .
Their fifth album , Living Things , is also an electronic @-@ heavy album , but includes other influences , resulting in a harder sound by comparison . The band returns to a heavier sound , compared to their last three albums , on The Hunting Party , being described as an alternative metal and hard rock album .
Linkin Park 's influences include Nine Inch Nails , Deftones , The Roots and Aphex Twin .
= = Legacy and influence = =
Linkin Park has sold more than 68 million records . The group 's first studio album Hybrid Theory is one of the best @-@ selling albums in the US ( 10 million copies shipped ) and worldwide ( 27 million copies sold ) . Billboard estimates that Linkin Park earned US $ 5 million between May 2011 and May 2012 , making them the 40th @-@ highest @-@ paid musical artist .
In 2003 , MTV2 named Linkin Park the sixth @-@ greatest band of the music video era and the third @-@ best of the new millennium . Billboard ranked Linkin Park No. 19 on the Best Artists of the Decade chart . The band was recently voted as the greatest artist of the 2000s in a Bracket Madness poll on VH1 . In 2014 , the band was declared as the Biggest Rock Band in the World Right Now by Kerrang . In 2015 " Kerrang ! " , gave " In the End " and " Final Masquerade " the top two positions on Kerrang ! ' s rock 100 list .
Linkin Park became the first rock band to achieve more than one billion YouTube hits . Linkin Park also became the fifteenth most liked page on Facebook , tenth most liked artist after Beyoncé and most liked group followed by Black Eyed Peas . Linkin Park 's " Numb " is the third and " In The End " is the sixth " timeless song " on " Spotify " . The two songs making Linkin Park the only artist to have two timeless songs in top ten .
Hybrid Theory by the group is listed in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die , It was also ranked at # 11 on Billboard 's Hot 200 Albums of the Decade . In addition the album was included in Best of 2001 by Record Collector , The top 150 Albums of the Generation by Rock Sound and 50 BEST ROCK ALBUMS OF THE 2000'S by Kerrang ! . The album Meteora was included in Top 200 Albums of the Decade by Billboard at # 36 . The album sold 20 million copies worldwide . The collaborated EP Collision Course with Jay @-@ Z , became the second ever EP to top the Billboard 200 , going on to sell over 300 @,@ 000 copies in its first week after Alice in Chains ' Jar of Flies in 1994 . The album Minutes to Midnight in the United States , the album had the biggest first week sales of 2007 at the time , with 625 @,@ 000 albums sold . In Canada , the album sold over 50 @,@ 000 copies in its first week and debuted at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart . Worldwide , the album shipped over 3 @.@ 3 million copies in its first four weeks of release .
Several rock and non @-@ rock artists have cited Linkin Park as an influence , including Of Mice & Men , Bishop Nehru , Misono , Evanescence , From Ashes to New , Josh Devine live drummer of One Direction , Bring Me the Horizon , Red , Girl on Fire , Manafest , Silentó , Tony Dougard , 3OH ! 3 , The Prom Kings , Kevin Rudolf , Tokio Hotel and Emery . Prince William stated the band as his all @-@ time favorite along with Coldplay .
= = Band members = =
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
Hybrid Theory ( 2000 )
Meteora ( 2003 )
Minutes to Midnight ( 2007 )
A Thousand Suns ( 2010 )
Living Things ( 2012 )
The Hunting Party ( 2014 )
= = Concert tours = =
Headlining
Hybrid Theory World Tour ( 2001 )
Projekt Revolution ( 2002 – 2008 , 2011 )
LP Underground Tour ( 2003 )
Meteora World Tour ( 2004 )
Minutes to Midnight World Tour ( 2007 – 08 )
International Tour ( 2009 )
A Thousand Suns World Tour ( 2010 – 11 )
Living Things World Tour ( 2012 – 13 )
The Hunting Party Tour ( 2014 – 15 )
Co @-@ headlining
11th Annual Honda Civic Tour ( 2012 )
Carnivores Tour ( 2014 )
= = = Literature = = =
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= Order of Nine Angles =
The Order of Nine Angles ( ONA ; O9A ) is a Satanic and Left @-@ Hand Path occult group based in the United Kingdom , but with affiliated groups in various other parts of the world . Claiming to have been established in the 1960s , it arose to public recognition in the early 1980s , attracting attention for its espousal of Neo @-@ Nazi ideologies and activism . Describing its approach as " Traditional Satanism " , it has been academically identified as also exhibiting Hermetic and Neo @-@ Pagan elements in its beliefs .
According to the Order 's own account , it was established in the Welsh Marches of Western England during the late 1960s by a woman who had previously been involved in a secretive pre @-@ Christian tradition surviving in the region . This account also states that in 1973 a man named " Anton Long " was initiated into the group , subsequently becoming its Grand Master . Several academic commentators to have studied the ONA express the view that the name " Anton Long " is probably the pseudonym of the British Neo @-@ Nazi activist David Myatt , although Myatt has denied that this is the case . From the late 1970s onward , Long authored a number of books and articles propagating the Order 's ideas , and in 1988 it began production of its own journal , Fenrir . Through these ventures it established links with other Neo @-@ Nazi Satanist groups around the world , furthering its cause through embracing the internet in the 2000s .
The ONA promotes the idea that human history can be divided into a series of Aeons , each of which contain a corresponding human civilization . It expresses the view that the current Aeonic civilization is that of the Western , but claims that the evolution of this society is threatened by the " Magian / Nazarene " influence of Judeo @-@ Christian religion , which the Order seeks to combat in order to establish a militaristic new social order , termed the " Imperium " . According to Order teachings , this is necessary in order for a Galactic civilization to form , in which " Aryan " society will colonise the Milky Way . It advocates a spiritual path in which the practitioner is required to break societal taboos by isolating themselves from society , committing crimes , embracing political extremism and violence , and carrying out an act of human sacrifice . ONA members practice magick , believing that they are able to do so through channeling energies into our own " causal " realm from an " acausal " realm where the laws of physics do not apply , with such magical actions designed to aid in the ultimate establishment of the Imperium .
The ONA lacks any central authority or structure , instead operating as a broad network of associates – termed the " kollective " – who are inspired by the texts originally authored by Long and other members of the " Inner ONA " . The group comprises largely of clandestine cells , termed " nexions " , as well as gangs known as Dreccs , artists known as Balobians , and folk mystics known as Rounwytha . With the first nexion based in Shropshire , Western England , the majority of groups have been established in the British Isles and Germany , although others have been formed elsewhere in Europe , Russia , South Africa , Australia , and North America . Academic estimates suggest that the number of individuals broadly associated with the Order falls in the low thousands .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
Academics have found it difficult to ascertain " exact and verifiable information " about the ONA 's origins given the secrecy with which the group shields itself . As with many other occult organisations , the Order shrouds its history in " mystery and legend " , creating a " mythical narrative " for its origins and development . The ONA claims to be the descendant of pre @-@ Christian pagan traditions which survived the Christianisation of Britain and which were passed down from the Middle Ages onward in small groups or " temples " based in the Welsh Marches – a border area between England and Wales – which were each led by a Grand Master or Grand Mistress . According to the Order , in the late 1960s a Grand Mistress of one such group united three of these temples – Camlad , the Temple of the Sun , and The Noctulians – to form the ONA , before welcoming outsiders into the tradition .
According to the Order 's account , one of those whom the Grand Mistress initiated into the group was " Anton Long " , an individual who described himself as a British citizen who had spent much of his youth visiting Africa , Asia , and the Middle East . Long claimed that prior to his involvement in the ONA he had been interested in occultism for several years , having contacted a coven based in Fenland in 1968 , before moving to London and joining groups that practiced ceremonial magic in the style of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn and Aleister Crowley . He also claimed a brief involvement in a Satanic group based in Manchester , the Orthodox Temple of the Prince run by Ray Bogart , during which time he encountered the ONA Grand Mistress . According to the Order 's account , Long joined the ONA in 1973 – the first to have done so in five years – and became the Grand Mistress ' heir . He later recalled that at that time the group held rituals at henges and stone circles around the solstices and equinoxes .
This account further states that when the Order 's Grand Mistress migrated to Australia , Long took over as the group 's new Grand Master . The group claimed that Long " implemented the next stage of Sinister Strategy – to make the teachings known on a large scale " . From the late 1970s onward , Long encouraged the establishment of new ONA groups , which were known as " temples " , and from 1976 onward he authored an array of texts for the tradition , codifying and extending its teachings , mythos , and structure . These texts are typically written in English , although they include passages of Classical Greek as well as terms from Sanskrit and Arabic , reflecting Long 's fluency in such languages . After examining these texts , the historian Nicholas Goodrick @-@ Clarke stated that in them , Long " evokes a world of witches , outlaw peasant sorcerers , orgies and blood sacrifices at lonely cottages in the woods and valleys of this area [ Shropshire and Herefordshire ] where he has lived since the early 1980s " .
The real identity of " Anton Long " remains a mystery to both members of the Order and to academics who have studied it . However , in a 1998 issue of the anti @-@ fascist magazine Searchlight it was claimed that " Anton Long " was a pseudonym of David Myatt , a prominent figure in the British Neo @-@ Nazi movement . Born in the early 1950s , Myatt had been involved in various Neo @-@ Nazi groups , initially serving as a bodyguard for Colin Jordan of the British Movement before joining the Combat 18 militia and becoming a founding member and leader of the National Socialist Movement . His text on A Practical Guide to Aryan Revolution , in which he advocated violent militancy in aid of the Neo @-@ Nazi cause , was cited as an influence on the nail bomber David Copeland . In 1998 Myatt converted to Islam and remained a practicing Muslim for eight years , in which time he encouraged violent jihad against Zionism and Israel 's Western allies .
Goodrick @-@ Clarke supported the idea that Myatt was Long , with the religious studies scholar Jacob C. Senholt adding that " the role of David Myatt [ is ] paramount to the whole creation and existence of the ONA " . Senholt presented additional evidence that he believed confirmed Myatt 's identity as Long , writing that Myatt 's embrace of Neo @-@ Nazism and radical Islamism represented " insight roles " which Myatt had adopted as part of the ONA 's " sinister strategy " to undermine Western society , a view endorsed by scholar of Satanism Per Faxneld . In 2015 , an ONA member known as R. Parker argued in favour of the idea that Myatt was Long .
Myatt , however , has repeatedly denied allegations that he has any involvement with the ONA , and that he has used the pseudonym " Anton Long " , furthermore challenging the arguments used to connect him with Long by claiming that they are based on insufficient evidence . Religious studies scholar George Sieg expressed concern with this association , stating that he found it to be " implausible and untenable based on the extent of variance in writing style , personality , and tone " between Myatt and Long . Jeffrey Kaplan , an academic specialist in the far right , has also suggested that Myatt and Long are separate people , while the religious studies scholar Connell R. Monette posited the possibility that " Anton Long " was not a singular individual but rather a pseudonym used by several different people .
= = = Public emergence = = =
The ONA arose to public attention in the early 1980s . During the 1980s and 1990s it spread its message through articles in various magazines , such as Stephen Sennitt 's Nox , as well as through the publication of such volumes as The Black Book of Satan , and Naos . In 1988 it began publication of its own in @-@ house journal , titled Fenrir . Among written material that it has publicly issued have been philosophical tracts , ritual instruction , letters , poetry , and gothic fiction . Its core ritual text is titled the Black Book of Satan . It has also issued its own music , painted tarot set known as the Sinister Tarot , and a three @-@ dimensional board game known as the Star Game . The ONA established links with other Neo @-@ Nazi Satanist groups : its international distributor was New Zealander Kerry Bolton , the founder of the Black Order , who is described as an ONA adept in the group 's published letter @-@ correspondence , and it has access to a private library of occult and far right material owned by the Order of the Jarls of Bælder . According to Monette , the group now have associates , and groups , in the United States , Europe , Brazil , Egypt , Australia , and Russia . One of these associate groups is the U.S.-based Tempel ov Blood , which has published a number of texts through Ixaxaar Press , while another is the U.S.-based White Star Acception , which has been designated as the ONA 's " Flagship Nexion " in the country despite diverting from mainstream ONA teachings on a number of issues .
During the early 1990s , the Order stated that it was entering the second stage of its development , in which it would leave behind its prior focus on recruitment and public outreach within the occult community and that it would instead focus on refining its teachings ; its resulting quietness led some occultists to erroneously speculate that the ONA had become defunct . In 2000 , the ONA established a presence on the internet , using it as a medium to communicate with others and to distribute its writings . In 2008 , the ONA announced that it was entering the third phase in its history , in which it would once again focus heavily on promotion , utilising such social media as online blogs , forums , Facebook , and YouTube to spread its message . In 2011 , the " Old Guard " , a group of longstanding members of the Order , stated that they would withdraw from active , public work with the group . In March 2012 , Long announced that he would be withdrawing from public activity , although appears to have remained active in the Order .
= = Beliefs and structure = =
The ONA describes its beliefs as belonging to " a sinisterly @-@ numinous mystic tradition " , adding that " it is not now and never was either strictly satanist or strictly Left Hand Path , but uses " satanism " and the LHP as " causal forms " ; that is , as techniques / experiences / ordeals / challenges " to aid the practitioner 's spiritual advancement . Monette described the ONA as " a fascinating blend of both Hermeticism and Traditional Satanism , with some pagan elements " . Faxneld described the ONA as " a dangerous and extreme form of Satanism " . Jeffrey Kaplan and Leonard Weinberg characterised it as a " National Socialist @-@ oriented Satanist group " , while Nicholas Goodrick @-@ Clarke similarly deemed it to be a " Satanic Nazi cult " which " combine [ d ] paganism with praise for Hitler " . He added that the ONA " celebrated the dark , destructive side of life through anti @-@ Christian , elitist and Social Darwinist doctrines . " Considering the manner in which the ONA had syncretized both Satanism and Heathenry , the historian of religion Mattias Gardell described its spiritual perspective as " a heathen satanic path " . The scholar George Sieg however argued that the ONA should be categorised as " post @-@ Satanic " because it has " surpassed ( without fully abandoning ) identification with its original satanic paradigm " .
= = = Traditional Satanism and Paganism = = =
The ONA describe their occultism both as " Traditional Satanism " , and as a " mystical sinisterly @-@ numinous tradition " . According to Jesper Aagaard Petersen , an academic specialist of Satanism , the Order present " a recognizable new interpretation of Satanism and the Left Hand Path " , and for those involved in the group , Satanism is not simply a religion but a way of life . The Order postulates Satanism as an arduous individual achievement of self @-@ mastery and Nietzschean self @-@ overcoming , with an emphasis on individual growth through practical acts of risk , prowess and endurance . Therefore , " [ t ] he goal of the Satanism of the ONA is to create a new individual through direct experience , practice and self @-@ development [ with ] the grades of the ONA system being highly individual , based on the initiates ' own practical and real @-@ life acts , instead of merely performing certain ceremonial rituals " . Thus Satanism , the ONA assert , requires venturing into the realm of the forbidden and illegal in order to shake the practitioner loose of cultural and political conditioning . Intentionally transgressive , the Order has been characterised as providing " an aggressive and elitist spirituality " . Religious studies scholar Graham Harvey claimed that the ONA fit the stereotype of the Satanist " better than other groups " , something which he thought was deliberately achieved by embracing " deeply shocking " and illegal acts .
The ONA are strongly critical of larger Satanic groups like the Church of Satan and the Temple of Set , whom they deem to be " sham @-@ Satanic " because they embrace the " glamour associated with Satanism " but are " afraid to experience its realness within and external to them " . In turn , the Church of Satan has criticised what they alleged was the Order 's " paranoic insistence that they are the only upholders of Satanic tradition " , with Kaplan stating that these comments reflect " the intramural tensions " that are common within " the world of Satanism " , and about which criticism Anton Long wrote that the ONA does not " claim to be a peer organization with a claim to some kind of authority ... When in the past we and others like us have said things that others interpret as being against the [ Temple of Set ] or La Vey , we were simply assuming the role of Adversary – challenging what seemed to be becoming accepted dogma . "
Although conceiving of itself as having pre @-@ Christian origins and describing Satanism as " militant paganism " , the ONA does not advocate the re @-@ establishment of pre @-@ Christian belief systems , with one ONA tract stating that " all past gods of the various Western Traditions are rendered obsolete by the forces which Satanism alone is unleashing " . However , Goodrick @-@ Clarke noted that the group 's " ideas and rituals " draw upon " a native tradition " , with references to the pre @-@ Christian Anglo @-@ Saxon concept of wyrd , an emphasis on ceremonies performed at equinoxes , and the construction of incense using indigenous trees , thus suggesting the idea of " rootedness in English nature " . Practitioners undergo " black pilgrimages " to prehistoric ceremonial sites in the area around Shropshire and Herefordshire in the English Midlands . Furthermore , Monette writes that " a critical examination of the ONA 's key texts suggests that the satanic overtones could be cosmetic , and that its core mythos and cosmology are genuinely hermetic , with pagan influences . "
= = = Aeonic Cosmology and Nazism = = =
The ONA states that cosmic evolution is guided by a " sinister dialectics " of alternating Aeonic energies . It divides history into a series of Aeons , believing that each was dominated by a human civilization that emerged , evolved , and then died . It states that each Aeon lasts for approximately 2000 years , with its respective dominating human civilization developing within the latter 1500 years of that period . It holds that after 800 years of growth , each civilization faces problems , resulting in a " Time of Troubles " that lasts from between 398 and 400 years . In each civilization 's final stage is a period that lasts for approximately 390 years , in which it is controlled by a strong military and imperial regime , after which the civilization falls . The ONA claims that humanity has lived through five such Aeons , each with an associated civilization : the Primal , Hyperborean , Sumerian , Hellenic , and Western . Both Goodrick @-@ Clarke and Senholt have stated that this system of Aeons is inspired by the work of Arnold J. Toynbee , with Senholt suggesting that it might also have been influenced by Crowley 's ideas regarding Thelemic Aeons . However , the ONA has stated that their concept " has nothing to do with Crowley " , but is based on the work of both Toynbee and Spengler .
The ONA claim that current Western civilization has a Faustian ethos and that it has recently undergone its Time of Troubles , with its final stage , an " Imperium " of militaristic governance , due to commence at some point in 1990 – 2011 and last until 2390 . This will be followed by a period of chaos from which will be established a sixth Aeon , the Aeon of Fire , which will be represented by the Galactic civilization in which Aryan society shall colonize the Milky Way galaxy . However , the Order holds that unlike previous Aeonic civilizations , the Western has been infected with the " Magian / Nazarene " distorion , which they associate with Judeo @-@ Christian religion . The group 's writings state that while Western civilization had once been " a pioneering entity , imbued with elitist values and exalting the way of the warrior " , under the impact of the Magian / Nazarene ethos it has become " essentially neurotic , inward @-@ looking and obsessed " , embracing humanism , capitalism , communism , as well as " the sham of democracy " and " the dogma of racial equality " . They believe that these Magian / Nazarene forces represent a counter @-@ evolutionary trend which threaten to prevent the emergence of the Western Imperium and thus the evolution of humanity , opining that this cosmic enemy must be overcome through the force of will . Both Goodrick @-@ Clarke and Sieg note that these ideas regarding the " Magian soul " and " cultural distortion " brought about by Jews were derived from the work of Oswald Spengler and Francis Parker Yockey .
The ONA praise Nazi Germany as " a practical expression of Satanic spirit ... a burst of Luciferian light – of zest and power – in an otherwise Nazarene , pacified , and boring world . " Embracing Holocaust denial , they claim that the Holocaust was a myth constructed by the Magian / Nazarene establishment in order to denigrate the Nazi administration following the Second World War and erase its achievements from " the psyche of the West " . The group believe that a Neo @-@ Nazi revolution is necessary to overthrow the Magian @-@ Nazarene domination of Western society and to establish the Imperium , ultimately allowing humanity to enter the Galactic civilization of the future . Accordingly , positive references to Nazism and Neo @-@ Nazism can be found within the group 's written material , and it evokes the Nazi leader Adolf Hitler as a positive force in its text for the performance of a Black Mass , also known as The Mass of Heresy . However , some ONA texts stress that members should embrace Neo @-@ Nazism and racism not out of a genuine belief in Nazi ideology , but rather as part of a " sinister strategy " to advance Aeonic evolution . A version of the Black Mass @-@ produced by an Australian ONA group , The Temple of THEM , replacing praise for Hitler with praise for Islamist militant Osama bin Laden , while the writings of Chloe Ortega and Kayla DiGiovanni , key publicists for the U.S.-based White Star Acception , express what Sieg termed a " left @-@ anarchist " platform which lacked the condemnation of Zionism and endorsement of Aryan racialism found in Long 's writings . The Order is thus far more overtly political extreme in its aims than other Satanic and Left Hand Path organisations , seeking to infiltrate and destabilise modern society through both magical and practical means .
= = = Initiation and the Seven Fold Way = = =
The ONA 's core system is known as the " Seven Fold Way " or " Hebdomadry " , and is outlined in one of the Order 's primary texts , Naos . The sevenfold system is reflected in the group 's symbolic cosmology , the " Tree of Wyrd " , on which seven celestial bodies – the Moon , Venus , Mercury , the Sun , Mars , Jupiter , and Saturn – are located . The term wyrd was adopted from Old English , where it referred to fate or destiny . Monette identified this as a " hermetic system " , highlighting that the use of seven planetary bodies had been influenced by the Medieval Arabic texts Ghāyat al @-@ Ḥakīm and Shams I @-@ Maarif . The Seven Fold Way is also reflected in the group 's initiatory system , which has seven grades through which the member can gradually progress . Theses are : ( 1 ) Neophyte , ( 2 ) Initiate , ( 3 ) External Adept , ( 4 ) Internal Adept , ( 5 ) Master / Mistress , ( 6 ) Grand Master / Mousa and ( 7 ) Immortal . The group has revealed that very few of its members raise to the fifth and sixth degrees , and in a 1989 article the ONA stated that at that point there were only four individuals who had reached the stage of Master .
The ONA does not initiate members into the group itself , but rather expects an individual to initiate themselves . It requires that initiates be in a good physical condition , and recommends a training regimen for prospective members to follow . Newcomers are expected to take on a magical partner of the opposite sex , or of the same sex if they are lesbian or gay . Thenceforth , the practitioner must undertake personal and increasingly difficult challenges in order to move through the different grades . Most of the ordeals that allow the initiate to proceed to the next stage are publicly revealed by the Order in its introductory material , as it is believed that the true initiatory element lies in the experience itself and can only be attained through performing them . For instance , part of the ritual to become an External Adept involves an ordeal in which the prospective member is to find a lonely spot and to lay there , still , for an entire night without moving or sleeping . The initiatory process for the role of Internal Adept entails the practitioner withdrawing from human society for three months , from an equinox to a solstice , or ( more usually ) for six months , during which time they must live in the wild without modern conveniences or contact with civilisation . The next stage – the Ritual of the Abyss – involves the candidate living alone in a dark isolated cavern for a lunar month . According to Jeffrey Kaplan , an academic specialist of the far right , these physically and mentally challenging initiatory tasks reflect " the ONA 's conception of itself as a vanguard organization composed of a tiny coterie of Nietzschean elites . "
Within the initiatory system of the ONA , there is an emphasis on practitioners adopting " insight roles " in which they work undercover among a politically extreme group for a period of six to eighteen months , thus gaining experience in something different from their normal life . Among the ideological trends that the ONA suggests its members adopt " insight roles " within are anarchism , Neo @-@ Nazism , and Islamism , stating that aside from the personal benefits of such an involvement , membership of these groups has the benefit of undermining the Magian @-@ Nazarene socio @-@ political system of the West and thus helping to bring about the instability from which a new order , the Imperium , can emerge . However , Monette noted a potential shift in the insight roles recommended by the group over the decades ; he highlighted that while the ONA recommended criminal or military activities during the 1980s and early 1990s , by the late 1990s and 2000s they were instead recommending Buddhist monasticism as an insight role for practitioners to adopt . Therefore , " through the practice of " insight roles " , the order advocates continuous transgression of established norms , roles , and comfort zones in the development of the initiate ... This extreme application of ideas further amplifies the ambiguity of satanic and Left Hand Path practices of antinomianism , making it almost impossible to penetrate the layers of subversion , play and counter @-@ dichotomy inherent in the sinister dialectics . " Senholt suggested that Myatt 's involvement with both Neo @-@ Nazism and Islamism represent such " insight roles " in his own life .
= = = The Acausal Realm , Magick and the Dark Gods = = =
The ONA believe that humans live within the causal realm , which obeys the laws of cause and effect . However , they also believe in an acausal realm , in which the laws of physics do not apply , further promoting the idea that numinous energies from the acausal realm can be drawn into the causal , allowing for the performance of magic . Believing in the existence of magic – which the group spell " magick " following the example of Elias Ashmole 's 1652 work Theatrum Chemicum Britannicum – the ONA distinguish between external , internal , and aeonic magick . External magic itself is divided into two categories : ceremonial magick , which is performed by more than two people to achieve a specific goal , and hermetic magick , which is performed either solitarily or in a pair and which is often sexual in nature . Internal magick is designed to produce an altered state of consciousness in the participant , in order to result in a process of " individuation " which bestows adepthood . The most advanced form of magick in the ONA system is aeonic magick , the practice of which is restricted to those who are already perceived to have mastered external and internal magick and attained the grade of master . The purpose of aeonic magick is to influence large numbers of people over a lengthy period of time , thus affecting the development of future aeons . In particular it is employed with the intent of disrupting the current socio @-@ political system of the Western world , which the ONA believe has been corrupted by Judeo @-@ Christian religion .
The ONA utilises two methods in its performance of aeonic magick . The first entails rites and chants with the intent of opening a gateway – known as a " nexion " – to the " acausal realm " in order to manifest energies in the " causal realm " that will influence the existing aeon in the practitioner 's desired direction . The second method involves playing an advanced form of a board game known as the Star Game ; the game was devised by the group , with the game pieces representing different aeons . The group believes that when an initiate plays the game they can become a " living nexion " and thus a channel for acausal energies to enter the causal realm and effect aeonic change . An advanced form of the game is used as part of the training for the grade of Internal Adept . According to Myatt , he invented the game in 1975 .
The Order promotes the idea that " Dark Gods " exist within the acausal realm , although it is accepted that some members will interpret them not as real entities but as facets of the human subconscious . These entities are perceived as dangerous , with the ONA advising caution when interacting with them . Among those Dark Gods whose identities have been discussed in the Order 's publicly available material are a goddess named Baphomet who is depicted as a mature woman carrying a severed head , with the ONA stating that the name is of ancient Greek origin . In addition , there are entities whose names , according to Monette , are borrowed from or influenced by figures from Classical sources and astronomy , such as Kthunae , Nemicu , and Atazoth .
Another of these acausal figures is termed Vindex , after the Latin word for " avenger " . The ONA believe that Vindex will eventually incarnate as a human – although the gender and ethnicity of this individual is unknown – through the successful " presencing " of acausal energies within the causal realm , and that they will act as a messianic figure by overthrowing the Magian forces and leading the ONA to prominence in the establishment of a new society . Sieg drew comparisons between this belief in Vindex and the ideas of Savitri Devi , the prominent Esoteric Hitlerist , regarding the arrival of Kalki , an avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu , to Earth . The ONA also propagate the idea that it is possible for the practitioner to secure an afterlife within the acausal realm through their spiritual activities . It is for this reason that the final stage of the Seven Fold Way is known as the " Immortal " , constituting those initiates who have been able to advance to the stage of dwelling in the acausal realm .
= = = Human sacrifice = = =
The ONA 's writings condone and encourage human sacrifice , referring to their victims as opfers . The ONA outline their views on human sacrifice in a number of documents : " A Gift for the Prince – A Guide to Human Sacrifice " , " Culling – A Guide to Sacrifice II " , " Victims – A Sinister Exposé " , and " Guidelines for the Testing of Opfers " . According to the ONA 's beliefs , the killer must allow their victim to " self @-@ select " themselves ; this is achieved through testing the victim to see if they expose perceived character faults . If this proves to be the case , the victim is believed to have shown that they are worthy of death , and the sacrifice can commence . Those deemed ideal for sacrifice by the group include individuals perceived as being of low character , members of what they deem " sham @-@ Satanic groups " like the Church of Satan and Temple of Set , as well as " zealous , interfering Nazarenes " , and journalists , business figures and political activists who disrupt the group 's operations . The ONA explains that because of the need for such " self @-@ selection " , children must never be victims of sacrifice . Similarly , the ONA " despise animal sacrifice , maintaining that it is much better to sacrifice suitable mundanes given the abundance of human dross " .
The sacrifice is then carried out through either physical or magical means , at which point the killer is believed to absorb power from the body and spirit of the victim , thus entering a new level of " sinister " consciousness . As well as strengthening the character of the killer by heightening their connection with the acausal forces of death and destruction , such sacrifices are also viewed as having wider benefits by the ONA , because they remove from society individuals whom the group deems to be worthless human beings . Monette noted that no ONA nexion cells publicly admitted to carrying out a sacrifice in a ritual manner , but that members had joined the police and military groups in order to engage in legal violence and killing .
The ONA believe that there are historical precedents to their practice of human sacrifice , expressing belief in a prehistoric tradition in which humans were sacrificed to a goddess named Baphomet at the spring equinox and to the Arcturus star in the autumn . However , the ONA 's advocacy of human sacrifice has drawn strong criticism from other Satanist groups like the Temple of Set , who deem it to be detrimental to their own attempts to make Satanism more socially acceptable within Western nations .
= = = The term " nine angles " = = =
In its essays and other writings , the ONA offers various differing explanations as to the meaning of the term " Nine Angles " . One explanation is that it pertains to the seven planets of the group 's cosmology ( the seven angles ) , added to the system as a whole ( the eighth angle ) , and the mystic themselves ( the ninth angle ) . A second explanation is that it refers to seven " normal " alchemical stages , with an additional two processes . A third is that it pertains to the nine emanations of the divine , a concept originally found in Medieval texts produced within the Islamic mystical tradition of Sufism . Monette further suggested that it was a reference to a classical Indian tradition which divided the solar system into nine planets .
According to the O9A , they use the term " nine angles " in reference to not only the nine emanations , and transformations , of the three basic alchemical substances ( mercury , sulfur , salt ) as occurs in their occult use of the Star Game , but also in reference to their hermetic journey with its seven spheres and its two acausal aspects .
= = Organization = =
The ONA is a secretive organization . It lacks any central administration , instead operating as a network of allied Satanic practitioners , which it terms the " kollective " . Thus , Monette stated that the Order " is not a structured lodge or temple , but rather a movement , a subculture or perhaps metaculture that its adherents choose to embody or identify with " . Monette also suggested that this absence of a centralised structure would aid the Order 's survival , because its fate would not be invested solely in one particular leader . The ONA dislikes the term " member " , instead favouring the word " associate " . In 2012 , Long stated that those affiliated with the Order fell into six different categories : associates of traditional nexions , Niners , Balobians , gang and tribe members , followers of the Rounwytha tradition , and those involved with ONA @-@ inspired groups .
The group largely consists of autonomous cells known as " nexions " . The original cell , based in Shropshire , is known as " Nexion Zero " , with the majority of subsequent groups having been established in Britain , Ireland , and Germany , however nexions and other associated groups have also been established in the United States , Australia , Brazil , Egypt , Italy , Spain , Portugal , Poland , Serbia , Russia and South Africa . Some of these groups , such as the U.S.-based Tempel ov Blood , describe themselves as being distinct from the ONA while both having been greatly influenced by it and having connections to it .
In the ONA 's terminology , the terms Drecc and Niner refer to folk @-@ based or gang @-@ based culture or individuals who support the Order 's aims by practical ( including criminal ) means rather than esoteric ones . One such group is the White Star Acception , who claim to have perpetrated rapes , assaults , and robberies in order to advance the group 's power ; Sieg noted that the reality of these actions has not been verified . A Balobian is an artist or musician who contributes to the group through their production of fine art . The Rounwytha is a tradition of folk @-@ mystics deemed to exhibit gifted psychic powers reflecting their embodiment of the " sinister feminine archetype " . Although a minority are men , most Rounwytha are female , and they often live reclusively as part of small and often lesbian groups .
= = = Outer representative = = =
Several academic commentators have highlighted the existence of a position within the ONA called an " Outer Representative " , who serves as an official spokesperson for the group to the outer world . The first to publicly claim to be the group 's " Outer Representative " was Richard Moult , an artist and composer from Shropshire who used the pseudonym of " Christos Beest " . Moult was followed as " Outer Representative " by " Vilnius Thornian " , who held the position from 1996 to 2002 , and who has been identified by ONA insiders as the Left Hand Path ideologue Michael Ford . Subsequently , on the blog of the White Star Acception , the claim was made that the group 's member Chloe Ortega was the ONA 's Outer Representative , also this blog later became defunct by 2013 . In 2013 , a female American Rounwytha using the name of " Jall " appeared claiming to be the Order 's " Outer Representative " .
However , according to Long the " outer representative " was " an interesting and instructive example of [ the O9A 's ] Labyrinthos Mythologicus , ... a ploy , " and which was designed to " intrigue , select , test , confuse , annoy , mislead " . Long wrote that " the ploy was for a candidate or an initiate to openly disseminate ONA material , and possibly give interviews about the O9A to the Media , under the guise of having been given some sort of ' authority ' to do so even though such an authority – and the necessary hierarchy to gift such authority – was in fact a contradiction of our raison d 'être ; a fact we of course expected those incipiently of our kind to know or sense . " According to Senholt the ONA " does not award titles " , with Monette writing that " there is no central authority within the ONA . "
Within the ONA was a group of longstanding initiates known as the " Old Guard " or " Inner ONA " , whose experience with the tradition led to them becoming influential over newer members who often sought their advice . Members of this Old Guard included Christos Beest , Sinister Moon , Dark Logos , and Pointy Hat , although in 2011 they stated that they would withdraw from the public sphere .
= = = Membership = = =
While the ONA has stated that it is not an occult organization in the conventional sense but an esoteric philosophy , several academics have written about ONA membership . In a 1995 overview of British Satanist groups , Harvey suggested that the ONA consisted of less than ten members , " and perhaps fewer than five . " In 1998 , Jeffrey Kaplan and Leonard Weinberg stated that the ONA 's membership was " infinitesmally small " , with the group acting primarily as a " mail @-@ order ministry " . Regarding the question of membership , Anton Long , in a letter to Aquino dated October 1990 , wrote that " once the techniques and the essence [ of the ONA ] are more widely available then membership as such is irrelevant , since everything is available and accessible ... with the individual taking responsibility for their own development , their own experiences . "
In 2013 Senholt noted that because the group has no official membership , it is " difficult , if not impossible , to estimate the number of ONA members " . Senholt suggested that a " rough estimate " of the " total number " of individuals involved with the ONA in some capacity from 1980 to 2009 was " a few thousand " ; he had come to this conclusion from an examination of the number of magazines and journals about the subject circulated and the number of members of online discussion groups devoted to the ONA . At the same time he thought that the number of " longtime adherents is much smaller . " Also in 2013 , Monette estimated that there were over two thousand ONA associates , broadly defined . He believed that the gender balance was roughly equal , although with regional variation and differences among particular nexions .
According to a recent survey , the ONA has more female supporters than either the Church of Satan or the Temple of Set ; more women with children ; more older supporters ; more supporters who are better established in socio @-@ economic terms ; and more who politically are further to the Right .
= = Legacy and influence = =
The ONA 's main influence lies not with the group itself , but with its prolific release of written material . According to Senholt " the ONA has produced more material on both the practical and theoretical aspects of magic , as well as more ideological texts on Satanism and the Left Hand Path in general , than larger groups such as the Church of Satan and the Temple of Set has produced in combination [ which ] makes the ONA an important player in the theoretical discussion of what the Left Hand Path and Satanism is and should be according to the practitioners . "
These writings were initially distributed to other Satanist and Neo @-@ Nazi groups , although with the development of the internet this was also used as a medium to propagate its writings , with Monette expressing the view that they had attained " a sizable presence in occult cyberspace " , and thus become " one of the most prominent Left Hand Path groups by virtue of its public presence " . Many of these writings were then reproduced by other groups . Kaplan considered the ONA to be " an important source of Satanic ideology / theology " for " the occultist fringe of National Socialism " , namely Neo @-@ Nazi groups like the Black Order . The group gained increased attention following the growth in public interest in Myatt 's impact on terrorist groups during the War on Terror in the 2000s . The historian of esotericism Dave Evans stated that the ONA were " worthy of an entire PhD thesis " , while Senholt expressed the view that it would be " potentially dangerous to ignore these fanatics , however limited their numbers might be . "
In the Jack Nightingale series of novels by Stephen Leather , a Satanic " Order of Nine Angles " are the leading antagonists . Similarly , a fictionalised Satanic group named the " Order of Nine Angels " appear in Conrad Jones ' 2013 novel Child for the Devil by Conrad Jones . In another of his novels , Black Angel , Jones included a page titled ' Additional Information ' giving a warning about the Order of Nine Angles .
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= Slow loris =
Slow lorises are a group of several species of nocturnal strepsirrhine primates which make up the genus Nycticebus . Found in Southeast Asia and bordering areas , they range from Bangladesh and Northeast India in the west to the Sulu Archipelago in the Philippines in the east , and from Yunnan province in China in the north to the island of Java in the south . Although many previous classifications recognized as few as a single all @-@ inclusive species , there are now at least eight that are considered valid : the Sunda slow loris ( N. coucang ) , Bengal slow loris ( N. bengalensis ) , pygmy slow loris ( N. pygmaeus ) , Javan slow loris ( N. javanicus ) , Philippine slow loris ( N. menagensis ) , Bangka slow loris ( N. bancanus ) , Bornean slow loris ( N. borneanus ) , and Kayan River slow loris ( N. kayan ) . The group 's closest relatives are the slender lorises of southern India and Sri Lanka . Their next closest relatives are the African lorisids , the pottos , false pottos , and angwantibos . They are less closely related to the remaining lorisoids ( the various types of galago ) , and more distantly to the lemurs of Madagascar . Their evolutionary history is uncertain since their fossil record is patchy and molecular clock studies have given inconsistent results .
Slow lorises have a round head , a narrow snout , large eyes , and a variety of distinctive coloration patterns that are species @-@ dependent . Their arms and legs are nearly equal in length , and their trunk is long and flexible , allowing them to twist and extend to nearby branches . The hands and feet of slow lorises have several adaptations that give them a pincer @-@ like grip and enable them to grasp branches for long periods of time . Slow lorises have a toxic bite , a trait rare among mammals and unique to lorisid primates . The toxin is obtained by licking a gland on their arm , and the secretion is activated by mixing with saliva . Their toxic bite is a deterrent to predators , and the toxin is also applied to the fur during grooming as a form of protection for their infants . The secretion from the arm contains a chemical related to cat allergen , but may be augmented by secondary toxins from the diet in wild individuals . Slow lorises move slowly and deliberately , making little or no noise , and when threatened , they stop moving and remain motionless . Their only documented predators — apart from humans — include snakes , changeable hawk @-@ eagles and orangutans , although cats , civets and sun bears are suspected . Little is known about their social structure , but they are known to communicate by scent marking . Males are highly territorial . Slow lorises reproduce slowly , and the infants are initially parked on branches or carried by either parent . They are omnivores , eating small animals , fruit , tree gum , and other vegetation .
Each of the slow loris species that had been identified prior to 2012 is listed as either " Vulnerable " or " Endangered " on the IUCN Red List . The three newest species are yet to be evaluated , but they arise from ( and further reduce the ranks of ) what was thought to be a single " vulnerable " species . All four of these are expected to be listed with at least the same , if not a higher @-@ risk , conservation status . All slow lorises are threatened by the wildlife trade and habitat loss . Their habitat is rapidly disappearing and becoming fragmented , making it nearly impossible for slow lorises to disperse between forest fragments ; unsustainable demand from the exotic pet trade and from traditional medicine has been the greatest cause for their decline . Deep @-@ rooted beliefs about the supernatural powers of slow lorises , such as their purported abilities to ward off evil spirits or to cure wounds , have popularized their use in traditional medicine . Despite local laws prohibiting trade in slow lorises and slow loris products , as well as protection from international commercial trade under Appendix I , slow lorises are openly sold in animal markets in Southeast Asia and smuggled to other countries , such as Japan . Due in part to the large eyes that are an adaptation to their nocturnal lifestyle , they have also been popularized as ' cute ' pets in viral videos on YouTube . Slow lorises have their teeth cut or pulled out for the pet trade . They make poor pets that are difficult to care for , and often die from infection , blood loss , improper handling or inadequate nutrition .
= = Evolutionary history = =
Slow lorises ( genus Nycticebus ) are strepsirrhine primates and are related to other living lorisoids , such as slender lorises ( Loris ) , pottos ( Perodicticus ) , false pottos ( Pseudopotto ) , angwantibos ( Arctocebus ) , and galagos ( family Galagidae ) , and to the lemurs of Madagascar . They are most closely related to the slender lorises of South Asia , followed by the angwantibos , pottos and false pottos of Central and West Africa . Lorisoids are thought to have evolved in Africa , where most living species occur ; later , one group may have migrated to Asia and evolved into the slender and slow lorises of today .
Lorises first appear in the Asian fossil record in the Miocene , with records in Thailand around 18 million years ago ( mya ) and in Pakistan 16 mya . The Thai record is based on a single tooth that most closely resembles living slow lorises and that is tentatively classified as a species of Nycticebus . The species is named ? Nycticebus linglom , using open nomenclature ( the preceding " ? " indicates the tentative nature of the assignment ) . Several lorises are found in the Siwalik deposits of Pakistan , dating to 16 to 8 mya , including Nycticeboides and Microloris . Most are small , but an unnamed form dating to 15 – 16 mya is comparable in size to the largest living slow lorises . Molecular clock analysis suggests that slow lorises may have started evolving into distinct species about 10 mya . They are thought to have reached the islands of Sundaland when the Sunda Shelf was exposed at times of low sea level , creating a land bridge between the mainland and islands off the coast of Southeast Asia .
= = = Discovery and taxonomy = = =
The earliest known mention of a slow loris in scientific literature is from 1770 , when Dutchman Arnout Vosmaer ( 1720 – 1799 ) described a specimen of what we know today as N. bengalensis that he had received two years earlier . The French naturalist Georges @-@ Louis Leclerc , Comte de Buffon , later questioned Vosmaer 's decision to affiliate the animal with sloths , arguing that it was more closely aligned with the lorises of Ceylon ( now Sri Lanka ) and Bengal . The word " loris " was first used in 1765 by Buffon as a close equivalent to a Dutch name , loeris . This etymology was later supported by the physician William Baird in the 1820s , who noted that the Dutch word loeris signified " a clown " .
In 1785 , the Dutch physician and naturalist Pieter Boddaert was the first to officially describe a species of slow loris using the name Tardigradus coucang . This species was based on the " tailless maucauco " described by Thomas Pennant in 1781 , which is thought to have been based on a Sunda slow loris , and on Vosmaer 's description of a Bengal slow loris . Consequently , there has been some disagreement over the identity of Tardigradus coucang ; currently the name is given to the Sunda slow loris . The next slow loris species to be described was Lori bengalensis ( currently Nycticebus bengalensis ) , named by Bernard Germain de Lacépède in 1800 . In 1812 , Étienne Geoffroy Saint @-@ Hilaire named the genus Nycticebus , naming it for its nocturnal behavior . The name derives from the Ancient Greek : νύξ ( nyx ) , genitive form of νυκτός ( nyktos , " night " ) , and κῆβος ( kêbos , " monkey " ) . Geoffroy also named Nycticebus javanicus in this work . Later 19th @-@ century authors also called the slow lorises Nycticebus , but most used the species name tardigradus ( given by Linnaeus in 1758 in the 10th edition of Systema Naturæ ) for slow lorises , until mammalogists Witmer Stone and James A. G. Rehn clarified in 1902 that Linnaeus 's name actually referred to a slender loris .
Several more species were named around 1900 , including Nycticebus menagensis ( originally Lemur menagensis ) by Richard Lydekker in 1893 and Nycticebus pygmaeus by John James Lewis Bonhote in 1907 . However , in 1939 Reginald Innes Pocock consolidated all slow lorises into a single species , N. coucang , and in his influential 1953 book Primates : Comparative Anatomy and Taxonomy , primatologist William Charles Osman Hill also followed this course . In 1971 Colin Groves recognized the pygmy slow loris ( N. pygmaeus ) as a separate species , and divided N. coucang into four subspecies , while in 2001 Groves opined there were three species ( N. coucang , N. pygmaeus , and N. bengalensis ) , and that N. coucang had three subspecies ( Nycticebus coucang coucang , N. c. menagensis , and N. c. javanicus ) .
In 2006 , the Bornean slow loris was elevated to the species level ( as Nycticebus menagensis ) based on molecular analysis of DNA sequences of the D @-@ loop and the cytochrome b gene . In 2008 , Groves and Ibnu Maryanto confirmed the promotion of the fifth species , the Javan slow loris , to species status , a move that had been suggested in previous studies from 2000 . They based their decision on an analysis of cranial morphology and characteristics of pelage . Species differentiation was based largely on differences in morphology , such as size , fur color , and head markings .
To help clarify species and subspecies boundaries , and to establish whether morphology @-@ based classifications were consistent with evolutionary relationships , the phylogenetic relationships within the genus Nycticebus were investigated by Chen and colleagues using DNA sequences derived from the mitochondrial markers D @-@ loop and cytochrome b . Previous molecular analyses using karyotypes , restriction enzymes , and DNA sequences were focused on understanding the relationships between a few species , not the phylogeny of the entire genus . The analyses published in 2006 by Chen and colleagues ' proved inconclusive , although one test suggested that N. coucang and N. bengalensis apparently share a closer evolutionary relationship with each other than with members of their own species , possibly due to introgressive hybridization since the tested individuals of these two taxa originated from a region of sympatry in southern Thailand . This hypothesis was corroborated by a 2007 study that compared the variations in mitochondrial DNA sequences between N. bengalensis and N. coucang , and suggested that there has been gene flow between the two species .
In 2012 , two taxonomic synonyms ( formerly recognized as subspecies ) of N. menagensis — N. bancanus and N. borneanus — were elevated to species status , and a new species — N. kayan — was also distinguished from the same . Rachel Munds , Anna Nekaris and Susan Ford based these taxonomic revisions on distinguishable facial markings . With that , the N. menagensis species complex that had been collectively known as the Bornean slow loris became four species : the Philippine slow loris ( N. menagensis ) ) , the Bornean slow loris ( N. borneanus ) , the Bangka slow loris ( N. bancanus ) , and the Kayan River slow loris ( N. kayan ) .
= = Anatomy and physiology = =
Slow lorises have a round head because their skull is shorter than in other living strepsirrhine . Like other lorisids , its snout does not taper towards the front of the face as it does in lemurs , making the face appear less long and pointed . Compared to the slender lorises , the snout of the slow loris is even less pointed . As with other members of Lorisidae , its interorbital distance is shorter than in lemurs . The skull has prominent crests ( ridges of bone ) . A distinguishing feature of the slow loris skull is that the occipital bone is flattened and faces backward . The foramen magnum ( hole through which the spinal cord enters ) faces directly backward . The brains of slow lorises have more folds ( convolutions ) than the brains of galagos .
The ears are small , sparsely covered in hair , and hidden in the fur . Similar to the slender lorises , the fur around and directly above the eyes is dark . Unlike the slender lorises , however , the white stripe that separates the eye rings broadens both on the tip of the nose and on the forehead while also fading out on the forehead . Like other strepsirrhine primates , the nose and lip are covered by a moist skin called the rhinarium ( " wet nose " ) , which is a sense organ .
The eyes of slow lorises are forward @-@ facing , which gives stereo vision . Their eyes are large and possess a reflective layer , called the tapetum lucidum , that improves low @-@ light vision . It is possible that this layer blurs the images they see , as the reflected light may interfere with the incoming light . Slow lorises have monochromatic vision , meaning they see in shades of only one color . They lack the opsin gene that would allow them to detect short wavelength light , which includes the colors blue and green .
The dental formula of slow lorises is 2 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 32 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 3 × 2 = 36 , meaning that on each side of the mouth there are two upper ( maxillary ) and lower ( mandibular ) incisors , one upper and lower canine tooth , three upper and lower premolars , and three upper and lower molars , giving a total of 36 permanent teeth . As in all other crown strepsirrhines , their lower incisors and canine are procumbent ( lie down and face outwards ) , forming a toothcomb , which is used for personal and social grooming and feeding . The toothcomb is kept clean by the sublingua or " under @-@ tongue " , a specialized structure that acts like a toothbrush to remove hair and other debris . The sublingua extends below the tip of the tongue and is tipped with keratinized , serrated points that rake between the front teeth .
Slow lorises have relatively large maxillary canine teeth , their inner ( mesial ) maxillary incisors are larger than the outer ( distal ) maxillary incisors , and they have a diastema ( gap ) between the canine and the first premolar . The first mandibular premolar is elongated , and the last molar has three cusps on the crown , the shortest of which is near the back . The bony palate ( roof of the mouth ) only goes as far back as the second molar .
Slow lorises range in weight from the Bornean slow loris at 265 grams ( 9 @.@ 3 oz ) to as much as 2 @,@ 100 grams ( 74 oz ) for the Bengal slow loris . Slow lorises have stout bodies , and their tails are only stubs and hidden beneath the dense fur . Their combined head and body lengths vary by species , but range from 18 to 38 cm ( 7 @.@ 1 to 15 @.@ 0 in ) between all species . The trunk is longer than in other living strepsirrhines because they have 15 – 16 thoracic vertebrae , compared to 12 – 14 in other living strepsirrhines . This gives them greater mobility when twisting and extending towards nearby branches . Their other vertebrae include seven cervical vertebrae , six or seven lumbar vertebrae , six or seven sacral vertebrae , and seven to eleven caudal vertebrae .
Unlike galagos , which have longer legs than arms , slow lorises have arms and legs of nearly equal length . Their intermembral index ( ratio of arm to leg length ) averages 89 , indicating that their forelimbs are slightly shorter than their hind limbs . As with the slender lorises , their arms are slightly longer than their body , but the extremities of slow lorises are more stout .
Slow lorises have a powerful grasp with both their hands and feet due to several specializations . They can tightly grasp branches with little effort because of a special muscular arrangement in their hands and feet , where the thumb diverges at nearly 180 ° from the rest of the fingers , while the hallux ( big toe ) ranges between being perpendicular and pointing slightly backwards . The toes have a large flexor muscle that originates on the lower end of the thigh bone , which helps to impart a strong grasping ability to the hind limbs . The second digit of the hand is short compared to the other digits , while on the foot , the fourth toe is the longest . The sturdy thumb helps to act like a clamp when digits three , four , and five grasp the opposite side of a tree branch . This gives their hands and feet a pincer @-@ like appearance . The strong grip can be held for hours without losing sensation due to the presence of a rete mirabile ( network of capillaries ) , a trait shared among all lorises . Both slender and slow lorises have relatively short feet . Like nearly all lemuriforms , they have a grooming claw on the second toe of each foot .
Slow lorises have an unusually low basal metabolic rate , about 40 % of the typical value for placental mammals of their size , comparable to that of sloths . Since they consume a relatively high @-@ calorie diet that is available year @-@ round , it has been proposed that this slow metabolism is due primarily to the need to eliminate toxic compounds from their food . For example , slow lorises can feed on Gluta bark , which may be fatal to humans .
= = Distribution and diversity = =
Slow lorises are found in South and Southeast Asia . Their collective range stretches from Northeast India through Indochina , east to the Sulu Archipelago ( the small , southern islands of the Philippines ) , and south to the island of Java ( including Borneo , Sumatra , and many small nearby islands ) . They are found in India ( Northeastern states ) , China ( Yunnan province ) , Laos , Vietnam , Cambodia , Bangladesh , Burma , Thailand , Malaysia , the Philippines , Indonesia , Brunei , and Singapore .
There are currently eight recognized species . The pygmy slow loris ( N. pygmaeus ) occurs east of the Mekong River in Yunnan , Laos , Vietnam , and Cambodia . The Bornean slow loris ( N. menagensis ) , found on Borneo and nearby islands , including the Sulu Archipelago , and in 2012 was split into four distinct species ( adding N. bancanus , N. borneanus , and N. kayan ) . The Javan slow loris ( N. javanicus ) is only found on the island of Java in Indonesia . The Sunda slow loris ( N. coucang ) occurs on Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula , including Singapore and southern Thailand ( the Isthmus of Kra ) . The Bengal slow loris ( N. bengalensis ) has the largest distribution of all the slow lorises and can be found in Bangladesh , Cambodia , southern China , Northeast India , Laos , Burma , Thailand , and Vietnam .
Slow lorises range across tropical and subtropical regions and are found in primary and secondary rainforests , as well as bamboo groves and mangrove forests . They prefer forests with high , dense canopies , although some species have also been found in disturbed habitats , such as cacao plantations and mixed @-@ crop home gardens . Due largely to their nocturnal behavior and the subsequent difficulties in accurately quantifying abundance , data about the population size or distribution patterns of slow lorises is limited . In general , encounter rates are low ; a combined analysis of several field studies involving transect surveys conducted in South and Southeast Asia determined encounter rates ranging from as high as 0 @.@ 74 lorises per kilometer for N. coucang to as low as 0 @.@ 05 lorises per kilometer for N. pygmaeus .
= = Behavior and ecology = =
Little is known about the social structure of slow lorises , but they generally spend most of the night foraging alone . Individuals sleep during the day , usually alone but occasionally with other slow lorises . Home ranges of adults may significantly overlap , and those of males are generally larger than those of females . In the absence of direct studies of the genus , primatologist Simon Bearder speculated that slow loris social behavior is similar to that of the potto , another slow @-@ moving nocturnal primate . Such a social system is distinguished by a lack of matriarchy and by factors that allow the slow loris to remain inconspicuous and minimize energy expenditure . Vocal exchanges and alarm calls are limited ; scent marking with urine is the dominant form of communication . Adult males are highly territorial and are aggressive towards other males . Vocalizations include an affiliative ( friendly ) call krik , and a louder call resembling a crow 's caw . When disturbed , slow lorises can also produce a low buzzing hiss or growl . To make contact with other individuals , they emit a single high @-@ pitched rising tone , and females use a high whistle when in estrus .
Slow lorises are slow and deliberate climbers , and often hold on to branches with three of their four limbs . To move between trees , they carefully grip the terminal branches of the neighboring tree and pull themselves across the small gap . They will also grip branches with only their hind feet , lift themselves upright , and quickly launch forward with their hands to catch prey . Due to their slow movement , all lorises , including the slow lorises , have a specially adapted mechanism for defense against predation . Their slow , deliberate movement hardly disturbs the vegetation and is almost completely silent . Once disturbed , they immediately stop moving and remain motionless . In Indonesia , slow lorises are called malu malu or " shy one " because they freeze and cover their face when spotted . If cornered , they may adopt a defensive posture by curling up and lunging at the predator . The Acehnese name , buah angin ( " wind monkey " ) , refers to their ability to " fleetingly but silently escape " . Little is known about the predation of slow lorises . Documented predators include snakes , the changeable hawk @-@ eagle ( Nisaetus cirrhatus ) , and Sumatran orangutans ( Pongo abelii ) . Other potential predators include cats , sun bears ( Ursus malayanus ) , binturongs ( Arctictis binturong ) , and civets .
Slow lorises produce a secretion from their brachial gland ( a scent gland on the upper arm near the axilla ) that is licked and mixed with their saliva . In tests , three predators — binturongs , clouded leopards ( Neofelis nebulosa ) , and sun bears — retreated or showed other signs of displeasure when presented with cotton swabs anointed with a mixture of the toxic secretion and the saliva , whereas the toxic secretion alone generated mild interest . Before stashing their offspring in a secure location , female slow lorises will lick their brachial glands , and then groom their young with their toothcomb , depositing the toxin on their fur . When threatened , slow lorises may also lick their brachial glands and bite their aggressors , delivering the toxin into the wounds . Slow lorises can be reluctant to release their bite , which is likely to maximize the transfer of toxins . This toxic bite is a rare trait among mammals and unique to lorisid primates . It may also be used for defense against other slow lorises and parasites . According to Nekaris , this adaptation — along with vocalizations , movement , and coloration patterns similar to those of true cobras — may have evolved through Müllerian mimicry to protect slow lorises when they need to move across the ground due to breaks in the canopy .
According to folklore , brachial gland secretions are generally thought to contain venom because of apparent anaphylactic reactions by humans following their bites . Slow lorises can indeed inflict painful bites . Animal dealers in Southeast Asia keep tanks of water nearby so that in case of a bite , they can submerge both their arm and the slow loris to make the animal let go . The secretion from the brachial gland of captive slow lorises is similar to the allergen in cat dander , hence the secretions may merely elicit an allergic reaction , not toxicosis . Loris bites cause a painful swelling , and the single case of human death reported in the scientific literature was believed to have resulted from anaphylactic shock . However , although the toxin is only produced when the brachial secretion and saliva are mixed , both the secretion and saliva may have unique chemical properties and may act separately . Furthermore , secondary toxins may be introduced from the consumption of wild food , augmenting the toxicity . The combined brachial secretion and saliva of recently captured wild lorises was shown to contain batrachotoxins , which were not found in slow lorises held in captivity for more than a year .
Studies suggest that slow lorises are polygynandrous . Infants are either parked on branches while their parents find food or else are carried by one of the parents . Due to their long gestations ( about six months ) , small litter sizes , low birth weights , long weaning times ( three to six months ) , and long gaps between births , slow loris populations have one of the slowest growth rates among mammals of similar size . Pygmy slow lorises are likely to give birth to twins — from 50 % to 100 % of births , depending on the study ; in contrast , this phenomenon is rare ( 3 % occurrence ) in Bengal slow lorises . A seven @-@ year study of captive @-@ bred pygmy slow lorises showed a skewed sex distribution , with 1 @.@ 68 males born for every 1 female .
Breeding may be continuous throughout the year . Copulation often occurs while suspended with the hands and feet clinging to horizontal branches for support . In captive Sunda slow lorises , mating primarily occurs between June and mid @-@ September , with the estrus cycle lasting 29 to 45 days and estrus lasting one to five days . Likewise , gestation lasts 185 to 197 days , and the young weigh between 30 and 60 grams ( 1 @.@ 1 and 2 @.@ 1 oz ) at birth . Females reach sexual maturity at 18 to 24 months , while males are capable of reproducing at 17 months . However , the fathers become hostile towards their male offspring after 12 to 14 months and will chase them away . In captivity , they can live 20 or more years .
= = = Diet = = =
Slow lorises are omnivores , eating insects , other arthropods , small birds and reptiles , eggs , fruits , gums , nectar and miscellaneous vegetation . A 1984 study of the Sunda slow loris indicated that its diet consists of 71 % fruit and gums , and 29 % insects and other animal prey . A more detailed study of another Sunda slow loris population in 2002 and 2003 showed different dietary proportions , consisting of 43 @.@ 3 % gum , 31 @.@ 7 % nectar , 22 @.@ 5 % fruit , and just 2 @.@ 5 % arthropods and other animal prey . The most common dietary item was nectar from flowers of the Bertram palm ( Eugeissona tristis ) . The Sunda slow loris eats insects that other predators avoid due to their repugnant taste or smell .
Preliminary results of studies on the pygmy slow loris indicate that its diet consists primarily of gums and nectar ( especially nectar from Saraca dives flowers ) , and that animal prey makes up 30 – 40 % of its diet . However , one 2002 analysis of pygmy slow loris feces indicated that it contained 98 % insect remains and just 2 % plant remains . The pygmy slow loris often returns to the same gum feeding sites and leaves conspicuous gouges on tree trunks when inducing the flow of exudates . Slow lorises have been reported gouging for exudates at heights ranging from 1 m ( 3 ft 3 in ) to as much as 12 m ( 39 ft ) ; the gouging process , whereby the loris repetitively bangs its toothcomb into the hard bark , may be loud enough to be heard up to 10 m ( 33 ft ) away . The marks remaining after gouging can be used by field workers to assess loris presence in an area . Captive pygmy slow lorises also make characteristic gouge marks in wooden substrates , such as branches . It is not known how the sympatric pygmy and Bengal slow lorises partition their feeding niches . The plant gums , obtained typically from species in the family Fabaceae ( peas ) , are high in carbohydrates and lipids , and can serve as a year @-@ around source of food , or an emergency reserve when other preferred food items are scarce . Several anatomical adaptations present in slow lorises may enhance their ability to feed on exudates : a long narrow tongue to make it easier to reach gum stashed in cracks and crevices , a large cecum to help the animal digest complex carbohydrates , and a short duodenum to help quickly pass potentially toxic exudates . Slow lorises can use both hands to eat while hanging upside down from a branch . They spend about 20 % of their nightly activities feeding .
= = In culture = =
Beliefs about slow lorises and their use in traditional practices are deep @-@ rooted and go back at least 300 years , if not earlier based on oral traditions . In the late 19th and early 20th centuries , it was reported that the people from the interior of Borneo believed that slow lorises were the gatekeepers for the heavens and that each person had a personal slow loris waiting for them in the afterlife . More often , however , slow lorises are used in traditional medicine or to ward off evil . The following passage from an early textbook about primates is indicative of the superstitions associated with slow lorises :
Many strange powers are attributed to this animal by the natives of the countries it inhabits ; there is hardly an event in life to man , woman or child , or even domestic animals , that may not be influenced for better or worse by the Slow Loris , alive or dead , or by any separate part of it , and apparently one cannot usually tell at the time , that one is under supernatural power . Thus a Malay may commit a crime he did not premeditate , and then find that an enemy had buried a particular part of a Loris under his threshold , which had , unknown to him , compelled him to act to his own disadvantage . ... [ a slow loris 's ] life is not a happy one , for it is continually seeing ghosts ; that is why it hides its face in its hands .
In the Mondulkiri Province of Cambodia , hunters believe that lorises can heal their own broken bones immediately after falling from a branch so that they can climb back up the tree . They also believe that slow lorises have medicinal powers because they require more than one hit with a stick to die . In the province of North Sumatra , the slow loris is thought to bring good luck if it is buried under a house or a road . In the same province , slow loris body parts were used to place curses on enemies . In Java , it was thought that putting a piece of its skull in a water jug would make a husband more docile and submissive , just like a slow loris in the daytime . More recently , researchers have documented the belief that the consumption of loris meat was an aphrodisiac that improves " male power " . The gall bladder of the Bengal slow loris has historically been used to make ink for tattoos by the village elders in Pursat and Koh Kong Provinces of Cambodia . Loris wine is a traditional Cambodian medicine supposed to alleviate the pain of childbirth , made from a mixture of loris bodies and rice wine .
= = Conservation = =
The two greatest threats to slow lorises are deforestation and the wildlife trade . Slow lorises have lost a significant amount of habitat , with habitat fragmentation isolating small populations and obstructing biological dispersal . However , despite the lost habitat , their decline is most closely associated with unsustainable trade , either as exotic pets or for traditional medicine .
Each of the slow loris species that had been identified prior to 2012 are currently listed as either " Vulnerable " or " Endangered " by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) on their Red List . When they were all considered a single species , imprecise population data together with their regular occurrence in Southeast Asian animal markets combined to erroneously suggest that slow lorises were common . This manifested as incorrect Red List assessments of " Least Concern " as recently as 2000 . The three newest species are yet to be evaluated by the IUCN , although each were once thought to be subpopulations of the Bornean slow loris — which was evaluated as " Vulnerable " in 2008 . With this division of its range and population , the Bornean slow loris and the three new species face a higher risk of extinction than before .
Since 2007 , all slow loris species have been protected from commercial international trade under Appendix I of CITES . Furthermore , local trade is illegal because every nation in which they occur naturally has laws protecting them . Despite their CITES Appendix I status and local legal protection , slow lorises are still threatened by both local and international trade due to problems with enforcement . Surveys are needed to determine existing population densities and habitat viability for all species of slow loris . Connectivity between protected areas is important for slow lorises because they are not adapted to dispersing across the ground over large distances .
Populations of Bengal and Sunda slow lorises are not faring well in zoos . Of the 29 captive specimens in North American zoos in 2008 , several are hybrids that cannot breed , while most are past their reproductive years . The last captive birth for these species in North America was in 2001 in San Diego . Pygmy slow lorises are doing better in North American zoos ; from the late 1980s ( when they were imported ) to 2008 , the population grew to 74 animals , with most of them born at the San Diego Zoo .
= = = Wildlife trade = = =
Until the 1960s , the hunting of slow lorises was sustainable , but due to growing demand , decreased supply , and the subsequent increased value of the marketed wildlife , slow lorises have been overexploited and are in decline . With the use of modern technology , such as battery @-@ powered search lights , slow lorises have become easier to hunt because of their eye shine . Traditional medicine made from loris parts is thought to cure many diseases , and the demand for this medicine from wealthy urban areas has replaced the subsistence hunting traditionally performed in poor rural areas . A survey by primatologist Anna Nekaris and colleagues ( 2010 ) showed that these belief systems were so strong that the majority of respondents expressed reluctance to consider alternatives to loris @-@ based medicines .
Slow lorises are sold locally at street markets , but are also sold internationally over the Internet and in pet stores . They are especially popular or trendy in Japan , particularly among women . The reasons for their popularity , according to the Japan Wildlife Conservation Society , are that " they 're easy to keep , they don 't cry , they 're small , and just very cute . " Because of their " cuteness " , videos of pet slow lorises are some of the most frequently watched animal @-@ related viral videos on YouTube . In March 2011 , a newly posted video of a slow loris holding a cocktail umbrella had been viewed more than two million times , while an older video of a slow loris being tickled had been viewed more than six million times . According to Nekaris , these videos are misunderstood by most people who watch them , since most do not realize that it is illegal in most countries to own them as pets and that the slow lorises in the videos are only docile because that is their passive defensive reaction to threatening situations . Despite frequent advertisements by pet shops in Japan , the World Conservation Monitoring Centre reported that only a few dozen slow lorises were imported in 2006 , suggesting frequent smuggling . Slow lorises are also smuggled to China , Taiwan , Europe , Russia , the United States , and Saudi Arabia for use as pets .
Even within their countries of origin , slow lorises are very popular pets , particularly in Indonesia . They are seen as a " living toy " for children by local people or are bought out of pity by Western tourists or expatriates . Neither local nor foreign buyers usually know anything about these primates , their endangered status , or that the trade is illegal . Furthermore , few know about their strong odor or their potentially lethal bite . According to data compiled from monthly surveys and interviews with local traders , nearly a thousand locally sourced slow lorises exchanged hands in the Medan bird market in North Sumatra during the late first decade of the 21st century .
International trade usually causes a high mortality rate during transit , between 30 % and 90 % . Slow lorises also experience many health problems due to both local and international trade . In order to give the impression that the primates are tame and appropriate pets for children , to protect people from their potentially toxic bite , or to deceive buyers into thinking the animal is a baby , animal dealers either pull the front teeth with pliers or wire cutters or they cut them off with nail cutters . This results in severe bleeding , which sometimes causes shock or death . Dental infection is common and is fatal in 90 % of cases . Without their teeth , the animals can no longer fend for themselves in the wild , and must remain in captivity for life . The slow lorises found in animal markets are usually underweight and malnourished , and have had their fur dyed , which complicates species identification at rescue centers . As many as 95 % of the slow lorises rescued from the markets die of dental infection or improper care .
As part of the trade , infants are pulled prematurely from their parents , leaving them unable to remove their own urine , feces , and oily skin secretions from their fur . Slow lorises have a special network of blood vessels in their hands and feet , which makes them vulnerable to cuts when pulled from the wire cages they are kept in . Slow lorises are also stress @-@ sensitive and do not do well in captivity . Common health problems seen in pet slow lorises include undernourishment , tooth decay , diabetes , obesity , and kidney failure . Infection , stress , pneumonia , and poor nutrition lead to high death rates among pet lorises . Pet owners also fail to provide proper care because they are usually asleep when the nocturnal pet is awake .
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= Mauricio González @-@ Gordon y Díez =
Mauricio González @-@ Gordon y Díez , Marquis of Bonanza ( 18 October 1923 – 27 September 2013 ) was a Spanish sherry maker and a conservationist . Most of his life he worked for the family company , González Byass , where he increased its exports to a worldwide level . His family estate was located in the wetland region called Doñana in southern Spain and was threatened by drainage efforts in the early 1950s . González @-@ Gordon with the help of researchers and international support managed to preserve the site , while at the same time donating some of his family land to the conservation effort . Afterward , González @-@ Gordon became one of the founders of the Spanish Ornithological Society in 1954 . His conservation efforts for Doñana culminated in the creation of the Doñana National Park in 1969 . The area was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1994 .
= = Early years = =
González @-@ Gordon was born in Hampton Hill , London , United Kingdom , as a son to a Spanish family with Scottish descent rooted in the Clan Gordon . His parents were Manuel María González @-@ Gordon and Emilia Díez Gutiérrez . Mauricio , whose father was known as the ' Pope of Sherry ' , was the second of a total of four children . One of his ancestors , John David Gordon of Wardhouse , had moved to Jerez de la Frontera in the 18th century and started trading in sherry . At the time of his birth , González @-@ Gordon 's father Manuel was the chairman of González Byass and was actively promoting the brand in the United Kingdom . During his youth González @-@ Gordon was raised as a bilingual , being fluent in both Spanish and English . González @-@ Gordon moved to Jerez de la Frontera at age three to go to school in Spain . He was homeschooled by private tutors and attended La Salle Buen Pastor college . He later attended the Instituto Padre Luis Coloma . His primary studies were followed up by economic studies at the Jerez College of Commerce , where he licensed as a teacher of trade . He passed the final period of the Spanish Civil War in 1939 working in an airplane factory , helping construct Polikarpov planes for the aerial forces of General Francisco Franco . He attended the University of Seville and graduated in Chemical Sciences in 1946 .
= = González Byass = =
González @-@ Gordon worked most of his life for the family company González Byass , which specializes in making sherry . He was the fifth generation of the family to chair the company . While working for the firm he was involved in the making , tasting and commercialisation of sherry and in later years he also helped the company expand into producing brandy and several sorts of wine . Immediately after he finished his studies in 1946 he joined the business and started at the bottom with the picking and crushing of grapes . During this time he also learned about the solera system , which is used to age different type of liquids . His interest in oenology had only developed after visiting California the year he graduated . He visited California after previously being sent to New York by boat with twelve containers of wine . In 1955 he founded the first research center for viticulture and winemaking in Spain by establishing one at González Byass . For twenty years he was occupied as head of wine selection at the company . González @-@ Gordon also served on the board of González Byass beginning in 1961 , and was president of the company between 1993 and 1999 . During this period González @-@ Gordon managed to expand the business by exporting all over the world , including to the United States , United Kingdom , China and East Asia . After his time as president he continued to serve as an advisor to his son , Mauricio Junior , who took over his position . Apart from his work at González Byass González @-@ Gordon also diverted some of his time towards the regulatory council of the sherry making industry , serving for 24 years .
= = Conservationism = =
González @-@ Gordon was involved with conservationism from an early age ; he was also an avid bird watcher and would become an ornithologist . His family estate was located in the Coto Doñana , a wetland at the mouth of the river Guadalquivir , near Jerez de la Frontera , in southern Spain . Here González @-@ Gordon became interested in the local ecosystem and invited European ornithologists to visit the area . When two Spanish ornithologists , Professor Francisco Bernis and José Antonio Valverde visited , González @-@ Gordon served as their guide . The González @-@ Gordon family saw that the wetlands were threatened by the planting of eucalyptus trees and large @-@ scale drainage plans proposed by the government . Mauricio , together with his father , asked Bernis to try and influence Spanish dictator Francisco Franco into abandoning these proposals . The trio wrote a memorandum which was presented to Franco himself by Mauricio 's father Manuel . By November 1953 , Bernis had finished a report on the value of the Doñana , which showed that the area had exceptional ecological value . The group sought international support for their goals and found it . The efforts of González @-@ Gordon to dissuade Franco exposed him to some danger , but the Franco government conceded and the drainage plans were aborted .
By 1963 an international organisation founded with the goal of protecting Doñana had purchased 7 @,@ 000 hectares ( 17 @,@ 000 acres ) in the area . After winning their fight against the construction plans González @-@ Gordon , Bernis and Valverde wished to create a Spanish foundation for ornithology . The idea to start the organisation had already come up in their first meeting . In May 1954 they founded the Spanish Ornithological Society ( SEO ) in Madrid , which currently is the Spanish affiliate of BirdLife International . The trio had written the founding statutes among themselves . The organisation was supported by visits to Doñana of famous ornithologists as Edward Max Nicholson and Julian Huxley , with González @-@ Gordon guiding them around . He would also serve as chair of the board of SEO between 1966 and 1968 . The Doñana area was turned into Doñana National Park in 1969 . The González @-@ Gordon family ceded much of its land between Bonanza and Matalascañas for the creation of the national park . In 1994 the area was turned into an UNESCO World Heritage Site and currently measures 543 square kilometres ( 210 sq mi ) . The park has a wide range of ecosystems and is especially important for migratory birds . González @-@ Gordon also wrote a translation of Roger Tory Peterson 's A Field Guide to the Birds of Britain and Europe in 1957 .
= = Personal life = =
González @-@ Gordon has been described as being proud of his Scottish heritage , which centred on the town of Huntly and the Clan Gordon . His personal clothing style reflected this ; he was noted for his tweed jackets and British clothes in general . He had been married to Milagro López de Carrizosa y Eizaguirre for 62 years before she died in July 2013 . The couple had two children , Bibiana and Mauricio , with Mauricio being the current president of the family company . During the three final years of his life González @-@ Gordon was in poor health and could hardly leave his home . He died on 27 September 2013 in his hometown of Jerez de la Frontera at the age of 89 . His family claims that the last thing he drank was a Tío Pepe , the most famous brand of the family business . His death occurred at the Asisa clinic where he had spent his last couple of weeks . The memorial service was held at the San Juan Bautista de La Salle church on 28 September .
Apart from his work at González Byass and his conservation efforts at Doñana he was also president of the local Red Cross organisation in Jerez de la Frontera , serving as its president for thirteen years , between 1974 and 1988 .
= = Honours and decorations = =
Mauricio González @-@ Gordon y Díez was Marquis of Bonanza , obtaining the title after the death of his father in 1980 . During the course of his life he received several honours and decorations :
Cross of Naval Merit with White Decoration awarded by the King of Spain for his dedication to sailing .
Knight of the Order of the Dannebrog awarded by the Queen of Denmark ( 1985 ) .
Member of the Gran Orden de Caballeros del Vino awarded by the British embassy in Spain .
Golden medal awarded by the Red Cross ( 1986 ) .
Golden medal of Oenologic Merit and Grand Cross of Agricultural Merit by Miguel Arias Cañete , Spanish Minister for Agriculture , Food and Environment ( 2011 ) .
In 2004 he received the Bernis Award for Ornithology from the Spanish Ornithological Society / BirdLife for his pioneering work and lifetime contribution to conservation , especially of Doñana . He was awarded the Premio Andalucía de Medio Ambiente , the Andalusian Prize of Environment , by the government of Andalusia in 2005 . In 2009 he was made hijo predilecto , favourite son , of the municipality of Jerez de la Frontera .
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= Loetoeng Kasaroeng =
Loetoeng Kasaroeng is a 1926 fantasy film from the Dutch East Indies ( modern @-@ day Indonesia ) which was directed and produced by L. Heuveldorp . An adaptation of the Sundanese folktale Lutung Kasarung ( The Lost Lutung ) , the film tells of a young girl who falls in love with a magical lutung and stars the children of noblemen . Details on its performance are unavailable , although it is known to have been of poor technical quality and thought to have performed poorly . It was the first film produced in the country and the first to feature a native @-@ Indonesian cast . It is likely a lost film .
= = Plot = =
Purbasari and Purbararang are sisters and in competition . Purbararang , the elder sister , teases Purbasari about the latter 's lover , a lutung named Guru Minang ; Purbarang 's boyfriend , Indrajaya , is a handsome human . However , the girls discover that Guru Minang is actually a god who is more handsome than Indrajaya .
= = Production = =
The first showing of films in the Dutch East Indies was in 1900 , and over the next twenty years foreign productions – generally from the United States – were imported and shown throughout the country . Domestic production of documentaries had begun in 1911 but were unable to compete with imported works . By 1923 a local feature film production spearheaded by the Middle East Film Co. was announced , but the work was not completed .
Under pressure from imported works , in 1926 N.V. Java Film , a production house based in Batavia ( modern @-@ day Jakarta ) which had previously produced a single documentary , Inlanders op de Krokodillenjacht ( Native Crocodile Hunters ) , chose to make a feature film based on the Sundanese folktale Lutung Kasarung . The company 's owner , L. Heuveldorp served as director and producer , while its laboratory head G. Krugers handled cinematography and processing . Little biographical information is available regarding the background of both men , although it was reported that Heuveldorp had previous experience from working in the United States .
The cast was drawn entirely from the priyayi ( noble ) class , under the coordination of school headmaster Kartabrata . Among the cast were children of Wiranatakusumah V , the regent of Bandung ; he had agreed to help fund the film to promote Sundanese culture , and had previously brought the story to the stage . Further subsidies had come from the Ministry of Defence , which donated trucks to ease filming .
Filming had begun by August 1926 , when several scenes were shot in a cave that had been excavated for the production on Karang Hill . Heuveldorp , unable to force the actors to play their roles seriously , shot several scenes with them acting as they wished before showing them the results ; upon realising that their acting had been disappointing , the cast began to listen to stage directions . Afterwards they began rehearsing each scene at least twice , with Kartabrata standing behind the cameraman and giving directions .
= = Release and reception = =
The film was screened on 31 December 1926 at the Oriental and Elita Theatres in Bandung , making it the first domestically @-@ produced feature film and the first with a native cast . The advertisements were in both Dutch- and Malay @-@ language publications . The film was screened for only a week , with live Sundanese gamelan performances providing music , after which Loetoeng Kasaroeng was replaced with Hollywood films . Although its box office performance is not recorded , it is thought to have been poor .
A review by " Bandoenger " in Panorama magazine considered the film of poor technical quality compared to imported films , suggesting that the production was underfunded ; the review states that some actors were not paid for their work . The Indonesian film historian Misbach Yusa Biran wrote that Loetoeng Kasaroeng would have been poorly received outside of East Java , owing to Sundanese culture and dance not being considered interesting to other ethnic groups , particularly the Javanese . William van der Heide , a lecturer on film studies at the University of Newcastle in Australia , notes that the tendency of European filmmakers to depict natives as primitives may also have influenced the poor ticket sales .
= = Legacy = =
Although Heuveldorp is not recorded as being involved in any more fiction film productions , Krugers went on to direct several films , including the area 's first talkie , Karnadi Anemer Bangkong ( 1931 ) , before leaving the country in 1936 . At least one of the cast members , Oemar , is recorded as continuing to act . Lutung Kasarung was adapted to film twice further , in 1952 and 1983 .
After Loetoeng Kasaroeng was released , numerous domestic films were made . The second domestic production , Eulis Atjih ( 1927 ) , was directed by Krugers and received a wider release . With the release of Lily van Java ( Lily of Java ) in 1928 , ethnic Chinese became involved in the industry ; by 1940 native directors had become common . However , the first truly Indonesian film is considered to be Usmar Ismail 's Darah dan Doa ( The Long March ) in 1950 , released after the Dutch recognised Indonesia 's independence in 1949 .
Loetoeng Kasaroeng is likely a lost film . The American visual anthropologist Karl G. Heider wrote that all Indonesian films from before 1950 are lost . However , JB Kristanto 's Katalog Film Indonesia ( Indonesian Film Catalogue ) records several as having survived at Sinematek Indonesia 's archives , and Biran writes that several Japanese propaganda films have survived at the Netherlands Government Information Service .
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= Unforgiven ( 2004 ) =
Unforgiven ( 2004 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) and presented by Clearasil , which took place on September 12 , 2004 , at the Rose Garden in Portland , Oregon . It was the sixth annual ( seventh overall ) Unforgiven event . The show 's seven matches showcased prominent WWE wrestlers , who acted out the franchise 's stories in and out of the ring . The event starred talent from the Raw brand . It is one of only two WWE pay @-@ per @-@ view events to ever be held in the state of Oregon , the other being No Mercy 2008 .
The main event was Randy Orton versus Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship , which Triple H won by pinfall after executing a Pedigree onto a steel chair . One of the predominant matches on the card was Shawn Michaels versus Kane in a No Disqualification match , which Michaels won after performing Sweet Chin Music . Another primary match on the undercard was Chris Jericho versus Christian in a Ladder match for the vacant WWE Intercontinental Championship , which Jericho won by retrieving the suspended belt .
= = Background = =
Seven professional wrestling matches were scheduled on the event 's card beforehand , which were planned with predetermined outcomes by WWE 's script writers . The buildup to these matches and scenarios that took place before , during and after the event were also planned by the script writers . The event featured wrestlers and other talent from Raw 's brand – a storyline expansion in which WWE assigned its employees . Wrestlers portrayed either a villainous or fan favorite gimmick , as they followed a series of events which generally built tension , leading to a wrestling match .
The main feud heading into the event was between Randy Orton and Triple H over the World Heavyweight Championship . At the August pay @-@ per @-@ view event , SummerSlam , WWE 's previous pay @-@ per @-@ view event , Orton defeated Chris Benoit to win the World Heavyweight Championship , thus making Orton the youngest World Heavyweight Champion in WWE history . On the August 16 , 2004 edition of Raw , one of WWE 's primary television programs , Orton successfully retained the title in a rematch with Benoit . After the match , Evolution ( Batista , Ric Flair , and Triple H ) , Orton 's fellow stablemates , threw him a fake celebration , only to reveal that they were not pleased with his new victory . While Batista had Orton propped on his shoulders in elation , Triple H gave him a pleased thumbs up ; Triple H , however , abruptly changed the thumbs up to a thumbs @-@ down and told Batista to drop Orton to the mat . Flair and Batista then began to beat Orton in the ring as Triple H claimed that Orton was nothing without Evolution . Orton 's break @-@ up with Evolution began a new storyline for him as a fan favorite when he continued to feud with his former group members . On the August 23 edition of Raw , after Orton refused to give Triple H the World title , Orton spat in Triple H 's face and hit him with the title belt . General Manager Eric Bischoff then scheduled a match between the two for the World Heavyweight title at Unforgiven . The following week on Raw , Eugene defeated Triple H in a singles match after Orton interfered and performed an RKO on Triple H. On the September 6 edition Raw , Orton defeated Kane in a Steel Cage match , which Orton won by escaping the cage . Shortly after the match ended , Ric Flair and Batista came out and , along with Triple H , began attacking Orton . In an interview with the Daily Star in 2006 , Orton revealed that WWE chairman , Vince McMahon , came up with the idea of having Orton be a fan favorite the day of SummerSlam . According to Orton , transforming into a fan favorite was " tough " because " no one bought it " .
The second main feud heading into the event was between Kane and Shawn Michaels . This feud began the night after Bad Blood , when Michaels lost a Hell in a Cell match to Triple H. Raw commentator Jim Ross tried making amends between Michaels and Triple H by making them to shake hands . Michaels and Triple H extended their hands to shake , however , Kane came out and attacked Michaels , which resulted in Kane , in storyline , crushing Michaels ' throat with a wedged chair . Michaels was then taken out in an ambulance for medical attention . On the June 28 , 2004 edition of Raw , Ross interviewed Kane and asked him to explain his actions towards Michaels ; Kane explained that he was robbed of the World Heavyweight Championship at Bad Blood against Chris Benoit , as Michaels got in his way , which angered him . On the August 30 edition of Raw , Kane revealed that Eric Bischoff 's wedding gift to him and Lita , who married the week before , was to name any match he wanted for the September pay @-@ per @-@ view , Unforgiven . Lita then informed Kane that Bischoff 's present was for both of them , where they were able to pick Kane 's opponent for Unforgiven , which resulted in Michaels being picked .
The third main feud heading into the event was between Chris Jericho and Christian over the vacant WWE Intercontinental Championship . On the September 6 , 2004 edition of Raw , Eric Bischoff stripped Edge of the Intercontinental Championship , after Edge suffered a legitimate injury . Christian interrupted Bischoff and stated that all his peeps would riot the streets if Bischoff did not award him the vacant championship . Jericho suggested that he and Christian wrestle in a match on Raw over the vacant championship . Bischoff , however , scheduled a Ladder match at Unforgiven between Christian and Jericho .
= = Event = =
Before the event aired live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , Maven and Rodney Mack ( with Jazz ) faced off in a match during Sunday Night Heat . Maven pinned Mack with a roll @-@ up after Mack collided with Jazz .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The first match of the event was the tag team encounter of Chris Benoit and William Regal against the team of Evolution ( Ric Flair and Batista ) . The match started off with Batista and Chris Benoit , who brawled back and forth until Flair was tagged in . Flair and Benoit exchanged knife edge chops . Batista and Regal then spar , but Batista was able to gain control over Regal , until Benoit and Flair tag in to the match . Benoit and Flair spar back and forth , until Flair applied the Figure four lock only for Benoit to reverse it into the Crippler Crossface , in which Flair submitted to , giving the win to Benoit and Regal .
The next match was the encounter of Victoria and Trish Stratus ( with Tyson Tomko ) for the WWE Women 's Championship . Victoria gained control over Stratus early into the match , however , Stratus gained control after Tomko interfered on her behalf . After Stratus gained the advantage , she hit a Stratusfaction on Victoria and got a successful pinfall , thus Stratus winning the match and retaining the Women 's Championship . After the match , Tomko tried to attack Victoria , until she was saved by an unknown man in a dress . Tomko then challenged the mystery superstar into a match .
The third match was between Tyson Tomko and Stevie Richards , the man dressed in women 's clothing . Tomko quickly gained the advantage after stripping off all of the clothes on Richards , leaving Richards left wearing a pair of woman 's underwear . Tomko continued his attack on Richards by hitting a swinging neckbreaker and winning the match via pinfall .
The fourth match was for the vacant WWE Intercontinental Championship between Christian and Chris Jericho in a Ladder match . The two superstars brawled early into the match , but they then retrieved ladders and used them to their advantage . Christian was then able to gain control over the match after he performed a running enziguri onto Jericho . The two superstars then continued in a back and forth match , until Jericho applied the Walls of Jericho on Christian , on the top of the ladder , which caused Christian to fall down . Jericho failed to retrieve the title on the first attempt , but was able to set up another ladder and successfully retrieved the title on the second attempt , thus Jericho winning the match and the WWE Intercontinental Championship .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The next match was a No Disqualification match between Kane , who was accompanied by Lita , and Shawn Michaels . Kane would gain the early advantage as he suplexed Michaels through the announcers table , which resulted in the table breaking . Kane would continue to brawl with Michaels at ringside where he hit Michaels face first onto the ringside steel steps , which resulted in Michaels bleeding from the forehead . As Kane attempted to hit Michaels with a steel chair , Michaels would counter it with Sweet Chin Music , which gained a successful pinfall .
The following match was for the World Tag Team Championship , in which champions La Résistance ( Sylvain Grenier and Robért Conway ) defended the title against Tajiri and Rhyno . There was back and forth action between the two teams , as all the superstars were able to participate in the match . Grenier hit Rhyno with a Quebec flag and managed to pin him and La Resistance winning the match and retaining the World Tag Team title .
The seventh and final match was between Randy Orton and Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship . Both Orton and Triple H managed to get the upper hand in the match . During the match , Ric Flair and Batista interfered on behalf of Triple H , as they attacked Orton while the referee was knocked out . Jonathan Coachman also took part in the match as he ran down with a referee shirt and tried to act as a guest referee . Orton managed to get the upper hand over Flair , Batista and Coachman as he hit an RKO on all three of them . Triple H , however , managed to hit Orton with a steel chair , which proceeded with a Pedigree onto the same chair . Batista then rolled the referee into the ring , as Triple H covered Orton for the win via pinfall .
= = Aftermath = =
Following Unforgiven , Triple H had a celebration thrown in his honor , complete with six women , confetti , streamers and a giant cake . Randy Orton , however , sought revenge , as he lashed out at all three Evolution members , as he came out of the giant cake , which was placed in the center of the ring , and humiliated the group . Orton was however ineligible to face Triple H at Taboo Tuesday for the World Heavyweight Championship , as he was unable to win a match against Batista , which would have given Orton a championship match . On the October 4 , 2004 edition of Raw , three candidates were named as potential contenders for Triple H 's World Heavyweight Championship at Taboo Tuesday ; Chris Benoit and Edge were revealed as two of the candidates . Shawn Michaels , however , competed in a qualifying match , which it saw him defeat Christian , to become the third candidate . On the October 18 edition of Raw , a Triple Threat match was scheduled between Michaels , Benoit and Edge , which Edge won after he pinned Benoit by using the ropes for leverage . During the match , Michaels injured his knee , and it was later revealed that he tore his meniscus . At Taboo Tuesday , Michaels won the fans vote and faced Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship , however , Michaels was unable to win the match after Edge interfered and speared Michaels , allowing Triple H to pin him .
Randy Orton began a feud with Ric Flair , after Flair was the one responsible for making Orton lose the match against Batista . Orton commented on every accomplishment that Flair had made and criticized him for calling Triple H the greatest wrestler of all . Flair retaliated to Orton 's comments , stating that individuals like Shawn Michaels and Mick Foley , who Orton had previously feuded with , were not legends , therefore Orton was not a Legend Killer . Flair also stated that he and Orton would have a match at Taboo Tuesday and the fans would have the opportunity to choose what type of match they face in . At Taboo Tuesday , Orton and Flair met in a Steel Cage match , which was the fans selection . Orton won the match after delivering an RKO to Flair . After the match , Flair shook Orton 's hand .
At Taboo Tuesday , Chris Jericho lost the Intercontinental Championship to Shelton Benjamin via pinfall . Benjamin won the vote to face Jericho ; he also was voted over Batista , Jonathan Coachman , Christian , Rhyno , Maven , William Regal , The Hurricane , Tyson Tomko , Tajiri , Steven Richards , Val Venis , Rosey , Chuck Palumbo , and Rodney Mack .
On the October 11 , 2004 edition of Raw , La Résistance had to defend the World Tag Team Championship in a match with Eugene and William Regal . Regal hit Sylvain Grenier with a pair of brass knuckles and pinned him to win the World Tag Team title . Eric Bischoff , however , restarted the match . The match resulted in La Résistance retaining the title , after Robért Conway jabbed Regal in the side with a flagpole . Bischoff informed La Résistance that at Taboo Tuesday they were scheduled to defend the World Tag Team title against the two individuals who were not chosen to face Triple H for the World title . Shawn Michaels won the fans choice , which gave Edge and Chris Benoit a World Tag Team title match . Edge , however , abandoned Benoit during the match , which forced Benoit to wrestle both members of La Résistance by himself . Despite this , Benoit managed to force Conway to submit to the Crippler Crossface to win the World Tag Team Championship .
= = Results = =
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= B3 ( classification ) =
B3 is a medical based Paralympic classification for blind sport . Competitors in this classification have partial sight , with visual acuity from 2 / 60 to 6 / 60 . It is used by a number of blind sports including para @-@ alpine skiing , para @-@ Nordic skiing , blind cricket , blind golf , five @-@ a @-@ side football , goalball and judo . Some other sports , including adaptive rowing , athletics and swimming , have equivalents to this class .
The B3 classification was first created by the IBSA in the 1970s , and has largely remained unchanged since despite an effort by the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) to move towards a more functional and evidence @-@ based classification system . Classification is often handled on the international level by the International Blind Sports Association ( IBSA ) although it is also handled by national sport federations . There are exceptions for sports like athletics and cycling .
Equipment utilized by competitors in this class may differ from sport to sport , and may include sighted guides , guide rails , beeping balls and clapsticks . There may be some modifications related to equipment and rules to specifically address needs of competitors in this class to allow them to compete in specific sports . Some sports specifically do not allow a guide , whereas cycling and skiing require one .
= = Definition = =
B3 is a disability sport classification for people who have partial vision . The International Blind Sports Federation ( IBSA ) defines this classification as " From visual acuity above 2 / 60 to visual acuity of 6 / 60 and / or visual field of more than 5 degrees and less than 20 degrees . " The Canadian Paralympic Committee defined B3 as " No more than 10 % functional vision . " Competitors in this class " can make out shapes with the help of glasses " .
This classification is borrowed by some other sports , including blind golf who also define the class as " From visual acuity above 20 / 60 up to visual acuity of 6 / 60 and / or visual field of above 5 degrees and less than 20 degrees . " Para @-@ alpine skiing sport specific versions of this definition include one by the Australian Paralympic Committee which defined this classification as " Athletes with slightly more vision or more than five degrees but less than 20 degrees . " The International Paralympic Committee defined B3 for alpine skiing as " From visual acuity above 20 / 60 up to visual acuity of 6 / 60 and / or visual field of more than 5 degrees and less than 20 degrees . " This classification has parallels in other sports . For adaptive rowing , the comparable classification is LTA @-@ B3 ; for athletics , the class is T13 ; and equivalent for swimming is S13 .
IBSA handles classification for a number of sports internationally including five @-@ a @-@ side football , goalball and judo . Part of being classified involves assessing vision for factors including visual acuity , contrast sensitivity , color vision , motion detections and visual field . When being assessed into this class by the IBSA , the process first includes the athlete filling out a consent form , submitting a photograph , and scheduling an appointment with a classifier for evaluation . During the evaluation , the competitor may be accompanied by another person to assist them in communicating with the classifiers . If necessary , the person can also bring a translator . The assessment is then conducted and is medical . There are several status groups used by classifiers that assist in classification . This includes confirmed for competitors who have a visual impairment unlikely to change , Review for competitors who have vision that may fluctuate , New for competitors who have never been classified before , Not Eligible for competitors who have a visual impairment that is not severe enough and not likely to deteriorate in the future to the point where they could be eligible .
Classification is also handled on a national and by sport level . Australians seeking classification for blind sports can be classified by an IBSA classifier or an Australian Paralympic Committee vision impairment classifier . In the United Kingdom , blind sport is handled by British Blind Sport , which is recognized nationally by Sport England . In the United States , governance related to this classification is handled by the United States Association for Blind Athletes ( USABA ) .
Not all sports use IBSA classifiers . For adaptive rowing , classification assignment may be handled by FISA , as was the case at the 2008 Summer Paralympics . In athletics , classification assignment may be handled by the IPC , as was the case at the 2008 Summer Paralympics . Cycling classification assignment for this class may be handled by the UCI , as was the case at the 2008 Summer Paralympic . Otherwise , the swimmer competes under the normal rules governing Fédération Internationale de Natation ( FINA ) , the sport 's highest authority , swimming competitions . Swimming classification handled by IPC Swimming .
= = Sports = =
Eligible Paralympic sports for the B3 classification include adaptive rowing , athletics , cycling five @-@ a @-@ side football , goalball , judo , para @-@ alpine skiing , para @-@ Nordic skiing , and swimming . On the Paralympic level , a number of disability sports are not open to this classification or other visually impaired competitors including archery , basketball , boccia , curling , fencing , ice sledge hockey , powerlifting , rugby , shooting , table tennis , tennis , volleyball . Equestrian sport is not open to Paralympic sport in this classification , and the FEI classification system has no parallel classification available for other levels of national and international competition . For non @-@ Paralympic sports or sports removed from the Paralympic programme , the classification is used in blind golf and lawn bowls .
Performance can differ for this class compared to other blind classes . In swimming , the B1 class is significantly slower than B2 and B3 classes in 100 meter freestyle . The B3 class is significantly faster than B1 and B2 in the 100 meter backstroke .
= = History = =
B3 traces its history to the early history of blind sport . There was a belief that those with vision impairment that was less severe had a competitive advantage over competitors who had more severe impairment . Classification was developed by the IBSA to insure more even competition across the different bands of visual acuity . In 1976 , the International Sports Organization for the Disabled ( ISOD ) developed a blind classification system . Parallel to this , IBSA and national blind sport associations were developing their own classification system , with the IBSA one based on visual acuity in place by 1980 . The rise of the IBSA classification system for blind sport meant the ISOD classification system failed to gain traction in blind sports competition .
The IBSA classification system has largely remained unchanged since it was put in place , even as the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) attempted to move towards a more functional disability and evidence based system that does not rely on medical based classification . In 2003 , the IPC made an attempt to address " the overall objective to support and co @-@ ordinate the ongoing development of accurate , reliable , consistent and credible sport focused classification systems and their implementation . " The IPC approved a classification system at the IPC General Assembly in 2007 . This classification was part of the overall blind class group , and was still medically based despite changes in other disability types . IBSA was not prepared at the time to move towards a more functional classification system that is utilized other disability groups and sports .
In some cases , non @-@ Paralympic , non @-@ IBSA affiliated sports have developed their own classification systems . This is the case with blind golf , where a classification existed by 1990 and was used at the Australian Open Golf Tournament for the Blind and Visually Impaired . At that time , four classifications existed and were the same as the IBSA for this class .
= = Equipment = =
Equipment utilized by competitors in the B3 class may include sighted guides , guide rails , beeping balls and clap sticks .
The use of a sighted guide by people in this class is dependent on the specific requirements of the sport . In athletics , where the parallel classification is T13 , runners do not use guides in competition and generally do not use them in training . In cycling , this classification uses a guide , while utilizing a tandem bicycle with the guide sitting at the front . When a cyclist is looking for a guide , they are encouraged to find one with a pace similar to their own .
In para @-@ alpine and para @-@ Nordic skiing , guides for B2 and B3 skiers often position themselves differently as the skiers have some vision , which means the things a guide assists with will be different from what is required of a skier who has almost no sight . The guide may ski in front of the skier and use visual cues to inform the skier of what is ahead of them on the course .
For S13 swimmers , a tapper may stand on the pool deck to tap the swimmer as they approach the wall . The swimmer has to bring their own tapper . Having a tapper is optional .
In blind archery , B3 archers must use a tactile sighting device , and be unable to use a bowsight .
= = Rules = =
There are some rule differences for the B3 classification in competition that are sport specific . In adaptive rowing 's Coxed Four boat , LTA4 + , the maximum number of rowers from this class allowed in the boat is one . In athletics , T13 runners may get assistance at water stations in longer races . In blind cricket , no more than four players in this class are allowed out of the eleven total players .
While this classifications is open to five @-@ a @-@ side blind football , women are not eligible to compete at the Paralympic Games . This classification is eligible to play goalkeeper but in some competitions is not allowed to be a field player .
In judo , all three blind sport classes compete against each other , with competitors classified by weight for the purposes of competition . Weight classes use the international standards used in the Olympics .
In IBSA sailing competitions , the three person boat can have a maximum of five points , and must include at least one female and one male sailor on the boat . In competitions run by Blind Sailing International , this class sometimes competes only against other boats with where all the sailors are in this class .
In swimming , outside the use of a tapper , the swimmer competes under the normal rules governing FINA swimming competitions .
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= Beetlejuice =
Beetlejuice is a 1988 American comedy fantasy film directed by Tim Burton , produced by The Geffen Film Company and distributed by Warner Bros. The plot revolves around a recently deceased young couple ( Alec Baldwin and Geena Davis ) who become ghosts haunting their former home , and an obnoxious , devious ghost named Betelgeuse ( pronounced Beetlejuice , portrayed by Michael Keaton ) from the Netherworld who tries to scare away the new inhabitants ( Catherine O 'Hara , Jeffrey Jones , and Winona Ryder ) permanently .
After the success of Pee @-@ wee 's Big Adventure , Burton was sent several scripts and became disheartened by their lack of imagination and originality . When he was sent Michael McDowell 's original script for Beetlejuice , Burton agreed to direct , although Larry Wilson and later Warren Skaaren were hired to rewrite it . Beetlejuice was a critical and commercial success , grossing $ 73 @.@ 7 million from a budget of $ 15 million . It won the Academy Award for Best Makeup and three Saturn Awards : Best Horror Film , Best Makeup and Best Supporting Actress for Sylvia Sidney , her final award before her death in 1999 .
The film spawned an animated television series that Burton produced and a planned unproduced sequel , Beetlejuice Goes Hawaiian . In 2012 , new development on a sequel was announced .
= = Plot = =
Barbara and Adam Maitland decide to spend their vacation decorating their idyllic Connecticut country home . As the two are driving home from a trip to town , Barbara swerves to avoid a dog and the car plunges into a river . After they return home , she and Adam notice that they now lack reflections and they discover a Handbook for the Recently Deceased . They then begin to suspect that they did not survive the car accident ; Adam attempts to leave the house but finds himself in a strange , otherworldly landscape covered in sand and populated by enormous sandworms .
The house is old and their new owners , the Deetz family , arrive from New Yawk City . Charles Deetz is a former real estate developer ; his second wife Delia is a self @-@ proclaimed sculptor ; and his goth daughter Lydia , from his first marriage , is an aspiring photographer . Under the guidance of interior designer Otho , the Deetzes transform the house into tasteless pastel @-@ toned modern art . Consulting the Handbook , the Maitlands travel to an otherworldly waiting room populated by other distressed souls , where they discover that the afterlife is structured according to a complex bureaucracy involving vouchers and caseworkers . The Maitlands ' own caseworker , Juno , informs them that they must remain in the house for 125 years . If they want the Deetzes out of the house , it is up to them to scare them away . Barbara 's and Adam 's attempts at scaring the family prove ineffective .
Although Adam and Barbara remain invisible to Charles and Delia , teenage Lydia can see the ghost couple and befriends them . Against Juno 's advice , the Maitlands contact the miscreant Beetlejuice , Juno 's former assistant and now freelance " bio @-@ exorcist " ghost , to scare away the Deetzes . However , Betelgeuse quickly offends the Maitlands with his crude and morbid demeanor ; and they reconsider hiring him , though too late to stop him from wreaking havoc on the Deetzes . The small town 's charm and the supernatural events inspire Charles to pitch his boss Maxie Dean on transforming the town into a tourist hot spot , but Maxie wants proof of the ghosts . Using the Handbook for the Recently Deceased , Otho conducts what he thinks is a séance and summons Adam and Barbara , but they begin to decay and die , as Otho had unwittingly performed an exorcism instead . Horrified , Lydia summons Betelgeuse for help ; but he agrees to help her only on the condition that she marry him , enabling him to freely cause chaos in the mortal world . Betelgeuse saves the Maitlands and disposes of Maxie , his wife , and Otho . Betelgeuse then prepares a wedding before a ghastly minister . The Maitlands intervene before the ceremony is completed , with Barbara riding a sandworm through the house to devour Betelgeuse .
Finally , the Deetzes and Maitlands agree to live in harmony within the house . Betelgeuse , meanwhile , is stuck in the after @-@ life waiting room ; there he antagonizes a witch doctor , who shrinks his head . Being Beetlejuice , however , he remains upbeat : " This could be a good look for me . "
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
The financial success of Pee @-@ wee 's Big Adventure ( 1985 ) meant that Burton was considered a " bankable " director , and he began working on a script for Batman with Sam Hamm . While Warner Bros. was willing to pay for the script 's development , they were less willing to green @-@ light Batman . Meanwhile , Burton had begun reading the scripts that had been sent his way , and was disheartened by their lack of imagination and originality , one of them being Hot to Trot . David Geffen handed Burton the script for Beetlejuice , written by McDowell ( who wrote the script for " The Jar " , an episode of Alfred Hitchcock Presents directed by Burton ) .
Wilson was brought on board to continue rewriting work with McDowell , though Burton replaced McDowell and Wilson with Skaaren due to creative differences . Burton 's original choice for Betelgeuse was Sammy Davis , Jr . , but Geffen suggested Keaton . Burton was unfamiliar with Keaton 's work , but was quickly convinced . Burton cast Ryder upon seeing her in Lucas . O 'Hara quickly signed on , while Burton claimed it took a lot of time to convince other cast members to sign , as " they didn 't know what to think of the weird script . "
Beetlejuice 's budget was $ 15 million , with just $ 1 million given over to visual effects work . Considering the scale and scope of the effects , which included stop motion , replacement animation , prosthetic makeup , puppetry and blue screen , it was always Burton 's intention to make the style similar to the B movies he grew up with as a child . " I wanted to make them look cheap and purposely fake @-@ looking , " Burton remarked . Burton had wanted to hire Anton Furst as production designer after being impressed with his work on The Company of Wolves ( 1984 ) and Full Metal Jacket ( 1987 ) , though Furst was committed on High Spirits , a choice he later regretted . He hired Bo Welch , his future collaborator on Edward Scissorhands ( 1990 ) and Batman Returns ( 1992 ) . The test screenings were met with positive feedback and prompted Burton to film an epilogue featuring Betelgeuse foolishly angering a witch doctor . Warner Bros. disliked the title Beetlejuice and wanted to call the film House Ghosts . As a joke , Burton suggested the name Scared Sheetless and was horrified when the studio actually considered using it . Exterior shots were filmed in East Corinth , Vermont .
= = = Story development = = =
McDowell 's original script is far less comedic and much darker ; the Maitlands ' car crash is depicted graphically , with Barbara 's arm being crushed and the couple screaming for help as they slowly drown in the river . A reference to this remained in all versions of the script , as Barbara remarks that her arm feels cold upon returning home as a ghost . Instead of possessing the Deetzes and forcing them to dance during dinner , the Maitlands cause a vine @-@ patterned carpet to come to life and attack the Deetzes by tangling them to their chairs .
The character of Betelgeuse — envisioned by McDowell as a winged demon who takes on the form of a short Middle Eastern man — is also intent on killing the Deetzes rather than scaring them , and wants to rape Lydia instead of marry her . In this version of the script , Betelgeuse only needs to be exhumed from his grave to be summoned , after which he is free to wreak havoc ; he cannot be summoned or controlled by saying his name three times , and wanders the world freely , appearing to torment different characters in different manifestations . McDowell 's script also featured a second Deetz child , nine @-@ year @-@ old Cathy , the only person able to see the Maitlands and the subject of Betelgeuse 's homicidal wrath in the film 's climax , during which he mutilates her while in the form of a rabid squirrel before revealing his true form .
The film was to have concluded with the Maitlands , Deetzes , and Otho conducting an exorcism ritual that destroys Betelgeuse , and the Maitlands transforming into miniature versions of themselves and moving into Adam 's model of their home , which they refurbish to look like their house before the Deetzes moved in .
Co @-@ author and producer Larry Wilson has talked about the negative reaction to McDowell 's original script at Universal where he was employed at the time :
I won 't name names here , but I worked at Universal Studios at the time . I was director of development for the director Walter Hill . I had a very good relationship with a very prominent executive at Universal . He liked me , and he liked what I was doing with Walter , and the material I was bringing in .
I gave him Beetlejuice to read , and I gave it to him on a Friday , and on Monday his assistant called me and said well , he wants to meet with you . My initial reaction was wow ! He 'd read it . He must have loved it or he wouldn 't have wanted to see me so soon . But I went into his office , and he literally said ' what are you doing with your career ? '
'This piece of weirdness , this is what you 're going to go out into the world with ? You 're developing into a very good executive . You 've got great taste in material . Why are you going to squander all that for this piece of shit ' , was basically what he was saying . It goes to show , right ? Shortly after that , we sold it to the Geffen Company [ ... ]
Skaaren 's rewrite drastically shifted the film 's tone , indicating the graphic nature of the Maitlands ' deaths while depicting the afterlife as a complex bureaucracy . Skaaren 's rewrite also altered McDowell 's depiction of the limbo that keeps Barbara and Adam trapped inside of their home ; in McDowell 's script , it takes the form of a massive , empty void filled with giant clock gears that shred the fabric of time and space as they move . Skaaren had Barbara and Adam encounter different limbos every time they leave their home , including the " clock world " , and the Sandworm 's world , identified as Saturn 's moon Titan . Skaaren also introduced the leitmotif of music accompanying Barbara and Adam 's ghostly hijinks , although his script specified R & B tunes instead of Harry Belafonte , and was to have concluded with Lydia dancing to " When a Man Loves a Woman " .
Skaaren 's first draft retained some of the more sinister characteristics of McDowell 's Betelgeuse , but toned down the character to make him a troublesome pervert rather than blatantly murderous . Betelgeuse 's true form was that of the Middle Eastern man , and much of his dialogue was written in African American Vernacular English . This version concluded with the Deetzes returning to New York and leaving Lydia in the care of the Maitlands , who , with Lydia 's help , transform the exterior of their home into a stereotypical haunted house while returning the interior to its previous state .
Retrospectively , McDowell was impressed at how many people made the connection between the film 's title and the star Betelgeuse . He added that the writers and producers had received a suggestion the sequel be named Sanduleak @-@ 69 202 after the former star of SN 1987A .
= = Soundtrack = =
The Beetlejuice soundtrack , first released in 1988 on LP , CD and cassette tape , features most of the score ( written and arranged by Danny Elfman ) from the film . The soundtrack features two original recordings performed by Harry Belafonte used in the film : " The Banana Boat Song " and " Jump in the Line ( Shake , Senora ) " . Two other vintage Belafonte recordings that appeared in the film are absent from the soundtrack : " Man Smart , Woman Smarter " and " Sweetheart from Venezuela " . The soundtrack entered the Billboard 200 albums chart the week ending June 25 , 1988 at # 145 , peaking two weeks later at # 118 and spending a total of six weeks on the chart . This was after the film had already fallen out of the top 10 and before the video release later in October . " Day @-@ O " received a fair amount of airplay at the time in support of the soundtrack .
The complete score ( with the Belafonte tracks included ) was released in both the DVD and the Blu @-@ ray as an isolated music track in the audio settings menu ; this version of the audio track consists entirely of ' clean ' musical cues , uninterrupted by dialogue or sound effects .
= = Reception = =
Beetlejuice opened theatrically in the United States on April 1 , 1988 , earning $ 8 @,@ 030 @,@ 897 in its opening weekend . The film eventually grossed $ 73 @,@ 707 @,@ 461 in North America . Beetlejuice was a financial success , recouping its $ 15 million budget , and was the 10th @-@ highest grossing film of 1988 . Based on 42 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes , Beetlejuice received an average 81 % overall approval rating . For comparison , Metacritic received an average score of 67 from the 13 reviews collected .
Pauline Kael referred to the film as a " comedy classic " , while Jonathan Rosenbaum of Chicago Reader gave a highly positive review . Rosenbaum felt Beetlejuice carried originality and creativity that did not exist in other films . Vincent Canby of The New York Times called it " a farce for our time " and wished Keaton could have received more screen time . MaryAnn Johanson was impressed with the casting , production design and jokes . Desson Howe of the Washington Post felt Beetlejuice had " the perfect balance of bizarreness , comedy and horror " .
Janet Maslin of The New York Times gave the film a negative review , stating that the film " tries anything and everything for effect , and only occasionally manages something marginally funny ; " and " is about as funny as a shrunken head . " Roger Ebert gave the film two out of four stars , writing that he " would have been more interested if the screenplay had preserved their [ Alec Baldwin and Geena Davis ] sweet romanticism and cut back on the slapstick . " For Keaton 's character , Ebert called him " unrecognizable behind pounds of makeup " and stated that " his scenes don 't seem to fit with the other action . "
= = Accolades = =
At the 61st Academy Awards , Beetlejuice won the Academy Award for Best Makeup , ( Steve La Porte , Ve Neill and Robert Short . ) while the British Academy of Film and Television Arts nominated the film with Best Visual Effects and Makeup at the 42nd British Academy Film Awards .
Beetlejuice won Best Horror Film and Best Make @-@ up at the 1988 Saturn Awards . Sidney also won the Saturn for Best Supporting Actress for her performance as Juno , and the film received five other nominations : Direction for Burton , Writing for McDowell and Skaaren , Best Supporting Actor for Keaton , Music for Elfman and Special Effects . Beetlejuice was nominated for the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation . Beetlejuice was 88th in the American Film Institute 's list of Best Comedies .
= = = American Film Institute lists = = =
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Laughs – # 88
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes :
" I 'm the ghost with the most , babe . " – Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Songs :
" Day @-@ O / The Banana Boat Song " – Nominated
= = Animated series = =
Due to the film 's financial success , a Beetlejuice animated television series was created for ABC . The show ran for four seasons ( the final season airing on Fox ) , lasting from September 9 , 1989 to December 6 , 1991 . Burton served as executive producer .
= = Sequel = =
In 1990 , Burton hired Jonathan Gems to write a sequel titled Beetlejuice Goes Hawaiian . " Tim thought it would be funny to match the surfing backdrop of a beach movie with some sort of German Expressionism , because they 're totally wrong together , " Gems said . The story followed the Deetz family moving to Hawaii , where Charles is developing a resort . They soon discover that his company is building on the burial ground of an ancient Hawaiian Kahuna . The spirit comes back from the afterlife to cause trouble , and Betelgeuse becomes a hero by winning a surf contest with magic . Keaton and Ryder agreed to do the film , on the condition that Burton directed , but both he and Keaton became distracted with Batman Returns .
Burton was still interested in Beetlejuice Goes Hawaiian in early 1991 . Impressed with Daniel Waters ' work on Heathers , Burton approached him for a rewrite . However , he eventually signed Waters to write the script for Batman Returns . By August 1993 , producer David Geffen hired Pamela Norris ( Troop Beverly Hills , Saturday Night Live ) to rewrite . Warner Bros. approached Kevin Smith in 1996 to rewrite the script , though Smith turned down the offer in favor of Superman Lives . Smith responded with , " Didn 't we say all we needed to say in the first Beetlejuice ? Must we go tropical ? " In March 1997 , Gems released a statement saying " The Beetlejuice Goes Hawaiian script is still owned by The Geffen Film Company and it will likely never get made . You really couldn 't do it now anyway . Winona is too old for the role , and the only way they could make it would be to totally recast it . "
In September 2011 , Warner Bros. hired Seth Grahame @-@ Smith , who collaborated with Burton on Dark Shadows and Abraham Lincoln : Vampire Hunter , to write and produce a sequel to Beetlejuice . Grahame @-@ Smith signed on with the intention of doing " a story that is worthy of us actually doing this for real , something that is not just about cashing in , is not just about forcing a remake or a reboot down someone 's throat . " He was also adamant that Keaton would return and that Warner Bros. would not recast the role . Burton and Keaton have not officially signed on but will return if the script is good enough . Grahame @-@ Smith met with Keaton in February 2012 , " We talked for a couple of hours and talked about big picture stuff . It 's a priority for Warner Bros. It 's a priority for Tim . [ Michael 's ] been wanting to do it for 20 years and he 'll talk to anybody about it who will listen . " The story will be set in a real time frame from 1988 ; " This will be a true 26 or 27 years later sequel . What 's great is that for Beetlejuice [ sic ] , time means nothing in the afterlife , but the world outside is a different story . "
In November 2013 , Ryder hinted at a possible return for the sequel as well by saying , " I 'm kind of sworn to secrecy but it sounds like it might be happening . It 's 27 years later . And I have to say , I love Lydia Deetz so much . She was such a huge part of me . I would be really interested in what she is doing 27 years later . " Ryder confirmed that she would only consider making a sequel if Burton and Keaton were involved . In December 2014 , Burton stated , " It 's a character that I love and I miss and I miss actually working with Michael . There 's only one Betelgeuse . We 're working on a script and I think it 's probably closer than ever and I 'd love to work with him again . " In January 2015 , writer Grahame @-@ Smith told Entertainment Weekly that the script was finished and that he and Burton intended to start filming Beetlejuice 2 by the end of the year , and that both Keaton and Ryder would return in their respective roles . In August 2015 , on Late Night with Seth Meyers , Ryder confirmed she would be reprising her role in the sequel . In May 2016 , Burton stated , " It 's something that I really would like to do in the right circumstances , but it 's one of those films where it has to be right . It 's not a kind of a movie that cries out [ for a sequel ] , it 's not the Beetlejuice trilogy . So it 's something that if the elements are right — because I do love the character and Michael 's amazing as that character , so yeah we 'll see . But there 's nothing concrete yet . "
= = Theme park attractions = =
Beetlejuice has had several theme park shows at Universal Studios Hollywood , Universal Studios Florida and Universal Studios Japan . Beetlejuice 's Rock and Roll Graveyard Revue ran at the Hollywood park from 1992 until 1999 while the Florida park ran the show from May 1992 until January 2016 . The character of Beetlejuice was also in the now defunct " Extreme Ghostbusters : The Great Fright Way ! " . He was also a featured part of Halloween Horror Nights in the early days of the Orlando park .
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= Moses Hazen =
Moses Hazen ( June 1 , 1733 – February 5 , 1803 ) was a Brigadier General in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War . Born in the Province of Massachusetts Bay , he saw action in the French and Indian War with Rogers ' Rangers . His service included particularly brutal raids during the Expulsion of the Acadians and the 1759 Siege of Quebec . He was formally commissioned into the British Army shortly before the war ended , and retired on half @-@ pay outside Montreal , Canada , where he and Gabriel Christie , another British officer , made extensive land purchases in partnership . During his lifetime he acquired land in Quebec , New Hampshire , Vermont , and New York , but lost most of his Quebec land due to litigation with Christie and the effects of the revolution .
In 1775 he became involved in the American invasion of Quebec early in the American Revolutionary War , and served with the Continental Army in the 1775 Battle of Quebec . He went on to lead his own regiment ( the 2nd Canadian , also known as " Congress ' Own " ) throughout the war , seeing action in the 1777 Philadelphia campaign and at Yorktown in 1781 . He was frequently involved in litigation , both military and civil , and constantly petitioned Congress for compensation of losses and expenses incurred due to the war . He supported similar efforts by men from his regiment who were unable to return to Quebec because of their support for the American war effort .
= = Early life = =
Moses Hazen was born in Haverhill , a frontier town in the Province of Massachusetts Bay , to an old New England Puritan family . Some histories that mention Hazen sometimes indicate that he was Jewish . A genealogist clearly documents Hazen 's lineage to England , where the family name was Hassen . Contemporaries of Hazen seem to have thought he was Jewish ; for example , Sergeant James Thompson , in his diary The Fraser ’ s Highlanders , describes meeting him during the retreat from the Battle of Sainte @-@ Foy : " On the way , I fell in with a Captain Moses Hazen , a jew " .
= = French and Indian War = =
Hazen was apprenticed to a tanner when the French and Indian War broke out . In 1756 , he enlisted with the local militia , which included a number of family members . He first served at Fort William Henry near Lake George , where he probably first met , and may have served under , Robert Rogers of Rogers ' Rangers . Rogers eventually recommended him for an officer 's commission in a new company of the Rangers ; in 1758 , after having worked for his brother providing supplies for the British Siege of Louisbourg , he was commissioned as a first lieutenant in John McCurdy 's company of the Rangers at Fort Edward . In McCurdy 's company , he saw action at Louisbourg , including the initial landings , when the action was quite fierce .
After Louisbourg , the company was stationed first at Fort Frederick ( Saint John , New Brunswick ) , and then at Fort St. Anne , where the company was part of a campaign against Indians and Acadians that had taken refuge there from the ongoing expulsion of the Acadians . These raids were sometimes quite brutal ; the company was known to scalp Acadian settlers . In one particularly brutal incident , Hazen was responsible for the scalping of six men , and the burning of four others , along with two women and three children , in a house he set on fire . Joseph Bellefontaine , a leader of the local militia and the father of one of the women , claimed that he was forced to witness this event in an attempt to coerce his cooperation with the rangers . ( Bellefontaine escaped into the woods with two of his grandchildren . ) General Jeffrey Amherst , who did not hear of the incident until after he had promoted Hazen to captain , noted , " I am sorry that to say what I have since heard of that affair has sullied his merit with me as I shall always disapprove of killing women and helpless children . "
In January 1759 , Captain McCurdy was killed when a tree felled by one of his men fell on him ; Hazen was given command of the company . Later in 1759 , his company was at the siege of Quebec , where the company was primarily engaged in scouting and raiding in the countryside ; he was away on one of those raids during the Battle of the Plains of Abraham . In another notable atrocity that may have involved Hazen 's company , a priest and thirty parishioners in a parish near Quebec were killed and scalped .
Hazen also fought at the 1760 Battle of Sainte @-@ Foy , where he was severely wounded in the thigh . In February 1761 , he purchased a commission as a first Lieutenant in the 44th Regiment of Foot in the British Army . He spent the remainder of the war on garrison duty at Montreal , retiring on half @-@ pay in 1763 . General James Murray wrote approvingly of Hazen in 1761 , " He discovered so much still bravery and good conduct as would justly entitle him to every military reward he could ask or demand " .
= = Land development = =
During the siege of Quebec , Hazen had met Gabriel Christie , then a deputy quartermaster . Christie owned some land in the Richelieu River valley south of Montreal , and wanted to expand his holdings . ( Christie later became one of the largest landowners in Quebec . ) After the war , Christie and Hazen jointly purchased the seigneuries of Sabrevois and Bleury , located on the east bank of the Richelieu near Fort Saint @-@ Jean . They also leased land on the west side of river from the Baron of Longueuil . These holdings gave them almost exclusive control over the land holdings around Saint @-@ Jean , which is the northernmost navigable point reachable from Lake Champlain .
Christie , who was still in military service , was frequently away from the land , so Hazen developed the land while Christie provided the funding . Hazen constructed a manor house at Iberville , and two mills , and set about selling timber and other business endeavours . In 1765 , Hazen was also appointed a deputy land surveyor , and a justice of the peace . As part of his business dealings , he offered General Thomas Gage , then in command of British forces in New York City , facilities and lumber for military use . Gage was uninterested at the time , letting Hazen know that he would keep the offer in mind , if the need for military movements became necessary in the area .
Hazen expanded the business of the seigneuries , but his aggressive development also incurred debts , which caused friction with Christie . In 1770 , Christie , unhappy with the debts , eventually demanded an accounting . This ultimately led to a division of the holdings , with Hazen receiving the southern portion of the Bleury seigneurage , styled Bleury @-@ Sud . Hazen and Christie were in and out of court for years afterward over control of these lands ; Christie eventually won complete control over those lands after the American Revolution .
In 1762 Hazen 's brother John settled Haverhill , New Hampshire , in the far north of that province on the east side of the Connecticut River , and in 1764 Jacob Bayley settled Newbury , in what is now Vermont , across the river from Haverhill . Hazen had shares in both of these settlements ; he also acquired land west of the Connecticut River in what is now Bradford , Vermont . It was at this time that the idea of constructing a road from there to Saint @-@ Jean was first raised ; this idea surfaced again during the American Revolutionary War , when George Washington authorized construction of what became known as the Bayley Hazen Military Road .
His land developments continued to grow in 1764 when he joined the Saint John River Society , and organization created by a group of military officers for the purpose of developing land along the Saint John River , then in Nova Scotia ( now New Brunswick ) . His coinvestors included Thomas Gage , Frederick Haldimand , William Johnson , and Thomas Hutchinson .
In the fall of 1770 Hazen married Charlotte de la Saussaye , a woman from a good family in Montreal . They settled down near Saint @-@ Jean , where they built a house and began farming .
= = Revolutionary War = =
= = = Continental Army arrives = = =
At the start of the Revolutionary War in 1775 , Hazen was living on half @-@ pay in Saint @-@ Jean . When Benedict Arnold raided Fort Saint @-@ Jean on May 18 , Hazen reported the news of that raid ( as well as the capture of Fort Ticonderoga ) first to the military authorities in Montreal , and then to Governor Guy Carleton in Quebec , before returning home to consider the consequences the conflict might have on him and his lands .
The American invasion of Quebec arrived near his home at Saint @-@ Jean on September 6 . On that day , Hazen met with General Philip Schuyler , explaining to him that Fort Saint @-@ Jean was well @-@ defended and unlikely to be taken by siege , and that the local habitants were unlikely to assist the American effort . This gloomy portrait led Schuyler to consider retreating ; but the arrival of additional American troops , and a more optimistic assessment from James Livingston , a grain merchant living near Chambly , encouraged the Americans to renew the attack . Livingston went on to form the 1st Canadian Regiment in November 1775 .
= = = Imprisonment and release = = =
On September 17 , Brigadier General Richard Montgomery , now commanding the American forces , began to besiege Fort St. Jean . The next day , a detachment of American forces under the command of John Brown arrested Hazen north of the fort . However , a British sortie from the fort forced Brown 's men to retreat ; Hazen ended up in British hands . Major Charles Preston , the British commander , was mistrustful of Hazen , and sent him to Montreal under the guard of Claude de Lorimier . Brigadier General Richard Prescott , unhappy with Hazen 's explanations of his movements , imprisoned him .
He was held in poor conditions for 54 days . Following the fall of Fort St. Jean , the British withdrew from Montreal , transporting prisoners on one of the many ships used in the evacuation . Most of this British fleet was captured by the Americans , who released Hazen and other political prisoners who had supported them . Unhappy with the treatment he received by the British , Hazen joined the American forces , which were on their way to Quebec City . He did this in spite of the fact that the Americans had done significant damage to his estate during the siege , plundering the estate for supplies , and using his house as a barracks .
= = = Service in Quebec = = =
Hazen served in the Battle of Quebec , and was one of two men ( the other was Edward Antill ) sent to report the devastating loss to the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia . The Congress , in recognition for his efforts , gave Hazen a commission as a colonel , leading the Continental Army 's 2nd Canadian Regiment . ( Antill was commissioned the regiment 's lieutenant colonel . ) The regiment was often referred to as " Hazen 's " or " Congress ' Own " , the latter because the regiment was established by Congress and was not part of any state quotas . Hazen was initially offered a position as brigadier general , but he refused , requesting instead a colonel 's commission , and indemnification against losses caused by the conflict . ( His property had already been significantly damaged by the American action around St. Jean . ) Hazen was fortunate in arriving in Philadelphia before John Duggan , one of Livingston 's captains , to whom Benedict Arnold had earlier promised the commission for the 2nd Canadian .
Hazen and Antill returned to Quebec , where Hazen was stationed at Montreal while Antill recruited men for the regiment . Hazen was briefly in command of the defenses of Montreal for the Americans , from late March to mid @-@ April 1776 , when General David Wooster took command of the American forces outside Quebec , and Benedict Arnold assumed command of the Montreal garrison . During the time he was in command , Hazen dispatched Timothy Bedel and 390 men to fortify The Cedars , about 40 miles ( 64 km ) upriver from Montreal ; these forces surrendered to a British @-@ Native force during the Battle of The Cedars in May .
= = = Trouble with Arnold = = =
Following Arnold 's assumption of command at Montreal , Hazen 's regiment was assigned to garrison duty at Fort Chambly . Hazen ( and likely his men ) were called as reinforcements to assist in the American response to the action at The Cedars . In council , Hazen and Arnold had a heated exchange over what actions to take ; in Arnold 's opinion , Hazen 's behavior bordered on insubordination . Arnold had previously held a high opinion of Hazen , writing that he was " a sensible , judicious officer , and well acquainted with this country " .
During the American retreat from Quebec in May and June 1776 , Hazen and Arnold were embroiled in a dispute that led to charges and counter @-@ charges , courts martial and other hearings , lasting into 1779 . At issue were supplies that Arnold had ordered seized from merchants in Montreal and sent to Chambly for eventual shipment south as part of the retreat . Hazen , in charge of the facilities at Chambly , refused to sign for the goods , as he recognized them as the property of friends in Montreal . In the ensuing retreat , most of these goods were plundered and lost . Arnold wanted to immediately court @-@ martial Hazen for failing to follow orders , but the arriving British army delayed any such activity until the army 's return to Fort Ticonderoga . Arnold 's opinion of Hazen clearly changed ; he wrote , " This is not the first or last order Col. Hazen has disobeyed . I think him a man of too much consequence for the post he is in . "
Hazen 's court martial was held on July 19 , 1776 ; he was honorably acquitted . However , there were irregularities in the proceedings ( the judge advocate was the same officer who had delivered the goods from Montreal to Chambly , so he did not testify ) , and Arnold continued to attack Hazen afterwards . In December 1776 another inquiry was held , and Hazen was again cleared of any wrongdoing . Hazen then countercharged Arnold with the plundering of the Montreal merchants ; Arnold was not cleared of these charges until a higher @-@ level inquiry in 1777 .
= = = Building his regiment = = =
Hazen 's regiment , which was significantly reduced in size by the retreat from Quebec , was assigned first to Ticonderoga , and then to Albany , in the summer and fall of 1776 , before being ordered to winter quarters at Fishkill , New York . During this time , Hazen continued recruiting , receiving permission from Congress to recruit anywhere in the United States . In the northern states he ran into difficulties , as those states were having trouble filling their own regimental lines ; he was often outbid by other recruiters . Antill , who recruited in the central states ( primarily New Jersey , Maryland , and Pennsylvania ) , had greater success . By June 1777 , the regiment reached about 700 members , out of an authorized strength of 1 @,@ 000 . The cultural differences between the original Quebec enlistees and the new recruits from the Thirteen Colonies was a regular source of friction within the regiment , and Hazen consequently kept the French @-@ speakers in companies separated from the English @-@ speakers .
Hazen also submitted to Congress a claim for damages to his estate in Quebec . The original bill was for $ 11 @,@ 363 ; Congress paid $ 2 @,@ 595 in October 1776 .
= = = Philadelphia campaign = = =
In May 1777 , Hazen 's regiment was ordered to join the main army at Princeton , where it was active in the Philadelphia campaign as part of John Sullivan 's brigade . Some of Hazen 's companies ( but not Hazen himself ) participated in the Battle of Staten Island ; in this action , Antill was captured . Hazen 's command during the Battle of Brandywine included the northern ( right ) end of the American line ; this position was one of those flanked by the British in their attack . Hazen made an early report indicating the presence of British troops on the American flank that turned out to be the main British thrust . His report was dismissed by General Sullivan , who wrote , after receiving other reports , that " Colo . Hazen 's Information must be wrong . " To Sullivan 's detriment , the other reports were wrong , and Hazen 's was correct ; the British flanking maneuver was instrumental in the American loss of the battle . Hazen 's regiment lost 4 officers and 73 men in the battle . In the Battle of Germantown , Hazen commanded a brigade that included in addition to his own regiment , the 2nd , 4th , and 6th Maryland Regiments . They formed part of Sullivan 's column when it marched on the town ; his regiment lost 3 officers and 19 men in the engagement .
= = = Bayley @-@ Hazen Road proposed = = =
Hazen , ever since his return to the United States in 1776 , had maintained a constant stream of communications with Congress , primarily on the subject of Canada . In January 1778 , these communications bore some fruit , when , with French assistance , planning for an invasion of Canada began . Hazen was assigned the job of deputy quartermaster for this operation . However , the planning was hampered by supply and staffing difficulties , and never got off the ground . It was ultimately cancelled by Congress in March 1778 .
This failure did not deter Hazen from offering a new route for invading Canada . This route went from Newbury , where Hazen owned land and knew the area , to Saint Francis , Quebec . On July 12 , Hazen departed Newbury to scout the route . By July 25 , he had returned to White Plains ; the effort was abandoned for the time being because the manpower was needed in the New York area . Plans for possible attacks against Quebec based on routes departing from the Newbury area were again contemplated in the fall of 1778 , but Washington continued to resist the idea .
= = = Construction work on the road = = =
In the spring and summer of 1779 , Hazen 's regiment and that of Timothy Bedel worked on construction of the Bayley Hazen Military Road , once again with the eventual goal of launching an invasion . Part of the road , between Newbury and Peacham had been constructed in 1776 by Jacob Bayley . Hazen supervised the development of the road up to what is now called Hazens Notch in northern Vermont . Work was discontinued on the road in August after word was received that the British were preparing a military force at Saint @-@ Jean to attempt capture of the construction crew . General Washington had never intended to send an invasion along this route ; the entire works was a ruse to divert British attention , and deter them from launching an invasion . Washington wrote to Congress that the work " was for the purpose of exciting jealousies at Quebec and at the Enemy 's posts on the St. lawrence , and of making a diversion in favor of the late expedition under general Sullivan ... this very happily succeeded " .
= = = Service around New York = = =
Hazen and his regiment spent the winter at Washington 's main encampment in Morristown , New Jersey . There Hazen was again involved in litigation ; he was rejected for service on a court martial considering charges against Benedict Arnold due to their previous confrontations , and he also opened complaints of supply mismanagement during the summer 's roadbuilding activities . A detailed review of the army in the spring of 1780 by Baron von Steuben led to the recommendation that the regiments of Hazen and Livingston be merged , as Livingston 's had shrunk to 103 men . Hazen and Livingston had a political tussle over seniority ; although Hazen lost the claim to seniority , he ended up in command of the combined regiment .
In January 1780 the regiment was involved in a failed attack on Staten Island ; word of the operation leaked to the British . Hazen 's regiment was then transferred to the brigade of Enoch Poor . By the time the transfer was effected , Hazen was given command of the entire brigade , although repeated requests he had made for promotion to brigadier general were rejected . During the summer the brigade was relocated to the West Point area . While en route , Hazen allowed his men to stop for water , breaking the army column . Von Steuben ordered Hazen 's arrest for this transgression of military discipline . Hazen was acquitted , and promptly countercharged von Steuben with behavior unbecoming an officer and gentleman ; von Steuben apologized .
Hazen 's regiment was garrisoned opposite West Point that fall when British Major John André was captured and General Arnold defected . One hundred of Hazen 's men , including his nephew , Benjamin Mooers , witnessed André 's hanging .
= = = Yorktown = = =
On June 29 , 1781 , Hazen was finally promoted to Brigadier General and assigned command of a brigade under Lafayette during the Siege of Yorktown . Hazen 's brigade served on the right of the line , and was deeply involved in the October 14 battles for the redoubts .
Following the British surrender , Hazen and his unit were given prisoner guard duty at Lancaster , Pennsylvania . While on this duty , a misstep by Hazen caused a minor diplomatic incident , known as the " Asgill Affair " . The British accused an American soldier of spying , and were threatening to hang him . George Washington threatened to hang a British soldier if this happened , and instructed Hazen to choose an officer whose rank was similar to that of the accused American . The man he chose by lot , Charles Asgill , should have been ineligible for selection due to the terms of the Yorktown surrender . The accused American was eventually acquitted , but Asgill 's plight drew the attention of Marie Antoinette ; Washington received a letter from the French foreign minister asking for a pardon .
During the winter of 1781 – 2 Hazen also took time off for personal business . Among his dealings was a partnership with Timothy Bedel to acquire land along the military road they had built in Vermont .
= = After the war = =
After the war , General Hazen , unable to return to Quebec , received a grant of land in northern New York . He was active for many years on behalf of the men who served under him and their families , especially those that originally came from Quebec , in their quest for compensation for their losses . He also continued his litigious ways — he was involved in an ongoing string of legal actions until his death . He died in 1803 in Troy , New York where he was buried . His nephew , Benjamin Mooers , was ultimately responsible for untangling many of Hazen 's affairs .
On May 26 , 1828 , Congress authorized a payment of $ 3 @,@ 998 @.@ 81 to Hazen 's heirs in compensation for the half @-@ pay lost to him when he joined the American forces .
Hazen was an original member of the Rhode Island Society of the Cincinnati .
= = Legacy = =
namesake of Bayley Hazen Military Road
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= Milan C. Miskovsky =
Milan Carl Miskovsky ( May 11 , 1926 – October 15 , 2009 ) was an American who served as a member of the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) . He helped negotiate the release of Gary Powers in 1962 and over 1 @,@ 000 prisoners captured during the 1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion . After retiring from the CIA , Miskovsky worked for multiple federal agencies , including the Federal Maritime Commission and the Treasury Department .
Following the 1967 Detroit riot , Miskovsky was appointed to lead an investigation into the cause of the unrest and interview civil rights leaders for the Kerner Commission . His report ultimately concluded that America was becoming divided into two separate societies based on skin color , and that the societies were inherently unequal .
Miskovsky would later serve as the director of the Lawyers ' Committee for Civil Rights Under Law and the general counsel of the Federal Home Loan Bank Board . He helped to establish the Archdiocesan Legal Network in 1989 and worked in private practice from 1981 until his retirement in 2003 .
= = Early life = =
Miskovsky was born on May 11 , 1926 in Chicago , Illinois , the son of Jaroslav Miskovsky , an immigrant from Czechoslovakia , and Ruth Miskovsky ( nee Patera ) . He grew up during the Great Depression , but his family did not suffer significant economic harm . Miskovsky 's father was heavily involved in Chicago politics , and Miskovsky would frequently help him deliver food and clothes to people unable to afford them .
He graduated from the University of Michigan in 1949 and worked for the U.S. Forest Service for the next two years . He was reassigned to Washington , D.C. in 1951 , where he was hired by the CIA to investigate forests of the Eastern Bloc . In 1956 , Miskovsky obtained a law degree from the George Washington University Law School . He joined the legal office of the CIA , and was eventually promoted to the rank of assistant general counsel .
= = U @-@ 2 incident = =
In 1960 , the Soviet Union shot down a United States U @-@ 2 spy plane . The Soviets captured its pilot , Gary Powers , and tried him for committing espionage against the Soviet Union . At first , the United States believed that Powers could be freed by crafting an argument regarding international principles . To this end , Miskovsky and two other lawyers ( Alexander W. Parker and Frank Rogers ) wrote a brief stating that Power 's U @-@ 2 plane did not violate Soviet airspace any more than Sputnik violated American airspace . However , the Soviet Union refused to allow foreigners to defend Powers . Powers was ultimately defended by a lawyer who acted as a spokesman for the Soviet government .
The Soviets ultimately sentenced Powers to a decade in prison . Working with lawyer James B. Donovan , Miskovsky negotiated with Soviet representatives . Eventually , they agreed upon a trade : Gary Powers would be released in exchange for Soviet spy Rudolf Abel held by the United States . Both sides agreed and Powers was released in 1962 .
= = Bay of Pigs invasion = =
In April 1961 , a 1 @,@ 400 @-@ man force of Cuban exiles invaded Cuba in an attempt to end the regime of Fidel Castro . The invasion was a failure and two @-@ hundred of the exiles were killed while an additional 1 @,@ 200 were captured . Miskovsky , working with lawyer and lead negotiator James Donovan , and Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy , negotiated a release for the prisoners in return for around fifty million dollars in medicine , food and other supplies . The captured Cubans were released days before Christmas .
= = Later life = =
Miskovsky left the CIA in 1964 , and worked for the Federal Maritime Commission and the Treasury Department for four years . In 1967 , Miskovsky was appointed to lead an investigation concerning the 1967 Detroit riot for the Kerner Commission . During the investigation , Miskovsky interviewed civil rights leaders such as Martin Luther King , Jr . Miskovsky 's report concluded that the United States was transitioning into two separate societies , one black and the other white , and that the societies were inherently unequal . In 1968 , Miskovsky was appointed the director of Lawyers ' Committee for Civil Rights Under Law , an organization which gave legal aid to those whose civil liberties were violated . From 1977 to 1981 , during the administration of President Jimmy Carter , Miskovsky served as general counsel for the Federal Home Loan Bank Board .
From 1981 until his retirement in 2003 , Miskovsky worked for Kirkland & Ellis , where he specialized in environmental law . In 1989 , Miskovsky helped establish the Archdiocesan Legal Network , a free legal clinic run by the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Washington . The clinic aided people with non @-@ criminal legal issues such as bankruptcy , evictions , suspended licenses or delayed social security checks . Miskovsky was originally tasked with recruiting other lawyers for the clinic , but was eventually promoted to chairmen of the clinic 's board .
Miskovsky died of lung cancer on October 15 , 2009 in Washington , D.C.
= = Personal life = =
Miskovsky married Anne Miskovsky ( nee Grogan ) , a fellow member of the Central Intelligence Agency , in 1952 . The marriage lasted until 2004 , when Anne Miskovsky died of leukemia .
Miskovsky was a member of the Holy Trinity Catholic Church in Georgetown . In 1987 , he and his wife served as the chairs of the Holy Trinity Parish bicentennial celebration .
= = Publications = =
Miskovsky , Milan ; Van Hook , Matthew ( 1976 ) . " Regulation of Forestry Related Nonpoint Source Pollution Under the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 " . Natural Resources Lawyer 9 ( 4 ) : 645 – 671 . Retrieved 18 July 2015 .
Frank , M. ; Miller , David ; Miskovsky , Milan ; Adams , Charles ( 1979 ) . " Forest Resources Committee " . Natural Resources Lawyer 12 ( 1 ) : 105 – 109 .
Miskovsky , Milan ; Griffith , Janice ; Fleming , Joseph ( 1983 ) . " Recent Developments in Urban Environment Law : Committee on Urban Development " . The Urban Lawyer 15 ( 4 ) : 977 – 984 .
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= Conservation of slow lorises =
Slow lorises are nocturnal strepsirrhine primates in the genus Nycticebus that live in the rainforests of South and Southeast Asia . They are threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation from deforestation , selective logging , and slash @-@ and @-@ burn agriculture , as well as by collection and hunting for the wildlife trade , including the exotic pet trade , and for use in traditional medicine and as bushmeat . Because of these and other threats , all five species of slow loris are listed as either " Vulnerable " or " Endangered " by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) . Their conservation status was originally listed as " Least Concern " in 2000 because of imprecise population surveys and the frequency in which these primates were found in animal markets . Because of their rapidly declining populations and local extinctions , their status was updated and in 2007 the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( CITES ) elevated them to Appendix I , which prohibits international commercial trade . Local laws also protect slow lorises from hunting and trade , but enforcement is lacking in most areas .
Traditional beliefs regarding slow lorises have been part of the folklore of Southeast Asia for at least several hundred years . Their remains are buried under houses and roads to bring good luck , and every part of their body is used in traditional medicine to make products ranging from love potions to unproven cures for cancer , leprosy , epilepsy , and sexually transmitted diseases . The primary users of this traditional medicine are urban , middle @-@ aged women who are reluctant to consider alternatives .
Despite being poor pets that are difficult to care for , with a dangerous toxic bite and a sleep cycle opposite to that of humans , a large number of slow lorises are traded as pets , both locally and internationally . Although it is illegal to import slow lorises for commercial sale , they are popular exotic pets in Japan , the United States , and Europe . This is mainly because of their " cute " appearance , popularized in highly viewed YouTube videos , which is due in part to their large eyes , adaptations to a nocturnal lifestyle . Hundreds of slow lorises have been confiscated at airports , but because they are easy to hide , these numbers are likely to be only a small fraction of the total number being trafficked . Traders cut or pull the teeth of slow lorises to make them appear to be an appropriate pet for small children , but this practice often leads to extreme blood loss , infection , and death . Slow lorises lacking their teeth would be unable to fend for themselves and therefore are not reintroduced into the wild . Most captive lorises in the pet trade also receive improper care and die from poor nutrition , stress , or infection . Despite this , demand has risen , and slow lorises are no longer captured opportunistically , but are now hunted on a commercial scale using flashlights , from which the animals do not flee .
Connected protected areas are important for the conservation of slow lorises because these primates are not adapted to travel long distances on the ground . Training for enforcement officials helps improve identification and the awareness of their legal protection . Sanctuaries and rescue facilities are available to provide both temporary and lifelong care for confiscated slow lorises . Zoo populations of some species have not bred much and have grown too old to reproduce , although the pygmy slow loris is doing well at some facilities , such as the San Diego Zoo .
= = Background = =
Slow lorises ( genus Nycticebus ) are primates that belong to the suborder Strepsirrhini . They are found throughout South and Southeast Asia and the surrounding islands , and live in the upper canopy of tropical rainforests . They are nocturnal , sleeping during the day curled up in the fork of a tree . Slow lorises are slow and deliberate climbers and rarely come to the ground . They have a round face , woolly fur , a dark stripe down their back , and a tail that is reduced to a stump . Their head and body length ranges from 18 to 38 cm ( 7 @.@ 1 to 15 @.@ 0 in ) . Their hands and feet are strong and good at grasping for long periods of time . Slow lorises are either solitary or live in pairs ; the males are territorial and mark their territories with urine . Their diet consists of mollusks , small vertebrates , and fruit .
Slow lorises can produce a secretion on their brachial gland ( a gland on their arm ) which when mixed with their saliva creates a volatile , noxious toxin that can be , if necessary , delivered in a bite to an aggressor . A bite causes a painful swelling and is slow to heal ; the toxin is mild and not typically fatal , although an anaphylactic reaction is possible .
Five species are currently recognized . The Javan slow loris ( N. javanicus ) is native to the Indonesian island of Java , whereas the Bornean slow loris ( N. menagensis ) can be found on Borneo and nearby islands , including the Sulu Islands in the Philippines . The Sunda slow loris is found on the Indonesian island of Sumatra as well as Peninsular Malaysia , Singapore , and Thailand . The other two species are found entirely on the mainland , with the Bengal slow loris ( N. bengalensis ) native to Bangladesh , Cambodia , southern China , Northeast India , Laos , Myanmar , Thailand , and Vietnam and the pygmy slow loris ( N. pygmaeus ) found in Cambodia , Laos , Vietnam , and southern China .
= = Threats in the wild = =
Slow lorises are threatened by deforestation and the wildlife trade , which includes the exotic pet trade , traditional medicine , and bushmeat . Other threats includes road construction , selective logging , and slash and burn agriculture . Habitat fragmentation obstructs biological dispersal for these species that rely on vines and lianas to move from tree to tree . Consequently , slow lorises are found dead on power lines or are victims of roadkill in areas where roads cut between forest patches .
All species are listed either as " Vulnerable " or " Endangered " by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) . Populations are rapidly declining , and their distribution is becoming patchy because of local extinctions throughout their range . Although all species are protected by law in every country in which they occur , conservation efforts are hindered by a lack of public awareness , since many local villagers and remoter buyers of captive specimens are unaware of their endangered status . Recognition and awareness of slow lorises is even low among national park staff . In places like Vietnam , where these nocturnal primates have commonly been found , most local villagers were not familiar with them when shown photos . Only a few older hunters recognized them , but pointed out that they had not seen them in more than 10 or 15 years .
Traditionally , the slow lorises were thought to consist of very few species and were considered to be common across Southeast Asia . These assumptions were due to their nocturnal behavior and their high frequency of occurrence in animal markets throughout the region . Furthermore , researchers from the 20th century and earlier perpetuated the notion that slow lorises were common by reporting them as either present or absent rather than noting low population densities in their field research . As a result , slow lorises were seldom studied , resulting in the initial " Lower Risk / least concern " ( LR / lc ) conservation status assessment on the IUCN Red List ( version 2 @.@ 3 ) in 2000 . Even in the mid @-@ 2000s , population estimates were based only on small surveys .
In 2009 , primatologist James Thorn used environmental niche modelling in Indonesia to supplement the poor population data gathered to date to predict the remaining available habitat for slow lorises on the islands of Sumatra , Java , and Borneo . These estimates indicated that the Javan slow loris was the most threatened by habitat loss , followed by the Sunda slow loris from Sumatra . The Bornean slow loris was in a better situation since much of its range consists of low @-@ risk areas . Both the Bengal slow loris and pygmy slow loris are found in more than 20 protected areas , although their populations are either low or insufficiently recorded .
In Indonesia , logging and the clearing of land for agriculture have triggered large forest fires , first in between 1982 and 1983 when 27 @,@ 000 km2 ( 10 @,@ 000 sq mi ) burned in Kalimantan , and then again between 1997 and 1998 when 23 @,@ 750 km2 ( 9 @,@ 170 sq mi ) burned in Kalimantan and Sumatra . These fires occurred within the native range of slow loris populations .
Although habitat loss has been significant throughout the range of the slow lorises , their decline is most closely associated with unsustainable trade , either for exotic pets or for traditional medicine . Slow lorises are abundant at the markets and are among the most commonly sold primates . Slow lorises are easy to catch because they do not leap from tree to tree , often freezing and covering their face when spotted . ( For this reason , Indonesians call them malu malu or " shy one " . ) They are hunted not only by expert hunters , but are also easily caught by opportunist villagers because of the financial reward they bring at the markets .
= = Traditions and beliefs affecting conservation = =
Traditional beliefs and uses for slow lorises vary , and many practices appear to have deep roots going back at least 300 years . Oral traditions suggest these practices go back even further . In the late 1800s and early 1900s , it was reported that the people from the interior of the island of Borneo believed that slow lorises were the gatekeepers for the heavens and that each person had a personal slow loris waiting for them in the afterlife . More often , however , slow lorises are used in traditional medicine or to ward off evil .
In the Mondulkiri Province of Cambodia , hunters believe that lorises can heal their own broken bones immediately after falling from a branch in order to climb back up the tree , and that slow lorises have medicinal powers because they require more than one hit with a stick to die . The hunters also believe that seeing a slow loris will bring bad luck on a hunting trip . In the province of North Sumatra , the slow loris is thought to bring good luck if it is buried under the foundation of a house . Similarly , villagers concerned about traffic safety might bury a slow loris under a road to prevent accidents . In Java , it is thought that putting a piece of its skull in a water jug would make a husband more docile and submissive , just like a slow loris in the daytime . Also , its body parts were used to place curses on enemies in North Sumatra . More recently , researchers have documented the belief that the consumption of loris meat was an aphrodisiac that improves " male power . " The gall bladder of the Bengal slow loris has historically been used to make ink for tattoos by the village elders in Pursat and Koh Kong Provinces of Cambodia .
= = Legal protection = =
The trade in slow lorises , whether as pets or for medicine , is illegal because every nation in which they occur naturally has laws protecting them . Cambodia lists them as protected , with penalties of one month in prison and fines of US $ 2 @.@ 50 to US $ 250 in 2010 for anyone who catches , hunts , poisons , or transports them . In Indonesia , the slow loris trade has been illegal since 1973 , when the Agriculture Ministry passed Decree No. 66 . This regulation was clarified in 1999 with Government Regulation No. 7 ( " Protection of Wild Flora and Fauna " ) and Act No. 5 ( " Biodiversity Conservation " ) . Violators are subject to five years in prison and a fine of 100 million rupiah ( ~ US $ 10 @,@ 000 ) .
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( CITES ) first listed the two known species of slow loris under Appendix II on 7 January 1975 . All newly identified species were covered by Appendix II on 2 April 1977 when all primates were given either Appendix I or Appendix II protection . Appendix II only requires an export permit for international trade , as long as trade will not negatively impact the survival of wild populations . Most of the trade in slow lorises , however , is illegal and usually involves smuggling to Japan . The lack of legal trade reported to the CITES Secretariat is shown in the CITES trade database , where minimal trade by CITES Parties has been reported up until 2007 . Regardless , slow lorises remained vulnerable to international trade under Appendix II , and the rampant Southeast Asian pet trade was another reason for concern . As a result , Cambodia proposed that slow lorises be elevated to Appendix I , which prohibits species from being traded internationally for commercial purposes and requires both import and export permits for certain types of non @-@ commercial trade , such as scientific research . The proposal covered all three species recognized at the time — the Sunda slow loris , Bengal slow loris , and pygmy slow loris — because they have traditionally been managed collectively owing to a lack of knowledge as to how to distinguish them .
Before the CITES conference at which a vote would be taken on the proposal , support for the proposed change in status appeared to be limited because of the small amount of reported legal trade . In April 2007 , the non @-@ profit conservation group ProFauna Indonesia attracted news coverage with a demonstration held in Malang , Java . The demonstration — an appeal for increased protection for slow lorises — involved organization members suspending themselves from bridges while holding banners that read " Stop jual kukang " ( " Stop the slow loris trade " ) and " Jangan beli kukang " ( " Don 't buy slow lorises " ) . From early to mid @-@ June , the 14th CITES Conference of the Parties ( CITES COP @-@ 14 ) was held in The Hague , Netherlands . On 8 June , Cambodia presented the proposal along with their rationale . Indonesia followed by announcing their support , along with Japan , India , Laos , Thailand , the United States , the European Union , Qatar , and many non @-@ governmental organizations ( NGOs ) . Although the proposal was adopted by consensus , some conservation groups objected on the grounds that rational analysis was being usurped by sentiment .
Despite the added protection of CITES Appendix I status , wild slow lorises still receive poor protection because enforcement of the international trade ban is difficult and the penalties are minor . Slow lorises are still found in large numbers at animal markets , most notably in Cambodia and Indonesia , but the traders show no concern for being caught . During a study by Nekaris et al. published in 2010 , vendors in Medan , Jakarta , and Surabaya spoke freely to researchers about how they obtain slow lorises , their uses in medicine , prices , and sales numbers . The markets were not concealed , but were open daily in a designated area in town . Even law enforcement is involved in the trade , with park rangers and police admitting to the purchase of slow lorises for medicinal purposes . The wife of another law enforcement official from the Mondulkiri Province in Cambodia is one of the most notable sellers of slow loris parts .
= = Wildlife trade = =
Humans have been hunting mammals in Asia for at least 40 @,@ 000 years , but until recently , slow lorises were only hunted at a sustainable level . However , hunting pressure since the 1960s has become increasingly unsustainable , leading to overexploitation , because of growing demand , decreased supply , and the subsequent increased value of the marketed wildlife . In 1985 , large wildlife markets began to appear in Phnom Penh and Sen Monorom , Cambodia , followed quickly by the development of networks of hunters , traders , and middlemen . Bright flashlights make spotting slow lorises much easier at night because of their eye shine , and in the 1990s , large @-@ scale commercial harvesting of slow lorises began as improved batteries for spotlights became available .
The drive to capture wildlife , and particularly slow lorises , is increasingly dominated by demands from wealthy urban areas , replacing the subsistence hunting traditionally performed in poor rural areas . In the case of long @-@ lived primates , such as the slow lorises , populations replenish themselves slowly . Slow lorises are particularly vulnerable because they tend to freeze when spotted . Lastly , increased access to new technologies , such as improved transport , guns , wire snares , and spotlights , have facilitated hunting and pushed extraction levels beyond the point of sustainability . These new factors threaten slow loris survival .
Opportunistic hunting of lorises has been a traditional practice , for example , when a tree in which the primate is living is cut down . When forests are cleared to create oil palm ( Elaeis guineensis ) plantations or for housing , the lorises are collected from the trees and then sold to the " loris man " , who in turn sells them in the cities . Timber merchants in Kalimantan and Aceh also sell slow lorises to traders , and since the primates cling to branches instead of fleeing , they are often transported hundreds of miles on the original tree branches to which they clung .
Demand from middlemen and specialized animal trade mafias has increased the profitability of slow loris hunting and driven many hunters to catch any they spot by climbing or shaking trees . In the Mondulkiri Province in Cambodia , slow lorises are shaken out of trees and then bludgeoned to death with a stick . In Indonesia , slow lorises are worth more alive , so hunters climb the tree to reach them and place a V @-@ shaped stick around their neck to immobilize them . If the slow loris is found in with an infant , the parent is often killed .
Middlemen buy as many as 30 slow lorises from rural hunters over a wide area , and then sell them in the major city markets for 300 @,@ 000 to 500 @,@ 000 rupiahs ( US $ 32 to US $ 54 ) each . Western tourists and expatriates pay as much as 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 rupiahs ( US $ 108 ) . Traders have reported to researchers that they have difficulty keeping pace with demand , and one trader claimed to have sold nearly 1 @,@ 200 pygmy slow lorises during 2001 – 2002 . Hundreds of slow lorises are sold domestically each year in Indonesian at open @-@ air animal markets ( or " bird markets " ) , as well as in shopping malls . Slow lorises are the most commonly sold protected primate at these markets . Live trade is the most common , with only 13 @.@ 6 % of slow lorises traded for parts . In Phnom Penh , Cambodia during the 1990s , observers counted up to 204 slow lorises for sale at a single store ; in 2007 a market in Mondulkiri Province displayed 30 dried specimens . A total of 234 slow lorises were confiscated by the Forestry Administration @-@ Wildlife Alliance between 2002 and 2006 . In Indonesia , nearly 6 @,@ 000 to 7 @,@ 000 slow lorises were traded domestically each year from 2000 to 2006 . For international trade , Laos , Cambodia , and Thailand were the biggest exporters , with exports having declined for all species except the pygmy slow loris from 1998 to 2007 ( compared to 1978 – 1997 ) .
= = = Traditional medicine = = =
Slow lorises are commonly used in traditional medicine across their geographic range , a practice that has been reported since at least 1900 . Thousands of slow lorises are captured each year for such use . Many human factors drive the trade in slow loris parts , including social customs , economic factors , and traditional belief systems .
In Cambodia , the deeply rooted tradition of using the Bengal and pygmy slow lorises in traditional medicine is widespread , and the pygmy slow loris is the most commonly requested animal in traditional medicine shops in Cambodia 's capital , Phnom Penh . Some people in the country believe dried slow loris can cure cancer . Slow lorises are also smoked for other traditional remedies . Traditional Khmer medicine practitioners in that region claim that medicines made from slow lorises can cure 100 diseases , with some practitioners from the National Centre for Traditional Medicine reporting that slow loris are sometimes roasted alive under the assumption that this increases the medicine 's potency . Slow lorises are also burned alive , causing their eyes to burst and release a liquid called minyak kukang ( or loris oil ) , which is used in black magic and traditional medicine and is supposed to have life @-@ giving qualities and act as a love potion .
In the case of the Bengal slow loris , every part — including the brain , urine , and skin — is used in traditional medicine in order to heal wounds and rheumatism . With the Sunda slow loris , people trade the skin , feet , skeletons , and skulls . The fur is reported to heal wounds , the flesh to cure epilepsy , eyes are used in love potions , and the meat is reported to cure asthma and stomach problems . The pygmy slow loris is primarily valued for the medicinal use of its hair , but it is also used to make bone glue of monkey , a medicine used mostly by local people , but sometimes sold to visitors . In general , wearing slow loris bones is considered good luck and the meat is sometimes thought to cure leprosy .
The main buyers of medicine made from slow lorises are middle- to upper @-@ class women between the ages of 25 and 45 who primarily use loris rice wine tonic to alleviate the pain of childbirth . One bottle of wine is made by mixing rice wine with the carcasses of three dead animals . Minority groups in Cambodia also use loris @-@ based medicine for treating broken bones , asthma , and sexually transmitted diseases . A survey by primatologist Anna Nekaris et al . ( 2010 ) showed that these belief systems were so strong that the majority of respondents expressed reluctance to consider alternatives to loris @-@ based medicines .
In 1993 , 200 dead slow lorises were found cut open and stretched out on sticks in the markets of Phnom Penh . In another shop , 150 dead slow lorises were found in two boxes . This suggests hunting on a commercial scale , which has had dramatic effects on local populations . At the time , these dried slow lorises were sold for US $ 4 @.@ 25 . However , the prices doubled between 1997 and 2007 and continue to rise . Most vendors ( 80 % ) surveyed in 2010 attributed the price increases to a decline in loris numbers and increased enforcement .
= = = Pet trade = = =
Slow lorises are sold locally at street markets , but are also sold internationally over the Internet and in pet stores . They are especially popular or trendy in Japan , particularly among women . The reasons for their popularity , according to the Japan Wildlife Conservation Society ( JWCS ) , are that " they 're easy to keep , they don 't cry , they 're small , and just very cute . " Along with the common squirrel monkey ( Saimiri sciureus ) , slow lorises are the most popular primate pets in Japan . Pet shops frequently advertise them , even on their websites , with prices ranging between US $ 1 @,@ 500 and more than US $ 5 @,@ 000 , or ¥ 450 @,@ 000 . Despite these frequent advertisements , the World Conservation Monitoring Centre ( WCMC ) reported only a few dozen slow lorises were imported in 2006 , suggesting frequent smuggling . Slow lorises are also smuggled to China , Taiwan , Europe , the United States , and Saudi Arabia for use as pets . Smuggling and trade in Poland and Russia are also common according to Nekaris .
Because of their " cuteness " , viral videos of pet slow lorises are some of the mostly frequently watched animal videos on YouTube . In March 2011 , a newly posted video of a slow loris holding a cocktail umbrella had been viewed more than two million times , while an older video of a slow loris being tickled had been viewed more than six million times . Most viewers do not realize that the slow loris pet trade is illegal or that the docile behavior of the animals in the videos is a passive defensive reaction for dealing with stress . For instance , according to Nekaris , the slow loris with the umbrella — who was suffering from a head wound — was disoriented in the video by the bright lights and was grasping the umbrella like it would a piece of bamboo from its native habitat . Nekaris requested that YouTube remove the videos , but the UK @-@ based newspaper , The Independent , reported that YouTube declined to comment on the slow loris videos . While YouTube currently has means for viewers to flag videos involving animal cruelty , pornography , and illegal weapons or drugs , it has no means for flagging videos involving illegally trafficked animals . The ' tickling slow loris ' video was eventually removed in February 2012 , after having received over 9 million views and generating over 12 thousand comments ( although copies of it were later reposted ) . During the lifetime of the video two significant slow loris conservation @-@ associated events occurred , the March 2011 posting of this Wikipedia article and the January 2012 airing of a BBC television production entitled Jungle Gremlins of Java ; both events were associated with a spike in viewership of the video , and were often mentioned in the comments made during those periods ( 3 @.@ 2 % and 13 @.@ 3 % , respectively ) . Celebrity endorsements stimulated viewing of the video without providing any increase in conservation awareness . Over time , the proportion of comments indicating a desire to have a slow loris as a pet remained high but trended downward , while the proportion of comments indicating awareness of slow loris 's legal and conservation status increased after the conservation @-@ related events but did not follow a long term trend . The removal of the video followed shortly after the airing of the BBC documentary , which dramatized the exploitation of slow lorises for the pet trade .
Even within their countries of origin , slow lorises are very popular exotic pets . Indonesian species are mostly sold as pets , despite myths about their magical and curative properties . They are seen as a " living toy " for children by local people or are bought out of pity by Western tourists or expatriates . Neither local nor foreign buyers usually know anything about these primates , their endangered status , or that the trade is illegal . During the late 2000s , Sunda slow lorises were regularly sold throughout the Medan bird market in North Sumatra . According to 59 monthly surveys and interviews with local traders , nearly a thousand locally sourced slow lorises exchanged hands in the market . During the surveys , between 15 and 45 slow lorises were seen around the market .
International trade usually results in a high mortality rate during transit , between 30 % and 90 % . Slow lorises also experience many health problems as a result of both local and international trade . To give the impression that the primates are tame and appropriate pets for children , to protect people from their potentially toxic bite , or to deceive buyers into thinking the animal is a baby , animal dealers either pull the front teeth with pliers or wire cutters or they cut them off with nail cutters . This results in severe bleeding , which sometimes causes shock or death , and frequently leads to dental infection , which is fatal in 90 % of all cases . Without their teeth , the animals are no longer able to fend for themselves in the wild , and must remain in captivity for life . The slow lorises found in animal markets are usually underweight and malnourished , and have had their fur dyed , which complicates species identification at rescue centers . As many as 95 % of the slow lorises rescued from the markets die of dental infection or improper care .
As part of the trade , infants are pulled prematurely from their parents , leaving them unable to remove their own urine , feces , and oily skin secretions from their fur . Slow lorises have a special network of blood vessels in their hands and feet , which makes them vulnerable to cuts when pulled from the wire cages they are kept in . Slow lorises are also very stress @-@ sensitive and do not do well in captivity . Infection , stress , pneumonia , and poor nutrition lead to high death rates among pet lorises . The diets of wild slow lorises are poorly understood . Signs of an inappropriate diet in captivity include tooth decay , diabetes , obesity , and kidney failure . Pet owners also fail to provide proper care because they are often sleeping when the nocturnal pet is normally awake .
= = = International trade and smuggling = = =
One of the first cases of slow loris smuggling was documented by the International Primate Protection League ( IPPL ) in November 1974 . The California Department of Fish and Game in San Francisco found 15 slow lorises in a bag labeled " spitting cobras " in a shipment from Thailand that also contained snakes , tortoises , and otters . Because of mistakes and inconsistencies in the order , it was unclear whether the receiving wildlife company was a target of a hoax or whether it had attempted to conceal the shipment .
Since the late 1990s , both high demand and resulting high prices have fueled increased smuggling of slow lorises to Japan . Although pet shop employees declare that their slow lorises are captive @-@ bred , the advertisements on the pet store websites indicate that their stocks come from Java , Sumatra , or China . New arrivals to the stores are also variable in size and age , which has further led the JWCS to suspect the slow lorises are imported illegally . Official , legal trade of slow lorises prior to CITES Appendix I coverage ( from 1998 to 2006 ) was limited to just ten Sunda slow lorises from Malaysia and Myanmar . A review of 24 surveys covering wildlife trade between 1990 and 2006 demonstrated 228 slow lorises were known to have been traded unofficially each year and had come from Cambodia , Indonesia , Vietnam , and Laos . The major trade hubs were Jakarta , Medan , Singapore and Bangkok . Numerous illegal trade routes for each species were also documented prior to the 2007 CITES vote over Appendix I coverage in the Notification to Parties publication .
A report in 2010 by Nekaris et al. reported that Laos , Cambodia , and Thailand were the primary exporters of slow lorises , with Singapore and Malaysia also involved . China and Indonesia were also known for international trade , although their local trade was more significant . Slow loris parts were typically exported from Thailand and Cambodia , but Malaysia and Singapore primarily exported live animals . The most noteworthy importer was Japan , followed by the United States and then the European Union . More than half of 400 illegal imports were live animals ( 238 ) , while the rest were either body parts ( 122 ) or unspecified ( 40 ) .
In Japan alone , 39 confiscations including 363 live animals were made between 1998 and 2006 , with 2006 being the peak year . During the same time period , Thai , Indonesian , and Singaporean officials discovered 358 lorises destined for Japan . Details of several confiscations from smuggling attempts between Thailand and Japan have been reported by the IPPL , including one event on 2 May 2007 , where 40 slow lorises were confiscated at Narita Airport only a month before the CITES conference that elevated the slow loris status to Appendix I. Twelve of those animals died . The deaths are not unusual , with a mortality rate of 76 % for all species of confiscated slow lorises , many dying before they are transferred to zoos . The JWCS suspects that the high mortality rate among smuggled slow lorises causes traders to smuggle more slow lorises than are needed to supply the market .
In Japan , enforcement is not considered very strict since only 23 % of smugglers ( 9 out of 39 cases ) were officially charged between 1998 and 2006 . Instead , most only received fines . Based on reports taken from Kyodo News , the JWCS concluded that the primary concern of Customs officials was the prevention of infectious diseases , such as Ebola . Slow lorises are sometimes mixed in with other trade @-@ restricted species , such as reptiles , and since confiscations target high @-@ profile species , it is likely that the international smuggling numbers are " just the tip of the iceberg . " Making detection even more difficult , slow lorises can easily be hidden in suitcases since they tend to instinctively curl up and remain quiet when startled .
= = Conservation efforts = =
Surveys are needed to determine existing population densities and habitat viability for all species of slow loris . Connectivity between protected areas is important for slow lorises because they are not adapted to dispersing across the ground over large distances . For successful reintroductions , connectivity between sites with low population density is considered ideal . Protected area extensions are also needed in Borneo , Java , and Sumatra .
Despite being included in CITES Appendix I protection and covered by local conservation laws , slow lorises are still threatened by both local and international trade because of problems with enforcement . The continued illegal trade in wildlife has seriously jeopardized both the success and the future of a US $ 310 million investment program by the World Bank for East and Southeast Asia biodiversity . In 2008 , training workshops for enforcement officials and rescue center personnel were held in Singapore to help teach slow loris identification , conservation status , and husbandry . Surveys prior to the training showed 87 % of the trainees could not identify slow loris species , but the one @-@ day workshops had a significant impact .
Rehabilitation is available to some confiscated slow lorises . Organizations such as the International Animal Rescue ( IAR ) run sanctuaries that offer lifelong care to slow lorises that have had their teeth removed , while also providing education and awareness programs to local people to help end domestic trade . By collaborating with authorities , healthy slow lorises are released back into the wild . However , identification is critical because authorities still manage all slow lorises as if they were from one species , resulting in species being released into the wrong locations and increasing confusion in taxonomy and conservation .
Populations of slow loris species , such as the Bengal and Sunda slow loris , are not faring well in zoos . In 2011 , the International Species Information System ( ISIS ) had only 11 and 53 specimens ( respectively ) on file from reporting zoos worldwide . In North American zoos , for instance , several of the 29 captive specimens in 2008 were hybrids that could not breed while most were past their reproductive years , and the last captive birth was in 2001 at the San Diego Zoo . Only three Javan slow lorises were kept in zoos in 2011 according to ISIS . Pygmy slow lorises are doing better , with 100 specimens reported from zoos worldwide in 2011 . In North American zoos , for instance , the population has grown to 74 animals between the time they were imported in the late 1980s and 2008 , with most of them born at the San Diego Zoo .
The San Diego Zoo has also written husbandry manuals for slow lorises , promoted public awareness , conducted field surveys , and supported slow loris rescue facilities . The Vietnamese postal service recognized slow lorises on a postage stamp by using a picture of a Bengal slow loris and her infant published by the San Diego Zoo in February 1999 .
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= Battle of Ollantaytambo =
The Battle of Ollantaytambo ( Spanish : Batalla de Ollantaytambo , IPA : [ baˈtaʎa ðe oˈʎantaiˈtambo ] ) took place in January 1537 , between the forces of Inca emperor Manco Inca and a Spanish expedition led by Hernando Pizarro during the Spanish conquest of Peru . A former ally of the Spaniards , Manco Inca rebelled in May 1536 , and besieged a Spanish garrison in the city of Cusco . To end the stand @-@ off , the besieged mounted a raid against the emperor 's headquarters in the town of Ollantaytambo . The expedition , commanded by Hernando Pizarro , included 100 Spaniards and some 30 @,@ 000 Indian auxiliaries against an Inca army more than 30 @,@ 000 strong .
There is some controversy over the actual location of the battle ; according to John Hemming it took place in the town itself , while Jean @-@ Pierre Protzen argues that the nearby plain of Mascabamba better matches the descriptions of the encounter . In any case , the Inca army managed to hold the Spanish forces from a set of high terraces and flood their position to hinder their cavalry . Severely pressed and unable to advance , the Spaniards withdrew by night to Cusco . Despite this victory , the arrival of Spanish reinforcements to Cusco forced Manco Inca to abandon Ollantaytambo and seek refuge in the heavily forested region of Vilcabamba , where he established the small independent Neo @-@ Inca State which survived until 1572 .
= = Prelude = =
In 1531 , a group of Spaniards led by Francisco Pizarro landed on the shores of the Inca Empire , thus starting the Spanish conquest of Peru . At that time the empire was emerging from a civil war in which Atahualpa had defeated his brother Huascar to claim the title of Sapa Inca . Atahualpa underestimated the strength of the small force of Spaniards and was captured during an ambush at Cajamarca in November 1532 . Pizarro ordered the execution of the emperor in July 1533 , and occupied the Inca capital of Cusco four months later . To replace Atahualpa , Pizarro installed his brother Túpac Huallpa as a puppet ruler , but he died shortly afterwards . Another brother , Manco Inca , was crowned in his place . During this stage , Atahualpa 's generals were the only opposition to the Spanish advance as a sizable part of the empire 's population had fought on Huascar 's side during the civil war and joined Pizarro against their enemies .
For a while , Manco Inca and the conquistadors maintained cordial relations , together they defeated Atahualpa 's generals and reestablished Inca rule over most of the empire . However , Manco came to realize that real authority rested in Spanish hands when his house was looted with impunity by a Spaniard mob in 1535 . Following this episode , the Inca emperor was subject to constant harassment as the Spaniards demanded gold , took away his wives , and even imprisoned him . In response , he fled his capital to start an uprising . In May 1536 , an Inca army besieged Cusco , which was garrisoned by a group of Spaniards and native allies . The conquistadors were hard pressed but they managed to resist and counterattack , storming the main Inca stronghold at Sacsayhuaman . Meanwhile , Manco 's generals occupied the central highlands of Peru and annihilated several expeditions sent to reinforce Cusco but failed in their attempt to take the recently founded Spanish capital of Lima . As a result of these events , neither side was able to break the deadlock at Cusco for several months , so the Spaniard garrison decided to make a direct attack on Manco 's headquarters at the town of Ollantaytambo , 70 kilometers ( 43 mi ) northwest of the city .
= = Order of battle = =
Manco Inca had gathered more than 30 @,@ 000 troops at Ollantaytambo , among them , a large number of recruits from tribes of the Amazon Rainforest . Manco Inca 's forces were a militia army made up mostly of conscripted farmers with only rudimentary weapons training . This was the regular fare in the Inca empire , where military service was a duty for all married men between 25 and 50 years old . In combat , these soldiers were organized according to their ethnic group and led into battle by their native leaders , called kurakas . They used melee weapons such as maces , clubs and spears as well as ranged weapons such as arrows , javelins , and slings ; protective gear included helmets , shields , and quilted cloth armor . Against the conquistadors , wooden clubs and maces with stone or bronze heads were rarely able to penetrate Spanish armor ; slings and other missile throwing weapons were somewhat more effective due to their accuracy and the large size of their projectiles . Even so , Inca soldiers were no match for the Spanish cavalry in open terrain so they resorted to fighting on rough terrain and digging pits in open fields to hinder the mobility of horses .
The attack was led by Hernando Pizarro , the senior Spanish commander in Cusco , with a force of 100 Spaniards ( 30 infantry , 70 cavalry ) and an estimated 30 @,@ 000 native allies . One of his main assets against the Inca armies was the Spanish cavalry because horses provided a considerable advantage in hitting power , maneuverability , speed , and stamina over Inca warriors . All Spaniards wore some kind of armor , the most commonly used types were chain mail shirts and padded cloth armor which were lighter and cheaper than full armor suits ; they were complemented by steel helmets and small iron or wooden shields . The main Spanish offensive weapon was the steel sword , which horsemen supplemented with the lance ; both weapons could easily penetrate the padded armor worn by Inca troops . Firearms , such as arquebuses were rarely used during the Spanish conquest of Peru because they were scarce , hard to use , and despised by horsemen as an ungentlemanly weapon . Spaniards relied heavily on Indian auxiliaries because they provided thousands of warriors as well as support personnel and supplies . These native troops had the same sorts of arms and armor as their Inca counterparts . During the Ollantaytambo campaign , the Pizarro expedition included thousands of auxiliaries , mainly Cañaris , Chachapoyas , and Wankas as well as several members of the Inca nobility opposed to Manco Inca .
= = Battle = =
The main access route to Ollantaytambo runs along a narrow valley formed in the mountains by the Urubamba River , which connects the site with Machu Picchu to the west and with Pisaq and Cusco to the east . After his uprising , Manco Inca fortified the eastern approaches to fend off attacks from the former Inca capital , now under Spanish occupation . The first line of defense was a steep bank of terraces at Pachar , near the confluence of the Anta and Urubamba rivers . Behind it , the Incas channeled the Urubamba to make it cross the valley from right to left and back thus forming two more lines backed by the fortifications of Choqana on the left bank and ' Inkapintay on the right bank . Past them , at the plain of Mascabamba , eleven high terraces closed the valley between the mountains and a deep canyon formed by the Urubamba . The only way to continue was through the gate of T 'iyupunku , a thick defensive wall with two narrow doorways . In the event of these fortifications being overrun , the Temple Hill , a religious center surrounded by high terraces overlooking Ollantaytambo , provided a last line of defense .
Faced with these constraints , the Spanish expedition had to cross the river several times and fight at each ford against stiff opposition . The bulk of the Inca army confronted the Spaniards from a set of terraces overlooking a plain by the Urubamba River . Several Spanish assaults against the terraces failed against a shower of arrows , slingshots and boulders coming down from the terraces as well as from both flanks . To hinder the efforts of the Spanish cavalry the Incas flooded the plain using previously prepared channels ; water eventually reached the horses ' girths . The defenders then counterattacked ; some of them used Spanish weapons captured in previous encounters such as swords , bucklers , armor and even a horse , ridden by Manco Inca himself . In a severely compromised situation , Hernando Pizarro ordered a retreat ; under the cover of darkness the Spanish force fled through the Urubamba valley with the Incas in pursuit and reached Cusco the next day .
= = Battle site = =
The actual location of the battle is the subject of some controversy . According to Canadian explorer John Hemming , Spanish forces occupied a plain between Ollantaytambo and the Urubamba River while the main Inca army was located on a citadel ( the Temple Hill ) overlooking the town , protected by seventeen terraces . However , Swiss architect Jean @-@ Pierre Protzen argues that the topography of the town and its surrounding area does not match contemporary descriptions of the battle . An anonymous account attributed to Diego de Silva claims that the Inca army occupied a set of eleven terraces , not seventeen ; while the chronicle of Pedro Pizarro describes a gate flanked by walls as the only way through the terraces . Protzen thinks that these descriptions allude to a set of eleven terraces that close the plain of Mascabamba , near Ollantaytambo , which include the heavily fortified gate of T 'iyupunku . At this location , when the Spaniards faced the terraces they would have had the Urubamba River to their left and the steep hill of Cerro Pinkulluna to their right , matching the three sides from which they were attacked during the battle . If Protzen 's hypothesis is correct , the river diverted to flood the battlefield was the Urubamba , and not its smaller affluent , the Patakancha , which runs alongside the town of Ollantaytambo .
= = Aftermath = =
The success at Ollantaytambo encouraged Manco Inca to make a renewed attempt against Cusco . However , the Spaniards discovered the Inca army concentrating near the city and mounted a night attack , which inflicted heavy casualties . On April 18 , 1537 , a Spanish army led by Diego de Almagro returned from a long expedition to Chile and occupied Cusco . Almagro imprisoned Hernando Pizarro and his brother Gonzalo because he wanted the city for himself ; most Spanish troops and their auxiliaries joined his side . He had previously tried to negotiate a settlement with Manco Inca but his efforts failed when both armies clashed at Calca , near Cusco . With the Spaniards ' position consolidated by Almagro 's reinforcements , Manco Inca decided that Ollantaytambo was too close to Cusco to be tenable so he withdrew further west to the town of Vitcos . Almagro sent his lieutenant Rodrigo Orgóñez in pursuit with 300 Spaniards and numerous Indian auxiliaries . In July 1537 , Orgoñez occupied and sacked Vitcos taking many prisoners , but Manco managed to escape . He took refuge at Vilcabamba , a remote location where the Neo @-@ Inca State was established and lasted until the capture and execution of Túpac Amaru , its last emperor , in 1572 .
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= Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles =
Article 231 , often known as the War Guilt Clause , was the opening article of the reparations section of the Treaty of Versailles , which ended the First World War between the German Empire and the Allied and Associated Powers . The article did not use the word " guilt " but it served as a legal basis to compel Germany to pay reparations .
Article 231 was one of the most controversial points of the treaty . It specified :
" The Allied and Associated Governments affirm and Germany accepts the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies . "
Germans viewed this clause as a national humiliation , forcing Germany to accept full responsibility for causing the war . German politicians were vocal in their opposition to the article in an attempt to generate international sympathy , while German historians worked to undermine the article with the objective of subverting the entire treaty . The Allied leaders were surprised at the German reaction ; they saw the article only as a necessary legal basis to extract compensation from Germany . The article , with the signatory 's name changed , was also included in the treaties signed by Germany 's allies who did not view the clause with the same disdain as the Germans did . American diplomat John Foster Dulles — one of the two authors of the article — later regretted the wording used , believing it further aggravated the German people .
The historical consensus is that responsibility or guilt for the war was not attached to the article . Rather , the clause was a prerequisite to allow a legal basis to be laid out for the reparation payments that were to be made . Historians have also highlighted the unintended damage created by the clause , which caused anger and resentment amongst the German population .
= = Background = =
On 28 June 1914 , the heir to the throne of Austria @-@ Hungary , Archduke Franz Ferdinand , was assassinated by the Bosnian @-@ Serb Gavrilo Princip in the name of Serbian nationalism . This caused a diplomatic crisis resulting in Austria @-@ Hungary declaring war on Serbia and sparking the First World War . Due to a variety of reasons , within weeks the major powers of Europe — divided into two alliances known as the Central Powers and the Triple Entente — were at war . As the conflict progressed , additional countries from around the globe were drawn into the conflict on both sides .
Fighting would rage across Europe , the Middle East , Africa and Asia for the next four years . On 8 January 1918 , United States President Woodrow Wilson issued a statement that became known as the Fourteen Points . In part , this speech called for Germany to withdraw from the territory it had occupied , for the creation of a Polish state , the redrawing of Europe 's borders along ethnic lines , and the formation of a League of Nations . During the autumn of 1918 , the Central Powers began to collapse . The German military was decisively defeated on the Western Front , while on the Home Front the navy mutinied prompting uprisings in Germany , which became known as the German Revolution . The German Government attempted to obtain a peace settlement based on the Fourteen Points , and maintained it was on this basis that they surrendered . Following negotiations , the Allied Powers and Germany signed an armistice , which came into effect on 11 November while German forces were still positioned in France and Belgium .
On 18 January 1919 , the Paris Peace Conference began . The conference aimed to establish peace between the war 's belligerents and establish the post @-@ war world . The Treaty of Versailles formed part of the conference , and dealt solely with Germany . The treaty , along with the others that were signed during the conference , were each named after the suburb of Paris they were signed in . While 70 delegates from 26 nations participated in the negotiations representatives from Germany were barred from attending , nominally over fears that a German delegation would attempt to play one country off against the other and unfairly influence the proceedings .
= = Writing of the article = =
The Americans , British , and French all differed on the issue of reparations settlement . The Western Front had been fought in France , and that countryside had been heavily scarred in the fighting . France 's most industrialized region in the north @-@ east had been laid to waste during the German retreat . Hundreds of mines and factories were destroyed along with railroads , bridges and villages . Georges Clemenceau , the Prime Minister of France , thought it appropriate that any just peace required Germany to pay reparations for the damage they had caused . He also saw reparations as a means to ensure that Germany could not again threaten France and as well to weaken the German ability to compete with France 's industrialization . Reparations would also go towards the reconstruction costs in other countries , such as Belgium , also directly affected by the war . British Prime Minister David Lloyd George opposed harsh reparations in favour of a less crippling reparations settlement so that the German economy could remain a viable economic power and British trading partner . He furthermore argued that reparations should include war pensions for disabled veterans and allowances to be paid to war widows , which would , reserve a larger share of the reparations for the British Empire . Wilson opposed these positions , and was adamant that there be no indemnity imposed upon Germany .
During the peace conference the Commission on the Responsibility of the Authors of the War and on Enforcement of Penalties was established to examine the background of the war . The Commission reasoned that the " war was premeditated by the Central Powers ... and was the result of acts deliberately committed [ by them ] to make it unavoidable " , concluding that Germany and Austria @-@ Hungary had " deliberately worked to defeat all the many conciliatory proposals made by the Entente Powers and their repeated efforts to avoid war . " This conclusion was duly incorporated into the Treaty of Versailles , led by Clemenceau and Lloyd George who were both insistent on the inclusion of an unequivocal statement of Germany 's total liability . This left Wilson at odds with the other leaders of the conference . Instead , he proposed a repetition of a note sent by United States Secretary of State Robert Lansing to the German Government on 5 November 1918 , stating that the " Allied Governments ... understand that compensation will be made by Germany for all damage done to the civilian population of the Allies and their property by the aggression of Germany ... "
The actual wording of the article was chosen by American diplomats Norman Davis and John Foster Dulles . Davies and Dulles produced a compromise between the Anglo @-@ French and American positions , wording Article 231 and 232 to reflect that Germany " should , morally , pay for all war costs , but , because it could not possibly afford this , would be asked only to pay for civilian damages . " Article 231 , in which Germany accepted the responsibility of Germany and its allies for the damages resulting from the First World War , therefore served as a legal basis for the articles following it within the reparations chapter , obliging Germany to pay compensation limited to civilian damages . Similar clauses , with slight modification in wording , were present in the peace treaties signed by the other members of the Central Powers .
= = Reaction = =
= = = German interpretation = = =
Foreign Minister Count Ulrich von Brockdorff @-@ Rantzau headed the 180 @-@ strong German peace delegation . They departed Berlin on 18 April 1919 , anticipating that the peace talks would soon start and that they and the Allied Powers would negotiate a settlement . Earlier , in February of that year , Brockdorff @-@ Rantzau had informed the Weimar National Assembly that Germany would have to pay reparations for the devastation caused by the war , but would not pay for actual war costs . The German government had also taken the position that it would be " inadvisable ... to elevate the question of war guilt " . On 5 May , Brockdorff @-@ Rantzau was informed that there would be no negotiations . Once the German delegation received the conditions of peace they would have fifteen days to reply . Following the drafting of the treaty , on 7 May the German and Allied delegations met and the Treaty of Versailles was handed off to be translated and for a response to be issued . At this meeting Brockdorff @-@ Rantzau stated that " We know the intensity of the hatred which meets us , and we have heard the victors ' passionate demand that as the vanquished we shall be made to pay , and as the guilty we shall be punished " . However , he proceeded to deny that Germany was solely responsible for the war . Following the meeting , the German delegation retired to translate the 80 @,@ 000 word document . As soon as the delegation realized the terms of peace , they agreed that they could not accept it without revision . They then proceeded to send their Allied counterparts , message after message attacking each part of the treaty . On 18 June , having disregarded the repeated explicit decisions of the government , Brockdorff @-@ Rantzau declared that Article 231 would have Germany accept full responsibility for the war by force . Max Weber , an advisor with the German delegation , agreed with Brockdorff @-@ Rantzau , also challenging the Allies over the issue of war guilt . He preferred to reject the treaty than submit to what he called a " rotten peace " .
On 16 June , the Allied Powers demanded that Germany unconditionally sign the treaty within seven days or face the resumption of hostilities . The German government was divided on whether to sign or reject the peace treaty . On 19 June , Chancellor Philipp Scheidemann resigned rather than sign the treaty and was followed by Brockdorff @-@ Rantzau and other members of the government , leaving Germany without a cabinet or peace delegation . After being advised by Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg that Germany was in no condition to resume the war , President Friedrich Ebert and the new Chancellor , Gustav Bauer , recommended that the Weimar National Assembly ratify the treaty . The Assembly did so by a large majority , and Clemenceau was informed nineteen minutes before the deadline expired . Germany unconditionally signed the peace treaty on 22 June .
Initially , Article 231 was not correctly translated . Rather than stating " ... Germany accepts responsibility of Germany and her allies causing all the loss and damage ... " , the German Government 's edition read " Germany admits it , that Germany and her allies , as authors of the war , are responsible for all losses and damages ... " . Germans felt that they the country had signed away her honor , and there was a prevailing belief of humiliation as the article was seen , overall , as an injustice . Historian Wolfgang Mommsen commented that despite the public outrage , German government officials were aware " that Germany 's position on this matter was not nearly so favorable as the imperial government had led the German public to believe during the war . "
= = = Allied opinion on article = = =
The Allied delegation initially thought Article 231 to be a mundane addition to the treaty intended to limit German liability with regard to reparations , and were surprised at the vehemence of the German protests . Georges Clemenceau rebuffed Brockdorff @-@ Rantzau 's allegations , arguing that " the legal interpretation [ of the article ] was the correct one " and not a matter of political question . Lloyd George commented that " the English public , like the French public , thinks the Germans must above all acknowledge their obligation to compensate us for all the consequences of their aggression . When this is done we come to the question of Germany 's capacity to pay ; we all think she will be unable to pay more than this document requires of her . "
Prior to the American entry into the war , Woodrow Wilson called for a " peace of reconciliation with Germany " , what he dubbed a " peace without victory " . His wartime speeches , however , rejected these earlier notions and he took an increasingly belligerent stance towards Germany . Following the war , on 4 September 1919 , during his public campaign to rally American support for the Treaty of Versailles , Wilson commented that the treaty " seeks to punish one of the greatest wrongs ever done in history , the wrong which Germany sought to do to the world and to civilization , and there ought to be no weak purpose with regard to the application of the punishment . She attempted an intolerable thing , and she must be made to pay for the attempt . " Regardless of the rhetoric , the American position was to create a balanced treaty that would appease everyone . Gordon Auchincloss , secretary to Edward M. House ( one of Wilson 's advisers ) , sent a copy of the clause to the State Department and stated " you will note that the President 's principles have been protected in this clause " .
Historian William Keylor commented that initially both United States diplomats believed that they had " devised a brilliant solution to the reparation dilemma " ; appeasing both the British and French , as well as Allied public opinion irrespective of the fact that Allied leaders were aware of concerns surrounding German willingness to pay reparations and the disappointment that could follow . Vance C. McCormick ( an economic adviser of Wilson ) emphasized this point , and stated : " ... the preamble is useful . We are adopting an unusual method in not fixing a definite sum . The preamble tends to explain this , and further , prepares the public mind for disappointment as to what actually can be secured . " In 1940 , Dulles stated that he was surprised that the article " could plausibly be , and in fact was , considered to be a historical judgement of war guilt " . He further noted that the " profound significance of this article ... came about through accident , rather than design " . Dulles took it personally that the Treaty of Versailles failed in its intentions of creating a lasting peace and believed that the treaty was one of the causes of the Second World War . By 1954 , as United States Secretary of State and in discussion with the Soviet Union in regards to German reunification , he commented that " Efforts to bankrupt and humiliate a nation merely incite a people of vigor and of courage to break the bonds imposed upon them . ... Prohibitions thus incite the very acts that are prohibited . "
= = Impact = =
= = = Reparations = = =
Compensation demanded from the defeated party was a common feature of peace treaties . The financial burden of the Treaty of Versailles was labelled " reparations " , which distinguished them from punitive settlements usually known as indemnities . The reparations were intended for reconstruction and as compensation for families who had been bereaved by the war . Sally Marks wrote that the article " was designed to lay a legal basis for reparations " to be paid . Article 231 " established an unlimited theoretical liability " for which Germany would have to pay but the following article " in fact narrowed German responsibility to civilian damages " . When the final reparation figure was established in 1921 , it was based on an Allied assessment of [ the ] German capacity to pay , not on the basis of Allied claims .
The London Schedule of Payments , of 5 May 1921 , established the full liability of the combined Central Powers at 132 billion gold marks . Of this figure , Germany was only required to pay 50 billion gold marks ( $ 12 @.@ 5 billion ) , a smaller amount than they had previously offered for terms of peace . Reparations were unpopular and strained the German economy but they were payable and from 1919 – 1931 , when reparations ended , Germany paid fewer than 21 billion gold marks . The Reparation Commission and the Bank for International Settlements gave a total German payment of 20 @.@ 598 billon gold marks , whereas historian Niall Ferguson estimated that Germany paid no more than 19 billion gold marks . Ferguson also wrote that this sum was only 2 @.@ 4 per cent of German national income between 1919 and 1932 , while Stephen Schuker places the figure at an average of 2 per cent of national income between 1919 and 1931 , in cash and kind , making a total transfer equal to 5 @.@ 3 per cent of national income for the period . Gerhard Weinberg wrote that reparations were paid , towns were rebuilt , orchards replanted , mines reopened and pensions paid but the burden of repairs was shifted from the German economy to the damaged economies of the victors .
= = = Effects on German political opinion and revisionism = = =
Domestic German opposition to Article 231 has been held to have created a psychological and political burden on the post @-@ war Weimar Republic . German politicians seeking international sympathy would use the article for its propaganda value , convincing many who had not read the treaties that the article implied full war guilt . German revisionist historians who subsequently attempted to ignore the validity of the clause found a ready audience among ' revisionist ' writers in France , Britain , and the United States . The objective of both the politicians and historians was to prove that Germany was not solely guilty for causing the war ; if that guilt could be disproved the legal requirement to pay reparations would disappear . This subject , the question of Germany 's guilt ( Kriegsschuldfrage or war guilt question ) became a major theme of Adolf Hitler 's political career .
United States Senator Henrik Shipstead argued that the failure to revise the article became a factor in Hitler 's rise to power . A view held by some historians , such as Tony Rea and John Wright who wrote that " the harshness of the War Guilt Clause and the reparations demands made it easier for Hitler to gain power in Germany . " Despite these views , the historical consensus is that the article and the treaty , did not cause the rise of Nazism but that an unconnected rise in extremism and the Great Depression led to the NSDAP gaining greater electoral popularity and then being maneuvered into office . Fritz Klein wrote that while there was a path from Versailles to Hitler , the former did not make " Hitler 's takeover of power inevitable " and that " the Germans had a choice when they decided to take this path . In other words , they did not have to . Hitler 's victory was not an unavoidable result of Versailles . "
= = Historical assessment = =
In 1926 , Robert C. Binkley and A. C. Mahr of Stanford University , wrote that German accusations of the article assigning war guilt were " ill @-@ founded " and " mistaken " . The article was more " an assumption of liability to pay damages than an admission of war guilt " and compared it with " a man who undertakes to pay all the cost of a motor accident than to the plea of guilty entered by an accused criminal " . They wrote that " it is absurd " to charge the reparation articles of the treaty with any " political meaning " and the legal interpretation " is the only one that can stand " . They concluded that German opposition " is based upon a text which has no legal validity whatsoever , and which Germany never signed at all . " Sidney Fay was the " most outspoken and influential critic " of the article . In 1928 , he concluded that all of Europe shared the blame for the war and that Germany had no intention of launching a general European war in 1914 .
In 1937 , E. H. Carr commented that " in the passion of the moment " the Allied Powers had " failed to realize that this extorted admission of guilt could prove nothing , and must excite bitter resentment in German minds . " He concluded " German men of learning set to work to demonstrate the guiltlessness of their country , fondly believing that , if this could be established , the whole fabric of the treaty would collapse . " René Albrecht @-@ Carrié wrote in May 1940 , that " article 231 gave rise to an unfortunate controversy , unfortunate because it served to raise a false issue . " He wrote that the German inter @-@ war argument " rested on her responsibility for the out @-@ break of the war " and if that guilt could be disproved then the legal requirement to pay reparations would disappear .
In 1942 , Luigi Albertini published The Origins of the War of 1914 and concluded that Germany was primarily responsible for the outbreak of the war . Albertini 's work , rather than spurring on new debate , was the culmination of the first research phase into the war guilt question . The issue came back between 1959 and 1969 , when Fritz Fischer in Germany 's Aims in the First World War and War of Illusions " destroyed the consensus about shared responsibility for the First World War " and " placed the blame ... firmly on the shoulders of the Wilhelmine elite . " By the 1970s , his work " had emerged as the new orthodoxy on the origins of the First World War " . In the 1980s , James Joll led a new wave of First World War research concluding " that the origins of the First World War were " complex and varied " although " by December 1912 " Germany had decided to go to war .
In 1978 , Marks re @-@ examined the reparation clauses of the treaty and wrote that " the much @-@ criticized ' war guilt clause ' , Article 231 , which was designed to lay a legal basis for reparations , in fact makes no mention of war guilt " but only specified that Germany was to pay for the damages caused by the war they imposed upon the allies and " that Germany committed an act of aggression against Belgium is beyond dispute " . " Technically , Britain entered " the war and French troops entered Belgium " to honor " the " legal obligation " to defend Belgium under the 1839 Treaty of London and that " Germany openly acknowledged her responsibility in regard to Belgium on August 4 , 1914 and May 7 , 1919 . " Marks also wrote that " the same clause , mutatis mutandis " was incorporated " in the treaties with Austria and Hungary , neither of whom interpreted it as declaration of war guilt . " Wolfgang Mommsen wrote that " Austria and Hungary , understandably paid no attention to this aspect of the draft treaty " .
In 1986 , Marks wrote that the German foreign office , supported by military and civilian notables , " focused on Article 231 ... hoping that , if one could refute German responsibility for the war , not only reparations but the entire treaty would collapse " . Manfred Boemeke , Gerald Feldman , and Elisabeth Glaser wrote that " pragmatic requirements characteristically influenced the shaping of the much misunderstood Article 231 . That paragraph reflected the presumed legal necessity to define German responsibility for the war in order to specify and limit the Reich 's obligations " . P.M.H. Bell wrote that despite the article not using the term ' guilt ' , and while " it may be that its drafters did not intend to convey a moral judgement of Germany " , the article has " almost universally " became known as the war guilt clause of the treaty . Margaret MacMillan wrote that the German public 's interpretation of Article 231 as unequivocally ascribing the fault for the war to Germany and her allies , " came to be the object of particular loathing in Germany and the cause of uneasy consciences among the Allies . " The Allies never expected such a hostile reaction , for " no one thought there would be any difficulty over the clauses themselves . "
Stephen Neff wrote that " the term ' war guilt ' is a slight unfortunate one , since to lawyers , the term ' guilt ' primarily connotes criminal liability " while " the responsibility of Germany envisaged in the Versailles Treaty ... was civil in nature , comparable to the indemnity obligation of classical just @-@ war theory . " Louise Slavicek wrote that while " the article was an honest reflection of the treaty @-@ writers ' beliefs , including such a clause in the peace settlement was undiplomatic , to say the least . " Diane Kunz wrote that " rather than being seen as an American lawyer 's clever attempt to limit actual German financial responsibility by buying off French politicians and their public with the sop of a piece of paper " Article 231 " became an easily exploitable open sore " . Ian Kershaw wrote that the " national disgrace " felt over the article and " defeat , revolution , and the establishment of democracy " , had " fostered a climate in which a counter @-@ revolutionary set of ideas could gain wide currency " and " enhanced the creation of a mood in which " extreme nationalist ideas could gain a wider audience and take hold .
Elazar Barkan argues that by " forcing an admission of war guilt at Versailles , rather than healing , the victors instigated resentment that contributed to the rise of Fascism . " Norman Davies wrote that the article invited Germany " to accept sole guilt for the preceding war " . Klaus Schwabe wrote that the article 's influence went far beyond the discussion of war guilt . By " refusing to acknowledge Germany 's ' war guilt ' the new German government implicitly exonerated the old monarchial order " and more importantly failed " to dissociate itself from the old regime . " In doing so " it undermined its claim that post @-@ revolutionary Germany was a historic new democratic beginning deserving credit at the peace conference . "
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= Æthelberht II of East Anglia =
Æthelberht ( Old English : Æðelbrihte ) , also called Saint Ethelbert the King , ( died 20 May 794 at Sutton Walls , Herefordshire ) was an eighth @-@ century saint and a king of East Anglia , the Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdom which today includes the English counties of Norfolk and Suffolk . Little is known of his reign , which may have begun in 779 , according to later sources , and very few of the coins issued during his reign have been discovered . It is known from the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle that he was killed on the orders of Offa of Mercia in 794 .
He was subsequently canonised and became the focus of cults in East Anglia and at Hereford , where the shrine of the saintly king once existed . In the absence of historical facts , mediaeval chroniclers provided their own details for Æthelberht 's ancestry , life as king and death at the hands of Offa . His feast day is 20 May . Several Norfolk , Suffolk and West Country parish churches are dedicated to the saint .
= = Life and reign = =
Little is known of Æthelberht 's life or reign , as very few East Anglian records have survived from this period . Mediaeval chroniclers have provided dubious accounts of his life , in the absence of any real details . According to Richard of Cirencester , writing in the fifteenth century , Æthelberht 's parents were Æthelred I of East Anglia and Leofrana of Mercia . Richard narrates in detail a story of Æthelberht 's piety , election as king and wise rule . Urged to marry against his will , he apparently agreed to wed Eadburh , the daughter of Offa of Mercia , and set out to visit her , despite his mother 's forebodings and his experiences of terrifying events ( an earthquake , a solar eclipse and a vision ) .
Æthelberht 's reign may have begun in 779 , the date provided for the beginning of his reign on the uncertain authority of a much later saint 's life . The absence of any East Anglian charters prevents it from being known whether he ruled as a king or a sub @-@ king under the power of the ruler of another kingdom .
Æthelberht was stopped by Offa of Mercia from minting his own coins , of which only four examples have ever been found . One of these coins , a ' light ' penny , said to have been found in 1908 at Tivoli , near Rome , is similar in type to the coinage of Offa . On one side is the word REX , with an image of Romulus and Remus suckling a wolf : the obverse names both the king and his moneyer , Lul , who struck coins for both Offa and Coenwulf of Mercia . Andy Hutcheson has suggested that the use of runes on the coin may signify " continuing strong control by local leaders " . According to Marion Archibald , the issuing of " flattering " coins of this type , with the intention to win friends in Rome , probably indicated to Offa that as a sub @-@ king , Æthelberht was assuming " a greater degree of independence than he was prepared to tolerate " .
In 793 the vulnerability of the English east coast was exposed when the monastery at Lindisfarne was looted by Vikings and a year later Jarrow was also attacked , events which Steven Plunkett reasons would ensure that the East Anglians were governed firmly . Æthelberht 's claim to be a king descended from the Wuffingas dynasty ( suggested by the use of a Roman she @-@ wolf and the title REX on his coins ) could be because of a need for strong kingship as a result of the Viking attacks .
= = Death and canonisation = =
Æthelberht was put to death by Offa of Mercia under unclear circumstances ; the site of his murder was apparently the royal vill at Sutton Walls . According to the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , he was beheaded . Mediaeval sources tell how he was taken captive whilst visiting his future Mercian bride Ælfthyth and was then murdered and buried . In Richard of Cirencester 's account of the murder , which cannot be substantiated , Offa 's evil queen Cynethryth poisoned her husband 's mind until he agreed to have his guest killed . Æthelberht was then bound and beheaded by a certain Grimbert and his body was unceremoniously disposed of . The mediaeval historian John Brompton 's Chronicon describes how the king 's detached head fell off a cart into a ditch where it was found , before it restored a blind man 's sight . According to the Chronicon , Ælfthyth subsequently became a recluse at Crowland and her remorseful father founded monasteries , gave land to the Church and travelled on a pilgrimage to Rome .
The execution of an Anglo @-@ Saxon king on the orders of another ruler was very rare , although public hanging and beheading did occur at this time , as has been discovered at the Sutton Hoo site . Æthelberht 's death at the hands of the Mercians made the possibility of any peaceful union between the Anglian peoples ( including Mercia ) less likely than before . It led to Mercia 's domination of East Anglia , whose kings ruled over the kingdom for over three decades after Æthelberht 's death .
In 2014 metal @-@ detectorist Darrin Simpson of Eastbourne found a coin minted during the reign of Æthelbert , in a Sussex field . It is believed that the coin may have led to Æthelbert 's beheading by Offa , as it had been struck as a sign of independence . Describing the coin , Christopher Webb , head of coins at auctioneers Dix Noonan Webb , said , " This new discovery is an important and unexpected addition to the numismatic history of 8th Century England . " It sold at auction on June 11 for £ 78 @,@ 000 ( estimate £ 15 @,@ 000 to £ 20 @,@ 000 ) .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Veneration = = =
After his death , Æthelberht was canonised by the Church . He became the subject of a series of vitae that date from the eleventh century and he was venerated in religious cults in both East Anglia and at Hereford . The Anglo @-@ Saxon church of the episcopal estate at Hoxne was one of several dedicated to Æthelberht in Suffolk , a possible indication of the existence of a religious cult devoted to the saintly king . Only three dedications for Æthelberht are near where he died - Marden , Hereford Cathedral and Littledean - the other eleven being in Norfolk or Suffolk . Lawrence Butler has argued that this unusual pattern may be explained by the existence of a royal cult in East Anglia , which represented a " revival of Christianity after the Danish settlement by commemorating a politically ' safe ' and corporeally distant local ruler " .
= = = Christian buildings dedicated to Æthelberht = = =
The Blessed Virgin Mary and St. Ethelbert are joint patrons the cathedral at Hereford , where the music for the Office of St Ethelbert survives in the thirteenth @-@ century Hereford Breviary .
In East Anglia , St. Ethelbert 's Gate is one of the two main entrances to the precinct of Norwich Cathedral . The chapel at Albrightestone , at a location near an important excavated Anglo @-@ Saxon cemetery at Boss Hall in Ipswich , was dedicated to Æthelberht . In Norfolk , the Church of England parish churches at Alby , East Wretham , Larling , Thurton , Mundham and Burnham Sutton ( where there are remains of the ruined church ) and the Suffolk churches at Falkenham , Hessett , Herringswell and Tannington are all dedicated to the saint . In neighbouring Essex , the parish church at Belchamp Otten is dedicated to St Ethelbert and All Saints , and the church at Stanway , originally an Anglo @-@ Saxon chapel , is dedicated to St Albright , which is believed to be the same saint . In 1937 , St Ethelbert 's name was added to the parish church of St George in East Ham , London , at the behest of Hereford Cathedral which had funded the rebuilding of the church , previously a temporary wooden structure .
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= Sigtrygg Silkbeard =
Sigtrygg II Silkbeard Olafsson ( also Sihtric , Sitric and Sitrick in Irish texts ; or Sigtryg and Sigtryggr in Scandinavian texts ) was a Hiberno @-@ Norse king of Dublin ( possibly AD 989 – 994 ; restored or began 995 – 1000 ; restored 1000 and abdicated 1036 ) of the Uí Ímair dynasty . He was caught up in the abortive Leinster revolt of 999 – 1000 , after which he was forced to submit to the King of Munster , Brian Boru . His family also conducted a double marriage alliance with Boru , although he later realigned himself with the main leaders of the Leinster revolt of 1012 – 1014 . He has a prominent role in the 12th @-@ century Irish Cogadh Gaedhil re Gallaibh and the 13th century Icelandic Njal 's Saga , as the main Norse leader at the Battle of Clontarf in 1014 .
Sigtrygg 's long reign spanned 46 years , until his abdication in 1036 . During that period , his armies saw action in four of the five Irish provinces of the time . In particular , he conducted a long series of raids into territories such as Meath , Wicklow , Ulster , and perhaps even the coast of Wales . He also came into conflict with rival Norse kings , especially in Cork and Waterford .
He went on pilgrimage to Rome in 1028 and is associated with the foundation of Christ Church Cathedral in Dublin . Although Dublin underwent several reversals of fortune during his reign , on the whole trade in the city flourished . He died in 1042 .
= = Life = =
= = = Family = = =
Sigtrygg was of Norse and Irish ancestry . He was a son of Olaf Cuarán ( also called Kváran ) , King of York and of Dublin , and Gormflaith ingen Murchada . Gormflaith was the daughter of the King of Leinster , Murchad mac Finn , and the sister of his successor , King Máel Mórda of Leinster . She had previously been married to the King of Meath and High King of Ireland , Máel Sechnaill — the first of her three husbands . She was a beautiful , powerful and intriguing Irish woman , who according to the 13th @-@ century Icelandic Njál 's saga , was " the fairest of all women , and best gifted in everything that was not in her own power , but it was the talk of men that she did all things ill over which she had any power " . Sigtrygg 's paternal half @-@ brother was Glúniairn , " Iron @-@ knee " , who ruled as King of Dublin from 980 – 989 .
An incident involving the ransom of one of Sigtrygg 's sons late in his reign , in which " seven score British horse " were mentioned in the list of demands , suggests that Dublin was one of the main ports for importing horses into 11th century Ireland , and that Sigtrygg and his family may have been personally involved in animal husbandry .
= = = King of Dublin = = =
Sigtrygg may have succeeded his paternal half @-@ brother Glúniairn as king of Dublin in 989 , but it is just as likely his rival Ivar of Waterford came to power in the city then . The Irish annals record little information about Sigtrygg , his family or Dublin during these first five years of his reign . Benjamin Hudson claims this was because of the arrival of the future King of Norway , Olaf Tryggvason , who took up residence in Dublin for a few years after marrying Sigtrygg 's sister Gytha . Tryggvason had met Gytha while raiding along the coasts of the Irish Sea . The presence of a powerful Viking leader in Dublin was a deterrent to Irish raids , and Trygvason may have weakened Sigtrygg 's foes by plundering them .
Hudson argues that Tryggvason 's return to Norway in 994 coincided with the temporary expulsion of Sigtrygg from Dublin by his rival Ivar of Waterford , . Ivar may have already ruled there from 989 until forced out by Sigtrygg in 993 . Much depends on the interpretation . Either way , Sigtrygg was back within a year . In 995 , he and his nephew , Muirchertach Ua Congalaich , attacked the church at Donaghpatrick in County Meath . In retaliation , Máel Sechnaill entered Dublin and took the ring of Thor and the sword of Carlus . Sigtrygg then attacked Kells and Clonard in 997 . In 998 , Máel Sechnaill and the King of Munster , Brian Boru , forced Sigtrygg to recognise their lordship by giving hostages .
Sigtrygg realised that Dublin 's wealth made him a target , and that his city needed powerful allies and walls . The Dublin countryside did not provide sufficient resources for competition against powerful Irish princes . Sigtrygg first allied with his maternal uncle , Máel Mórda mac Murchada , King of the Uí Fáeláin of north Leinster . In 999 , they defeated their cousin the King of Leinster Donnchad mac Domhnaill , and imprisoned him in Dublin .
= = = = First Leinster revolt against Brian Boru = = = =
Late in 999 , the Leinstermen , historically hostile to domination by either the Uí Néill overkings or the king of Munster , allied themselves with the Norse of Dublin and revolted against Brian Boru . This provided the opportunity for Sigtrygg 's second alliance with Máel Mórda mac Murchada . Brian 's forces inflicted a crushing defeat on the united Leinster @-@ Dublin army at the Battle of Glenmama , and followed the victory with an attack on the city of Dublin . The 12th @-@ century Cogadh Gaedhil re Gallaibh gives two accounts of the occupation : Brian remained in Dublin from Christmas Day until Epiphany ( 6 January ) , or from Christmas Day until St. Brigid 's Day ( 1 February ) . The later Annals of Ulster date the Battle of Glenmama to 30 December 999 , while the Annals of Inisfallen date Brian 's capture of the city to 1 January 1000 . In any case , in 1000 Brian plundered the city , burned the Norse fortress and expelled Sigtrygg .
According to the Cogadh Gaedhil re Gallaibh , Sigtrygg 's flight from the city took him north , first to the Ulaid and then to Aéd of Cenél nEógain . Both tribes refused to help him . As Sigtrygg could find no refuge in Ireland , he eventually returned , submitted to Brian , gave hostages and was restored to Dublin three months after Brian ended his occupation in February . In the meantime , Sigtrygg may have temporarily " turned pirate " and been responsible for a raid on St David 's in Wales .
Brian 's daughter by his first wife was married to Sigtrygg , and Brian in turn took Sigtrygg 's mother , the now thrice @-@ married Gormflaith , as his second wife .
= = = = Years between the revolts = = = =
Dublin enjoyed a sustained period of peace while Sigtrygg 's men served in the armies of Brian . Sigtrygg never forgot the Ulaid 's refusal of aid when he fled from Dublin , and in 1002 he had his revenge when his soldiers served in Brian 's campaign against the Ulaid and ravaged their lands . His fleet raided Ulster , and he plundered Kilclief and Inis Cumhscraigh , taking many prisoners from both . They served under Brian against the Ulaid again in 1005 , and against the Northern Uí Néill in 1006 and 1007 . Cenél Conaill , the last of the Northern Uí Néill Kingdoms , submitted in 1011 , and Brian was formally recognised as High King throughout Ireland .
A remembrance of Sigtrygg 's reign during these years is preserved in the late medieval Icelandic Saga of Gunnlaug Serpent 's Tongue . Only fragments survive of the verses in the Sigtryggsdrápa , a drápa composed by the skald Gunnlaug Illugason while visiting Sigtrygg 's court . The verses praise Sigtrygg for his royal ancestry , and describe Dublin as a busy , thriving port . Archaeological excavations of ships , gold , clothing , and pieces for games from around this time seem to confirm the description . According to the prose , Sigtrygg considered rewarding the poet with ships and gold , but instead granted him a new suit of clothes .
= = = = Second Leinster revolt against Brian Boru = = = =
Some time during the 1010s , Brian Boru divorced Queen Gormflaith , and she began to engineer opposition to the High King . Around 1012 , relations between Brian and Leinster had become so strained that revolt broke out among the Leinstermen . Sigtrygg aligned himself with the forces of Máel Mórda , leader of the revolt , and the chiefs Ua Ruairc , Ua Néill , and others . Together , they defeated Brian 's ally Máel Sechnaill near the town of Swords , and Brian for the moment was unable to render assistance .
Sigtrygg sent his son Oleif to lead a fleet south to Munster to burn the Viking settlement of Cork . The fleet also attacked Cape Clear , crippling Brian 's naval power , which was concentrated in Cork .
According to Njál 's saga , Gormflaith " egged on her son Sigtrygg very much to kill King Brian " , sending him to win the support of Earl Sigurd of Orkney , and Bróðir and Óspak of Man at any price . Sigtrygg arrived in Orkney for Sigurd 's Yule feast , where he sat in a high seat between the two brothers @-@ in @-@ law , Earl Sigurd of Orkney and Earl Gilli of the Southern Isles . The saga also records that Sigtrygg was very interested in the Burning of Njáll Þorgeirsson at Bergþórshvoll and what had happened since . Afterwards , Sigtrygg bade Sigurd to go to war with him against Brian . Despite Sigurd 's initial hesitance and against the advice of his men , he eventually agreed to arrive in Dublin by Palm Sunday with all his men , on the condition that if Brian was slain , Sigurd would marry Gormflaith and become King of Ireland .
Sigtrygg went next to Man , where he also persuaded Bróðir to be in Dublin by Palm Sunday , and he promised Bróðir too that , if successful , he would be allowed marry Gormflaith and become King of Ireland ; the terms of this agreement were kept secret . Óspak was dissatisfied with the arrangement , and refused to " fight against so good a king " .
The two forces met at the Battle of Clontarf , on Good Friday in 1014 , a battle that claimed the lives of the main commanders on both sides : Brian and his son Murchad on the Munster side ; and Máel Mórda , Sigurd and Bróðir on the Leinster @-@ Norse side . According to Irish sources , Sigtrygg did not take part in the battle , but held his garrison in reserve in Dublin . The Cogadh Gaedhil re Gallaibh records that Sigtrygg was able to observe the progress of the battle and the movement of the battle standards from the ramparts of his fortress . As the modern Irish medievalist historian Donnchadh Ó Corráin notes , Sigtrygg " wisely kept within the city and lived to tell the tale " .
Earlier Scandinavian sources ( the Orkneyinga saga , Njál 's saga and the Darraðarljóð , composed soon after the battle ) contend that he did actually fight valiantly at Clontarf . The Darraðarljóð , showing the persistence of paganism among the Vikings of Dublin , describes the Valkyries as following the " young king " Sigtrygg into battle . Njal 's Saga records that Sigtrygg was on the wing opposite Óspak of Man for the whole battle , and that Óspak eventually put the king to flight .
= = = = Reign after Clontarf = = = =
Immediately after Clontarf , Sigtrygg 's fortunes appear to have declined , even though he emerged with his kingdom intact . Máel Sechnaill , now again recognised as high king , was undoubtedly the battle 's main beneficiary . In 1015 , plague struck Dublin and Leinster , and Máel Sechnaill seized the opportunity to march south to burn Dublin 's suburbs . While Sigtrygg was able to ally with Leinster for another attack on Meath in 1017 , the alliance was dissolved when Sigtrygg blinded his cousin Bróen , Máel Morda 's son and heir , in Dublin .
In 1018 , Sigtrygg plundered Kells ; he " carried off innumerable spoils and prisoners , and slew many persons in the middle of the church " . These captives would either have been ransomed or sold off into Dublin 's lucrative slave trade . When Sigtrygg raided south in 1021 , he was defeated at Delgany in County Wicklow where the new King of Leinster , Augaire mac Dúnlainge , " made a dreadful slaughter of the foreigners " in the Kingdom of Breifne . In 1022 , the Dublin fleet sailed north against the Ulaid , only to be destroyed in a naval battle against Niall mac Eochaid , after which the Norse crews and ships were taken prisoner .
According to the American medievalist historian Benjamin Hudson , " matters went from bad to worse " for Sigtrygg after the death of Máel Sechnaill in 1022 . The great Irish princes began to compete for the High Kingship , and the political situation in Ireland became chaotic as there was no clear choice for supremacy . Accordingly , " Dublin became a prize for those who would rule Ireland and wanted the town 's wealth to finance their ambitions . "
Hostages were taken from Sigtrygg by Flaithbertach Ua Néill , King of Cenél nEógain and the Uí Néill , and Donnchad mac Briain of Munster in 1025 and 1026 respectively , in support of their bids for the high kingship . These hostages brought no security , and Dublin was raided in 1026 by Niall mac Eocada of the Ulaid in revenge for the naval attack of 1022 . Sigtrygg formed a new alliance with the men of Brega . In 1027 , Sigtrygg 's son Olaf joined Donnchad of Brega in a raid on Staholmock , County Meath . Sigtrygg and Donnchad 's army was defeated by the men of Meath under their king , Roen Ua Mael Sechlainn . Sigtrygg rallied to the fight again at Lickblaw where Donnchad and Roen were slain .
In 1029 , Sigtrygg 's son Olaf was taken prisoner by the new lord of Brega , Mathghamhain Ua Riagain . Sigtrygg was forced to pay a ransom of 1 @,@ 200 cows , 140 British horses , 60 ounces of gold and of silver , " the sword of Carlus " , the Irish hostages of Leinster and Leath Cuinn , " four hostages to Ua Riagain as a security for peace , and the full value of the life of the third hostage . " An additional 80 cows " for word and supplication " were to be paid to the man who entreated for Olaf 's release . The incident illustrates the importance of ransoming noble captives , as a means of political manipulation , increasing one 's own revenues and exhausting the resources of one 's foes .
Sigtrygg 's fortunes improved in the 1030s . In 1030 , he allied with the King of England , Cnut , and together their fleets raided Wales . A Dublin colony was established in Gwynedd , and for the following years Sigtrygg was at the height of his power . In 1032 , without allies , Sigtrygg won a victory on the Boyne estuary of a type previously unseen by his dynasty for two decades , against a coalition of three kingdoms : over 300 members of the Conailli , the Ui Tortain , and the Ui Meith were captured or killed at the Battle of Inbher Boinne . In 1035 , he plundered the celebrated stone church Ardbraccan in Meath , burned 200 men inside , and carried another 200 off into captivity . ( In revenge , the church at Swords was plundered and burned by Conchobhar Ua Maeleachlainn , who took away cattle and captives . )
Meanwhile , in a renewal of ancient feuds that same year , Sigtrygg executed Ragnall King of Waterford , in Dublin Ragnall was the grandson of the Ivar , Sigtrygg 's earliest rival , who had contested for Dublin decades before . Echmarcach mac Ragnaill , King of the Isles forced Sigtrygg to abdicate in 1036 . Sigtrygg died in exile , at an unknown place , in 1042 .
= = Issue and legacy = =
Sigtrygg married Brian Boru 's daughter , Sláine , and they had one son : Olaf ( d . 1034 ) . According to the Annals of the Four Masters , Olaf " was slain by the Saxons " on his way on a pilgrimage to Rome . He was survived by one Ragnhild , from whom Gruffudd ap Cynan and the Kings of Gwynedd were descended .
Separately from Sláine , Sigtrygg had five children : Artalach ( d . 999 ) , Oleif ( d . 1013 ) , Godfrey ( d . 1036 ) , Glúniairn ( d . 1031 ) and Cellach ( d . 1042 ) . The annals record the death of Oleif — " son of the lord of the foreigners " — who was killed in revenge for the burning of Cork . Glúniairn was killed by the people of South Brega in 1031 . Godfrey was killed in Wales in 1036 by one Sitric , " son of Glúniairn " — as factionalism was common among Viking settlers , this could have been the same Glúniairn as Sigtrygg 's half @-@ brother , thus making Godfrey and his killer cousins . Sigtrygg 's daughter Cellach died in the same month as her father .
Sigtrygg was also , according to the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography , " a patron of the arts , a benefactor of the church , and an economic innovator " . In the 990s , he established Ireland 's first mint , in Dublin . He established a bishopric at Dublin and in 1028 he made a pilgrimage to Rome . It is thus possible to attribute the origins of the establishment of territorial bishoprics in Ireland on the Roman model , one of the most important results of 11th @-@ century Irish Church Reform , to Sigtrygg . He went on to found Christ Church Cathedral in Dublin , which today is the oldest building in Dublin , but relatively young in comparison to the many monastic cathedrals in the rest of Ireland . Like many of the other coastal cathedrals in Ireland , it is of Hiberno @-@ Norse origin . The cathedral , initially a wooden building , was rebuilt in stone in the 1180s following the arrival of the Anglo @-@ Normans to Ireland , led by Richard de Clare , 2nd Earl of Pembroke .
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= Chuck Versus Santa Claus =
" Chuck Versus Santa Claus " is the eleventh episode of the second season of Chuck , and the 24th overall episode of the series . The episode was directed by Robert Duncan McNeill and written by Scott Rosenbaum . It originally aired December 15 , 2008 .
The episode revolves around a hostage crisis and is largely presented as an homage to the film Die Hard . On Christmas Eve , an amateur criminal on the run from the police crashes into the Buy More and takes Chuck Bartowski , Ellie Bartowski , Devon Woodcomb , and the Buy More employees hostage . In order to protect Chuck 's cover and the safety of the other hostages , Sarah Walker and John Casey secretly go into the store to remove Chuck , but the mission quickly falls apart when Chuck refuses to leave his friends and family behind .
" Chuck Versus Santa Claus " received overwhelmingly positive reviews from critics . According to the Nielsen ratings system , it drew 7 @.@ 661 million viewers , making it the second most @-@ watched episode of the season , after " Chuck Versus the Third Dimension " .
= = Plot = =
The morning before Christmas , a high @-@ speed chase occurs near a Burbank , California shopping center , ultimately ending with the fugitive crashing his car through the Buy More front doors . Nathan " Needlenose Ned " Rhyerson ( Jed Rees ) exits the car and , desperate to buy presents for his children , takes Chuck Bartowski ( Zachary Levi ) , Ellie Bartowski ( Sarah Lancaster ) , Devon Woodcomb ( Ryan McPartlin ) , and all the Buy More employees hostage . Ned communicates with the police via Chuck , and LAPD Lieutenant Frank Mauser ( Michael Rooker ) negotiates the release of Emmett Milbarge ( Tony Hale ) as a sign of good faith .
Meanwhile , Sarah Walker ( Yvonne Strahovski ) and John Casey ( Adam Baldwin ) watch news coverage of the situation and sneak into the store to rescue Chuck so that the media attention does not compromise his cover , only to be thwarted by Ned . Suddenly , Mauser exchanges himself for two hostages : Chuck 's handlers Casey and Sarah .
When Mauser enters , Chuck flashes on his watch , identifying him as a Fulcrum agent . Mauser tells Chuck that he knows that Casey and Sarah are CIA and that they are protecting an unknown asset . He reveals that Ned is a Fulcrum agent who caused the disturbance so Mauser could infiltrate the Buy More . At this point , it is revealed that Ned is far more competent than the hostages were led to believe , having intentionally shot Casey in the foot and separated Chuck from his handlers . Mauser threatens to shoot the hostages if Chuck does not reveal where Bryce Larkin and the government database the Intersect are . Chuck reveals to Mauser that the Intersect has been uploaded to his brain .
As Mauser escorts him from the Buy More , Chuck urges Devon to disarm Ned . As Chuck is taken in an ambulance to a Fulcrum facility , Devon , Jeff Barnes ( Scott Krinsky ) , Lester Patel ( Vik Sahay ) , Big Mike ( Mark Christopher Lawrence ) , and Morgan Grimes ( Joshua Gomez ) make a plan . Lester unsuccessfully tries to tackle Ned , but Morgan manages to distract Ned long for Big Mike and Devon to tackle him and end the hostage situation .
Meanwhile , Sarah and Casey learn that Ned is unmarried and had earlier called Mauser rather than his wife , as the hostages were led to believe . They follow the ambulance containing Chuck and Mauser and shoot its tires , sending the vehicle into a Christmas tree lot and allowing Chuck to escape . After a brief fight , Mauser surrenders , confident that Fulcrum will rescue him . To protect Chuck , Sarah executes Mauser . Unknown to Sarah , Chuck watches the entire confrontation in horror from afar . She lies to Chuck and tells him that Mauser has been arrested . At the Buy More , Ellie and Morgan 's girlfriend Anna Wu ( Julia Ling ) praise Lester for his act of bravery . Morgan watches as Lester grabs Anna and kisses her , turning away before Anna pulls away from Lester in disgust . The episode closes with both Morgan and Chuck heartbroken , Morgan believing Anna to be unfaithful , and Chuck believing Sarah to be a murderer .
= = Production = =
" Chuck Versus Santa Claus " was one of many episodes to be directed by producer Robert Duncan McNeill , and was written by producer Scott Rosenbaum . It originally aired in the United States on December 15 , 2008 , on NBC as the eleventh episode of Chuck 's second season and the 24th episode overall .
The exterior shots of the store where most of the episode takes place are of a former Mervyn 's store in the Fallbrook Mall in Canoga Park . Reginald VelJohnson guest stars , reprising his Die Hard role of Sergeant Al Powell , who is revealed to be Big Mike 's cousin . Michael Rooker also guest stars as long @-@ time hostage negotiator Frank Mauser and Jed Rees as Ned , the hostage taker . Tony Hale and Bonita Friedericy reprise their recurring roles of efficiency expert Emmett Milbarge and General Diane Beckman , respectively .
= = = Flashes = = =
In this episode , the Intersect is activated once . When Mauser walks into the Buy More , Chuck " flashes " on his watch . This flash reveals that Mauser is a Fulcrum agent , and Chuck urges Devon to end the hostage situation .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode is largely presented as an homage to and parody of Die Hard , which was also centered on terrorists instigating a hostage crisis on the day before Christmas . The episode also has music similar to Die Hard , including the song " Ode to Joy " . Reginald VelJohnson reprises his role of LAPD officer Al Powell from Die Hard and Die Hard 2 . While Powell bought several Twinkies for his wife in Die Hard , in this episode he and Big Mike are shown eating Twinkies at the same time . Chuck later parodied Die Hard on a much larger scale in " Chuck Versus the Leftovers " .
The episode contains a number of other references . Its title references Santa Claus . In addition to Die Hard , the episode has been described in part as " a light @-@ hearted Dog Day Afternoon parody . " Ned is believed to be named after Stephen Tobolowsky 's character Ned Ryerson from Groundhog Day , and Mauser after Art Metrano 's character from Police Academy 2 : Their First Assignment and Police Academy 3 : Back in Training . Chuck reveals that Christmas at the Bartowski household includes Twilight Zone marathons , while Sarah reveals that Christmas at the Burton household was spent in a Salvation Army scam .
= = Critical response = =
According to the Nielsen ratings system , " Chuck Versus Santa Claus " drew 7 @.@ 661 million viewers , making it the second most @-@ watched episode of the season , after " Chuck Versus the Third Dimension " .
The episode received overwhelmingly positive reviews from critics . Eric Goldman of IGN gave the episode a score of 9 @.@ 5 out of 10 , a series high alongside " Chuck Versus the Colonel " , Season 3 's " Chuck Versus the Beard " and " Chuck Versus the Subway " , Season 4 's " Chuck Versus the Cliffhanger " , and Season 5 's " Chuck Versus the Kept Man " and " Chuck Versus the Goodbye " . Goldman described the episode as an " especially strong installment , which delivered on a lot of fronts . " Goldman praised the scene depicting Sarah and Mauser 's confrontation , writing , " The entire ambience of the scene was terrific – a rainy night at a Christmas tree lot , with Chuck secretly watching as Sarah shot the unarmed , surrendering Mauser in cold blood - to the tune of ' Silent Night ' , no less . Of course she did this because she loves Chuck and wants to protect him , but all Chuck knows is that he just saw Sarah in a very scary light , and it 's a great new dynamic to their relationship . " HitFix writer Alan Sepinwall wrote , " Chuck vs. Santa Claus " was moving along amusingly enough when it still seemed like Ned Rhyerson was just a hapless criminal with the bad luck to crash into a store built above a top @-@ secret government intelligence facility , but the surprising left turn it took when Chuck flashed on Lt. Mauser took things to another level . " Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club gave the episode an A- , writing " Santa Claus certainly delivered ( character ) goodies to everyone tonight . Morgan gets to be a hero , even if no one notices , taking down Ned with a fake snow machine . Jeff calls his mother – in prison – then finds the time to break up a mistletoe makeout session . Lester sneaks a smooch from Anna , and isn 't even remotely fazed when it causes her to run for the hills . And Big Mike 's embrace of cousin Big Al is a keeper . "
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= New Jersey Route 4 =
Route 4 is a state highway in Bergen County and Passaic County , New Jersey , United States . The highway stretches 10 @.@ 83 mi ( 17 @.@ 43 km ) from Route 20 ( McLean Boulevard ) in Paterson east to an interchange with Interstate 95 , U.S. Route 1 / 9 , U.S. Route 46 , and U.S. Route 9W at the George Washington Bridge approach in Fort Lee . The route is a four- to six @-@ lane 40 to 50 mph ( 64 to 80 km / h ) divided highway its entire length , with the portion east of the Route 208 interchange in Fair Lawn a partial freeway consisting of interchanges and right @-@ in / right @-@ out intersections with a few businesses along the road , particularly in Paramus , where the route passes through a major shopping area consisting of numerous malls , Hackensack , Englewood , and Fort Lee . West of Route 208 , the route is a surface arterial that runs through commercial areas . Route 4 intersects many important roads , including Route 208 in Fair Lawn and the Garden State Parkway and Route 17 in Paramus . The highway is officially named the Mackay Highway , but is rarely referred to as such .
Route 4 was legislated in 1927 to run from Cape May to the George Washington Bridge . This route replaced pre @-@ 1927 Route 14 between Cape May and Seaville , what was planned as pre @-@ 1927 Route 19 between Seaville and Absecon , pre @-@ 1927 Route 4 between Absecon and Lakewood and South Amboy and Rahway , and a spur of pre @-@ 1927 Route 7 between Lakewood and Freehold , with the rest of the route to be built on a new alignment . The present @-@ day routing of U.S. Route 9 between Cape May and South Amboy and Route 35 between South Amboy and Rahway bore the Route 4 designation prior to 1953 , when the route was defined onto its current alignment . Several spurs of Route 4 existed before 1953 and the Garden State Parkway was originally planned as a bypass of Route 4 that was to be designated Route 4 Parkway . Today 's stretch of the route was completed by 1934 , not long after the opening of the George Washington Bridge in 1931 . It was planned to be upgraded to a full freeway , but plans never materialized . Despite this , the route has seen improvements , such as to the interchanges with Route 17 in 1999 and with Route 208 in 2002 .
= = Route description = =
Route 4 starts in Paterson , Passaic County at the intersection of Broadway and East 43rd Street at an interchange with Route 20 ( McLean Boulevard ) , heading east on Broadway , a four @-@ lane , divided highway with a Jersey barrier and a speed limit of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) . The route passes over Route 20 and continues east , crossing the Passaic River into Elmwood Park , Bergen County and passing over County Route 507 . Route 4 features a right @-@ in / right @-@ out in the eastbound direction that provides access to County Route 507 . The route continues east on Broadway as a divided highway with a concrete then a grassy median , with businesses lining both sides of the roadway . At the intersection with Cyril Avenue , Route 4 runs along the border of Elmwood Park to the south and Fair Lawn to the north before entirely entering Fair Lawn , where the route passes under New Jersey Transit ’ s Bergen County Line near Broadway Station . It intersects County Route 67 ( Midland Avenue ) and continues east as a divided highway with a Jersey barrier through commercial areas of Fair Lawn .
Route 4 comes to an interchange Route 208 , where the route continues east on the Route 208 alignment , becoming a divided highway with four lanes in the eastbound direction and three lanes in the westbound direction . The interchange between Route 4 and Route 208 also features access to County Route 79 ( Saddle River Road ) . The route continues east as a limited access road that is lined with businesses . Route 4 crosses the Saddle River and then enters Paramus . Upon entering Paramus , Route 4 has a cloverleaf interchange with County Route 62 ( Paramus Road / Passaic Street ) . The route features a partial interchange with the Garden State Parkway , with access from westbound Route 4 to the southbound Garden State Parkway and from the northbound Garden State Parkway to eastbound Route 4 . Route 4 has an interchange which provides access to Westfield Garden State Plaza , located on the south side of the road , and a large IKEA store , located on the north side of the road . Past this , Route 4 features a cloverleaf interchange with Route 17 and continues east as a six @-@ lane divided highway with a 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) speed limit . It interchanges with Spring Valley Road and passes by The Outlets at Bergen Town Center located on the south side of the road . Route 4 interchanges with County Route 59 ( Forest Avenue / Maywood Avenue ) .
As the road leaves Paramus , it becomes a partial freeway and businesses no longer line the route . Route 4 enters River Edge , where the route crosses Van Saun Mill Creek , and it heads to the southeast and features ramps that provide access to County Route 51 ( Kinderkamack Road ) , which the route passes over along with New Jersey Transit 's Pascack Valley Line just south of the New Bridge Landing Station . Upon crossing the Pascack Valley Line , Route 4 heads into Hackensack , where it interchanges with County Route 503 ( Hackensack Avenue ) near The Shops at Riverside . The route crosses the Hackensack River into Teaneck and heads through the campus of Fairleigh Dickinson University . Route 4 features ramps that provide access to County Route 41 ( River Road ) , which it later passes over . The road continues southeast through wooded residential areas , intersecting a few roads at right @-@ in / right @-@ out intersections , before interchanging with Queen Anne Road . It interchanges with County Route 39 ( Teaneck Road ) and Webster Avenue / Farragut Drive before crossing into Englewood where the route crosses Overpeck Creek and businesses resume along the road with access to businesses and a few local roads provided by right @-@ in / right @-@ out ramps . In Englewood , Route 4 features a cloverleaf interchange with Route 93 and County Route 501 ( Grand Avenue ) . Past this interchange , businesses stop along the road and it continues east with three lanes in the eastbound direction and two lanes in the westbound direction , coming to an interchange with Jones Road . Past this interchange , the road continues south with businesses along the road , crossing into Fort Lee . In Fort Lee , the lanes split as Route 4 approaches Interstate 95 , with the eastbound lanes passing over Interstate 95 . Route 4 continues south with Interstate 95 in the median , ending at an interchange with Interstate 95 , U.S. Route 1 / 9 , U.S. Route 46 , and U.S. Route 9W , at the George Washington Bridge approach .
= = History = =
Route 4 was originally legislated in the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering to run from Cape May north to the George Washington Bridge , running through Pleasantville , Toms River , Freehold , Perth Amboy , Rahway , and Paterson . The route replaced portions of the alignments of several pre @-@ 1927 state highways including pre @-@ 1927 Route 14 between Cape May and Seaville , pre @-@ 1927 Route 19 between Seaville and Absecon , pre @-@ 1927 Route 4 between Absecon and Lakewood and between South Amboy and Rahway , a spur of pre @-@ 1927 Route 7 between Lakewood and Freehold . The rest of the proposed route was to be built on a new alignment . Of the pre @-@ 1927 state highways that Route 4 was to follow , pre @-@ 1927 Route 14 was originally legislated in 1917 , pre @-@ 1927 Route 19 was legislated in 1923 but never built , pre @-@ 1927 Route 4 was created in 1916 , and the spur of pre @-@ 1927 Route 7 was created in 1925 . U.S. Route 9 was also designated along Route 4 between Absecon and Lakewood and from South Amboy to Rahway . By the 1940s , U.S. Route 9 was realigned to follow Route 4 between Lakewood and South Amboy , having followed portions of today ’ s Route 88 , Route 35 , and Route 71 and was extended south along Route 4 to Cape May . The section of present @-@ day Route 4 was built between 1930 and 1934 to connect Paterson and the George Washington Bridge in Fort Lee . There were plans made in 1936 to make this portion of Route 4 a limited @-@ access road ; however , World War II delayed plans for the expressway .
Route 4 had several former spur routes that existed prior to the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering . Route 4N was designated in 1939 from the portion of pre @-@ 1927 Route 4 between Brielle and Eatontown ; it is now Route 71 . Route S4 was defined in 1927 to run to the Outerbridge Crossing in Perth Amboy from present @-@ day Route 35 ; it was eventually extended to the Garden State Parkway and this route is now Routes 440 and 184 . Route S4A was planned in 1927 to run from Atlantic City across swamps to Tuckerton ; only a small portion of this route was built and it is now Route 87 . Route S4B was planned in 1929 to run Route 4 near Paterson northwest to the New York border , replacing a portion of what was legislated as Route 3 in 1927 . The portion of this route that was built between Fair Lawn and Oakland is now Route 208 . Route S4D was a never built spur in Teaneck proposed in 1938 ; the proposal was renumbered Route 303 . Route 4A was created by the 1940s following a realignment of Route 4 ( and U.S. Route 9 ) between Freehold and Cheesequake ; it became Route 79 and a portion of Route 34 in 1953 . Route 4 Parkway was planned in 1946 as a north – south parkway running from Cape May north to Route 6 ( now U.S. Route 46 ) in Clifton , bridging the gap that existed along Route 4 between Rahway and Paterson ; this proposal became Route 444 ( Garden State Parkway ) . Route S4C was a planned route running from Route 4 in Bennett south to Cape May ; the general alignment of this route is now Route 162 and Cape May County Route 626 .
In the 1953 renumbering , Route 4 was defined to run along its current alignment between Route 20 in Paterson and the George Washington Bridge . Between Cape May and South Amboy , the Route 4 designation was dropped in favor of U.S. Route 9 while the portion of the route between South Amboy and Rahway became a part of Route 35 . In the mid @-@ 1950s , plans resumed for an east – west limited @-@ access road through Bergen County . Three alignments were proposed in 1956 : one along Route 4 , one along U.S. Route 46 , and one in between the two routes . The alignment between the two routes was chosen due to the least disruption it would cause and it was built as Interstate 80 . In the 1960s , recommendations were made to upgrade Route 4 to a full freeway but was cancelled due to feared disruption to residents .
Many improvements have been made to the existing Route 4 arterial . The Route 17 interchange in Paramus was rebuilt at a cost of $ 120 million in 1999 , replacing the 1932 cloverleaf interchange by adding several flyover ramps . In 2002 , construction was completed on a $ 32 million project that improved the interchange with Route 208 in Fair Lawn . This interchange saw improvements of the ramps and bridges , including the Route 208 bridge over Saddle River Road .
= = Major intersections = =
All exits are unnumbered .
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= TS @-@ 19 =
" TS @-@ 19 " is the sixth episode and season finale of the first season of the post @-@ apocalyptic horror television series , The Walking Dead . It originally aired on AMC in the United States on December 5 , 2010 . The episode was written by Adam Fierro and series creator Frank Darabont and directed by Guy Ferland . In the episode , the group finally finds safe haven in the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention headquarters , although the only scientist there , Dr. Edwin Jenner ( Noah Emmerich ) hides many secrets that leads the group to demand answers about the zombie apocalypse .
Themes such as romance , rape , suicide and terror are prevalent throughout " TS @-@ 19 " . Different character developments occur throughout the episode , particularly with Shane Walsh ( Jon Bernthal ) , who writer Robert Kirkman felt that viewers would no longer identify as the show 's main antagonist . Production for " TS @-@ 19 " commenced at the Cobb Energy Performing Arts Centre , as opposed to the actual headquarters for the Centers of Disease Control and Prevention , which was impractical due to the high security of the area .
" TS @-@ 19 " received favorable reception from television commentators , who praised the development of various characters as well as the performances of several actors and actresses . Upon airing , it attained 5 @.@ 97 million viewers and a 3 @.@ 4 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to the Nielsen Media Research . " TS @-@ 19 " at one point was the show 's highest @-@ rated episode , and it is the highest @-@ rated telecast in its first season .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens with a flashback , which features Shane Walsh ( Jon Bernthal ) attempting to save an unconscious Rick Grimes ( Andrew Lincoln ) . Observing military personnel killing various patients , doctors , and walkers from the premises , Shane tries to carry Rick out of the hospital , to no avail . After an explosion , the hospital machines shut off , and Shane puts his ear to Rick 's chest and begins to think he has died . Distraught , Shane leaves Rick in the room and puts a hospital bed against the door to protect him from walkers .
After entering the headquarters of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , the survivors are confronted by Dr. Edwin Jenner ( Noah Emmerich ) , who is armed with an automatic carbine . Jenner allows the group to stay on the condition that they all must undertake a blood test , to which Rick agrees . As the group indulge in various luxuries such as showers and wine , many of them are perplexed with the situation . Jenner reveals that he is the only medical personnel dedicated to eradicating the walker illness ; many of the medical staff have returned to their families or have committed suicide . Meanwhile , a drunk Shane confronts Lori Grimes ( Sarah Wayne Callies ) about her callous attitude towards him . As the argument begins to peak , Shane attempts to rape Lori , but backs off when she scratches him on the neck .
The next morning , Jenner shows the group the clinical results of Test Subject 19 , a person ( later announced to be his wife ) who was bitten by a walker and volunteered to be observed as the infection progressed . The time @-@ lapse MRI video demonstrates the disease attacking the brain , similar to meningitis , ultimately killing the victim . Brain activity is restarted a few hours later , simultaneously reanimating the body to mere basic functions . Jenner explains that the brain stem reanimates anywhere from a few minutes to 8 hours after death , and adds that the conscious human traits do not return .
Jenner theorizes that medical facilities worldwide may have faced similar predicaments . French doctors came the closest to finding a cure , but communication was lost . The survivors are shocked when they hear that human civilization is ceasing to exist . Later , the group confirms that the last diesel tank is running out of fuel , and a power outage ensues . Since the facility was designed to isolate unimaginably dangerous diseases , if it can 't power itself , it automatically destroys everything inside so that no diseases will get out . As they confront Jenner about their fate , Jenner seals them in the main room underground , and tells them that the decontamination procedure ( a high @-@ impulse thermobaric weapon wired throughout the facility 's air vents ) will mean the destruction of everything inside the facility , offering an instant and painless death to everyone inside .
Rick and Lori plead for the doors to be opened , while Daryl Dixon ( Norman Reedus ) and Shane attempt to force Jenner to open the doors . He relents because they know if they kill him they will not get the combination to open the doors then all of them would indeed die . Finally , with less than five minutes remaining , Jenner opens the doors after Rick 's pleading with him to let them at least " try " to overcome this tragedy and not be forced to die . Two of the survivors , Jacqui ( Jeryl Prescott Sales ) and Andrea ( Laurie Holden ) , choose to stay behind , but Dale Horvath ( Jeffrey DeMunn ) refuses to leave without Andrea . Before Rick leaves , Jenner whispers something in his ear which leaves Rick visibly shaken . The rest of the group heads for the exits , using a grenade to blow out one of the front windows , and fight their way to their vehicles through several walkers . Andrea and Dale emerge from the building moments before the building detonates ; Jacqui stays inside with Jenner . As Jacqui and Jenner hold hands and let tears drop from their faces , the explosion begins . As the episode ends , the survivors form a vehicular convoy and leave the area , while a massive column of smoke and flame marks the place where the CDC building had stood .
= = Production = =
" TS @-@ 19 " was directed by Guy Ferland and written by Frank Darabont and Adam Fierro . Actor Noah Emmerich made a guest appearance on the show , portraying the character of Edwin Jenner , one of the few remaining medical personnel dedicated to eradicating the virus . Emmerich 's appearance was formally announced in November 2010 . Darabont foreshadowed the development of the episode the same month , alongside predecessors " Vatos " and " Wildfire " . " Before it 's all said and done , the opinions and actions of the group are divided . " Producer Gale Anne Hurd added , " Stakes are higher , dissension develops , rivalries intensify . "
Principal photography for " TS @-@ 19 " transpired at the Cobb Energy Performing Arts Centre , which was depicted as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . Producers of the show were not allowed to photograph the interior of the actual buildings as part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention as a point of reference due to its high security . Although the location was not featured in the comics of the same name , Hurd felt that it was important to add because of its close proximity to the survivor 's camp . As opposed to the previous episode , where filming mostly took place outside of the Cobb Energy Performing Arts Centre , production for " TS @-@ 19 " occurred inside of the building . Darabont conceived the idea of exploring into the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . " When Frank was pitching the idea to me , saying he wanted to bring them to the CDC and telling me all the different things that he felt would come out of that story , the science of it all and the being trapped in the small location , I was very much picturing a lot of Day of the Dead stuff , " stated creator Robert Kirkman . " That 's one of the reasons I was so on board with the idea . "
At the episode 's conclusion , Jenner purposely calls for the self @-@ destruction of the building , which ultimately explodes shortly thereafter . A plate was installed on set , which hovered over pyrotechnics . The plate was turned upside down to create an optical effect where the flame travels across the panel . This created an illusion that the explosion was expanding . The sequence was divided into six different cuts ; the first one consisted of the rupture glass of the building , while the last frame concluded with the collapse of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention .
While his group escapes from the Center of Disease Control and Prevention , Jenner whispers to Rick about the virus that has caused the zombie apocalypse . Initially there was no indication as to what Jenner said to him ; the dialogue was previously inserted into the episode 's script but was later removed . " I 'm so pleased they didn 't reveal it , " said Andrew Lincoln , " because it was scripted , and extremely powerful , and I said to everyone , ' Burn this page : No one should know apart from Rick and Frank . ' It 's brilliant that they left it [ as a mystery ] — it 's perfect , it 's so classy . " Kirkman was content with the idea of teasing Jenner 's revelation in lieu of blatantly revealing anything about the origins of the virus . " I thought it was a great addition . I 'm very much opposed to showing what the actual cause [ for the zombies ] is and explaining how things work , but teasing a little bit is a great thing . If it adds an extra layer to the drama , then I 'm all for it , " he stated . " It also led up to the fantastic mystery of the whisper Jenner gives to Rick at the end of that scene . That 's going to play into Season 2 quite a bit . I know where that 's going and it 's really a cool bit . " It is not until the second season finale , " Beside the Dying Fire " , that Rick reveals Jenner 's message to the group .
In a 2014 interview with The Hollywood Reporter , Robert Kirkman revealed that he regrets revealing that everyone in the new world is infected too soon , saying " If I had to do it again , I wouldn 't have done the CDC episode [ at the end of season one ] . It possibly gave away too much information and was such a big change very early on in the series . "
= = Themes and cultural references = =
Ideas alluding to romance are prevalent throughout the episode . The development between Shane Walsh and Lori Grimes continues in " TS @-@ 19 " , which showcases a flashback featuring Shane being conflicted with the decision to leave an unconscious Rick Grimes in the hospital — who Shane initially presumes to be dead . Kirkman asserted that the sequence added dimension to the storyline , and concluded that by the ending of the episode , the audience will no longer identify Shane as an antagonist . " Up until the sixth episode , you get the sense that Shane actually is a bad guy , that he lied to Lori and made her believe that he was dead in order to facilitate him moving in on her , " said Kirkman . " The flashback does a great job of telling you that that 's not true : He tried to save Rick , he wanted to save Rick . He was kind of up against the wall there and actually did believe that Rick was dead . " Lincoln said of the flashback : " You realize Shane 's loyalty as a friend and as a man — and also his weaknesses . He still can 't make a decision without his partner , and you realize he 's flawed — everybody is under incredible duress , you see the state of the world is so extreme and terrifying that people are making split @-@ second decisions under great duress . Is Shane barricading Rick in , or is he trying to prevent him being taken by the walkers ? There are many different ways to construe what Shane has done and that 's the beauty of the show is that there 's no clear and definite answers , you make your own mind . " Other themes prominent in the episode include suicide and terror .
The character progression of Shane is a focal point in " TS @-@ 19 " . After facing constant rejection from Lori through much of the previous three episodes , he has become more agitated and impatient with her . According to Kirkman , it was important to integrate dimension to the character so that viewers " can see later in the episode , when [ Shane ] is losing it and actually getting somewhat violent with Lori , the transition he 's gone through and how this world has changed him from being a loving , easygoing guy into this guy who is slowly devolving into a bit of a maniac . "
The Dr. Edwin Jenner character mentions the French continuing to try to find a cure while others were " bolting for the doors " in conjugate reference to the belief by some Americans and British that the French did not fight back in the first part of World War 2 .
The show features various references relating to music , media , film , and other pop cultural phenomenon . Character Dr. Edwin Jenner was modeled after the English physician Edward Jenner , a pioneer in the eradication of smallpox . The episode title is an acronym for Test Subject 19 , a patient that was examined by Jenner for clinical research . As " TS @-@ 19 " comes to a close , one can hear the song " Tomorrow Is a Long Time " ( 1971 ) by American singer @-@ songwriter Bob Dylan play in the background . The Washington Post 's Liz Kelly suggested that it could have referred to the seemingly long hiatus that proceeded after the season finale . Jenner later reveals to the group that the symptoms of the walker virus are evocative to that of meningitis . As Rick desperately tries to break out of a nearly incinerating Centers for Disease Control and Prevention building , Carol hands him a grenade , which was the same grenade that Rick had found in a tank in the series premiere , " Days Gone Bye " . The opening and concluding scenes of " TS @-@ 19 " are reminiscent of the American television series Lost .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" TS @-@ 19 " was originally broadcast on December 5 , 2010 in the United States on AMC . Upon initial airing , the episode amassed 5 @.@ 97 million viewers and a 4 @.@ 1 household rating , indicating that 4 @.@ 1 % of households that watched television viewed the episode . Following two encore presentations , total viewership accumulated to 8 @.@ 1 million . At the time of its airing , " TS @-@ 19 " was the highest @-@ rated cable television series of all time demographically ; it attained a 3 @.@ 4 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , denoting 4 million viewers , while simultaneous acquiring 3 @.@ 5 million viewers in the 25 – 54 demographic according to Nielsen Media Research . The accolade was then succeeded by three episodes of The Walking Dead : the episode 's ratings were beaten by second season premiere " What Lies Ahead " , followed by " Nebraska " , and lastly the second season finale " Beside the Dying Fire " , of which the last aforementioned currently holds the record . " TS @-@ 19 " became the most @-@ viewed cable telecast of the day , obtaining significantly higher ratings than installments of Hannah Montana and Shake It Up on Disney Channel . Ratings and total viewership moderately increased from the previous installment , " Wildfire " , which received 5 @.@ 56 million viewers and a 2 @.@ 8 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic . In the United Kingdom , " TS @-@ 19 " garnered 492 @,@ 000 viewers , subsequently becoming the most @-@ viewed television series of the week on FX .
= = = Critical response = = =
" TS @-@ 19 " garnered favorable reviews from most television critics . In his 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 rating review , Eric Goldman of IGN wrote that the episode was an exceptional showing for the series , adding that it told " a compelling , intense story within its hour " albeit averting from the comics . As Michelle Kung of The Wall Street Journal wrote , " The first season of The Walking Dead doesn ’ t exactly end on an optimistic note , but our heroes are left driving into the unknown after escaping certain death at the CDC . " Kurt Christenson of New York Daily News analyzed that " almost and everyone 's still kind of in the dark " , and Kelly stated that " TS @-@ 19 " came to an " abrupt , explosive end " . Salon journalist Simon Abrams concluded that the frenetic pace of The Walking Dead was relatable , while Paste television commentator Josh Jackson was keen of the character development in the episode as well as the varying political themes covered ; " After six episodes , the characters are worth caring about . Despite occasional stilted monologues , quick tempers and unfortunate stereotypes , the few living souls in The Walking Dead are a bigger draw than the undead . The show has spent more time on topics like marriage , parenthood , unfaithfulness , loss , domestic violence , gender roles , small @-@ scale politics , loyalty , kindness than it has with kill shots . By filling the world with zombies , Frank Darabont is able to explore the human condition under extreme circumstances . " Entertainment Weekly writer Dan Snierson was entertained by " TS @-@ 19 " , and asserted that the conclusion " resonated over images of Rick & Co . U @-@ turning into the great unknown , we got the sense that as long as they were alive , at least there was a chance of a tomorrow . " Writing for the same publication , Jeff Jensen was intrigued at how producers approached the themes of the comics , and later noted that it was proof that they were using the comics as a route for thematic inspiration in lieu of a literal interpretation . For Los Angeles Times ' Gina McIntyre , " Tonight 's finale [ ... ] did yield much insight , though , into the nature of the plague itself , in relative terms anyway . "
Some commentators were less enthusiastic about the episode than the general consensus . Although Josh Wigler of MTV declared " TS @-@ 19 " a " compelling hour " , he professed that it was lacking for a season finale . " While there was a massive fireball and a decent amount of zombie action , " explained Wigler , " not to mention some concrete information regarding the outbreak , there are still several plot threads that haven 't come close to resolution . " Vanity Fair 's Mike Ryan argued that in contrast to a " great season " , the episode was a mediocre conclusion to The Walking Dead 's first season , writing that " this might have been the silliest hour of television that I 've ever watched " . Leonard Pierce of The A.V. Club issued " TS @-@ 19 " a B – grade : despite proclaiming that " there was some good stuff " in the episode , Pierce opined that it fell below his expectations . He denounced many scenes in the episode — notably the explosion sequence — as he felt it was a waste of cinematography . " The fact that almost all the scenes played out in dark , closed quarters wasted The Walking Dead 's gorgeous cinematography ; the pacing was again off beat , with far too much padded scenes of people looking at one another in shock ; and , though I 'm usually not bothered by plot contrivances , there 's no way anyone in a vehicle that close to such a huge explosion would have lived through it . " Writing for Cinema Blend , Nick Venable said that it was an interesting episode , although it could have been executed in a better manner .
The character progression of several characters and the performances of various actors were lauded by critics . Wigler noted that Bernthal , Holden , and DeMunn delivered " brilliant character work " , a view that was echoed by Pierce in regards to Emmerich 's performance ; " He has a nervous intensity that grounded every scene he was in , which this show needs . " Similarly , Alan Sepinwall of HitFix described Emmerich 's acting as " haunting " , and ultimately cited the performances of Lincoln , Holden , and DeMunn as episode highlights . Ryan affirmed that character development remained one of the series ' strongest points .
= = Deleted scene = =
In a scene deleted from the television series , after Rick 's group flees the CDC they return to the Atlanta nursing home they first visited in " Vatos " , only to find the residents and their protectors have been killed execution @-@ style and their supplies ransacked .
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= Charles Crombie =
Charles Arbuthnot Crombie DSO , DFC ( 16 March 1914 – 26 August 1945 ) was an Australian aviator and flying ace of the Second World War . Born in Brisbane , he was working as a jackeroo when he enlisted in the Royal Australian Air Force in May 1940 . Completing flight training in Australia and Canada , he flew in the European , Mediterranean and Middle East Theatre and South @-@ East Asian theatres , amassing a tally of 12 Axis aircraft shot down , with an additional four probables . In a particular attack on 19 January 1943 , Crombie intercepted a formation of four Japanese bombers over India . Despite his aircraft being set alight early in the engagement , he shot down two of the bombers and severely damaged a third before he was forced to bail out . He was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for this action . Returning to Australia late in 1943 , he was promoted to squadron leader and posted as a flight instructor with No. 5 Operational Training Unit . Crombie was killed in a flying accident in August 1945 .
= = Early life = =
Crombie was born in Brisbane , Queensland , on 16 March 1914 to David William Alexander Crombie , a grazing farmer , and his Indian @-@ born British wife Phoebe Janet ( née Arbuthnot ) , the daughter of Lieutenant General Sir Charles Arbuthnot . During his youth , Crombie was educated at the Sydney Church of England Grammar School in North Sydney . Completing his schooling , he was employed as a jackeroo on his family 's property near Warwick , Queensland . In 1934 , Crombie enlisted in the Citizens Military Force and was allotted to the 11th Light Horse Regiment . His service with the unit was to last until 1938 , by which time he had obtained the rank of sergeant .
= = Second World War = =
= = = Training , European and Middle Eastern theatres = = =
With the ambition of becoming a pilot in the Royal Australian Air Force , Crombie undertook instruction in civil flying . Completing his course , he enlisted in the Air Force on 24 May 1940 . He was initially posted to RAAF Station Richmond , before transferring to No. 2 Initial Training School at RAAF Bradfield Park in June , where he was advanced to leading aircraftman . The following month , Crombie was attached to No. 5 Empire Flight Training School . On finishing his stint with the unit , he was posted to No. 2 Embarkion Depot on 18 September . In a ceremony two days later , Crombie married Betty Deane @-@ Butcher ; the couple would later have a son .
On 3 October 1940 — two weeks after his wedding — Crombie embarked a ship at Sydney , bound for Canada . He arrived three weeks later , where he completed an additional two months of advanced flight training . Crombie was commissioned as a pilot officer on 17 January 1941 , and set sail for the United Kingdom nine days later . In May , he was attached to the Royal Air Force 's No. 25 Squadron , piloting Bristol Beaufighters . While with the unit , he flew his first operational sortie on 13 June ; he was promoted to flying officer the next month . Crombie continued to serve with the squadron until October , by which time he had flown a total of twelve operational sorties over the European theatre , including two raids ; one over Germany , and the other to Brest , France .
Crombie was transferred to the Mediterranean and Middle East Theatre and posted to No. 89 Squadron RAF in October 1941 , operating over Egypt and Malta . Also flying Beaufighters , Crombie piloted his first foray with the unit on 21 October , and by the end of the year had been accredited with the destruction of six Axis aircraft , with an additional two probables . Throughout 1942 , the squadron continued to operate over North Africa and the Middle East , with Crombie adding three more aircraft to his tally .
= = = South @-@ East Asia = = =
In January 1943 , Crombie was once again transferred , this time to No. 176 Squadron RAF stationed in India , operating in support of operations in the Burma Campaign ; he arrived at his new post on 12 January and was promoted to flight lieutenant five days later . By the time he left the Middle East , Crombie had been accorded an official tally of nine Axis aircraft shot down , with two probables .
In the evening of 19 January 1943 , Crombie was airborne over India with his navigator Warrant Officer Raymond Moss . At approximately 20 : 45 , the pair intercepted a formation of four Japanese bombers flying over Budge Budge . Crombie flew his aircraft towards the group but his initial attack drew fire from the bombers , setting the starboard engine ablaze . Despite the damage , he pushed ahead with the assault and shot down one of the bombers . Flames from the burning engine then began to sweep back , and Crombie ordered Moss to bail out . Alone , Crombie continued the assault , shooting down a second bomber , before turning his attention to a third . Due to his efforts , the penultimate aircraft was " so badly damaged ... that it could not have reached its base " . At this time , Crombie sought out the fourth and final machine . However , his petrol tank exploded , and he was forced " to bale out with his clothing alight " . He landed in " the most God awful swamp " , and walked for three or four hours before he reached an army unit in the area , which returned him to his squadron .
As a result of their " cool courage " , Crombie was awarded a " well deserved " Distinguished Service Order , with Moss receiving the Distinguished Flying Cross . The notification and accompanying citation for the decorations was promulgated in a supplement to the London Gazette on 19 February 1943 , reading :
Air Ministry , 19th February , 1943 .
ROYAL AIR FORCE .
The KING has been graciously pleased to approve the following awards in recognition of gallantry displayed in flying operations against the enemy : —
Distinguished Service Order .
Flying Officer Charles Arbuthnot CROMBIE ( Aus.404099 ) , Royal Australian Air Force , No. 176 Squadron .
Distinguished Flying Cross .
Warrant Officer Raymond Christopher Moss ( 800670 ) , No. 176 Squadron .
As pilot and observer respectively Flying Officer Crombie and Warrant Officer Moss have flown together in many night flying operations in the United Kingdom , the Middle East and in India . They have destroyed 8 enemy aircraft and damaged another . One night in January , 1943 , they destroyed 2 of a formation of 4 Japanese aircraft before being compelled to abandon their own aircraft which was set on fire during the engagement .
Flying Officer Crombie and Warrant Officer Moss have displayed great courage , determination and devotion to duty .
Crombie completed his final patrol with No. 176 Squadron on 28 April 1943 , before moving to Air Headquarters , Bengal four days later . Later that month , Crombie carried out two raids over Akyab , Burma , the first a strafing attack on Japanese troops in the area , and the second assaulting Japanese shipping . On 25 May , the announcement that Crombie had been awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross was published in a supplement to the London Gazette . The decoration came as a result of his " High standard of courage and keenness whilst flying " with No. 89 Squadron in the Middle East , carrying out " ... Intruder patrols and ... low level attacks on enemy bases " in addition to his personal destruction of Axis aircraft .
Crombie piloted his final sortie of the war from Air Headquarters , Bengal on 7 July 1943 . His operational tour now finished , he embarked for Australia in August , arriving in Melbourne on 27 September . By the time Crombie 's tour completed , he had been accorded an official tally of 12 aircraft shot down , with an additional creditation of four probables .
= = = Home duties and death = = =
On his return to Australia , Crombie was posted for duties as an instructor with No. 5 Operational Training Unit at RAAF Station Williamtown in December 1943 . In March 1944 , Crombie piloted a Beaufighter from Brisbane to New Guinea , flying the aircraft in the local area for a period of eleven days testing the machine , before returning to Richmond , New South Wales . He was promoted to acting squadron leader on 1 September , and made chief flying instructor of No. 5 Operational Training Unit , heading the group 's two sections of Beaufighter and de Havilland Mosquito aircraft .
On 8 May 1945 , to celebrate Victory in Europe Day , 12 aircraft from No. 5 Operational Training Unit were detailed to do a flypast over Newcastle , New South Wales . Crombie headed the group , which comprised six Beaufighters followed by six Mosquitoes ; the final aircraft in the group was piloted by Flight Lieutenant Charles " Bud " Tingwell . The flypast concluded successfully , and the formation returned to base . However , as the group neared the aerodrome , the other pilots disobeyed Crombie 's orders and carried out a feint attack on the installation . He called the men into his office and reprimanded them as a result .
On 26 August 1945 , Crombie was flying a Beaufighter on a test flight . He completed the flight and returned to base . Coming in to land , a problem occurred in one of the engines and he fell short of the runway ; Crombie was killed in the resulting collision . Survived by his wife and one @-@ year @-@ old son , his funeral was attended by all the personnel of No. 5 Operational Training Unit . He was subsequently buried in Sandgate War Cemetery . Fellow No. 5 Operational Training Unit instructor Bud Tingwell later described him as " one of the best pilots in the air force " .
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= Mycenaean Greece =
Mycenaean Greece ( or Mycenaean civilization ) was the last phase of the Bronze Age in Ancient Greece ( c . 1600 – 1100 BC ) . It represents the first advanced civilization in mainland Greece , with its palatial states , urban organization , works of art and writing system . Among the centers of power that emerged , the most notable were those of Pylos , Tiryns , Midea in the Peloponnese , Orchomenos , Thebes , Athens in Central Greece and Iolcos in Thessaly . The most prominent site was Mycenae , in Argolid , to which the culture of this era owes its name . Mycenaean and Mycenaean @-@ influenced settlements also appeared in Epirus , Macedonia , on islands in the Aegean Sea , on the coast of Asia Minor , the Levant , Cyprus and Italy .
The Mycenaean Greeks introduced several innovations in the fields of engineering , architecture and military infrastructure , while trade over vast areas of the Mediterranean was essential for the Mycenaean economy . Their syllabic script , the Linear B , offers the first written records of the Greek language and their religion already included several deities that can be also found in Olympic Pantheon . Mycenaean Greece was dominated by a warrior elite society and consisted of a network of palace states that developed rigid hierarchical , political , social and economic systems . At the head of this societies was the king , known as wanax .
Mycenaean Greece perished with the collapse of Bronze Age culture in the eastern Mediterranean , to be followed by the so @-@ called Greek Dark Ages , a recordless transitional period leading to Archaic Greece where significant shifts occurred from palace @-@ centralized to de @-@ centralized forms of socio @-@ economic organization ( including the extensive use of iron ) . Various theories have been proposed for the end of this civilization , among them the Dorian invasion or activities connected to the “ Sea Peoples ” . Additional theories such as natural disasters and climatic changes have been also suggested . The Mycenaean period became the historical setting of much ancient Greek literature and mythology , including the Trojan Epic Cycle .
= = Chronology = =
The Bronze Age in mainland Greece is generally termed as the " Helladic period " by modern archaeologists , after Hellas , the Greek name for Greece . This period is divided into three subperiods : The Early Helladic ( EH ) period ( c . 2900 – 2000 BC ) was a time of prosperity with the use of metals and a growth in technology , economy and social organization . The Middle Helladic ( MH ) period ( ca . 2000 – 1650 BC ) faced a slower pace of development , as well as the evolution of megaron @-@ type cist graves . Finally , the Late Helladic ( LH ) period ( c . 1650 – 1050 BC ) roughly coincides with Mycenaean Greece .
The Late Helladic period is further divided into LHI and LHII , both of which coincide with the early period of Mycenaean Greece ( c . 1650 – 1425 BC ) , and LHIII ( c . 1425 – 1050 BC ) , the period of expansion , decline and collapse of the Mycenaean civilization . The transition period from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age in Greece is known as Sub @-@ Mycenaean ( c . 1050 – 1000 BC ) .
= = Identity = =
The decipherment of the Mycenaean Linear B script , a writing system adapted for the use of the Greek language of the Late Bronze Age , demonstrated the continuity of Greek speech from the 2nd millennium BC into the 8th century BC when a new script emerged . Moreover , it revealed that the bearers of Mycenaean culture were ethnically connected with the populations that resided in the Greek peninsula after the end of this cultural period . Various collective terms for the inhabitants of Mycenaean Greece were used by Homer in his 8th century BC epic , the Iliad , in reference to the Trojan War . The latter was supposed to have happened in the late 13th – early 12th century BC , when a coalition of small Greek states under the king of Mycenae , besieged the walled city of Troy . Homer used the ethnonyms Achaeans , Danaans and Argives , to refer to the besiegers . These names appear to have passed down from the time they were in use to the time when Homer applied them as collective terms in his Iliad . There is an isolated reference to a @-@ ka @-@ wi @-@ ja @-@ de in the Linear B records in Knossos , Crete dated to c . 1400 BC , which most probably refers to a Mycenaean ( Achaean ) state on the Greek mainland .
Egyptian records mention a T ( D ) -n @-@ j or Danaya ( Tanaju ) land for the first time in circa 1437 BC , during the reign of Pharaoh Thutmoses III ( r . 1479 – 1425 BC ) . This land is geographically defined in an inscription from the reign of Amenhotep III ( r. circa 1391 / 1388 – 1353 / 1351 BC ) , where a number of Danaya cities are mentioned , which cover the largest part of southern mainland Greece . Among them , cities such as Mycenae , Nauplion and Thebes , have been identified with certainty . Danaya has been equated with the ethnonym Danaoi ( Greek : Δαναοί ) , the name of the mythical dynasty that ruled in the region of Argos , also used as an ethnonym for the Greek people by Homer .
In the official records of another Bronze Age empire , that of the Hittites in Anatolia , various references from c . 1400 BC to 1220 BC mention a country named Ahhiyawa . Recent scholarship , based on textual evidence , new interpretations of the Hittite inscriptions , as well as on recent surveys of archaeological evidence about Mycenaean @-@ Anatolian contacts during this period , concludes that the term Ahhiyawa must have been used in reference to the Mycenaean world ( land of the Achaeans ) , or at least to a part of it . This term may have also had broader connotations in some texts , possibly referring to all regions settled by Mycenaeans or regions under direct Mycenaean political control . Another similar ethnonym Ekwesh in 12th century BC Egyptian inscriptions , has been commonly identified with the Ahhiyawans . These Ekwesh were mentioned as a group of the Sea People .
= = History = =
= = = Shaft Grave era ( c . 1600 – 1450 BC ) = = =
Mycenaean civilization originated and evolved from the society and culture of the Early and Middle Helladic period in mainland Greece under influences from Minoan Crete . Towards the end of the Middle Bronze Age ( c . 1600 BC ) a significant increase in the population and the number of settlements occurred . A number of centers of power emerged in southern mainland Greece dominated by a warrior elite society , while the typical dwellings of that era were an early type of megaron buildings . Some more complex structures are classified as forerunners of the later palaces . In a number of sites , defensive walls were also erected .
Meanwhile , new types of burials and more imposing ones have been unearthed , which display a great variety of luxurious objects . Among the various burials types , the shaft grave became the most common form of elite burial , a feature that gave the name to the early period of Mycenaean Greece . Among the Mycenaean elite , deceased males were usually laid in gold masks and funerary armor , while females in gold crowns and clothes gleaming with gold ornaments . The royal shaft graves next to the acropolis of Mycenae , in particular the Grave Circles A and B signified the elevation of a native Greek @-@ speaking royal dynasty whose economic power depended on long @-@ distance sea trade .
During this period , the Mycenaean centers witnessed increased contacts with the outside world and especially with the Cyclades and the Minoan centers in the island of Crete . Mycenaean presence appears to be also depicted in a fresco at Akrotiri , on Thera island , which possibly displays many warriors in Boar 's tusk helmets , a feature typical of Mycenaean warfare . In the early 15th century , commerce intensified with Mycenaean pottery reaching the western coast of Asia Minor , including Miletus and Troy , Cyprus , Lebanon , Palestine and Egypt .
At the end of the Shaft Grave era , a new and more imposing type of elite burial emerged , the Tholos : large circular burial chambers with high vaulted roofs and a straight entry passage lined with stone .
= = = Koine era ( c . 1450 BC – 1250 BC ) = = =
The eruption of Thera , which according to archaeological data occurred in c . 1500 BC , resulted in the decline of the Minoan civilization of Crete . This turn of events gave the opportunity to the Mycenaeans to spread their influence throughout the Aegean . Around c . 1450 BC , they were in control of Crete itself , including Knossos , and colonized several other Aegean islands , reaching as far as Rhodes . Thus the Mycenaeans became the dominant power of the region , marking the beginning of the Mycenaean ' Koine ' era ( from Greek : Κοινή , common ) , a highly uniform culture that spread in mainland Greece and the Aegean .
From the early 14th century BC , Mycenaean trade began to take advantage of the new trading opportunities in the Mediterranean after the Minoan collapse . The trade routes were expanded further reaching Cyprus , Amman in the Near East , Apulia in Italy and Spain . At that time ( c . 1400 BC ) , the palace of Knossos yielded the earliest records of the Greek Linear B script , based on the previous Linear A of the Minoans . The use of the new script spread in mainland Greece and offers valuable insight of the administrative network of the palatial centers . However , the unearthed records are too fragmentary for a political reconstruction of Bronze Age Greece .
Excavations at Miletus , southwest Asia Minor , indicate the existence of a Mycenaean settlement there already from c . 1450 BC , replacing the previous Minoan installations . This site became a sizable and prosperous Mycenaean center until the 12th century BC . Apart from the archaeological evidence , this is also attested in Hittite records , which indicate that Miletos ( Milawata in Hittite ) was the most important base for Mycenaean activity in Asia Minor . Mycenaean presence also reached the adjacent sites of Iasus and Ephesus .
Meanwhile , imposing palaces were built in the main Mycenaean centers of the mainland . The earliest palace structures were megaron @-@ type buildings , such as the Menelaion in Sparta , Lakonia . Palaces proper are datable from c . 1400 BC , when Cyclopean fortifications were erected at Mycenae and nearby Tiryns . Additional palaces were built in Midea and Pylos in Peloponnese , Athens , Eleusis , Thebes and Orchomenos in Central Greece and Iolcos , in Thessaly , the latter being the northernmost Mycenaean center . Knossos in Crete became also a Mycenaean center , where the former Minoan complex intervened a number of adjustments , including the addition of a throne room . These centers were based on a rigid network of bureaucracy while administrative competences , were classified in various sections and offices , according to specialization of work and trades . At the head of this society was the king , known as wanax ( Linear B : wa @-@ na @-@ ka ) in Mycenaean Greek terms . All powers were centered on him , who was the main landlord , the spiritual and military leader . At the same time he was an entrepreneur and trader and was aided by a network of high officials .
= = = = Involvement in Asia Minor = = = =
The presence of Ahhiyawa in western Anatolia is mentioned in various Hittite accounts from c . 1400 to c . 1220 BC . Ahhiyawa is generally accepted as a Hittite translation of Mycenaean Greece ( Achaeans in Homeric Greek ) , but a precise geographical definition of the term cannot be drawn from the texts . During this time , the kings of Ahhiyawa were evidently capable of dealing with their Hittite counterparts both on a diplomatic and military level . Moreover , Ahhiyawan activity was to interfere in Anatolian affairs , with the support of anti @-@ Hittite uprisings or through local vassal rulers , which the Ahhiyawan king used as agents for the extension of his influence .
In c . 1400 BC , Hittite records mention the military activities of an Ahhiyawan warlord , Attarsiya , a possible Hittite way of writing the Greek name Atreus , who attacked Hittite vassals in western Anatolia . Later , in c . 1315 BC , an anti @-@ Hittite rebellion headed by Arzawa , a Hittite vassal state , received support from Ahhiyawa . Meanwhile , Ahhiyawa appears to be in control of a number of islands in the Aegean , an impression also supported by archaeological evidence . During the reign of the Hittite king Hattusili III ( c . 1267 – 1237 BC ) , the king of Ahhiyawa is recognized as a " Great King " and of equal status with the other contemporary great Bronze Age rulers : the kings of Egypt , Babylonia and Assyria . At that time , another anti @-@ Hittite movement , led by Piyama @-@ Radu , broke out and was supported by the king of Ahhiyawa . Piyama @-@ Radu caused major unrest in the region of Wilusa and latter invaded the island of Lesbos , which then passed into Ahhiyawan control .
The Hittite @-@ Ahhiyawan confrontation in Wilusa , the Hittite name for Troy , may provide the historical foundation for the Trojan War tradition . As a result of this instability , the Hittite king initiated correspondence in order to convince his Ahhiyawan counterpart to restore peace in the region . The Hittite record mentions a certain Tawagalawa , a possible Hittite translation for Greek Eteocles , as brother of the king of Ahhiyawa .
= = = Collapse ( c . 1250 – 1100 BC ) = = =
= = = = Initial decline and revival = = = =
In c . 1250 BC , the first wave of destruction has been witnessed in various centers of mainland Greece for reasons that cannot be identified by archaeologists . In Boeotia , Thebes was burned to the ground , around that year or slightly later . Nearby Orchomenos shared the same fate , while the Boeotian fortifications of Gla were deserted . In the Peloponnese , a number of buildings surrounding the citadel of Mycenae were attacked and burned .
These incidents appear to have prompted the massive strengthening and expansion of the fortifications in various sites . In some cases , arrangements were also made for the creation of subterranean passages which led to underground cisterns . Tiryns , Midea and Athens expanded their defences with new cyclopean @-@ style walls . The extension program in Mycenae almost doubled the fortified area of the citadel . To this phase of extension belongs the impressive Lion Gate , the main entrance into the Mycenaean acropolis .
It appears that after this first wave of destruction a short @-@ lived revival of Mycenaean culture followed . Mycenaean Greece continues to be mentioned in international affairs , particularly in Hittite records . In c . 1220 BC , the king of Ahhiyawa is again reported of being involved in an anti @-@ Hittite uprising in western Anatolia . Another contemporary Hittite account reports that Ahhiyawan ships should avoid Assyrian -controlled harbors , as part of a trade embargo imposed on Assyria . In general , in the second half of 13th century BC , trade was in decline in the Eastern Mediterranean , most probably due to the unstable political environment there .
= = = = Final collapse = = = =
None of the defence measures appear to have prevented the final destruction and collapse of the Mycenaean states . A second destruction struck Mycenae in ca . 1190 BC or shortly thereafter . This event marked the end of Mycenae as a major power . The site was then reoccupied , but on a smaller scale . The palace of Pylos , in the southwestern Peloponnese , faced destruction in c . 1180 BC . The Linear B archives found there , preserved by the heat of the fire that destroyed the palace , mention hasty defence preparations due to an imminent attack without giving any detail about the attacking force .
As a result of this turmoil , specific regions in mainland Greece witnessed a dramatic population decrease , especially Boeotia , Argolis and Messenia . Mycenaean refugees migrated to Cyprus and the Levantine coast . Nevertheless , other regions on the edge of the Mycenaean world prospered , such as the Ionian islands , the northwestern Peloponnese , parts of Attica and a number of Aegean islands . The acropolis of Athens paradoxically appears to have avoided destruction .
= = = = Hypotheses for the collapse = = = =
The reasons that led to the end of the Mycenaean culture have been hotly debated among scholars . At present , there is no satisfactory explanation for the collapse of the Mycenaean palace systems . The two most common theories are population movement and internal conflict . The first attributes the destruction of Mycenaean sites to invaders .
The hypothesis of a Dorian invasion , known as such in Ancient Greek tradition , that led to the end of Mycenaean Greece , is supported by sporadic archaeological evidence such as new types of burials , in particular cist graves , and the use of a new dialect of Greek , the Doric one . It appears that the Dorians moved southward gradually over a number of years and devastated the territory , until they managed to establish themselves in the Mycenaean centers . A new type of ceramic also appeared , called " Barbarian Ware " because it was attributed to invaders from the north . On the other hand , the collapse of Mycenaean Greece coincides with the activity of the Sea Peoples in the Eastern Mediterranean . They caused widespread destruction in Anatolia and the Levant and were finally defeated by Pharaoh Ramesses III in c . 1175 BC . One of the ethnic groups that comprised these people were the Eqwesh , a name that appears to be linked with the Ahhiyawa of the Hittite inscriptions .
Alternative scenarios propose that the fall of the Mycenaean Greece was a result of internal disturbances which led to internecine warfare among the Mycenaean states or civil unrest in a number of states , as a result of the strict hierarchical social system and the ideology of the wanax . In general , due to the obscure archaeological picture in 12th @-@ 11th century BC Greece , there is a continuing controversy among scholars over whether the impoverished societies that succeeded the Mycenaean palatial states were newcomers or populations that already resided in Mycenaean Greece . Recent archaeological findings tend to favor the latter scenario . Additional theories , concerning natural factors , such as climate change , droughts or earthquakes have been also proposed . The period following the end of Mycenaean Greece , c . 1100 @-@ 800 BC , is generally termed the " Greek Dark Ages " .
= = Political organization = =
= = = Palatial states = = =
Mycenaean palatial states , or centrally organized palace @-@ operating polities , are recorded in ancient Greek literature and mythology ( i.e. Iliad , Catalogue of Ships ) and confirmed by discoveries made by modern archaeologists such as Heinrich Schliemann . Each Mycenaean kingdom was governed from the palace , which exercised control over most , if not all , industries within its realm . The palatial territory was divided into several sub @-@ regions , each headed by its provincial center . Each province was further divided in smaller districts , the da @-@ mo . A number of palaces and fortifications appear to be part of a wider kingdom . For instance , Gla , located in the region of Boeotia , belonged to the state of nearby Orchomenos . Moreover , the palace of Mycenae appeared to have ruled over a territory two to three times the size of the other palatial states in Bronze Age Greece . Its territory would have also included adjacent centers , including Tiryns and Nauplion , which could plausibly be ruled by a member of Mycenae 's ruling dynasty .
The unearthed Linear B texts are too fragmentary for the reconstruction of the political landscape in Mycenaean Greece and they do not support the existence of a larger Mycenaean state . On the other hand , contemporary Hittite and Egyptian records suggest the presence of a single state under a " Great King " . Alternatively , based on archaeological data , some sort of confederation among a number of palatial states appears to be possible . If some kind of united political entity existed , the dominant center was probably located in Thebes or in Mycenae , with the latter state being the most probable center of power .
= = = Society and administration = = =
The Neolithic agrarian village ( 6000 BC ) constituted the foundation of Bronze Age political culture in Greece . The vast majority of the preserved Linear B records deals with administrative issues and give the impression that Mycenaean palatial administration was highly uniform with the use of the same language , terminology , system of taxation and distribution . Considering this sense of uniformity , the Pylos archive , which is the best preserved one in the Mycenaean world is in general taken as a representative one .
The state was ruled by a king , the wanax ( ϝάναξ ) , whose role was religious and perhaps also military and judicial . The wanax covered virtually all aspects of palatial life , from religious feasting and offerings to the distribution of goods , craftsmen and troops . Under him was the lāwāgetas ( " the leader of the people " ) , whose role appears mainly religious . His activities possibly overlap with the wanax and is usually seen as the second @-@ in @-@ command . Both wanax and lāwāgetas were at the head of a military aristocracy known as the eqeta ( " companions " or " followers " ) , The land possessed by the wanax is usually the témenos ( te @-@ me @-@ no ) . There is also at least one instance of a person , Enkhelyawon , at Pylos , who appears titleless in the written record but whom modern scholars regard as being probably a king .
A number of local officials positioned by the wanax , appear to be in charge of the districts , such as ko @-@ re @-@ te ( koreter , ' " governor " ) , po @-@ ro @-@ ko @-@ re @-@ te ( prokoreter , " deputy " ) and the da @-@ mo @-@ ko @-@ ro ( damokoros , " one who takes care of a damos " ) , the latter being appointed probably in charge of the commune . A council of elders was chaired , the ke @-@ ro @-@ si @-@ ja ( cf. γερουσία , gerousía ) . The basileus , who in latter Greek society was the name of the king , refers to communal officials .
In general , Mycenaean society appears to have been divided into two groups of free men : the king 's entourage , who conducted administrative duties at the palace and the people , da @-@ mo , These last were watched over by royal agents and were obliged to perform duties for and pay taxes to the palace . Among those who evolved in the palace setting could be found well @-@ to @-@ do high officials who probably lived in the vast residences found in proximity to Mycenaean palaces , but also others , tied by their work to the palace and not necessarily better off than the members of the da @-@ mo , such as craftsmen , farmers , and perhaps merchants . On a lower rung of the social ladder were found the slaves , do @-@ e @-@ ro , ( cf. δοῦλος , doúlos ) . These are recorded in the texts as working either for the palace or for specific deities .
= = Economy = =
= = = Organization = = =
The Mycenaean economy , given its pre @-@ monetary nature , was focused on the redistribution of goods , commodities and labor by a central administration . The preserved Linear B records in Pylos and Knossos indicate that the palaces were closely monitoring a variety of industries and commodities , the organization of land management and the rations given to the dependent personnel . The Mycenaean palaces maintained extensive control of the nondomestic areas of production through careful control and acquisition and distribution in the palace industries , and the tallying of produced goods . For instance , the Knossos tablets record c . 80 @,@ 000 @-@ 100 @,@ 000 sheep were grazing in central Crete , the quantity of the expected wool from these sheep and their offspring , as well as how this wool was allocated . The archives of Pylos display a specialized workforce , where each worker belonged to a precise category and was assigned to a specific task in the stages of production , notably in textiles .
Nevertheless , palatial control over resources appears to have been highly selective in spatial terms and in terms of how different industries were managed . Thus , sectors like the production of perfumed oil and bronze materials were directly monitored from the palace , but the production of ceramics was only indirectly monitored . Regional transactions between the palaces are also recorded in few occasions .
= = = Large @-@ scale infrastructure = = =
The palatial centers organized their workforce and resources for the construction of large scale projects in the fields of agriculture and industry . The magnitude of some projects indicates that this was the result of combined efforts from multiple palatial centers . Most notable of them are the drainage system of the Kopais basin in Boeotia , the building of a large dam outside Tiryns , and the drainage of the swamp in the Nemea valley . Moreover , the construction of harbors , capable of accommodating large Bronze Age era vessels , such as the one found at Uluburun , like in the case of the harbor of Pylos , is also noticeable . The Mycenaean economy also featured large @-@ scale manufacturing as testified by the extent of workshop complexes that have been discovered , the largest known to date being the recent ceramic and hydraulic installations found in Euonymeia , next to Athens , that produced tableware , textiles , sails , and ropes for export and shipbuilding .
The most famous project of the Mycenaean era was the network of roads in the Peloponnese . This appears to have facilitated the speedy deployment of troops ; for example , the remnants of a Mycenaean road , along with what appears to have been a Mycenaean defensive wall on the Isthmus of Corinth . The Mycenaean era saw the zenith of infrastructure engineering in Greece , and this appears not to have been limited in the Argive plain .
= = = Trade = = =
Trade over vast areas of the Mediterranean was essential for the economy of Mycenaean Greece . The Mycenaean palaces imported raw materials , such as metals , ivory and glass , and exported processed commodities and objects made from these materials , in addition to local products : oil , perfume , wine , wool and pottery . International trade of that time was not only conducted by palatial emissaries but also by independent merchants .
Based on archaeological findings in the Middle East , in particular physical artifacts , textual references , inscriptions and wall paintings , it appears that Mycenaean Greeks achieved strong commercial and cultural interaction with most of the Bronze Age people living in this region : Canaanites , Kassites , Mitanni , Assyrians , and Egyptians . The 14th century Uluburun shipwreck , off the coast of southern Anatolia , displays the established trade routes that supplied the Mycenaeans with all the raw materials and items that the economy of Mycenaean Greece needed , such as copper and tin for the production of bronze products . A chief export of the Mycenaeans was olive oil , which was a multi @-@ purpose product .
Cyprus appears to be the principal intermediary station between Mycenaean Greece and the Middle East , based on the considerable greater quantities of Mycenaean goods found there . On the other hand , trade with the Hittite lands in central Anatolia paradoxically appears to have been limited . Trade with Troy is also well attested , while Mycenaean trade routes expanded further to the Bosphorus and the shores of the Black Sea . Mycenaean swords have been found as far away as Georgia in the eastern Black Sea coast .
Commercial interaction was also intense with the Italian peninsula and the western Mediterranean . Mycenaean products , especially pottery was exported to southern Italy , Sicily and the Aeolian islands . Mycenaean products also penetrated further into Sardinia , as well as southern Spain .
Sporadic objects of Mycenaean manufacture were found in various distant locations , like in Central Europe , such as in Bavaria , Germany , where an amber object inscribed with Linear B symbols has been unearthed . Mycenaean bronze double axes and other objects dating from the 13th century BC have been found in Ireland and in Wessex and Cornwall in England .
= = Religion = =
Temples and shrines are paradoxically rare in the Mycenaean archaeological sites . Especially , monumental cultic structures are absent at any of the palatial center , with the exception of Mycenae . However , the cultic center of Mycenae seems to have been a later ( 13th century BC ) development . Small shrines have been identified in Asine , Berbati , Malthi and Pylos , while a number of sacred enclosures have been located near Mycenae , Delphi and Amyklae . Linear B records mention a number of sanctuaries dedicated to a variety of deities , at least in Pylos and Knossos . They also indicate that there were various religious festivities including offerings . Written Mycenaean records mention various priests and priestesses who were responsible for specific shrines and temples . Especially the latter were prominent figures in society , while the role of Mycenaean women in religious festivities was important , just as in Minoan Crete .
The Mycenaean pantheon already included many divinities that can be found in Classical Greece , though it 's difficult to claim whether these deities had the characteristics and responsibilities attributed to them at later periods . In general , the same divinities were worshipped throughout the Mycenaean palatial world . There may be some indications for local deities at various sites , in particular in Crete . The uniformity of Mycenaean religion is also reflected in archaeological evidence with the phi- and psi @-@ figurines that have been found all over Late Bronze Age Greece .
Poseidon ( Linear B : Po @-@ se @-@ da @-@ o ) seems to have occupied a place of privilege . He was a chthonic deity , connected with earthquakes ( E @-@ ne @-@ si @-@ da @-@ o @-@ ne : Earth @-@ shaker ) , but it seems that he also represented the river spirit of the underworld . Paean ( Pa @-@ ja @-@ wo ) is probably the precursor of the Greek physician of the gods in Homer 's Iliad . He was the personification of the magic @-@ song which was supposed to " heal " the patient . A number of divinites have been read in the Mycenaean scripts only by their epithets used during later antiquity . For example , Qo @-@ wi @-@ ja ( " cow @-@ eyed " ) is a standard Homeric ephithet of Hera . Ares appeared under the name Enyalios ( assuming that Enyalios is not a separate god ) . Additional divinities that can be also found in later periods include Hephaestus , Erinya , Artemis ( a @-@ te @-@ mi @-@ to and a @-@ ti @-@ mi @-@ te ) and Dionysos ( Di @-@ wo @-@ nu @-@ so ) . Zeus also appears in the Mycenaean pantheon , but he was certainly not the chief deity .
A collection of " ladies " or " mistresses " , Po @-@ ti @-@ ni @-@ ja ( Potnia ) is read in the Mycenaean scripts . As such , Athena ( A @-@ ta @-@ na ) appears in an inscription at Knossos as mistress Athena , similar with a later Homeric expression , but in the Pylos tablets she is mentioned without any accompanying word . Si @-@ to po @-@ ti @-@ ni @-@ ja appears to be an agricultural goddess , possibly related to Demeter of later antiquity , while in Knossos there is the " mistress of the Labyrinth " . The " two queens and the king " ( wa @-@ na @-@ ssoi , wa @-@ na @-@ ka @-@ te ) are mentioned in Pylos . Goddess Pe @-@ re @-@ swa mentioned may be related with Persephone . A number of Mycenaean divinities seem to have no later equivalents , such as Marineus , Diwia and Komawenteia .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Palaces = = =
The palatial structures at Mycenae , Tiryns and Pylos were erected on the summits of hills or rocky outcrops , dominating the immediate surroundings . The best preserved are found in Pylos and Tiryns , while Mycenae and the Menelaion are only partially preserved . In Central Greece , Thebes and Orchomenos have been only partially exposed . On the other hand , the palace built at the acropolis of Athens has been almost completely destroyed . A substantial building at Dimini in Thessaly , possibly ancient Iolcos , may be interpreted by a number of archaeologist as a palace . A Mycenaean palace has been also unearthed in Laconia , near the modern village of Xirokambi .
The palatial structures of mainland Greece share a number of common features . The focal point of the socio @-@ political aspect of a Mycenaean palace was the megaron , the throne room . It was laid out around a circular hearth surrounded by four columns . The throne was generally found on the right @-@ hand side upon entering the room , while the interior of the megaron was lavishly decorated , which flaunted images designed intentionally to demonstrate the political and religious power of the ruler . Access to the megaron was provided through a court , which is reached from a propylon . The iconography of the palatial chambers is remarkably uniform throughout Greece . For instance , in Pylos and Tiryns the paintings are focused on marine motives , providing depictions of octopi , fish and dolphins . Around the megaron a group of courtyards each opening upon several rooms of different dimensions , such as storerooms and workshops , as well as reception halls and living quarters . In general Mycenaean palaces have yielded a wealth of artifacts and fragmentary frescoes .
Additional common features are shared by the palaces of Pylos , Mycenae and Tiryns ; a large court with colonnades lies directly in front of the central megaron , while a second , but smaller , megaron is also found inside these structures . The staircases in the palace of Pylos indicate that the palaces had two stories . The private quarters of the members of the royal family were presumably located on the second floor .
= = = Fortifications = = =
The construction of defensive structures was closely linked with the establishment of the palaces in mainland Greece . The principal Mycenaean centers were well fortified and usually situated on an elevated terrain , like on the acropolis of Athens , Tiryns and Mycenae or on coastal plains , in the case of Gla . Mycenaean Greeks in general appreciated the symbolism of war as expressed in defensive architecture , thus they aimed also at the visual impressiveness of their fortifications .
Cyclopean is the term normally applied to the masonry characteristics of Mycenaean fortification systems and describes walls built of large , unworked boulders more than 8 m ( 26 ft ) thick and weighing several metric tonnes . They were roughly fitted together without the use of mortar or clay to bind them , though smaller hunks of limestone fill the interstices . Their placement formed a polygonal pattern giving the curtain wall an irregular but imposing appearance . At the top it would have been wide enough for a walkway with a narrow protective parapet on the outer edge and with hoop @-@ like crenellations . The term Cyclopean was derived by the latter Greeks of the Classical era who believed that only the mythical giants , the Cyclops , could have constructed such megalithic structures . On the other hand , cut stone masonry is used only in and around gateways . Another typical feature of Mycenaean megalithic construction was the use of a relieving triangle above a lintel block ; an opening , often triangular , designed to reduce the weight over the lintel . The space was filled with some lighter stone .
Cyclopean fortifications were typical of Mycenaean walls , especially at the citadels of Mycenae , Tiryns , Argos , Crisa and Athens , while smaller boulders are found in Midea and large limestone slabs are found at Gla . In the Mycenaean settlements found in Epirus and Cyprus , Cyclopean style walls are also present , as well as in western Anatolia . Besides the citadels , isolated forts were also erected on various strategic locations . The fortification systems also incorporated technical refinements such as secret cisterns , galleries , sally ports and projecting bastions for the protection of gateways . On the other hand , the palace of Pylos , although a major center of power , paradoxically appears to have been left without any defensive walls .
= = = Other architectural features = = =
Mycenaean domestic architecture originates mainly from earlier Middle Helladic traditions ( c . 2000 – 1650 BC ) both in shape , as well as in location of settlement . The uniformity in domestic architecture came probably as a result of a shared past among the communities of Greek mainland rather than as a consequence of cultural expansion of the Mycenaean Koine . Moreover , varying sizes of mudbricks were used in the construction of the building structures .
Contrary to a popular belief , some Mycenaean representative buildings already featured roofs made of fired tiles , as in Gla and Midea .
= = Warfare = =
The military nature of the Mycenaean Greeks is evident by the numerous weapons unearthed , warrior and combat representations in contemporary art , as well as by the preserved Greek Linear B records . The Mycenaeans invested in the development of military infrastructure , with military production and logistics being supervised directly from the palatial centers . According to the Linear B records in the palace of Pylos , every rural community ( the damos ) was obliged to supply a certain number of men who had to serve in the army . Similar service was also performed by the aristocracy .
Mycenaean armies were initially based on heavy infantry , equipped with spears , large shields and in some occasion armor . Later in the 13th century BC , Mycenaean warfare underwent major changes both in tactics and weaponry and armed units became more uniform and flexible , while weapons became smaller and lighter . The spear remained the main weapon among Mycenaean warriors , while the sword played a secondary role in combat . Other offensive weapons used were bows , maces , axes , slings and javelins . The precise role and contribution of chariots on the battlefield is a matter of dispute due to the lack of sufficient evidence . It appears that chariots were initially used as a fighting vehicle during the 16th to 14th century BC while later in the 13th century BC their role was limited to a battlefield transport .
The boar 's tusk helmet was the most identifiable piece of Mycenaean armor being in use from the beginning to the collapse of Mycenaean culture . It is also known from several depictions in contemporary art in Greece and the Mediterranean . A representative piece of Mycenaean armor is the Dendra panoply ( c . 1450 – 1400 BC ) which consisted of a cuirass of a complete set of armor made up of several elements of bronze . In general , most features of the later hoplite panoply of classical Greek antiquity , were already known to Mycenaean Greece . " Figure @-@ of @-@ eight " shields were the most common type of Mycenaean shields . During the Late Mycenaean period , smaller types of shields were adopted , either of completely circular shape , or almost circular with a cut out part from their lower edge .
= = Art and craftwork = =
= = = Vessels = = =
During the Late Mycenaean period ( 1400 – 1200 BC ) , Mycenaean vessels / pottery exhibited similarities spanning a significant area of the Eastern Mediterranean ( i.e. from the Levant to Sicily ) and possibly reflecting a form of economic and political union centered at Mycenae . However , the pottery of Crete during this time remained distinct indicating a degree of autonomy on the island . The Mycenaean Greeks produced in large quantities a variety of diversely @-@ styled vessels such as stirrup jars , large bowls , alabastron , krater and stemmed cups ( or kylikes ) resembling champagne glasses .
Stirrup jars ( Linear B : ka @-@ ra @-@ re @-@ u , khlareus ; " oil vessel " ) , specifically , were first invented on the island of Crete during the 16th century BC and used widely by the Mycenaeans from 1400 BC onward for transporting and storing wine and oil ; the jars were usually pear @-@ shaped or globular . As for stemmed cups ( or kylikes ) , they evolved from Ephyraean goblets and a large quantity was discovered at a site called the " Potter 's Shop " located in Zygouries . Mycenaean drinking vessels such as the stemmed cups contained single decorative motifs such as a shell , an octopus or a flower painted on the side facing away from the drinker . The Mycenaean Greeks also painted entire scenes ( called " Pictorial Style " ) on their vessels depicting warriors , chariots , horses and deities reminiscent of events described in Homer 's Iliad . Other items developed by the Mycenaeans include clay lamps , as well as metallic vessels such as bronze tripod cauldrons ( or basins ) . A few examples of vessels in faience and ivory are also known .
= = = Figures and figurines = = =
The Mycenaean period has not yielded sculpture of any great size . The statuary of the period consists for the most part of small terracotta figurines found at almost every Mycenaean site in mainland Greece , in tombs , in settlement debris , and occasionally in cult contexts ( Tiryns , Agios Konstantinos on Methana ) . The majority of these figurines are female and anthropomorphic or zoomorphic . The female figurines can be subdivided into three groups which were popular at different periods : the earliest are the Phi @-@ type , which look like the Greek letter phi and their arms give the upper body of the figurine a rounded shape . The Psi @-@ type looks like the letter Greek psi : these have outstretched upraised arms . The latest ( 12th century BC ) are the Tau @-@ type : these figurines look like the Greek letter tau with folded ( ? ) arms at right angles to the body . Most figurines wear a large ' polos ' hat . They are painted with stripes or zigzags in the same manner as the contemporary pottery and presumably made by the same potters . Their purpose is uncertain , but they may have served as both votive objects and toys : some are found in children 's graves but the vast majority of fragments are from domestic rubbish deposits . The presence of many of these figurines on sites where worship took place in the Archaic and Classical periods ( circa 200 below the sanctuary of Athena at Delphi , others at the temple of Aphaea on Aegina , at the sanctuary of Apollo Maleatas above Epidauros and at Amyklae near Sparta ) , suggests both that many were indeed religious in nature , perhaps as votives , but also that later places of worship may well have first been used in the Mycenaean period .
Larger male , female or bovine terracotta wheelmade figures are much rarer . An important group was found in the Temple at Mycenae together with coiled clay snakes , while others have been found at Tiryns and in the East and West Shrines at Phylakopi on the island of Melos .
= = = Frescoes = = =
The painting of the Mycenaean age was much influenced by that of the Minoan age . Fragments of wall paintings have been found in or around the palaces ( Pylos , Mycenae , Tiryns ) and in domestic contexts ( Zygouries ) . The largest complete wall painting depicting three female figures , probably goddesses , was found in the so @-@ called " cult center " at Mycenae . Various themes are represented : hunting , bull leaping ( tauromachy ) , battle scenes , processions , etc . Some scenes may be part of mythological narratives , but if so their meaning eludes us . Other frescoes include geometric or stylised motifs , also used on painted pottery ( see above ) .
= = Burial practices = =
The usual form of burial during this period was inhumation . The earliest Mycenaean burials were mostly in individual graves in the form of a pit or a stone lined cist and offerings were limited to pottery and occasional items of jewellery . Groups of pit or cist graves containing elite members of the community were sometimes covered by a tumulus ( mound ) in the manner established since the Middle Helladic . It has been argued that this form dates back to the Kurgan culture ; however , Mycenaean burials are in actuality an indigenous development of mainland Greece with the Shaft Graves housing native rulers . Pit and cist graves remained in use for single burials throughout the Mycenaean period alongside more elaborate family graves . The shaft graves at Mycenae within Grave Circles A and B belong to the same period represent an alternative manner of grouping elite burials . Next to the deceased were found full sets of weapons , ornate staffs as well as gold and silver cups and other valuable objects which point to their social rank .
Beginning also in the Late Helladic period are to be seen communal tombs of rectangular form . Nevertheless , it is difficult to establish whether the different forms of burial represent a social hierarchization , as was formerly thought , with the " tholos " being the tombs of the elite rulers , the individual tombs those of the leisure class , and the communal tombs those of the people . Cremations increased in number over the course of the period , becoming quite numerous in last phase of the Mycenaean era . The tholos was introduced during the early 15th century as the new and more imposing form of elite . The most impressive tombs of the Mycenaean era are the monumental royal tombs of Mycenae , undoubtedly intended for the royal family of the city . The most famous is the Treasury of Atreus , a tholos . A total of nine of such tholos tombs are found in the region of Mycenae , while six of them belong to a single period ( Late Helladic IIa , c . 1400 @-@ 1300 BC ) . It has been argued that different dynasties or factions may have competed through conspicuous burial .
= = Writing = =
In circa 1600 BC , the Mycenaean Greeks borrowed from the Minoan civilization its syllabic writing system ( i.e. Linear A ) and developed their own syllabic script known as Linear B. The Linear B script was utilized by the Mycenaean palaces in Greece for administrative purposes where economic transactions were recorded on clay tablets and some pottery in the Mycenaean dialect of the Greek language . The Linear B tablets were first discovered in Crete by English archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans in circa 1900 and later deciphered by English architect and cryptographer Michael Ventris in 1952 . Ventris 's discovery of an archaic Greek dialect in the Linear B tablets demonstrated that Mycenaean Greek was " the oldest known Greek dialect , elements of which survived in Homer ’ s language as a result of a long oral tradition of epic poetry . "
= = Legacy = =
In the 8th century BC , after the end of the so @-@ called Greek Dark Ages , Greece emerged with a network of myths and legends , the greatest of all being that of the Trojan Epic Cycle . In general , the Greeks of classical antiquity idealized the Mycenaean period as a glorious period of heroes , closeness of the gods and material wealth . The legends of Homer 's Epics were especially and generally accepted as part of the Greek past and it was not until the 19th century that scholars began to question Homer 's historicity . At this time , German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann undertook the first modern archaeological excavations in Greece at the site of Mycenae in 1876 . Thus , Schliemann set out to prove the historical accuracy of the Iliad by identifying the places described by Homer .
As part of the Mycenaean heritage that survived , the names of the gods and goddesses of Mycenaean Greece became major figures of the Olympian Pantheon of later antiquity . Moreover , the language of the Mycenaeans offers the first written evidence of Greek , while a significant part of the Mycenaean vocabulary can also be found in modern English .
The Mycenaean Greeks were also pioneers in the field of engineering , launching large @-@ scale projects unmatched in Europe until the Roman period , such as fortifications , bridges , culverts , aqueducts , dams and roads suitable for wheeled traffic . They also made several architectural innovations , such as the relieving triangle . They were also responsible for transmitting a wide range of arts and crafts , especially of Minoan origin . The Mycenaean civilization was in general more advanced compared to the Late Bronze Age cultures of the rest of Europe . Several Mycenaean attributes and achievements were borrowed or held in high regard in later periods that it would be no exaggeration to consider Mycenaean Greece as a cradle of civilization .
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= Raynald of Châtillon =
Raynald of Châtillon , also known as Reynald or Reginald of Châtillon ( French : Renaud de Châtillon ; c . 1125 – 4 July 1187 ) , was Prince of Antioch from 1153 to 1160 or 1161 , and Lord of Oultrejordain from 1175 until his death . He was born as his father 's second son into a French noble family . After losing a part of his patrimony , he joined the Second Crusade in 1147 . He settled in the Kingdom of Jerusalem and served in the royal army as a mercenary .
Raynald married Constance , the reigning Princess of Antioch , in 1153 , in spite of her subjects ' opposition . He was always in need of funds . He captured and tortured Aimery of Limoges , Latin Patriarch of Antioch , because Aimery had refused to pay a subsidy to him . Raynald launched a plundering raid in Cyprus in 1155 , causing great destruction . Four years later , the Byzantine Emperor , Manuel I Komnenos , came to Antioch at the head of a large army , forcing Raynald to beg for his mercy . Raynald made a raid in the valley of the river Euphrates at Marash to seize booty from the local peasants in 1160 or 1161 , but he was captured by the governor of Aleppo .
Raynald was held in prison until 1176 . After his release for a large ransom , he did not return to Antioch , because his wife had meanwhile died . He married Stephanie of Milly , the wealthy heiress of Oultrejordain . Since Baldwin IV of Jerusalem also granted Hebron to him , Raynald was one of the wealthiest barons of the realm . He controlled the caravan routes between Egypt and Syria . Baldwin , who suffered from leprosy , made him regent in 1177 . Raynald led the crusader army that defeated Saladin at the Battle of Montgisard . He was the only Christian leader to pursue an offensive policy against Saladin , making plundering raids against the caravans travelling near his domains . He built a fleet of five ships which plundered the coast of the Red Sea , threatening the route of the Muslim pilgrims towards Mecca in early 1183 . Saladin pledged that he would never forgive Raynald .
Raynald was a firm supporter of Baldwin IV 's sister , Sybilla , and her husband , Guy of Lusignan , during conflicts regarding the succession of the king . Sibylla and Guy were able to seize the throne in 1186 due to Raynald 's co @-@ operation with her uncle , Joscelin III of Courtenay . Raynald attacked a caravan travelling from Egypt to Syria in late 1186 or early 1187 , claiming that the truce between Saladin and the Kingdom of Jerusalem did not bind him . After Raynald refused to pay a compensation , Saladin invaded the kingdom and annihilated the crusader army in the Battle of Hattin . Raynald was captured in the battlefield . Saladin personally beheaded him after he refused to convert to Islam . Most historians have regarded Raynald as an irresponsible adventurer whose lust for booty caused the fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem . On the other hand , Bernard Hamilton says that he was the only crusader leader who tried to prevent Saladin from unifying the nearby Muslim states .
= = Early years = =
Raynald was the younger son of Hervé II , Lord of Donzy . In older historiography , Raynald was described as the son of Geoffrey , Count of Gien , but in 1989 Jean Richard demonstrated Raynald 's kinship with the Lords of Donzy . They were influential noblemen in the Duchy of Burgundy , claiming the Palladii ( a family of Roman senators ) as their ancestors .
Raynald was born around 1123 . He received Châtillon @-@ sur @-@ Loire , but a part of his patrimony was " violently and unjustly confiscated " , according to one of his letters . He came to the Kingdom of Jerusalem before 1153 when he was mentioned as a mercenary fighting in the army of Baldwin III of Jerusalem . According to modern historians , he had joined the crusade of Louis VII of France . Louis departed from France in June 1147 . The 12th @-@ century historian William of Tyre , who was Raynald 's opponent , claimed that Raynald was " almost a common soldier " . Louis VII left the Holy Land for France in the summer of 1149 , but Raynald stayed behind in Palestine .
Raymond , Prince of Antioch , and thousands of his soldiers fell in the Battle of Inab on 28 June 1148 , leaving the principality almost undefended . Baldwin III of Jerusalem ( who was the cousin of Raymond 's widow , Constance , the ruling Princess of Antioch ) came to Antioch at the head of his army at least three times during the following years . To secure the defence of the principality , Baldwin tried to persuade her to remarry , but she did not accept his candidates . She also refused John Roger , whom the Byzantine Emperor , Manuel I Komnenos , proposed for her husband .
Raynald accompanied Baldwin to Antioch in 1151 and settled in the principality , according to Steven Runciman . It is certain that Raynald fought in Baldwin 's army during the Siege of Ascalon in early 1153 . He may have already been engaged to Constance of Antioch ( as Runciman suggests ) , or their betrothal took place during Raynald 's visit to the principality before the end of the siege ( as Malcolm Barber proposes ) . They kept their betrothal a secret until Baldwin gave his permission to their marriage .
= = Prince of Antioch = =
After Baldwin granted his consent , Constance married Raynald . He was installed prince in or shortly before May 1153 . In that month , he confirmed the privileges of the Venetian merchants . William of Tyre recorded that his subjects were astonished that their " famous , powerful and well @-@ born " princess condescended to " marry a kind of mercenary knight " . The wealthy Latin Patriarch of Antioch , Aimery of Limoges , was Raynald 's principal opponent . He even refused to pay a subsidy to him . In retaliation , Raynald captured and tortured Aimery , forcing him to sit naked and covered with honey in the sun , before imprisoning him . Aimery was only released on Baldwin III 's demand , but he soon left his see for Jerusalem .
Emperor Manuel sent his envoys to Antioch , proposing to recognize Raynald as the new prince if he launched a campaign against the Armenians of Cilicia , who had risen up against Byzantine rule . Manuel also promised that he would compensate Raynald for the expenses of the campaign . After Raynald defeated the Armenians at Alexendretta in 1155 , the Knights Templar seized the region of the Syrian Gates that the Armenians had recently captured . Although the sources are unclear , Runciman and Barber agree that it was Raynald who granted the territory to them .
Always in need of funds , Raynald urged Manuel to send the promised subsidy to him , but Manuel failed to pay the money . Raynald made an alliance with Thoros II of Cilicia . They attacked Cyprus , subjecting the Byzantine island to a three @-@ week orgy of violence in early 1156 . They only left Cyprus on the rumour of an imperial fleet approaching the island , but only after they had forced all Cypriots to ransom themselves , with the exception of the wealthiest individuals ( including Emperor Manuel 's nephew , John Doukas Komnenos ) , whom they carried off to Antioch . Cyprus would never entirely recover from the devastation that Raynald 's and Thoros 's marauding raid caused .
Taking advantage of the presence of Thierry , Count of Flanders , and his army in the Holy Land and an earthquake that destroyed most towns of Northern Syria , Baldwin III of Jerusalem invaded the Muslim territories in the valley of the Orontes River in the autumn of 1157 . Raynald joined the royal army , and they laid siege to Shaizar . Shaizar was held by a band of Assassins , but it had been ruled by the Munqidhites who paid an annual tribute to Raynald . Before the capitulation of the garrison , Baldwin decided to grant the fortress to Thierry of Flanders , but Raynald demanded that the count should pay homage to him for the town . After Thierry sharply refused to swear fealty to an upstart , the crusaders abandoned the siege . They marched on Harenc ( present @-@ day Harem , Syria ) , which had been an Antiochene fortress before Nur ad @-@ Din , atabeg of Aleppo , captured it in 1150 . After the crusaders captured Harenc in February 1158 , Raynald granted it to the Flemish Raynald of Saint @-@ Valery .
Emperor Manuel unexpectedly invaded Cilicia , forcing Thoros II to seek refuge in the mountains in December 1158 . Raynald hurried to Mamistra to voluntarily make his submission to the emperor . On Manuel 's demand , he and his retainers walked barefoot and bareheaded through the streets of the town to the imperial tent where he prostrated himself , begging for mercy . William of Tyre stated that " the glory of the Latin world was put to shame " on this occasion , because envoys from the nearby Muslim and Christian rulers were also present at Raynald 's humiliation . Manuel only forgave him after Raynald agreed to accept a Greek Patriarch in Antioch . Raynald also had to promise that he would allow a Byzantine garrison to stay in the citadel whenever it was required and would send a troop to fight in the Byzantine army . Before long , Baldwin III of Jerusalem persuaded Manuel to consent to the return of the Latin patriarch , Aimery , to Antioch , instead of installing a Greek patriarch . When the emperor entered Antioch with much pomp and ceremony on 12 April 1159 , Reginald held the bridle of Manuel 's horse . Manuel left the town eight days later .
Raynald made a plundering raid in the valley of the river Euphrates at Marash to seize cattle , horses and camels from the local peasants in November 1160 or 1161 . Majd al @-@ Din , governor of Aleppo , attacked Raynald and his retinue on the way back to Antioch . Raynald fought bravely , but the Muslim warriors unhorsed and captured him . He was sent to Aleppo where he was put in jail .
= = Captivity and release = =
Almost nothing is known about Raynald 's life while he was kept in jail for fifteen years . He shared his prison with Joscelin III of Courtenay , who had been captured a couple of months before . In Raynald 's absence , Constance wanted to rule alone , but Baldwin III of Jerusalem made Patriarch Aimery regent for her fifteen @-@ year @-@ old son ( Raynald 's stepson ) , Bohemond III of Antioch . Constance died around 1163 , shortly after her son reached the age of majority . Her death deprived Raynald of his claim to Antioch . However , he had become an important personality , with prominent family connections . His stepdaughter , Maria of Antioch , married Manuel I Komnenos in 1161 . Raynald 's own daughter , Agnes , became the wife of Béla III of Hungary .
When Gümüshtekin , governor of Aleppo , one of the last independent Muslim rulers in Syria after Saladin , had conquered almost all neighboring states , he released Raynald , along with Joscelin of Courtenay and all other Christians prisoners in 1176 . Raynald 's ransom , fixed at 120 @,@ 000 gold dinars , reflected his prestige . It was most probably paid by Manuel I Komnenos , according to Barber and Bernard Hamilton .
Raynald came to Jerusalem with Joscelin before 1 September 1176 where he became a close ally of Joscelin 's sister , Agnes of Courtenay . She was the mother of the young Baldwin IV of Jerusalem , who suffered from leprosy . Hugo Etherianis , who lived in Constantinople after around 1165 , mentioned in the preface of his About the Procession of the Holy Spirit that he had asked " Prince Raynald " to deliver a copy of the work to Aimery of Limoges . According to historian Bernard Hamilton , these words suggest that Raynald led the embassy that Baldwin IV sent to Constantinople to confirm an alliance between Jerusalem and the Byzantine Empire against Egypt .
= = Lord of Oultrejordain = =
= = = First years = = =
Raynald married Stephanie of Milly , the lady of Oultrejordain , and Baldwin IV also granted him Hebron . The first extant charter styling Raynald as " Lord of Hebron and Montréal " was issued in November 1177 . He owed service of 60 knights to the Crown , showing that he had become one of the wealthiest barons of the realm . From his castles at Kerak and Montréal , he controlled the routes between the two main parts of Saladin 's empire , Syria and Egypt . Raynald and Baldwin IV 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , William of Montferrat , jointly granted large estates to Rodrigo Álvarez , the founder of the Order of Mountjoy , to strengthen the defence of the southern and eastern frontier of the kingdom . After William of Montferrat died in June 1177 , the king made Raynald regent .
Baldwin IV 's cousin , Philip I , Count of Flanders , came to the Holy Land at the head of a crusader army in early August 1177 . The king offered him the regency , but Philip refused the offer , saying that he did not want to stay in the kingdom . Philip declared that he was " willing to take orders " from anybody , but he protested when Baldwin confirmed Raynald 's position as " regent of the kingdom and of the armies " . Philip left the kingdom a month after his arrival .
Saladin invaded the region of Ascalon , but the royal army launched an attack on him in the Battle of Montgisard on 25 November , leading to his defeat . William of Tyre and Ernoul attributed the victory to the king , but Baha ad @-@ Din ibn Shaddad and other Muslim authors recorded that Raynald was the supreme commander . Saladin himself referred to the battle as a " major defeat which God mended with the famous battle of Hattin " , according to Baha ad @-@ Din .
Raynald was the first among the witnesses to sign most royal charters between 1177 and 1180 , showing that he was the king 's most influential official during this period . Raynald became one of the principal supporters of Guy of Lusignan , who married the king 's elder sister , Sybilla , in early 1180 , although many barons of the realm had opposed the marriage . The king 's half sister , Isabella ( whose stepfather , Balian of Ibelin was Guy of Lusignan 's opponent ) was engaged to Raynald 's stepson , Humphrey IV of Toron , in autumn 1180 . Baldwin IV dispatched Raynald , along with Heraclius , Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem , to mediate a reconciliation between Bohemond III of Antioch and Patriarch Aimery in early 1181 . Roupen III , Lord of Cilician Armenia , married Raynald 's stepdaughter , Isabella of Toron .
= = = Fights against Saladin = = =
Raynald was the only Christian leader who fought against Saladin in the 1180s . The contemporaneous Ernoul mentioned two raids that Raynald made against caravans travelling between Egypt and Syria , breaking the truce . Modern historians debate whether Raynald 's desire for booty inspired these military actions , or were deliberate maneuvers to prevent Saladin from annexing new territories . Saladin tried to seize Aleppo after As @-@ Salih Ismail al @-@ Malik , the Zengid emir of the town , died on 18 November 1181 . Raynald stormed into Saladin 's territory , reaching as far as Tabuk on the route between Damascus and Mecca in late 1181 . Saladin 's nephew , Farrukh Shah , invaded Oultrejourdain instead of attacking Aleppo to compel Raynald to return from the Arabian desert . Before long , Raynald seized a caravan and imprisoned its members . On Saladin 's protest , Baldwin IV ordered Raynald to free them , but Raynald did not obey him . His defiance annoyed the king , enabling Raymond III of Tripoli 's partisans to reconcile him with the monarch . Raymond 's return to the royal court put an end to his paramount position . He accepted the new situation and cooperated with the king and Raymond during the fights against Saladin in summer 1182 .
Saladin revived the Egyptian naval force and tried to capture Beirut , but his ships were forced to retreat . Raynald ordered the building of five ships which were carried to the Gulf of Aqaba at the northern end of the Red Sea in February 1183 . Raynald laid siege to the Egyptian fortress on Ile de Graye . Part of his fleet made a plundering raid along the coasts , threatening the security of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina . Raynald left Ile de Graye , but his fleet continued the siege . Saladin 's brother , Al @-@ Adil , the governor of Egypt , dispatched a fleet to the Red Sea . The Egyptians relieved Ile de Graye and destroyed the Christian fleet . Raynald 's soldiers were executed , and Saladin took an oath that he would never forgive him . Though Raynald 's naval expedition " showed a remarkable degree of initiative " , according to historian Bernard Hamilton , most modern historians agree that it contributed to the unification of Syria and Egypt under Saladin 's rule . Saladin captured Aleppo in June 1183 , completing the encirclement of the crusader states .
Baldwin IV , who had become seriously ill , made Guy of Lusignan bailli ( or regent ) in October 1183 . Within a month , Baldwin dismissed Guy , and had Guy 's five @-@ year @-@ old stepson , Baldwin V , crowned king . Raynald was not present at the child 's coronation , because he attended the wedding of his stepson , Humphrey , and Baldwin IV 's sister , Isabella , in Kerak . Saladin unexpectedly invaded Oultrejordain , forcing the local inhabitants to seek refuge in Kerak . After Saladin broke into the town , Raynald only managed to escape to the fortress because one of his retainers had hindered the attackers from seizing the bridge between the town and the castle . Saladin laid siege to Kerak . According to Ernoul , Raynald 's wife sent dishes from the wedding to Saladin , persuading him to stop bombarding the tower where her son and his wife stayed . After envoys from Kerak informed Baldwin IV of the siege , the royal army left Jerusalem for Kerak under the command of the king and Raymond III of Tripoli . Saladin abandoned the siege before their arrival on 4 December . On Saladin 's order , Izz al @-@ Din Usama had a fortress built at Ajloun , near the northern border of Raynald 's domains .
= = = Kingmaker = = =
Baldwin IV died in early 1185 . His successor , the child Baldwin V died in late summer 1186 . The High Court of Jerusalem had ruled that neither Baldwin V 's mother , Sybilla ( who was Guy of Lusignan 's wife ) , nor her sister , Isabella ( who was the wife of Raynald 's stepson ) , could be crowned without the decision of the pope , the Holy Roman Emperor , and the kings of France and England about Baldwin V 's lawful successor . However , Sybilla 's uncle , Joscelin III of Courtenay , took control of Jerusalem with the support of Raynald and other influential prelates and royal officials . Raynald urged the townspeople to accept Sybilla as the lawful monarch , according to the Estoire de Eracles . The bailli , Raymond III of Tripoli , and his supporters tried to prevent her coronation and reminded her partisans of the decision of the High Court . Ignoring their protest , Raynald and Gerard of Ridefort , Grand Master of the Knights Templar , accompanied Sybilla to the Holy Sepulchre , where she was crowned . She also arranged the coronation of her husband , although he was unpopular even among her supporters . Her opponents tried to persuade Raynald 's stepson , Humphrey , to claim the crown on his wife 's behalf , but Humphrey deserted them and swore fealty to Sybilla and Guy . Raynald headed the list of secular witnesses in four royal charters issued between 21 October 1186 and 7 March 1187 , showing that he had become a principal figure in the new king 's court .
Ali ibn al @-@ Athir and other Muslim historians recorded that Raynald made a truce with Saladin in 1186 . This " seems unlikely to be true " , according to historian Bernard Hamilton , because the truce between the Kingdom of Jerusalem and Saladin covered Raynald 's domains . In late 1186 or early 1187 , a rich caravan travelled through Oultrejordain from Egypt to Syria . Ali ibn al @-@ Athir mentioned that a group of armed men accompanied the caravan . Raynald seized the caravan , possibly because he regarded the presence of soldiers as a breach of the truce , according to Hamilton . He took all the merchants and their families prisoner , seized a large amount of booty , and refused to receive envoys from Saladin demanding compensation . Saladin sent his envoys to Guy of Lusignan , who accepted his demands . However , Raynald refused to obey the king , stating that " he was lord of his land , just as Guy was lord of his , and he had no truces with the Saracens " . Saladin proclaimed a jihad ( or holy war ) against the kingdom , taking an oath that he would personally kill Raynald for breaking the truce .
Prince Reynald , lord of Kerak , was one of the greatest and wickedest of the Franks , the most hostile to the Muslims and the most dangerous to them . Aware of this , Saladin targeted him with blockades time after time and raided his territory occasion after occasion . As a result he was abashed and humbled and asked Saladin for a truce , which was granted . The truce was made and duly sworn to . Caravans then went back and forth between Syria and Egypt . [ In the year 582 AH ] , a large caravan , rich in goods and with many men , accompanied by a good number of soldiers , passed by him . The accursed one treacheously seized every last man and made their goods , animals and weapons his booty . Those he made captive he consigned to his prisons . Saladin sent blaming him , deploring his treacherous action and threatening him if he did not release the captives and the goods , but he would not agree to do that and persisted in his refusal . Saladin vowed that , if ever had him in his power , he would kill him .
= = Capture and execution = =
The Estoire de Eracles wrongly claimed that Saladin 's sister was also among the prisoners taken by Raynald when he seized the caravan . Actually , she returned from Mecca to Damascus in a subsequent pilgrim @-@ caravan in March 1187 . To protect her against an attack by Raynald , Saladin escorted the pilgrims while they were travelling near Oultrejordain . Saladin stormed into Oultrejordain on 26 April and pillaged Raynald 's domains for a month . Thereafter , Saladin marched to Ashtara , where the troops coming from all parts of his realm assembled .
The Christian forces assembled at Sepphoris . Raynald and Gerard of Ridefort convinced Guy of Lusignan to take the initiative and attack Saladin 's army , although Raymond III of Tripoli had tried to persuade the king to avoid a direct fight with it . During the debate , Raynald accused Raymond of Tripoli of co @-@ operating with the enemy . Saladin inflicted a crushing defeat on the crusaders in the Battle of Hattin on 4 July . Most commanders of the Christian army were captured in the battlefield .
Guy of Lusignan and Raynald were among the prisoners who were brought before Saladin . Saladin handed a cup of iced rose water to Guy . After drinking from the cup , the king handed it to Raynald . Imad ad @-@ Din al @-@ Isfahani ( who was present ) recorded that Raynald drank from the cup . Since customary law prescribed that a man who gave food or drink to a prisoner could not murder him , Saladin stated that it was Guy who had given the cup to Raynald . Saladin called Raynald to his tent . He accused him of many crimes ( including brigandage and blasphemy ) , offering him to choose between conversion to Islam or death , according to Imad ad @-@ Din and Ibn al @-@ Athir . After Raynald flatly refused to convert , Saladin took a sword and struck Raynald with it . Raynald fell to the ground and Saladin beheaded him for the honour of Islam . The reliability of the reports of Saladin 's offer to Raynald is subject to a scholarly debate , because the Muslim authors who recorded them may have only wanted to improve Saladin 's image . Ernoul 's chronicle and the Estoire de Eracles recounted the events ending with Raynald 's execution in almost the same language as the Muslim authors . However , according to Ernoul 's chronicle , Raynald refused to drink from the cup that Guy of Lusignan handed to him . He was murdered after he enraged Saladin , saying that he would behead Saladin if he had captured him in the battle . According to Ernoul , Raynald 's head was struck off by Saladin 's mamluks and it was brought to Damascus to be " dragged along the ground to show the Saracens , whom the prince had wronged , that vengeance had been exacted " .
= = Family = =
Raynald 's first wife , Constance of Antioch ( born in 1128 ) , was the only daughter of Bohemond II of Antioch and Alice of Jerusalem . Constance succeeded her father in Antioch in 1130 . She was given in marriage to Raymond of Poitiers in 1136 . Years after his death , Raynald married the widowed Constance and seized Antioch .
Their daughter , Agnes , moved to Constantinople in early 1170 to marry Kaisar Alexios @-@ Béla , the younger brother of Stephen III of Hungary , who lived in the Byzantine Empire . Agnes was renamed Anna in Constantinople . Her husband succeeded his brother as Béla III of Hungary in 1172 . She followed her husband to Hungary , where she gave birth to seven children before she died around 1184 . Raynald and Constance 's second daughter , Alice , became the third wife of Azzo VI of Este in 1204 . Raynald also had a son , Baldwin , from Constance , according to historian Bernard Hamilton , but Runciman says that Baldwin was Constance 's son from her first husband . Baldwin moved to Constantinople in the early 1160s . He died fighting at the head of a Byzantine cavalry regiment in the Battle of Myriokephalon on 17 September 1176 .
Raynald 's second wife , Stephanie of Milly , was the younger daughter of Philip of Milly , Lord of Nablus , and Isabella of Oultrejourdain . She was born around 1145 . Her first husband , Humphrey III of Toron , died around 1173 . She inherited Oultrejourdain from her niece , Beatrice Brisbarre , shortly before she married Miles of Plancy in early 1174 . Miles of Plancy was murdered in October 1174 .
= = Legacy = =
Most information on Raynald 's life was recorded by Muslim authors who were hostile to him . Baha ad @-@ Din ibn Shaddad described him as a " monstrous infidel and terrible oppressor " in his biography of Saladin . Saladin compared Raynald with the king of Ethiopia , who had tried to destroy Mecca in 570 and was mentioned as the " Elephant " in the Surah CV of the Quran .
Most Christian authors who wrote of Raynald in the 12th and 13th centuries were influenced by Raynald 's political opponent , William of Tyre . The author of the Estoire of Eracles stated that Raynald 's attack against a caravan at the turn of 1186 and 1187 was the " reason of the loss of the Kingdom of Jerusalem " . Modern historians have usually also treated Raynald as a " maverick who did more harm to the Christian than to the [ Muslim ] cause " . Runciman describes him as a marauder who could not resist the temptation presented by the rich caravans passing through Oultrejordain . Runciman argues that Raynald attacked a caravan during the 1180 truce because he " could not understand a policy that ran counter to his wishes " . According to Barber , Raynald 's behavior during the reign of Guy of Lusignan shows that the kingdom had broken up into " a collection of semi @-@ autonomous fiefdoms " by that time .
Some Christian authors regarded Raynald as a martyr for the faith . Peter of Blois dedicated a book ( entitled Passion of Prince Raynald of Antioch ) to him shortly after his death . Among modern historians , Bernard Hamilton describes Raynald as " an experienced and responsible crusader leader " who made several attempts to prevent Saladin from uniting the Muslim realms along the borders of the crusader states .
= = In fiction = =
Raynald is depicted in the 2005 film Kingdom of Heaven , played by Brendan Gleeson .
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= Helen Shiller =
Helen Shiller ( born 1947 ) is a former Alderman of the 46th ward in Chicago , Illinois . She served in the Chicago City Council for six four @-@ year terms , from 1987 to 2011 . Shiller was elected to the City Council on her third attempt , as Harold Washington , Chicago 's first black Mayor , was re @-@ elected to his second term , and her election as alderman helped close the Council Wars era in Chicago government . Shiller has been described as " committed to liberal causes " appropriate for the lakefront district she represents . Among her most significant impacts on Chicago were her advocacy for diverse , inclusive , affordable housing and helping craft Chicago 's response to the HIV / AIDS crisis . Her commitment to fostering community development without displacement often brought Shiller into contention with some constituencies , real estate developers , and editorial boards . Shiller 's oral history was collected by Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning author and Uptown resident , the late Studs Terkel , in his 2003 book , Hope Dies Last .
= = Early life and education = =
Shiller was born in 1947 and raised on Long Island in New York , growing up in a middle @-@ class family . Her parents were home owners . Her father , Morris Shiller , was a self @-@ employed chemist who according to Shiller " perfected fake suede . " Morris emigrated to the United States from Latvia . Some members of his family were Holocaust victims . Shiller 's mother was Sara ( née Trop ) , Sara was born and raised in Belarus , where she lived through various occupations , including by the Germans , Polish , Russians , and Soviet Union . Sara came to America through Ellis Island at the age of six . She became a nurse and married Morris , in 1936 . She died at the age of 96 in the summer of 2011 .
Helen Shiller earned her high school diploma in 1965 from Woodstock County School in Vermont , the same progressive boarding school that Pete Seeger 's children attended . Shiller graduated with a degree in history from the University of Wisconsin – Madison , where she was active in the anti @-@ Vietnam war movement and in the Students for a Democratic Society ( SDS ) . In 2005 , Shiller graduated from DePaul University 's School for New Learning Master 's Program , where her focus was public policy .
= = Early career = =
Shiller moved to Chicago 's Uptown neighborhood in 1972 with her husband Marc Zalkin and her infant son , Brendan , and lived on N Malden Street in Uptown . Shiller drove a cab , worked as a waitress and free lance photographer , and got involved in radical politics . With one of Chicago 's most controversial political organizers , Walter " Slim " Coleman , Shiller helped organize the Intercommunal Survival Committee , a sort of white support arm of the Black Panther Party . The committee evolved into the Heart of Uptown Coalition , a political and social service organization steeped in the rhetoric of Marxism ; " comrades " were expected to organize " cadres . " " We must have the frame of mind that as revolutionaries we have ( to ) be able to solve any problem that comes our way ... " Shiller said . The Coalition provided an array of programs geared toward providing essential services for the poor , including medical clinics for pregnant women , mothers and young children ; a legal aid clinic , food pantries and distributing clothes and meals to the poor . For decades Shiller and her allies worked to preserve Uptown as the last North Side lakefront neighborhood south of Rogers Park that is home to a significant population of low income households .
Shiller supported Michael Bakalis in his 1978 primary challenge to Illinois Governor James R. Thompson , attacking Thompson for " making deals with the Chicago machine " and for being unsympathetic to the urban poor . Shiller helped open an extension of Shimer College at 4833 N Broadway in the Fall of 1978 . Shiller took on Illinois ' dentists when in 1978 the Uptown Peoples Community Services Center joined consumers groups in a federal lawsuit which attempted to break up dentists ' monopoly on fitting dentures . From 1981 to 1987 , Shiller was President and CEO of Justice Graphics , Inc. a print shop , a small business of which Shiller and Coleman were two of five owners .
In 2003 Shiller recalled the period :
I was as student in the sixties , engaged in the civil rights movement , anti @-@ Vietnam War protests . I 'd come from New York to attend the University of Wisconsin . It was an exciting time . A lot of active students wound up in different cities and communities as organizers . I chose Racine , Wisconsin . I spent three years there . We had developed a legal clinic and we had a whole health program , but the city was too small . I had , of course , heard about Uptown in Chicago , and the challenges . So I wound up here in 1976 . I waited tables . I did photography , took pictures for attorneys . Ultimately we started our own print shop in order to print our own newspapers and magazines .
= = Campaigns for alderman = =
= = = First campaign for alderman ( 1978 ) = = =
A special election was called for May 16 , 1978 in the 46th Ward when Alderman Chris Cohen , first elected in 1971 , was re @-@ elected in 1975 but retired in mid @-@ term to head the Chicago regional office of the United States Department of Health , Education , and Welfare . On March 6 , 1978 Ralph Axelrod , chief administrative assistant to Cook County Sheriff Richard Elrod , and ward committeeman since 1973 , slated himself for alderman .
At the time , Shiller was 30 years old and the editor of Keep Strong , a leftist magazine . Shiller 's first attempt at elected office was to join a multi @-@ way challenge to Axelrod . " I ran for alderman of this [ 46th ] ward in 1978 . I was terrified . I was very shy , afraid to speak to more than five people at a time , " Shiller recalled in 2003 . Shiller picked up much of the support that Young Lords founder and leader Jose Cha Cha Jimenez had in Jimenez ' unsuccessful challenge to Cohen in the 1975 elections . He was running primarily to expose the displacement of Latino and lower income areas from the lakefront and near downtown by the Richard J. Daley machine and still received 39 % of the vote coming in second in a three way race . Shiller 's base of support was the same geographic center of the ward , an area of high density , low @-@ income families between Broadway and Clark Street . Shiller campaigned pledging to work to keep the disadvantaged of Uptown from being displaced by gentrification .
Independents including Aldermen Dick Simpson ( 44th ) , Martin J. Oberman ( 43rd ) , and Ross Lathrop ( 5th ) , and former alderman and mayoral candidate William Singer ( 43rd ) , endorsed Angela Turley , founder of the Organization of the Northeast ( ONE ) , a community group . Turley was also unanimously endorsed by the 46th Ward Citizens Search Committee , a group of 50 ward residents who interviewed 10 candidates . Turley and another candidate Carl Lezak , a former priest and former director of the American Civil Liberties Union ( ACLU ) , were challenged and stricken from the ballot by the Chicago Board of Elections Commissioners , leaving a three @-@ way race for alderman between Axelrod , Shiller , and former television news reporter Michael Horowitz . Shiller charged that the regular Democratic organization used unfair campaign practices against her , challenging about 100 of the 400 new voters she helped register , stealing her campaign posters , and pressuring store owners to remove her signs . The Chicago Tribune endorsed Axelrod , noting Shiller " runs primarily as a champion of the poor . " Axelrod prevailed , receiving 5 @,@ 575 votes , or 54 @.@ 5 % , to Shiller 's 3 @,@ 475 votes .
= = = Second campaign for alderman ( 1979 ) = = =
Shiller and Turley challenged Axelrod in 1979 . An extra alarm fire early on Friday , February 9 , 1979 , weeks before the election , caused extensive damage to the building containing Shiller 's campaign headquarters and left 15 homeless . The Chicago Tribune endorsed Axelrod . Shiller ( 6 @,@ 852 votes ; 46 % ) bested Axelrod ( 6 @,@ 088 votes ; 40 % ) , but , as no candidate received a majority of the vote in the three @-@ way race , a run @-@ off was forced . The Chicago Tribune and Turley endorsed Axelrod in the run @-@ off . The Chicago Tribune wrote that " Ms. Shiller 's program shares many elements with that of the Black Panthers and appears to be based on hopes of an eventual " revolution " [ not defined ] . " Turley described Axelrod as " the lesser of two evils in the race now . " Axelrod enlisted 40 volunteer attorneys and 200 off @-@ duty policemen to challenge ghost voting in a project he called " Operation Safeguard . " Axelrod challenged 1 @,@ 060 voter registrations on the ward 's rolls , 931 of which were upheld by the Chicago Board of Elections Commissioners . Axelrod defeated Shiller in the run @-@ off by 247 votes . Shiller later recalled the campaign :
I won the primary , but not with fifty @-@ one percent of the vote . We had a runoff and I lost by two hundred votes – to a machine candidate . We were bringing fresh ideas , but we were not experienced in fighting the machine on election day . I swore I 'd never run for alderman again . There was so much racial baiting that it was terrifying . I was called names . ... My posters had black paint all over them with racial epithets . It was very disturbing .
= = = Third campaign for alderman ( 1987 ) = = =
In Harold Washington 's successful first campaign for Mayor of Chicago in the 1983 municipal elections , Shiller was employed as the campaign organizer for the 46th Ward . Shiller owned and operated a print shop , Justice Graphics , that printed the campaign literature for Washington 's first mayoral campaign . Justice Graphics published the All @-@ Chicago City News , a 40 @,@ 000 circulation pro @-@ Washington , left @-@ wing , bilingual , biweekly newspaper edited by Shiller and Walter " Slim " Coleman . Coleman formed a plan to register 100 @,@ 000 new voters for Washington by canvassing public aid offices and became a close advisor to candidate and , later , Mayor Harold Washington . Just before the 1983 elections , Alderman Axelrod resigned from City Council to take a job in the Cook County Sheriff 's office . Community activist Charlotte Newfeld and Jerome Orbach ran for alderman and went to a run @-@ off , which Orbach won by 66 votes . Orbach allied with Edward Vrdolyak and the Vrdolyak 29 during Council Wars .
" Harold was mayor , and he was harping on me to run for alderman , " Shiller recalled in 2003 . In 1987 , Shiller , Nancy Kaszak , and Gerald Pechenuk challenged Orbach . Kaszak was a lawyer , a former vice president of the Chicago Council of Lawyers , a Mayor Harold Washington appointee to the Commission on Chicago Landmarks , a leader of the Lakeview Citizens ' Council , and president of Citizens United for Baseball in Sunshine ( CUBS ) , which opposed night baseball at Wrigley Field . Newfeld co @-@ chaired Kaszak 's campaign . Pechenuk was a consultant for Lyndon LaRouche Jr. for 12 years , and was treasurer of LaRouche @-@ supported Sheila Jones 's mayoral campaign . Shiller challenged Pechenuk 's nominating petitions .
Mayor Washington endorsed 18 incumbent aldermen and 5 challengers , including Shiller . Washington appeared at a joint rally with Shiller at which she announced her candidacy . Kaszak was endorsed by the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , the Independent Voters of Illinois @-@ Independent Precinct Organization ( IVI @-@ IPO ) , the National Organization for Women ( NOW ) , the American Federation of State , County and Municipal Employees ( AFSCME ) , and former aldermen William Singer and Dick Simpson . The Chicago Tribune endorsed Orbach . Shiller charged that Orbach catered to developers , displacing people in the wake of rehabilitation that priced housing out of the reach of many , and said she wanted community zoning boards , with their decisions binding on the alderman . Shiller charged that most of Orbach 's campaign war chest was from developers and regular Democrats outside the ward .
In the four @-@ way race , Orbach took 40 % of the vote and Shiller 38 % , but , no candidate received a majority , resulting in a run @-@ off . Kaszak endorsed Shiller , although many of Kaszak 's followers supported Orbach . Orbach tried to position himself on both sides of the pro- / anti @-@ Washington political fence , and late in the campaign attempted to stage a public conversion to pro @-@ Washington positions . Some prominent independents , such as Alderman Marion Volini ( 48th ) , state Representative Ellis Levin and state Senator William A. Marovitz , endorsed Orbach , as did the Chicago Sun @-@ Times and Chicago Tribune . " His [ Orbach 's ] relationship to large real estate developers is very important . He 's become more of an advocate for people outside of the ward than for people here , " Shiller charged . Some of Orbach 's allies spread a rumor , aimed at lakefront Jewish voters , that as alderman Shiller would support a Palestinian state . Shiller 's forces called Orbach a racist , although a large number of blacks backed Orbach in his early campaigns . Shiller later said ,
The machine alderman who won in 1983 [ Orbach ] had a chief of staff who was engaging in racial organizing . There were white gangs up here . One of them he helped organize into a consciously racially white @-@ power gang . They hooked up with both the Klan and the Nazi Party .
In the months leading up to the election , the Heart of Uptown Coalition and a Shiller supporter who was director of the Center for Street People , 4455 N. Broadway , organized a voter registration drive that registered 80 homeless people using the Center 's address , and on election day fed them a meal at a local church hall and helped them vote . Jesus People USA , a 500 @-@ member commune / business / charity / religious group with many members living in the ward , had supported Orbach throughout his career , but switched to Shiller before the run @-@ off . Jesus People 's spokesman explained " We think Jerry Orbach is a lovely man , but he doesn 't have what it takes to stand up to the development ... If things keep going there will be massive displacement . People will be thrown out of their homes . We decided that Helen Shiller would do the most to prevent displacement . " Orbach supporters charged that a City official had offered City contracts to the Jesus People 's construction firm if Shiller were elected . On Tuesday , April 7 , 1987 Shiller defeated Orbach by 498 votes , 9 @,@ 751 to 9 @,@ 253 , and contributed to a narrow , pro @-@ Washington , reform @-@ minded majority in the City Council which helped draw the Council Wars era to close .
= = Aldermanic career = =
In her six terms as alderman , Shiller served on eight committees : Budget and Government Operations ; Buildings ; Committees , Rules and Ethics ; Finance ; Health ; Housing and Real Estate ; Human Relations ; and License and Consumer Protection .
= = = First term ( 1987 – 1991 ) = = =
On December 16 , 1987 , Shiller was among the supporters of the 1988 City budget , proposed by Washington in late 1987 and passed 29 @-@ 19 under Mayor Eugene Sawyer after Washington 's death in office . Shiller was among opponents of Sawyer 's 1989 budget , approved 34 @-@ 13 on December 7 , 1988 . In January , 1988 , Shiller was named one of " 88 People to Watch " by Chicago Tribune staff . Shiller was Mayor Richard M. Daley 's staunchest opponent in City Council votes in the last three months of 1989 , in Daley 's first year of his first term .
In 1989 , Shiller sponsored a resolution creating a sub @-@ committee on Domestic Violence . Shiller backed a group of 50 to 75 people including more than 40 homeless people and six children who erected a " tent city " from doors and wood on a vacant lot at 4425 N. Malden to illustrate the plight of the homeless . On Friday , October 14 , 1989 Shiller was among five arrested when police , called by the owner , evicted about 100 protesters from the lot . Shiller was charged with trespassing and spent " about two minutes " in jail before charges were dropped .
= = = = Uptown Chicago Commission funding = = = =
In November , 1987 , Shiller 's first budget cycle , she recommended to the Budget Committee that the City cancel a federal grant for the Uptown Chicago Commission ( UCC ) , a 32 @-@ year @-@ old community group in Uptown that often contended on issues with the Heart of Uptown Coalition , of which Shiller was co @-@ chairman with Walter " Slim " Coleman . The recommendation came during Budget Committee hearings on the distribution of $ 95 @.@ 1 million in federal Community Development Block Grants . Mayor Washington 's budget recommendation included a $ 20 @,@ 000 grant to UCC to facilitate residents applying for home improvement loans . The UCC 's service area included the adjoining 48th Ward , whose Alderman Kathy Osterman also supported the funding . Shiller requested that the committee deny the UCC its grant . Shiller accused the UCC of helping developers displace low @-@ income Uptown residents . After heated debate , the Budget Committee voted 9 – 5 in favor of Shiller 's amendment to remove the grant for the UCC .
Upon the death of Mayor Washington in office , Shiller supported Alderman Timothy C. Evans for mayor , but supporters of Alderman Eugene Sawyer prevailed . Weeks later , at the first City Council meeting under Mayor Sawyer , the UCC funding was restored . Shiller said restoring the grant to the UCC would affect only the 48th Ward , not her ward . " I was not going to have them operating in the 46th , " Shiller said , claiming she had reached an agreement to keep UCC services out of her ward several days before Washington 's death . " Mayor Sawyer had nothing to do with this , " Shiller claimed . " He had recommended no changes . "
= = = = Low @-@ income housing consent decree = = = =
As early as 1966 Uptown was among the possible sites proposed for a northeast @-@ side commuter campus in the City Colleges of Chicago community college district . The Uptown site west of the Wilson Chicago Transit Authority ( CTA ) station was opposed by those concerned for the displacement of low income residents , largely blacks , southern whites and American Indians . The project was mired in heated controversy for decades . Avery v Pierce , a federal lawsuit filed in 1975 , alleged that the razing of about 3 @,@ 000 low @-@ income housing units for the development of Harry S Truman College constituted misspending of funds by the City and Chicago Housing Authority . Plaintiffs were represented by Shiller 's former campaign manager , attorney James P. Chapman of the Uptown Peoples Law Center .
In 1985 Randall H. Langer , a young real estate developer active in apartment rehabilitation in the neighborhood , aided the creation of a local historic district , the Sheridan Park Historic District , which critics charged was of dubious historical value and created to facilitate gentrification . Nineteen tax delinquent properties in Uptown were offered for sale by auction by Cook County in Fall , 1987 . Since 1983 Cook County had a program to afford local governments the opportunity to acquire tax delinquent properties for almost nothing , prior to the county 's scavenger sale to the public , if the local government had a specific development plan . On October 28 , 1987 , Shiller urged the Tax Delinquency Subcommittee of the Cook County Board to accept a no @-@ cash bid from the City for the 19 tax @-@ delinquent parcels in Uptown . A decision was deferred when Commissioner Rosemarie Love requested a delay on grounds that the Washington administration had not provided a development plan . Subcommittee chairman Commissioner Richard Siebel said the County 's no @-@ cash sales program was " designed to place property back on the tax rolls as quickly as possible – not for land @-@ banking . It 's not appropriate for us to pass this until the city tells us , parcel by parcel , what they intend to do and how they plan to pay for it . " Another commissioner noted that the City already owned 7 @,@ 000 tax @-@ delinquent properties , and another added , " Properties we gave to the city 12 years ago are still war zones . I don 't want the same thing to happen here . "
As a bench ruling in Avery v Pierce neared , Shiller proposed an ordinance that directed the city to settle and accept a consent decree . The consent decree would have put most vacant parcels in Uptown into a land bank for future affordable housing , administered by a community development corporation , funded by the City with $ 100 @,@ 000 over two years . The consent decree also would have made a " desirable " goal of 3 @,@ 000 low @-@ income housing units in Uptown . On November 16 , 1987 , the Committee on Finance of the Chicago City Council , chaired at the time by Shiller ally Alderman Timothy Evans , voted 21 to 2 to recommend the consent decree . Shiller gloated during committee hearings that , with Mayor Harold Washington 's backing , the decree could not be stopped . Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning commentator Mike Royko wrote in the Chicago Tribune :
One of the most depressing sections of Chicago is the Uptown area on the North Side . Shabby apartment buildings , vacant stores , wino bars , littered vacant lots , junkies , muggers , and career down @-@ and @-@ outers . It also has a new alderman , Helen Shiller , and she has a vision of what that seedy old neighborhood should be in the future . And apparently her vision is that Uptown should remain a seedy old neighborhood .
In 1988 Royko wrote of Shiller , " her main motive was that she was building a political power base , which included as many winos as she and Coleman could drag to the voting booth . " Shiller 's proposal was criticized in a series of editorials . The Chicago Tribune called the proposal " silly , " editorializing :
It would have enabled her [ Shiller ] to strangle commercial development in her Uptown ward and keep it poor . ... It was a flagrantly bad idea and deserved its defeat . It would have put Helen Shiller and her sidekick , Slim Coleman , in charge of a " community development corporation " whose avowed purpose would be to block private investment in the 46th Ward and use all available space for low @-@ cost housing . This would consolidate their own power by ensuring a constituency of poor and dependent voters .
In 2003 Shiller explained the editorials :
When I first became alderman , there was a developer up here who felt very threatened by me . He hired a publicist to really go after me . Any time I talked about development without displacement , they would ream me . They went to the press and got some of the most vicious editorials published .
On December 3 , 1987 16 of the parcels were sold to private bidders at Cook County 's annual scavenger sale , and Langer and partnerships Langer controlled bought 13 of the parcels . On December 9 , 1987 , at the first regular business meeting of the City Council after the death of Mayor Washington in office , Washington foes brought the proposal out of committee . Alderman Bernard Stone joined Alderman Osterman in blocking the agreement , saying Shiller 's " arrogance prevailed and that arrogance has to be answered on this floor . " The Council rejected the consent decree 29 @-@ 17 .
= = = Second term ( 1991 – 1995 ) = = =
In 1991 , Shiller supported Danny K. Davis in Davis ' unsuccessful primary challenge to Daley . Daley endorsed Shiller 's challenger , Michael Quigley , campaigned with Quigley and sent letters in support of Quigley . Shiller finished seven votes ahead of Quigley , but a third candidate got 3 @.@ 4 % of the vote , which forced a runoff , the third straight run @-@ off for Shiller and the fourth straight for the 46th ward . In the run @-@ off , Shiller won with 53 % of the vote , amid charges that Quigley was a carpetbagger .
Shiller added a budget amendment to triple the city 's AIDS budget in 1992 . Shiller was one of nine alderman voting against Daley 's 1993 budget , which included a $ 28 @.@ 7 million property tax increase . Shiller was absent for the 1994 budget vote , and was one of four aldermen dissenting on Daley 's 1995 budget .
= = = Third term ( 1995 – 1999 ) = = =
The Chicago Tribune was among newspapers that endorsed Shiller for re @-@ election in 1995 , and she won with 57 % of the vote , without a run @-@ off . Shiller supported U.S. Representative Bobby Rush in his unsuccessful challenge to Daley in 1999 .
" Arguably , the single most important legislative responsibility that aldermen have is voting on the city budget each year , " Shiller said . She was the lone dissenting vote on Daley 's 1996 , 1997 and 1998 budgets . During hearings on Daley 's 1996 budget , which included a $ 19 @.@ 5 million property @-@ tax increase , she submitted 123 questions on the budget in writing to department heads , but only 35 were answered . She objected to the tax increase in a period of several years of budget surpluses . She attended every hearing on Daley 's 1997 budget armed with policy questions that she said went unanswered . She was often the only alderman present at budget hearings .
= = = Fourth term ( 1999 – 2003 ) = = =
In 1999 , Sandra Reed , a black high school English teacher , and two other women opposed Shiller , the first all @-@ female field in an aldermanic race in Chicago history . The Chicago Tribune again endorsed Shiller . Shiller prevailed with 55 % of the vote in a runoff . Shiller was inducted into the Chicago Gay and Lesbian Hall of Fame as a Friend of the Community in 2000 .
On November 17 , 1999 , Shiller joined in unanimous support for Daley 's 2000 budget , her first affirmative vote on a Daley budget and only her second affirmative vote on a City budget . Aldermen applauded . Shiller again joined in unanimous support for Daley 's 2001 , 2002 , and 2003 budgets . In the 2001 redistricting of Chicago wards , Daley tried to deprive Shiller of her most committed supporters , but failed when none of the aldermen in adjacent wards wanted to contend with Shiller 's supporters . Shiller and Daley , however , reached an understanding : the mayor supported her in the 2003 elections and also pushed forward development of Wilson Yard , a Chicago Transit Authority facility destroyed by fire , into affordable housing and a Target store , using the Wilson Yard Tax Increment Financing District and the $ 26 @.@ 5 million it generated . Subsequently , Shiller consistently voted in support of the mayor 's agenda .
= = = Fifth term ( 2003 @-@ 2007 ) = = =
Shiller and Daley supported each other for re @-@ election in 2003 . Shiller cited Daley 's commitment to affordable housing , and in particular his Planning Department 's work on the Wilson Yard project . Columnist Mark Brown wrote in the Chicago Sun @-@ Times ,
The last squeaky wheel in the City Council had been greased . The last independent voice had joined the chorus ... Shiller 's endorsement of Daley is all the more amazing when you look at where she started , about as close to a Marxist as you 'd ever find at City Hall .
Shiller defeated Reed again in 2003 , this time with 58 % of the vote . Shiller again joined in unanimous support for Daley 's 2004 budget . Shiller was the only alderman who did not cast a vote on the passage of the Big Box Ordinance , which required large retailers to pay a living wage . Target sent a letter to Mayor Daley and alderman indicating that if the ordinance were not overturned , they would not proceed on projects in Chicago . Shiller voted to sustain Daley 's veto .
= = = Sixth term ( 2007 – 2011 ) = = =
Criticism of Shiller in the 2007 election largely focused on the lack of communication with ward residents , failure to obtain input from residents for zoning changes in the ward , her lack of involvement in community policing meetings , and the many years of blighted retail in the ward . Some critics charged that Shiller was frustrating developers while using the Wilson Yard project to maintain her political base . In 2007 , Shiller defeated social worker James Cappleman with 53 % of the vote . In October , 2007 , Shiller became chair of the City Council 's Human Relations Committee . In 2009 , Shiller was criticized by Uptown residents for her perceived lack of engagement in address crime in the neighborhood , including a string of violent robberies in nearby Lakeview that attracted the attention of the Chicago Tribune , Chicago Sun @-@ Times , and local TV news . Police interviewed said interventions from Shiller and her staff facilitated the protection of gang members from policing activi ty , allegedly for gaining voter base , according to a report in Chicago Magazine .
Mayor Daley was among supporters of the Wilson Yard redevelopment project celebrating the completion of construction on July 20 , 2010 . The project included 98 units of subsidized housing for low @-@ income residents in two buildings , one for seniors , and another for other families . The Target store opened on Sunday , July 22 , 2010 . On August 2 , 2010 Shiller announced she would not run for re @-@ election in 2011 . Shiller reflected ,
... we should be able to make sure that everyone has a place in the city , and when we do development ... we should make sure that the people who are here today will be here when that is complete ... my most singular perspective was to prove that that is possible . ... we have to have a city that is not just inclusive about our diversity but is serious and honest about making sure that everyone has a place here ...
On closing her ward office , Shiller wrote :
I am most proud of my achievements in tripling the City 's funding budget for HIV / AIDS victims and for developing the toughest stance on Apartheid that was ever written in the 90 's , for my work on domestic violence issues and establishing 24 @-@ hour daycare for children , the Ruth Shriman House for senior living , the Wilson Yards Development and for welcoming Target as a neighbor and partner , and of course setting the bar for affordable housing in Chicago .
= = Personal life = =
Shiller separated from her husband Mark Zalkin , one of the Mayor Harold Washington 's assistant press secretaries , and with Shiller a leader of the 46th Ward Community Service Center ( later the Uptown Community Service Center ) and an editor of Keep Strong magazine , and with Shiller and Coleman an editor of All @-@ Chicago City News . Zalkin passed on February 23 , 1998 at age 49 due to complications from multiple sclerosis .
Shiller and Zalkin have one son , Brendan Shiller . Brendan attended Joseph Stockton Elementary School , a Chicago Public School , and Whitney Young Magnet High School , a selective @-@ enrollment public magnet high school in Chicago 's Near West Side . While attending Truman College , Brendan was managing editor of All @-@ Chicago City News . After Truman , Brendan went to Howard University in Washington , D.C. For two years starting in February , 1997 Brendan edited StreetWise , a street newspaper sold by people without homes or those at @-@ risk for homelessness in Chicago . In 2003 , Brendan graduated first in his class from John Marshall Law School and currently works as a lawyer representing criminal defendants and police misconduct plaintiffs .
Helen Shiller and her long @-@ time staff member Maggie Marystone were interviewed in separate chapters in Hope Dies Last , a collection of oral histories by Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning author and Uptown resident Studs Terkel .
= = Publications = =
Shiller , Helen ( 1988 @-@ 04 @-@ 11 ) . " Chicago Housing : ' Let The Market Decide ' Hasn`t Worked " . Chicago Tribune . Retrieved 2012 @-@ 11 @-@ 24 .
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= Jurassic Park ( film ) =
Jurassic Park is a 1993 American science fiction adventure film directed by Steven Spielberg . The first installment of the Jurassic Park franchise , it is based on the 1990 novel of the same name by Michael Crichton , with a screenplay written by Crichton and David Koepp . The film is set on the fictional Isla Nublar , an islet located off Central America 's Pacific Coast , near Costa Rica , where a billionaire philanthropist and a small team of genetic scientists have created a wildlife park of cloned dinosaurs .
Before Crichton 's novel was published , four studios put in bids for the film rights . With the backing of Universal Studios , Spielberg acquired the rights for $ 1 @.@ 5 million before publication in 1990 ; Crichton was hired for an additional $ 500 @,@ 000 to adapt the novel for the screen . Koepp wrote the final draft , which left out much of the novel 's exposition and violence and made numerous changes to the characters . Filming took place in California and Hawaii between August and November 1992 , and post @-@ production rolled until May 1993 , supervised by Spielberg in Poland as he filmed Schindler 's List . The dinosaurs were created with groundbreaking computer @-@ generated imagery by Industrial Light & Magic and with life @-@ sized animatronic dinosaurs built by Stan Winston 's team . To showcase the film 's sound design , which included a mixture of various animal noises for the dinosaur roars , Spielberg invested in the creation of DTS , a company specializing in digital surround sound formats .
Following an extensive $ 65 million marketing campaign , which included licensing deals with 100 companies , Jurassic Park grossed over $ 900 million worldwide in its original theatrical run , becoming the highest @-@ grossing film ever at the time , a record held until the 1997 release of Titanic . It was well received by critics , who praised its special effects , John Williams ' musical score , and Spielberg 's direction . Following a 3D re @-@ release in 2013 to celebrate its 20th anniversary , Jurassic Park became the 17th film to surpass $ 1 billion in ticket sales , and the film ranks among the 20 highest @-@ grossing films ever . The film won more than 20 awards ( including 3 Academy Awards ) , mostly for its technical achievements . Jurassic Park is considered a landmark in the development of computer @-@ generated imagery and animatronic visual effects , and was followed by three commercially successful sequels , The Lost World : Jurassic Park ( 1997 ) , Jurassic Park III ( 2001 ) , and Jurassic World ( 2015 ) . A fifth installment is scheduled for a 2018 release .
= = Plot = =
Industrialist John Hammond and his bioengineering company , InGen , have created a theme park called Jurassic Park on Isla Nublar , a tropical Costa Rican island populated with cloned dinosaurs . After one of the park workers is killed by a Velociraptor , the park 's investors , represented by lawyer Donald Gennaro , insist that experts visit the park and certify it as safe . Gennaro invites mathematician Ian Malcolm , while Hammond invites paleontologist Dr. Alan Grant and paleobotanist Dr. Ellie Sattler . Upon arrival , the group is stunned to see a live Brachiosaurus .
At the visitor center , the group learns that the cloning was accomplished by extracting dinosaur DNA from mosquitoes that had been preserved in amber . DNA from frogs was used to fill in gaps in the dinosaur genomes . To prevent breeding , all the dinosaurs were made female . Malcolm scoffs at the idea of such controlled breeding , declaring it impossible . The crew witness the birth of a baby raptor and visit the raptor enclosure . Grant , Sattler , and Malcolm have reservations about the idea of resurrecting dinosaurs , but Hammond and Gennaro dismiss their fears .
The group is then joined by Hammond 's grandchildren , Lex and Tim Murphy , for a tour of the park , while Hammond oversees the trip from the park 's control room . The tour does not go as planned , with the dinosaurs failing to appear . The group later encounters a sick Triceratops . The tour is cut short as a tropical storm approaches Isla Nublar . Most of the park employees depart on a boat for the mainland and the visitors return to their electric tour vehicles , except Ellie , who stays with the park 's veterinarian to study the Triceratops .
Jurassic Park 's computer programmer , Dennis Nedry , has been bribed by Dodgson , a man involved with a corporate rival , to steal dinosaur embryos . Nedry deactivates the park 's security system to gain access to the embryo storage room . Nedry stores the embryos inside a canister disguised as Barbasol shaving cream , supplied by Dodgson . Because of Nedry , the power goes out and the tour vehicles become stuck . Most of the park 's electric fences are deactivated as well , allowing the Tyrannosaurus to escape and attack the tour group . Grant , Lex , and Tim escape while the Tyrannosaurus injures Malcolm and devours Gennaro . On his way to deliver the embryos to the island 's docks , Nedry becomes lost in the rain , crashes his Jeep , and is killed by a Dilophosaurus .
Sattler assists the park 's game warden , Robert Muldoon , in a search for survivors , but they only find an injured Malcolm before the Tyrannosaurus returns . Grant , Tim , and Lex spend the night in a tree , and befriend a Brachiosaurus . Later , they discover the broken shells of dinosaur eggs . Grant concludes that the dinosaurs have been breeding , which occurred because of their frog DNA — West African bullfrogs can change their sex in a single @-@ sex environment , allowing the dinosaurs to do so as well , proving Malcolm right .
Unable to decipher Nedry 's code to reactivate the security system , Hammond and the park 's chief engineer Ray Arnold opt to reboot the entire park 's system . The group shuts down the park 's grid and retreats to an emergency bunker , while Arnold heads to a maintenance shed to complete the rebooting process . When Arnold fails to return , Sattler and Muldoon head to the shed . They discover the shutdown has deactivated the remaining fences and released the raptors . Muldoon distracts the raptors while Sattler goes to turn the power back on before being attacked by a raptor and discovering Arnold 's severed arm . Meanwhile , Muldoon is caught off @-@ guard and killed by the other two raptors .
Grant , Tim and Lex reach the visitor center . Grant heads out to look for Sattler . Tim and Lex are pursued by the raptors in an industrial kitchen , but they escape and join Grant and Sattler . Lex restores full power from the control room , allowing the group to call for help . The group is cornered by the raptors , but escape when the Tyrannosaurus suddenly appears and attacks the raptors . Hammond arrives in a Jeep with Malcolm , and the entire group boards a helicopter to leave the island .
= = Cast = =
Sam Neill as Dr. Alan Grant , a leading paleontologist .
Laura Dern as Dr. Ellie Sattler , a paleobotanist .
Jeff Goldblum as Dr. Ian Malcolm , a mathematician and chaos theorist .
Richard Attenborough as John Hammond , InGen 's billionaire CEO and the park 's creator .
Joseph Mazzello as Timothy " Tim " Murphy , Lex 's younger brother and Dr. Hammond 's grandson .
Ariana Richards as Alexis " Lex " Murphy , Tim 's older sister and Dr. Hammond 's granddaughter .
Martin Ferrero as Donald Gennaro , a lawyer who represents Hammond 's concerned investors .
Bob Peck as Robert Muldoon , the park 's game warden .
Wayne Knight as Dennis Nedry , the disgruntled and corrupt programmer of the park 's computer systems .
Samuel L. Jackson as Ray Arnold , the park 's chain @-@ smoking chief engineer .
Cameron Thor as Dr. Lewis Dodgson , a man involved with a corporate rival of InGen .
Miguel Sandoval as Juanito Rostagno , the Mano de Dios amber mine 's proprietor .
Jerry Molen as Dr. Harding , the park 's veterinarian .
B. D. Wong as Dr. Henry Wu , the park 's chief geneticist .
Richard Kiley as himself , providing audio narration for the park 's main tour .
Greg Burson as the voice of Mr. DNA , the animated DNA strand that explains the miracle of cloning .
= = = Dinosaurs on screen = = =
Despite the title of the film referencing the Jurassic period , Brachiosaurus and Dilophosaurus are the only dinosaurs featured that actually lived during that time ; the other species featured did not exist until the Cretaceous period . This is acknowledged in the film during a scene where Dr. Grant describes the ferocity of the Velociraptor to a young boy , saying " Try to imagine yourself in the Cretaceous period ... "
Tyrannosaurus was acknowledged by Spielberg as " the star of the movie " , even leading him to rewrite the ending to feature the T. rex for fear of disappointing the audience . Winston 's animatronic T. rex stood 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) , weighed 17 @,@ 500 pounds ( 7 @,@ 900 kg ) , and was 40 feet ( 12 m ) long . Jack Horner called it " the closest I 've ever been to a live dinosaur " . While the consulting paleontologists did not have a consensus on the dinosaur 's movement , particularly regarding its running capabilities , animator Steve Williams decided to " throw physics out the window and create a T. rex that moved at sixty miles per hour even though its hollow bones would have busted if it ran that fast " . The major reason was the T. rex chasing a Jeep , a scene that took two months to finish . The dinosaur is depicted with a vision system based on movement , though later studies indicated the T. rex had binocular vision comparable to a bird of prey . Its roar is a baby elephant mixed with a tiger and an alligator , and its breath is a whale 's blow . A dog attacking a rope toy was used for the sounds of the T. rex tearing a Gallimimus apart , while cut sequoias crashing to the ground became the sound of the dinosaur 's footsteps .
Velociraptor plays a major role in the film . The creature 's depiction is not based on the actual dinosaur genus in question , which itself was significantly smaller . Shortly before Jurassic Park 's theatre release , the similar Utahraptor was discovered , though was proven bigger in appearance than the film 's raptors ; this prompted Stan Winston to joke , " We made it , then they discovered it . " For the attack on character Robert Muldoon and some parts of the kitchen scene , the raptors were played by men in suits . Dolphin screams , walruses bellowing , geese hissing , an African crane 's mating call , tortoises mating , and human rasps were mixed to formulate various raptor sounds . Following discoveries made after the film 's release , most paleontologists theorize that dromaeosaurs like Velociraptor and Deinonychus were fully covered with feathers like modern birds . This feature is only included in Jurassic Park III for the male raptors , who are shown with a row of small quills on their heads .
Dilophosaurus was also very different from its real @-@ life counterpart , made significantly smaller to make sure audiences did not confuse it with the raptors . Its neck frill and its ability to spit venom are fictitious . Its vocal sounds were made by combining a swan , a hawk , a howler monkey , and a rattlesnake . The animatronic model , nicknamed " Spitter " by Stan Winston 's team , was animated by the puppeteers sitting on a trench in the set floor , and used a paintball mechanism to spit the mixture of methacyl and K @-@ Y Jelly that served as venom .
Brachiosaurus is the first dinosaur seen by the park 's visitors . It is inaccurately depicted as chewing its food , and standing up on its hind legs to browse among the high tree branches . According to artist Andy Schoneberg , the chewing was done to make the animal seem docile , in a way it resembled a cow chewing its cud . The dinosaur 's head and upper neck was the largest puppet without hydraulics built for the film . Despite scientific evidence of their having limited vocal capabilities , sound designer Gary Rydstrom decided to represent them with whale songs and donkey calls to give them a melodic sense of wonder . Penguins were also recorded to be used in the noises of the dinosaurs .
Triceratops has an extended cameo , being sick with an unidentified disease . Its appearance was a particular logistical nightmare for Stan Winston when Spielberg asked to shoot the animatronic of the sick creature earlier than expected . The model , operated by eight puppeteers in the Kaua 'i set , wound up being the first dinosaur filmed during production . Winston also created a baby Triceratops for Ariana Richards to ride on , a scene cut from the film for pacing reasons . Gary Rydstrom combined the sound of himself breathing into a cardboard tube with the cows near his workplace at Skywalker Ranch to create the Triceratops vocals .
Gallimimus are featured in a stampede scene where one of them is devoured by the Tyrannosaurus . The Gallimimus was the first dinosaur to receive a digital version , being featured in two ILM tests , first as a herd of skeletons and then fully skinned while pursued by the T. rex . Its design was based on ostriches , and to emphasize the birdlike qualities , the animation focused mostly on the herd rather than individual animals . As reference for the dinosaurs ' run , the animators were filmed running at the ILM parking lot , with plastic pipes standing in as the tree that the Gallimimus jump over . The footage even inspired to incorporate an animal falling in its leap as one of the artists crashed making the jump . Horse squeals became the Gallimimus sounds .
Parasaurolophus appear in the background during the first encounter with the Brachiosaurus .
Alamosaurus appears as a skeleton in the Jurassic Park visitor center .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Michael Crichton originally conceived a screenplay about a graduate student who recreates a dinosaur ; he continued to wrestle with his fascination with dinosaurs and cloning until he began writing the novel Jurassic Park . Even before publication , Steven Spielberg learned of the novel in October 1989 while he and Crichton were discussing a screenplay that would become the television series ER . Spielberg considered that what really fascinated him was that Jurassic Park was " a really credible look at how dinosaurs might someday be brought back alongside modern mankind " , going beyond a simple monster movie .
Before the book was published , Crichton demanded a non @-@ negotiable fee of $ 1 @.@ 5 million as well as a substantial percentage of the gross . Warner Bros. and Tim Burton , Columbia Pictures and Richard Donner , and 20th Century Fox and Joe Dante bid for the rights , but Universal Studios eventually acquired them in May 1990 for Spielberg . After completing Hook , Spielberg wanted to film Schindler 's List . Music Corporation of America ( then Universal Pictures 's parent company ) president Sid Sheinberg gave a green light to the film on the condition that Spielberg made Jurassic Park first . The director later declared that by choosing a creature @-@ driven thriller , " I was really just trying to make a good sequel to Jaws , on land . "
To create the dinosaurs , Spielberg at first thought of hiring Bob Gurr , who designed a giant mechanical King Kong for Universal Studios Hollywood 's King Kong Encounter . Upon considering that the life @-@ sized dinosaurs would be too expensive and not all convincing , Spielberg instead sought the best effects supervisors in Hollywood . Brought in were Stan Winston to create the animatronic dinosaurs , Phil Tippett to create go motion dinosaurs for long shots credited as Dinosaur Supervisor , Michael Lantieri to supervise the on @-@ set effects , and Dennis Muren of Industrial Light & Magic to do the digital compositing . Paleontologist Jack Horner supervised the designs , to help fulfill Spielberg 's desire to portray the dinosaurs as animals rather than monsters . This led to the entry of certain concepts about dinosaurs , such as the theory that dinosaurs evolved into birds and had very little in common with lizards . One of the first consequences was the removal of the raptors ' flicking tongues in Tippett 's early animatics , as Horner complained it was implausible . Winston 's department created fully detailed models of the dinosaurs before molding latex skins , which were fitted over complex robotics . Tippett created stop @-@ motion animatics of both the raptors in the kitchen and the Tyrannosaurus attacking the car . But despite go motion 's attempts at motion blurs , Spielberg still found the end results unsatisfactory in terms of working in a live @-@ action feature film . Muren declared to Spielberg that he thought the dinosaurs could be built through computer @-@ generated imagery , and the director asked him to prove it . ILM animators Mark Dippé and Steve Williams developed a computer @-@ generated walk cycle for the T. rex skeleton , and were approved to do more . When Spielberg and Tippett saw an animatic of the T. rex chasing a herd of Gallimimus , Spielberg said , " You 're out of a job , " to which Tippett replied , " Don 't you mean extinct ? " Spielberg later wrote both the animatic and his dialogue between him and Tippett into the script , as a conversation between Malcolm and Grant . Although no go motion was used , Tippett and his animators were still used by the production to supervise dinosaur movement . Tippett acted as a consultant regarding dinosaur anatomy , and his stop motion animators were re @-@ trained as computer animators . The animatics made by Tippett 's team were also used along with the storyboards as a reference for what would be shot during the action sequences . ILM 's artists were sent to private tours to the local animal park so they could study large animals — rhinos , elephants , alligators , and giraffes — up close , and also received mime classes for understanding movements .
= = = Writing = = =
Universal paid Crichton a further $ 500 @,@ 000 to adapt his own novel , which he had finished by the time Spielberg was filming Hook . Crichton noted that because the book was " fairly long " his script only had about 10 to 20 percent of the novel 's content ; scenes were dropped for budgetary and practical reasons , and despite the gory descriptions , the violence was toned down . Malia Scotch Marmo began a script rewrite in October 1991 over a five @-@ month period , merging Ian Malcolm with Alan Grant .
As Spielberg wanted another writer to rework the script , Universal president Casey Silver recommended him David Koepp , co @-@ writer of Death Becomes Her . Koepp started afresh from Marmo 's draft , and used Spielberg 's idea of a cartoon shown to the visitors to remove much of the exposition that fills Crichton 's novel . While Koepp tried to avoid excessive character detail " because whenever they started talking about their personal lives , you couldn 't care less " , he tried to flesh out the characters and make for a more colorful cast , with moments such as Malcolm flirting with Sattler leading to Grant 's jealousy . Some characterizations were changed from the novel . Hammond went from a ruthless businessman to a kindly old man , because Spielberg identified with Hammond 's obsession with showmanship . He also switched the characters of Tim and Lex ; in the book , Tim is aged eleven and interested in computers , and Lex is only seven or eight and interested in sports . Spielberg did this because he wanted to work with the younger Joseph Mazzello , and it also allowed him to introduce the sub @-@ plot of Lex 's adolescent crush on Grant . Koepp changed Grant 's relationship with the children , making him hostile to them initially to allow for more character development .
Two scenes from the book were excised , with Spielberg removing the opening sequence with Procompsognathus attacking a young child as he found it too horrific , and Koepp cutting for budgetary reasons the T. rex chasing Grant and the children down a river before being tranquilized by Muldoon . Both parts eventually saw inclusion in the film sequels . Spielberg suggested the addition of the scene where the T. rex pursues a jeep , which at first would only have the characters driving away after listening to the dinosaur 's footsteps .
= = = Casting = = =
William Hurt was initially offered the role of Alan Grant , but turned it down without reading the script . Harrison Ford was also offered the role of Grant . Sam Neill was ultimately cast as Grant three or four weeks before filming began . Neill said that " it all happened real quick . I hadn 't read the book , knew nothing about it , hadn 't heard anything about it , and in a matter of weeks I 'm working with Spielberg . " Janet Hirshenson , the film 's casting director , felt that Jeff Goldblum would be the right choice to play Ian Malcolm after reading the novel . Jim Carrey also auditioned for the role . According to Hirshenson , Carrey " was terrific , too , but I think pretty quickly we all loved the idea of Jeff . "
Cameron Thor had previously worked with Spielberg on Hook , and initially auditioned for the role of Malcolm , before trying out for the role of Dodgson . Thor said about casting , " It just said ' shaving @-@ cream can ' in the script , so I spent endless time in a drug store to find the most photogenic . I went with Barbasol , which ended up in the movie . I was so broke that I took the can home after the audition to use it . " Laura Dern was Spielberg 's first choice for the role of Ellie Sattler . Spielberg chose to cast Wayne Knight after seeing his acting performance in Basic Instinct , saying , " I waited for the credits to roll and wrote his name down " .
Ariana Richards said , " I was called into a casting office , and they just wanted me to scream . I heard later on that Steven had watched a few girls on tape that day , and I was the only one who ended up waking his sleeping wife off the couch , and she came running through the hallway to see if the kids were all right . " Joseph Mazzello had initially screen @-@ tested for a role in Hook , but was deemed too young . Spielberg promised Mazzello that they would work together on a future film . Robin Wright turned down a role in the film . Christina Ricci auditioned for a role , but did not receive it .
= = = Filming = = =
After 25 months of pre @-@ production , filming began on August 24 , 1992 , on the Hawaiian island of Kauaʻi . While Costa Rica was considered as a location given it is the story 's setting , Spielberg 's concerns on infrastructure and accessibility made him choose a place where he had already worked before . The three @-@ week shoot involved various daytime exteriors for Isla Nublar 's forests . On September 11 , Hurricane Iniki passed directly over Kauaʻi , which caused the crew to lose a day of shooting . Several of the storm scenes from the movie are actual footage shot during the hurricane . The scheduled shoot of the Gallimimus chase was moved to Kualoa Ranch on the island of Oahu and one of the beginning scenes had to be created by digitally animating a still shot of scenery . The opening scene was shot in Haiku , on the island of Maui , with additional scenes being filmed on the " forbidden island " of Niihau . Samuel L. Jackson was to film a lengthy death scene in which his character would be chased and killed by velociraptors , but the set was destroyed by Hurricane Iniki . By mid @-@ September , the crew moved back to California , to shoot the raptors in the kitchen at Stage 24 of the Universal studio lot . Given the kitchen set was filled with reflective surfaces , cinematographer Dean Cundey had to carefully plan the illumination while also using black cloths to hide the light reflections . The crew also shot on Stage 23 for the scenes involving the power supply , before going on location to Red Rock Canyon for the Montana dig scenes . The crew returned to Universal to shoot Grant 's rescue of Tim , using a fifty @-@ foot prop with hydraulic wheels for the car fall , and the Brachiosaurus encounter . The crew filmed scenes for the Park 's labs and control room , which used animations for the computers lent from Silicon Graphics and Apple . While Crichton 's book features Toyota cars in Jurassic Park , Spielberg got a deal with the Ford Motor Company , who provided seven Ford Explorers . The Explorers were modified by ILM 's crew and veteran customizer George Barris to create the illusion that they were autonomous cars by hiding the driver in the car 's trunk . Barris also customized the Jeep Wranglers featured in the production .
The crew moved to Warner Bros. Studios ' Stage 16 to shoot the T. rex 's attack on the LSX powered SUVs . Shooting proved frustrating because of water soaking the foam rubber skin of the animatronic dinosaur , which caused the animatronic T. rex to shake and quiver from the extra weight when the foam absorbed the water . This forced Stan Winston 's crew to dry the model with shammys between takes . On the set , Malcolm distracting the dinosaur with a flare was included at Jeff Goldblum 's suggestion , as he felt a heroic action was better than going by the script , where like Gennaro , Malcolm would get scared and run away . The ripples in the glass of water caused by the T. rex 's footsteps were inspired by Spielberg listening to Earth , Wind and Fire in his car , and the vibrations the bass rhythm caused . Lantieri was unsure of how to create the shot until the night before filming , when he put a glass of water on a guitar he was playing , which achieved the concentric circles in the water Spielberg wanted . The next morning , guitar strings were put inside the car and a man on the floor plucked the strings to achieve the effect . Back at Universal , the crew filmed scenes with the Dilophosaurus on Stage 27 . Finally , the shoot finished on Stage 12 , with the climactic chases with the raptors in the Park 's computer rooms and Visitor 's Center . Spielberg changed the climax to bring back the T. rex , abandoning the original ending in which Grant uses a platform machine to maneuver a raptor into a fossil tyrannosaur 's jaws . The scene which already had the juxtaposition of live dinosaurs in a museum filled with fossils , while also destroying the bones , now also had an ending where the T. rex saved the protagonists , and afterwards did what Spielberg described as a " King Kong roar " while an ironic banner reading " When Dinosaurs Ruled the Earth " flew . The film wrapped twelve days ahead of schedule on November 30 , and within days , editor Michael Kahn had a rough cut ready , allowing Spielberg to go ahead with filming Schindler 's List .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
Special effects work continued on the film , with Tippett 's unit adjusting to new technology with Dinosaur Input Devices : models which fed information into the computers to allow themselves to animate the characters like stop motion puppets . In addition , they acted out scenes with the raptors and Gallimimus . As well as the computer @-@ generated dinosaurs , ILM also created elements such as water splashing and digital face replacement for Ariana Richards ' stunt double . Compositing the dinosaurs onto the live action scenes took around an hour . Rendering the dinosaurs often took two to four hours per frame , and rendering the T. rex in the rain even took six hours per frame . Spielberg monitored their progress from Poland during the filming of Schindler 's List , having teleconferences four times a week with ILM 's crew . The director described working simultaneously in two vastly different productions as " a bipolar experience " , where he used " every ounce of intuition on Schindler 's List and every ounce of craft in Jurassic Park " .
Along with the digital effects , Spielberg wanted the film to be the first with digital sound . He funded the creation of DTS , which would allow audiences to " really hear the movie the way it was intended to be heard " . The sound effects crew , supervised by George Lucas , were finished by the end of April . Sound designer Gary Rydstrom considered it a fun process , given the film had all kinds of noise – animal sounds , rain , gunshots , car crashes – and at times no music . During the process , Spielberg would take the weekends to fly from Poland to Paris , where he would meet Rydstrom to see the sound progress . Jurassic Park was finally completed on May 28 , 1993 .
= = = Music = = =
Composer John Williams began scoring the film at the end of February , and it was recorded a month later . John Neufeld and Alexander Courage provided the score 's orchestrations . Similar to another Spielberg film he scored , Close Encounters of the Third Kind , Williams felt he needed to write " pieces that would convey a sense of ' awe ' and fascination " given it dealt with the " overwhelming happiness and excitement " that would emerge from seeing live dinosaurs . In turn more suspenseful scenes such as the Tyrannosaurus attack earned frightening themes . The first soundtrack album was released on May 25 , 1993 . For the 20th anniversary of the release of the film , a new soundtrack was issued for digital download on April 9 , 2013 including four bonus tracks personally selected by Williams .
= = Release = =
Universal took the lengthy pre @-@ production to carefully plan the Jurassic Park marketing campaign , which cost $ 65 million and had deals with 100 companies to market 1 @,@ 000 products . These included three Jurassic Park video games by Sega and Ocean Software , a toy line by Kenner that was distributed by Hasbro , McDonald 's " Dino @-@ Sized meals " , and a novelization aimed at young children .
The film 's trailers only gave fleeting glimpses of the dinosaurs , a tactic journalist Josh Horowitz described as " that old Spielberg axiom of never revealing too much " when Spielberg and director Michael Bay did the same for their production of Transformers in 2007 . The film was marketed with the tagline " An Adventure 65 Million Years In The Making . " This was a joke Spielberg made on set about the genuine , thousands of years old mosquito in amber used for Hammond 's walking stick .
The film premiered at the Uptown Theater on June 9 , 1993 , in Washington , D.C. , in support of two children 's charities . Two days later it opened nationwide , in 2 @,@ 404 theater locations and an estimated 3 @,@ 400 screens . Internationally it was equally wide at 3 @,@ 400 prints . Following the film 's release , a traveling exhibition called The Dinosaurs of Jurassic Park began , showcasing dinosaur skeletons and film props .
Jurassic Park was broadcast on television for the first time on May 7 , 1995 , following the April 26 airing of The Making of Jurassic Park . Some 68 @.@ 12 million people tuned in to watch , garnering NBC a 36 percent share of all available viewers that night . Jurassic Park was the highest @-@ rated theatrical film broadcast on television by any network since the April 1987 airing of Trading Places . In June – July 1995 the film was aired a number of times on the TNT network .
= = = Theatrical re @-@ releases = = =
In anticipation of the Blu @-@ ray release , Jurassic Park had a digital print released in UK cinemas on September 23 , 2011 . It wound up grossing £ 245 @,@ 422 ( $ 786 @,@ 021 ) from 276 theaters , finishing at eleventh on the weekend box office .
Two years later , on the 20th anniversary of Jurassic Park , a 3D version of the film was released in cinemas . Spielberg declared that he had produced the film with a sort of " subconscious 3D " , as scenes feature animals walking toward the cameras and some effects of foreground and background overlay . In 2011 , he stated in an interview that Jurassic Park was the only of his works he had considered for a conversion , and once he saw the 3D version of Titanic in 2012 , he liked the new look of the film so much that he hired the same retrofitting company , Stereo D. Spielberg and cinematographer Janusz Kaminski supervised the nine @-@ month process closely in @-@ between the production of Lincoln . Stereo D executive Aaron Parry declared that the conversion was an evolution of what the company had done with Titanic , " being able to capitalize on everything we learned with Jim on Titanic and take it into a different genre and movie , and one with so many technical achievements . " The studio had the help of ILM , which contributed some elements and updated effects shots for a better visual enhancement . It opened on the United States and seven other territories on April 5 , 2013 , with other countries receiving the re @-@ release in the following six months .
= = = Home media = = =
The film made its VHS and LaserDisc debut on October 4 , 1994 . With 17 million units sold in both formats , Jurassic Park is the fifth best @-@ selling VHS tape ever .
Jurassic Park was first released on Collector 's Edition DVD on October 10 , 2000 , in both a widescreen and fullscreen , and in a box set along with sequel The Lost World : Jurassic Park and both movies ' soundtrack albums . It ended as the 13th best @-@ selling DVD of 2000 counting both versions , finishing the year with 910 @,@ 000 units sold . Following the release of Jurassic Park III , a new box set with all films called Jurassic Park Trilogy was released on December 11 , 2001 ; it was re @-@ released on VHS and DVD as part of its 15th anniversary on October 8 , 2004 . It was repackaged as Jurassic Park Adventure Pack on November 29 , 2005 .
The trilogy was released on Blu @-@ ray on October 25 , 2011 , debuting at fifth on the Blu @-@ ray charts , and being nominated as the best release of the year by both the Las Vegas Film Critics Society and the Saturn Awards . In 2012 , Jurassic Park was among twenty @-@ five films chosen by Universal for a box set that celebrated the studio 's 100th anniversary , while also receiving a standalone 100th anniversary Blu @-@ ray featuring an augmented reality cover . The following year , the 20th anniversary 3D conversion was issued on Blu @-@ ray 3D .
On June 1 , 2016 , Jurassic Park , along with its sequels The Lost World and Jurassic Park III , were added to the Netflix streaming service .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Jurassic Park became the highest grossing film released worldwide up to that time . Following $ 3 @.@ 1 million from midnight screenings on June 10 , the film earned $ 47 million in its first weekend , with the $ 50 @.@ 1 million total breaking the opening weekend record set by Batman Returns the year before . By the end of its first week , Jurassic Park had grossed $ 81 @.@ 7 million , and stayed at number one for three weeks . It eventually grossed $ 357 million in the U.S. and Canada . Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 86 @.@ 2 million tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run . The film also did very well in international markets , breaking opening records in the United Kingdom , Japan , India , South Korea , Mexico , and Taiwan , ultimately earning $ 914 million worldwide , with Spielberg reportedly making over $ 250 million from the film . It surpassed Spielberg 's own E.T. the Extraterrestrial as the highest grossing film ever worldwide , and became second to E.T. in North America earnings . Jurassic Park 's record was only surpassed in 1998 by Titanic , the first film to gross over $ 1 billion .
The 3D re @-@ release of Jurassic Park opened at fourth place in North America , with $ 18 @.@ 6 million from 2 @,@ 771 locations . IMAX showings accounted for over $ 6 million , with the 32 percent being the highest IMAX share ever for a nationwide release . The international release had its most successful weekend in the last week of August , when it managed to climb to the top of the overseas box office with a $ 28 @.@ 8 million debut in China . The reissue earned $ 45 @,@ 385 @,@ 935 in North America and $ 44 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 internationally as of August 2013 , leading to a lifetime gross of $ 402 @,@ 453 @,@ 882 in North America and $ 628 @,@ 723 @,@ 171 overseas , totaling up to a worldwide gross of $ 1 @,@ 029 @,@ 939 @,@ 903 , making Jurassic Park the 17th film to surpass the $ 1 billion mark . It was the first and only Universal Pictures film to surpass the $ 1 billion mark until 2015 , when the studio got three such films , Furious 7 , Minions , and the fourth installment of the Jurassic Park franchise , Jurassic World . It currently ranks as the 21st highest @-@ grossing film of all time , both in North America ( unadjusted for inflation ) and worldwide . It is the fourth highest @-@ grossing film released by Universal , and the highest @-@ grossing film directed by Spielberg .
= = = Critical response = = =
Jurassic Park received critical acclaim . High praise was heaped on the visual effects , musical score , and Spielberg 's direction , although there was some criticism leveled at the script and departures from the book . Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes retrospectively gave the film a " Certified Fresh " rating of 93 % , based on 116 reviews , with rating average score of 8 @.@ 3 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus reads , " Jurassic Park is a spectacle of special effects and life @-@ like animatronics , with some of Spielberg 's best sequences of sustained awe and sheer terror since Jaws . " Metacritic gave the film a score of 68 out of 100 , based on 20 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
Janet Maslin of The New York Times called it " a true movie milestone , presenting awe- and fear @-@ inspiring sights never before seen on the screen ... On paper , this story is tailor @-@ made for Mr. Spielberg 's talents ... [ but ] [ i ] t becomes less crisp on screen than it was on the page , with much of the enjoyable jargon either mumbled confusingly or otherwise thrown away . " In Rolling Stone , Peter Travers described the film as " colossal entertainment — the eye @-@ popping , mind @-@ bending , kick @-@ out @-@ the @-@ jams thrill ride of summer and probably the year [ ... ] Compared with the dinos , the characters are dry bones , indeed . Crichton and co @-@ screenwriter David Koepp have flattened them into nonentities on the trip from page to screen . " Roger Ebert noted , " The movie delivers all too well on its promise to show us dinosaurs . We see them early and often , and they are indeed a triumph of special effects artistry , but the movie is lacking other qualities that it needs even more , such as a sense of awe and wonderment , and strong human story values . " Henry Sheehan argued , " The complaints over Jurassic Park 's lack of story and character sound a little off the point , " pointing out the story arc of Grant learning to protect Hammond 's grandchildren despite his initial dislike of them . Empire magazine gave the film five stars , hailing it as " quite simply one of the greatest blockbusters of all time . "
= = = Accolades = = =
In March 1994 , Jurassic Park won all three Academy Awards for which it was nominated : Best Sound Editing , Best Sound Mixing , and Best Visual Effects ( at the same ceremony , Spielberg , editor Michael Kahn and composer John Williams won Academy Awards for Schindler 's List ) . The film won honors outside the U.S. including the 1994 BAFTA for Best Special Effects , as well as the Award for the Public 's Favorite Film . It won the 1994 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , and the 1993 Saturn Awards for Best Science Fiction Film , Best Direction , Best Writing for Crichton and Koepp and Best Special Effects . The film won the 1993 People 's Choice Awards for Favorite All @-@ Around Motion Picture . Young Artist Awards were given to Ariana Richards and Joseph Mazzello , with the film winning an Outstanding Action / Adventure Family Motion Picture award . In 2001 , the American Film Institute ranked Jurassic Park as the 35th most thrilling film of American cinema . The film has been included in the book 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die , film lists by Empire magazine , and The Guardian .
= = Legacy = =
In the years following its release , Jurassic Park has frequently been cited by film critics and industry professionals as one of the greatest movies of the action and thriller genres . The American Film Institute named Jurassic Park the 35th most thrilling film of all time on June 13 , 2001 . The Chicago Film Critics Association also ranked Jurassic Park as the 55th scariest movie of all time and , in 2005 , Bravo chose the scene in which Lex and Tim are stalked by two raptors in the kitchen as the 95th scariest movie moment ever . On Empire magazine 's fifteenth anniversary in 2004 , it judged Jurassic Park the sixth most influential film of the magazine 's lifetime . Empire called the first encounter with a Brachiosaurus the 28th most magical moment in cinema . In 2008 , an Empire poll of readers , filmmakers , and critics also rated it one of the 500 greatest films of all time . On Film Review 's fifty @-@ fifth anniversary in 2005 , it declared the film to be one of the five most important in the magazine 's lifetime . In 2006 , IGN ranked Jurassic Park as the 19th greatest film franchise ever . In a 2010 poll , the readers of Entertainment Weekly rated it the greatest summer movie of the previous 20 years . The popularity of the movie caused the management of the National Basketball Association expansion franchise founded in Toronto in 1995 to adopt the nickname Raptors .
The biggest impact Jurassic Park had on subsequent films regarded Industrial Light and Magic 's computer @-@ generated visual effects . Film historian Tom Shone commented on the film 's innovation and influence , saying that " In its way , Jurassic Park heralded a revolution in movies as profound as the coming of sound in 1927 . " Many filmmakers saw Jurassic Park 's effects as a realization that many of their visions , previously thought unfeasible or too expensive , were now possible . ILM owner George Lucas , realizing the success of creating realistic live dinosaurs by his own company , started to make the Star Wars prequels ; Stanley Kubrick decided to invest in pet project A.I. Artificial Intelligence , to which he would later bring Spielberg to direct ; and Peter Jackson began to re @-@ explore his childhood love of fantasy films , a path that led him to The Lord of the Rings and King Kong . Jurassic Park has also inspired films and documentaries with dinosaurs such as the American adaptation of Godzilla , Dinosaur from the Deep , Carnosaur ( in which Laura Dern 's mother Diane Ladd starred ) , Dinosaur Island and Walking with Dinosaurs . Stan Winston , enthusiastic about the new technology pioneered by the film , joined with IBM and director James Cameron to form a new special effects company , Digital Domain .
= = = Sequels and merchandise = = =
After the enormous success of the film , Spielberg requested Michael Crichton to write a sequel novel , leading to the 1995 book The Lost World , which in turn was adapted as The Lost World : Jurassic Park on May 23 , 1997 , also directed by Spielberg and written by David Koepp . Another film , Jurassic Park III , was released on July 18 , 2001 under the direction of Joe Johnston and Spielberg as executive producer , featuring an original script that incorporated unused elements from Crichton 's original Jurassic Park . A fourth installment Jurassic World was released in theaters on June 12 , 2015 . Spielberg again produced , with Colin Trevorrow directing a script written by himself and Derek Connolly .
The story of the film was also continued in auxiliary media , at times even unattached to the film sequels themselves . These included a series of Jurassic Park comic books written by Steve Englehart for Topps Comics , and video games such as Ocean Software 's Jurassic Park 2 : The Chaos Continues ( 1994 ) , Vivendi 's Jurassic Park : Operation Genesis ( 2003 ) and Telltale Games ' Jurassic Park : The Game ( 2011 ) .
All of the Universal Parks & Resorts include a Jurassic Park @-@ themed ride . The first was Jurassic Park : The Ride at Universal Studios Hollywood on June 15 , 1996 , built after six years of development at a cost of $ 110 million . Said attraction was replicated on Universal Studios Japan in 2001 . Islands of Adventure in Orlando , Florida , has an entire section of the park dedicated to Jurassic Park that includes the main ride , christened " Jurassic Park River Adventure " , and many smaller rides and attractions based on the series . In Universal Studios Singapore , opened in 2010 , the Themed Zone named The Lost World consists mostly of Jurassic Park rides , such as the roller coaster Canopy Flyer and the river rapids Jurassic Park Rapids Adventure .
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= Strange Stories =
Strange Stories was a pulp magazine which ran for thirteen issues from 1939 to 1941 . It was edited by Mort Weisinger , who was not credited . Contributors included Robert Bloch , Eric Frank Russell , C. L. Moore , August Derleth , and Henry Kuttner . Strange Stories was a competitor to the established leader in weird fiction , Weird Tales . With the launch , also in 1939 , of the well @-@ received Unknown , Strange Stories was unable to compete . It ceased publication in 1941 when Weisinger left to edit Superman comic books .
= = Publication history and contents = =
Fantasy and occult fiction had often appeared in popular magazines before the twentieth century , but the first magazine to specialize in the genre , Weird Tales , appeared in 1923 and by the 1930s was the genre 's industry leader . In 1939 , two magazines were launched in the same niche : one was Unknown , from Street & Smith ; the other was Strange Stories , published by Standard Magazines and edited by Mort Weisinger , who was already editing Thrilling Wonder Stories and Startling Stories for Standard . Weisinger obtained stories from many authors who contributed to Weird Tales , including August Derleth , Henry Kuttner , and Robert Bloch , who between them accounted for 40 of the 148 stories the magazine printed over its thirteen issues . Critics consider little of the fiction memorable . Among the better @-@ received stories were two by Kuttner : " Cursed be the City " and " The Citadel of Darkness " in the April and August 1939 issues respectively ; " Logoda 's Heads " , by Derleth , which science fiction historian Robert Weinberg described as " perhaps Derleth 's best weird fantasy for any magazine " ; and some stories by Manly Wade Wellman in the early issues . Other contributors included Eric Frank Russell , C. L. Moore , and Seabury Quinn . There were no serialized novels ; at the time , Standard 's policy forbade them . Weinberg described the covers by Standard 's in @-@ house artists , Rudolph Belarski and Earle K. Bergey , as " among the worst ever seen on any pulp " . The magazine was an attempt to imitate Weird Tales , but Weisinger was never able to give it any distinctive character of its own . It received little assistance from its sister magazines in Standard 's publishing stable ; typically each magazine carried advertisements for other Standard publications , but Startling Stories and Thrilling Wonder Stories rarely mentioned Strange Stories in this way .
Weisinger left Standard Magazines in 1941 to edit Superman comics , and Leo Margulies , the editorial director at Standard , was not interested in continuing the magazine . The final issue was dated February 1941 . Some of the stories purchased for Strange Stories but left unpublished later appeared in the other Standard magazines , including " The Road to Yesterday " , by Kuttner , which appeared in the August 1941 issue of Thrilling Adventure , and " I Married a Ghost " , by Seabury Quinn , which was published in Thrilling Mystery in July 1941 .
= = Bibliographic details = =
The thirteen issues of Strange Stories were in pulp format . They were 128 pages long and priced at 15 cents until June 1940 , after which the page count went down to 96 and the price was reduced to 10 cents . The editor was Mort Weisinger , who was not credited . The publisher was Better Publications , a subsidiary of Standard Magazines of New York . Strange Stories stayed on a bimonthly schedule throughout its run . There were three issues to a volume , except the final volume which had only one .
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= Extinction ( Star Trek : Enterprise ) =
" Extinction " is the fifty @-@ fifth episode of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise , the third episode of season three . It first aired on September 24 , 2003 , on the UPN network in the United States . This was the first episode following the addition of the prefix " Star Trek " to the title of the series . Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship , Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 .
Season three of Enterprise features an ongoing story following an attack on Earth by previously unknown aliens called the Xindi . In this episode , while investigating a planet visited by the Xindi , several crewmembers including Captain Jonathan Archer become infected with a virus that mutates them into another species . The crew of the Enterprise must prevent an alien race from exterminating the mutated crew @-@ members while developing a cure themselves . The episode was written by story editor André Bormanis and directed by Star Trek : The Next Generation alumnus LeVar Burton .
" Extinction " was shot across seven days , with the soundstage transformed into an alien jungle for filming . John Eaves designed a Xindi pod , as well as an alien spaceship which he strongly disliked . Jolene Blalock , Scott Bakula , Linda Park and Dominic Keating were each required to undergo extended make @-@ up sessions during six days of the shoot in order to show their characters in various states of mutation . Around four million viewers watched " Extinction " on first broadcast , but the critical reception was mixed . Although the actors who underwent additional make @-@ up were praised , the plot was found to be similar to previous episodes in the franchise and the ending was poor .
= = Plot = =
On Enterprise , Sub @-@ Commander T 'Pol is called to the command center by Captain Archer . Archer tells her that he has located a nearby planet that the Xindi recently visited . Both then travel down to the surface with Lieutenant Reed and Ensign Sato . They discover a Xindi shuttle along with two dead crewmembers , one of whom has been incinerated . With little warning , Archer , Sato and Reed suddenly begin to transform physically into a new species , but T 'Pol seems somehow resistant to the changes .
T 'Pol is able to communicate with Archer after gaining use of the universal translator . She learns they have been overcome with an overwhelming instinct to reach a city called " Urquat " , the homeland of their species . Meanwhile Commander Tucker and an away team of MACOs , equipped with biohazard suits , manage to capture and return Reed to the ship . Archer and Sato flee and T 'Pol opts to stay with them . Doctor Phlox soon determines that they were infected by a mutagenic virus , and concludes that T 'Pol 's Vulcan genetics rendered her immune .
Two " containment ships " soon arrive , demanding access to Enterprise in order to stop the virus that killed millions of their people 60 years ago . Tucker refuses , but invites their leader , Tret , aboard . Tret explains that the original inhabitants of the planet , the Loque 'eque , created the virus in an effort to continue their species . Believing it impossible to cure , he sends a team to the planet 's surface to neutralize Archer and Sato . Archer leads Sato and T 'Pol to Urquat , but they find it in ruins . Tucker then beams down with a team of MACOs and rescues them . Enterprise then warps away , but the alien ships pursue and attack the ship . Tucker asks Tret to allow Phlox more time to synthesize an antidote , but Tret refuses . Before he can board the ship , Phlox arrives with Archer and Sato — now mostly restored — and promises Tret a sample . Later , as Phlox plans to destroy the last vial of the virus , Archer tell him to keep it as a legacy of the now extinct species .
= = Production = =
The episode was directed by LeVar Burton , who had previously directed more than twenty other episodes of the franchise . He had also previously played Geordi La Forge in Star Trek : The Next Generation . Scott Bakula praised Burton 's work on Enterprise , saying that he had a " great energy and a great sense of fun " and said that the flame @-@ throwers in " Extinction " got the former TNG actor " excited " . The writer , André Bormanis , was previously the science advisor for the various Star Trek series and was the story editor on Enterprise . Joining the cast in a guest role as Tret was Roger Cross , who had appeared in several science fiction series such as The X Files , Stargate SG @-@ 1 and Andromeda . He also appeared alongside Burton 's The Next Generation co @-@ star , Patrick Stewart , in X2 : X @-@ Men United . Returning in the same role in played in " The Xindi " , the first episode of season three , was Daniel Dae Kim as Corporal Chang .
Filming on " Extinction " began on July 31 , 2003 , with a shoot that lasted the following seven working days . To represent the jungle of the alien planet , the soundstage was inundated with foliage . A Xindi landing pod was created to appear in those same scenes . Several of the main cast were required to undergo extended make @-@ up sessions lasting three or four hours every day for six days of the shoot in order for their characters to appear in a number of different stages of mutation . The make @-@ up on Jolene Blalock was not as extensive as that on Scott Bakula , Dominic Keating and Linda Park due to her character 's Vulcan anatomy . Both Bakula and Keating had to wear bladders on their throats as a special effect which were inflated when they growled . Following the experience , Park praised John Billingsley , who in his role as Doctor Phlox has to undertake similar make @-@ up regimes for every episode .
Both the Xindi landing pod and the alien spaceship were designed by John Eaves . He also produced a series of designs for a Vulcan shuttle which ended up being written out of the episode . The Xindi pod went through three designs being approved , while the alien spaceship was accepted on the first submission . However Eaves regretted this , as he had submitted a spaceship design which he strongly disliked , calling it " by far my least favorite of anything I have ever drawn " . It was based on a hatchet housed in a tool pouch . Eaves also developed the concept artwork for the alien temple .
This was the first episode of the series following the title change from Enterprise to Star Trek : Enterprise , and so it was the first time that the new title card appeared . Also , " Extinction " was dedicated to Jerry Fleck , which appeared at the end of the episode before the credits . He had died in his sleep during the filming of the episode " Twilight " and was working on pre @-@ production for another one , " North Star " .
= = Reception and home media release = =
" Extinction " was first aired on September 24 , 2003 , on UPN within the United States . It received a 2 @.@ 5 / 4 percent share of the television audience , meaning that it was seen by 2 @.@ 5 percent of all households , and 4 percent of all households watching television at the time of the broadcast . It was viewed by approximately four million viewers , making it the lowest viewed episode of season three at this point .
Michelle Erica Green reviewed the episode for TrekNation , saying it was a typical " crewmembers transform into scary aliens " episode . She compared it to similar episodes from elsewhere in the Star Trek franchise such as " Masks " from Star Trek : The Next Generation and " Threshold " from Star Trek : Voyager . She had hope for a twist in the story , but instead found the ending of the episode " superfluous " and " sanctimonious " . She did praise the performance of Jolene Blalock for " keeping T 'Pol credible and sympathetic " , as well as Linda Park and Scott Bakula for the scenes in which they played the transformed versions of their characters .
The first home media release of " Extinction " was as part of the season three DVD box set , released in the United States on September 27 , 2005 . The Blu @-@ ray release of Enterprise was announced in early 2013 , and released on January 7 , 2014 .
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= Luton Town F.C. =
Luton Town Football Club / ˈluːtən ˈtaʊn / is a professional association football club based since 1905 at Kenilworth Road , Luton , Bedfordshire . Founded in 1885 , it is nicknamed " the Hatters " and affiliated to the Bedfordshire County Football Association . Its first @-@ team is contesting the fourth tier of English football , League Two , during the 2016 – 17 season . The club 's history includes major trophy wins , several financial crises , numerous promotions and relegations , and some spells of sustained success . It was perhaps most prominent between 1982 and 1992 , when it was a member of English football 's top division , at that time the First Division ; the team won its first major honour , the Football League Cup , in 1988 .
The club was the first in southern England to turn professional , making payments to players as early as 1890 and turning fully professional a year later . It joined the Football League before the 1897 – 98 season , left in 1900 because of financial problems , and rejoined in 1920 . Luton reached the First Division in 1955 – 56 and contested a major final for the first time when playing Nottingham Forest in the 1959 FA Cup Final . The team was then relegated from the top division in 1959 – 60 , and demoted twice more in the following five years , playing in the Fourth Division from the 1965 – 66 season . However , it was promoted back to the top level by 1974 – 75 .
Luton Town 's most recent successful period began in 1981 – 82 , when the club won the Second Division , and thereby gained promotion to the First . Luton defeated Arsenal 3 – 2 in the 1988 Football League Cup Final and remained in the First Division until relegation at the end of the 1991 – 92 season . Between 2007 and 2009 , financial difficulties caused the club to fall from the second tier of English football to the fifth in successive seasons . The last of these relegations came during the 2008 – 09 season , when 30 points were docked from Luton 's record for various financial irregularities . Luton thereafter spent five seasons in non @-@ League football before winning the Conference Premier in 2013 – 14 , securing promotion back into the Football League .
= = History = =
Luton Town Football Club was formed on 11 April 1885 , the product of a merger of the two leading local teams , Luton Town Wanderers and Excelsior . Initially based at Excelsior 's Dallow Lane ground , the club began making payments to certain individual players in 1890 . The following year , Luton became the first club in southern England to be fully professional . The club was a founder member of the Southern Football League in the 1894 – 95 season and finished as runners @-@ up in its first two seasons . It then left to help form the United League and came second in that league 's inaugural season before joining the Football League ( then based mostly in northern and central England ) for 1897 – 98 , concurrently moving to a new ground at Dunstable Road . The club continued to enter a team to the United League for two more seasons , and won the title in 1897 – 98 . Poor attendance , high wages and the high travel and accommodation costs that resulted from Luton 's distance from the northern heartlands of the Football League crippled the club financially , and made it too expensive to compete in that league . A return to the Southern League was therefore arranged for the 1900 – 01 season .
Eight years after arriving at Dunstable Road , Luton moved again , settling at their current ground , Kenilworth Road , in 1905 . Captain and left winger Bob Hawkes became Luton 's first international player when he was picked to play for England against Ireland on 16 February 1907 . A poor 1911 – 12 season saw Luton relegated to the Southern League 's Second Division ; the club won promotion back two years later . After the First World War broke out , Luton took part in The London Combination during 1915 – 16 , and afterwards filled each season with friendly matches . A key player of the period was Ernie Simms , a forward . Simms was invalided back to England after being wounded on the Italian front , but recovered enough to regain his place in the Luton team and scored 40 goals during the 1916 – 17 season .
The Luton side first played in the white and black colours which it has retained for much of its history during the 1920 – 21 season , when the club rejoined the Football League ; the players had previously worn an assortment of colour combinations , most permanently sky blue shirts with white shorts and navy socks . Such was the quality of Luton 's team at this time that despite playing in the third tier , a fixture between Ireland and England at Windsor Park on 22 October 1921 saw three Luton players on the pitch — Louis Bookman and Allan Mathieson for Ireland , and the club 's top goalscorer , Simms , for England . However , after Luton finished fourth in the division , the squad was broken up as Simms , Bookman and Mathieson joined South Shields , Port Vale and Exeter City respectively . Luton stayed in the Third Division South until 1936 – 37 , when the team finished top and won promotion to the Second Division , at that time the second tier of English football . During the promotion season , striker Joe Payne scored 55 goals in 39 games ; during the previous season he had scored 10 in one match against Bristol Rovers , which remains a Football League record today .
During the early 1950s , one of Luton 's greatest sides emerged under manager Dally Duncan . The team included Gordon Turner , who went on to become Luton 's all @-@ time top goalscorer , Bob Morton , who holds the record for the most club appearances , and Syd Owen , an England international . During this period , Luton sides also featured two England international goalkeepers , Ron Baynham and Bernard Streten , as well as Irish internationals Seamus Dunne , Tom Aherne and George Cummins . This team reached the top flight for the first time in 1955 – 56 , after finishing the season in second place behind Birmingham City on goal average . A few years of success followed , including an FA Cup Final appearance against Nottingham Forest in 1958 – 59 ; at the end of the season , Owen was voted FWA Footballer of the Year . However , the club was relegated the following season and , by 1964 – 65 , was playing in the fourth tier .
In yo @-@ yo club fashion , Luton were to return . A team including Bruce Rioch , John Moore and Graham French won the Fourth Division championship in 1967 – 68 under the leadership of former player Allan Brown ; two years later Malcolm Macdonald 's goals helped them to another promotion , while comedian Eric Morecambe became a director of the club . Luton Town won promotion back to the First Division in 1973 – 74 , but were relegated the following season by a solitary point . Former Luton player David Pleat was made manager in 1978 , and by 1982 – 83 the team was back in the top flight . The team which Pleat assembled at Kenilworth Road was notable at the time for the number of black players it included ; during an era when many English squads were almost entirely white , Luton often fielded a mostly black team . Talented players such as Ricky Hill , Brian Stein and Emeka Nwajiobi made key contributions to the club 's success during this period , causing it to accrue " a richer history of black stars than any in the country " , in the words of journalist Gavin Willacy .
On the last day of the 1982 – 83 season , the club 's first back in the top tier , it narrowly escaped relegation : playing Manchester City at Maine Road , Luton needed to win to stay up , while City could escape with a draw . A late winner by Yugoslavian substitute Raddy Antić saved the team and prompted Pleat to dance across the pitch performing a " jig of joy " , an image that has become iconic . The club achieved its highest ever league position , seventh , under John Moore in 1986 – 87 , and , managed by Ray Harford , won the Football League Cup a year later with a 3 – 2 win over Arsenal . With ten minutes left on the clock and Arsenal 2 – 1 ahead , a penalty save from stand @-@ in goalkeeper Andy Dibble sparked a late Luton rally : Danny Wilson equalised , before Brian Stein scored the winner with the last kick of the match . The club reached the League Cup Final once more in 1988 – 89 , but lost 3 – 1 to Nottingham Forest .
The club was relegated from the top division at the end of the 1991 – 92 season , and sank to the third tier four years later . Luton stayed in the third @-@ tier Second Division until relegation at the end of the 2000 – 01 season . Under the management of Joe Kinnear , who had arrived halfway through the previous season , the team won promotion from the fourth tier at the first attempt . " Controversial " owner John Gurney unsettled the club in 2003 , terminating Kinnear 's contract on his arrival in May ; Gurney replaced Kinnear with Mike Newell before leaving Luton as the club entered administration . Newell 's team finished as champions of the rebranded third @-@ tier Football League One in 2004 – 05 .
While Newell 's place was taken first by Kevin Blackwell and later former player Mick Harford , the team was then relegated twice in a row , starting in 2006 – 07 , and spent the latter part of the 2007 – 08 season in administration , thus incurring a ten @-@ point deduction from that season 's total . The club then had a total of 30 points docked from its 2008 – 09 record by the Football Association and the Football League for financial irregularities dating back several years . These deductions proved to be too large an obstacle to overcome , but Luton came from behind in the final of the Football League Trophy to win the competition for the first time .
Relegation meant that 2009 – 10 saw Luton playing in the Conference Premier , a competition which the club had never before participated in . The club unsuccessfully contested the promotion play @-@ offs three times in four seasons during their time as a non @-@ League club , employing five different managers . In the 2012 – 13 FA Cup fourth round , Luton won their away tie against Premier League club Norwich City 1 – 0 and , in doing so , became the first non @-@ League team to beat a side from England 's top division since 1989 . In the 2013 – 14 season , under the management of John Still , Luton won the Conference Premier championship with three games to spare , and thereby secured a return to the Football League from 2014 – 15 .
= = Club identity = =
The club 's nickname , " the Hatters " , reflects Luton 's historical connection with the hat making trade , which has been prominent there since the 17th century . The nickname was originally a variant on the now rarely seen straw @-@ plaiters . Supporters of the club are also called Hatters .
The club is associated with two very different colour schemes — white and black ( first permanently adopted in 1920 ) , and orange , navy and white ( first used in 1973 , and worn by the team as of the 2015 – 16 season ) . Luton mainly wore a combination of light blue and white before 1920 , when white shirts and black shorts were first adopted . These colours were retained for over half a century , with the colour of the socks varying between white and black , until Luton changed to orange , navy and white at the start of the 1973 – 74 season . Luton began playing in white shirts , shorts and socks in 1979 , with the orange and navy motif reduced to trim ; navy shorts were adopted in 1984 . This palette was retained until the 1999 – 2000 season , when the team played in orange shirts and blue shorts . From 2000 to 2008 , Luton returned to white shirts and black shorts ; orange was included as trim until 2007 . The white , navy and orange palette favoured in the 1980s was brought back in 2008 , following the results of a club poll , but a year later the colours were changed yet again , this time to a predominantly orange strip with white shorts . Navy shorts were readopted in 2011 . Luton are wearing orange shirts , navy shorts and white socks during the 2015 – 16 season .
Luton Town have traditionally used the town 's crest as its own in a manner similar to many other teams . The club 's first badge was a white eight @-@ pointed star , which was emblazoned across the team 's shirts ( then a deep cochineal red ) in 1892 . Four years later a crest comprising the club 's initials intertwined was briefly adopted . The shirts were thereafter plain until 1933 , when Luton first adopted a badge depicting a straw boater , which appeared on Luton shirts . The letters " LTFC " were added in 1935 , and this basic design remained until 1947 . The club then played without a badge until 1970 , when the club began to wear the town crest regularly , having first done so in the 1959 FA Cup Final .
In 1973 , concurrently with the club 's switch to the orange kit , a new badge was introduced featuring the new colours . The new emblem depicted a stylised orange football , bearing the letters " Lt " , surrounded by the club 's name in navy blue text . In 1987 , the club switched back to a derivative of the town emblem , with the shield portion of the heraldic crest becoming the team 's badge ; the only similarity with the previous design was the inclusion of the club name around the shield in navy blue . The " rainbow " badge , introduced in 1994 , featured the town crest below an orange and blue bow which curved around to meet two footballs , positioned on either side of the shield , with the club name underneath . This badge was used until 2005 , when a replacement very similar to the 1987 version was adopted , featuring black text rather than blue and a straw boater in place of the outstretched arm depicted in the older design . The club 's founding year , 1885 , was added in 2008 . The badge was altered once more during the 2009 – 10 pre @-@ season , with the red of the town crest being replaced with orange to better reflect the club colours .
The first sponsor to appear on a Luton Town shirt was Tricentrol , a local motor company based in Dunstable , who sponsored the club from March 1980 to 1982 ; the deal was worth £ 50 @,@ 000 . Subsequent sponsors have been Bedford Trucks ( 1982 to 1990 ) , Vauxhall ( 1990 to 1991 ) , Universal Salvage Auctions ( 1991 to 1999 ) , SKF ( 1999 to 2003 ) , Travel Extras ( 2003 to 2005 ) , Electrolux ( 2005 to 2008 ) , Carbrini Sportswear ( 2008 to 2009 ) , and EasyJet and NICEIC ( concurrently , 2009 to 2015 ) . Since August 2015 , the club 's kit has been sponsored by NICEIC and the local education establishment Barnfield College .
The club released the song " Hatters , Hatters " , a collaboration between the Luton team and the Bedfordshire @-@ based musical comedy group the Barron Knights , in 1974 . Eight years later another song featuring vocals by the Luton players , " We 're Luton Town " , was released to celebrate the club 's promotion to the First Division .
= = Stadium = =
Luton Town 's first ground was at Dallow Lane , the former ground of Excelsior . The ground was next to the Dunstable to Luton train line , and players regularly claimed to have trouble seeing the ball because of smoke from the trains . A damaging financial loss during 1896 – 97 forced Luton to sell the stadium to stay afloat and , as a result , the club moved across the tracks to a stadium between the railway and Dunstable Road . The Dunstable Road ground was opened by Herbrand Russell , 11th Duke of Bedford , who also donated £ 50 towards the £ 800 building costs . When the site was sold for housing in 1905 , the club was forced to move again at short notice , to its present Kenilworth Road site , in time for the start of the 1905 – 06 season .
The 10 @,@ 356 capacity all @-@ seater stadium is in the Bury Park area of Luton , and named after the road that runs along one end of it , although the official address of the club is 1 Maple Road . Opposite the eponymous Kenilworth Stand is the Oak Road End , which has evolved from a stand first used exclusively by Luton supporters , then later by away supporters , and now used by both except in times of high ticket demand from away clubs . The Main Stand is flanked by the David Preece Stand , and opposite them stands a row of executive boxes . These boxes replaced the Bobbers Stand in 1986 , as the club sought to maximise income .
The original Main Stand burnt down in 1921 , and was replaced by the current stand before the 1922 – 23 campaign . The ground underwent extensive redevelopment during the 1930s , and the capacity by the start of the Second World War was 30 @,@ 000 . Floodlights were installed before the 1953 – 54 season , but it was 20 years before any further modernisation was carried out . In 1973 the Bobbers Stand became all @-@ seated , and in 1985 the grass pitch was replaced with an artificial playing surface ; it quickly became unpopular and was derided as " the plastic pitch " .
A serious incident involving hooliganism before , during and after a match against Millwall in 1985 caused the club 's then chairman , Conservative MP David Evans , to introduce a scheme effective from the start of 1986 – 87 banning all visiting supporters from the ground , and requiring home fans to carry identity cards when attending matches . Conversion to an all @-@ seater ground also began in 1986 . Away fans returned for 1990 – 91 , and grass a year later . The David Preece Stand was erected in 1991 , and the conversion of the Kenilworth Stand to an all @-@ seater was completed in 2005 .
= = = New stadium = = =
The club first stated its intent to leave Kenilworth Road in 1955 . Even then the ground was small compared to rival stadia , and its location made significant redevelopment difficult . The team has since made several attempts to relocate . Leaving Luton for the nearby new town of Milton Keynes was unsuccessfully proposed several times , most notably in the 1980s . The club sold Kenilworth Road to Luton Council in 1989 , and has since leased it . A planning application for a new ground , the " Kohlerdome " proposed by chairman David Kohler in 1995 , was turned down by the Secretary of State in 1998 , and Kohler left soon after .
In 2007 , the club 's then @-@ owners proposed a controversial plan to relocate to a site near Junction 12 of the M1 motorway , near Harlington and Toddington . A planning application was made on the club 's behalf by former chairman Cliff Bassett , but the application was withdrawn almost immediately following the club 's takeover in 2008 . In 2009 , the club began an independent feasibility study to determine a viable location to move to . The club did not rule out redeveloping Kenilworth Road and , in October 2012 , entered talks to buy the stadium back from Luton Borough Council . By 2015 these plans had been dropped in favour of a move to a new location , with Managing Director Gary Sweet confirming that the club was in a position to " buy land , secure the best possible professional advice ... and to see the [ planning ] application process through to the receipt of consent . " In April 2016 the club announced its intention to build and move into a 17 @,@ 500 @-@ capacity stadium on the Power Court site in central Luton .
= = Supporters and rivalries = =
During the 2014 – 15 season , Luton Town had an average home league attendance of 8 @,@ 702 — the second highest in League Two behind only Portsmouth . In the 2013 – 14 season , when the club were in the Conference Premier , the club had significantly higher support than the other clubs in its league , with an average home attendance of 7 @,@ 387 ; more than twice compared to the second highest of 3 @,@ 568 . Average attendances at Kenilworth Road fell with the installation of seats and the club 's reduction in stature , dropping from 13 @,@ 452 in 1982 – 83 to their 2014 – 15 level — a slump of 35 % over 32 years . A supporters ' trust , Trust in Luton , owns shares in the club and elects a representative to the club 's board . The club 's official supporters ' group , Luton Town Supporters ' Club , merged with Trust in Luton in 2014 . The club is associated with another supporters ' group , the breakaway Loyal Luton Supporters Club . Trust in Luton has , since March 2014 , held the legal right to veto any changes to the club 's identity , including name , nickname , colours , club crest and mascot .
Luton Town supporters maintain a bitter rivalry with Hertfordshire @-@ based Watford . Watford have remained the higher ranked team at the end of every season since 1997 . However , overall Luton still hold the superior record in the fixture between the two clubs ; out of 118 competitive matches there have been 53 Luton victories and 36 for Watford , with 29 draws . A survey taken in 2003 showed that there was also animosity between Luton Town fans and those of west London club Queens Park Rangers .
The club produces an official match programme for home games , Talk of the Town . A character known as Happy Harry , a smiling man wearing a straw boater , serves as the team 's mascot and appears on the Kenilworth Road pitch before matches . In December 2014 , after the seafront statue of Eric Morecambe in his birthplace Morecambe was restored , Luton and Morecambe F.C. jointly announced that the winners of future Luton – Morecambe fixtures would be awarded the " Eric Morecambe Trophy " .
= = Records and statistics = =
The record for the most appearances for Luton is held by Bob Morton , who turned out for Luton 562 times in all competitions . Morton also holds the record for the most Football League appearances for the club , with 495 . Fred Hawkes holds the record for the most league appearances for Luton , having played in 509 league matches . Six players , Gordon Turner , Andy Rennie , Brian Stein , Ernie Simms , Herbert Moody and Steve Howard , have scored more than 100 goals for Luton .
The first player to be capped while playing for Luton was left winger Robert Hawkes , who took to the field for England against Ireland at Goodison Park on 16 February 1907 . The most capped player is Mal Donaghy , who earned 58 Northern Ireland caps while at the club . The first player to score in an international match was Joe Payne , who scored twice in his only game for England against Finland on 20 May 1937 . Payne also holds the Football League record for the most goals in a game — he hit 10 past Bristol Rovers on 13 April 1936 .
The club 's largest wins have been a 15 – 0 victory over Great Yarmouth Town on 21 November 1914 in the FA Cup and a 12 – 0 win over Bristol Rovers in the Third Division South on 13 April 1936 . Luton 's heaviest loss was a 9 – 0 defeat against Small Heath in the Second Division on 12 November 1898 .
Luton 's highest home attendances are 30 @,@ 069 against Blackpool in the FA Cup on 4 March 1959 and 27 @,@ 911 against Wolverhampton Wanderers in the First Division on 5 November 1955 .
The highest transfer fee received for a Luton Town player is the £ 3 million West Bromwich Albion paid for Curtis Davies on 31 August 2005 . The most expensive player Luton Town have ever bought was Lars Elstrup , who cost £ 850 @,@ 000 from Odense Boldklub on 21 August 1989 .
= = Players = =
As of 23 July 2016 .
= = = Current squad = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
The club operates a Development Squad , made up of contracted senior players , youth team scholars and trialists , which plays in the Southern Division of The Central League . The club also fields an under @-@ 18 team in the Football League Youth Alliance South East Conference . Luton 's youth set @-@ up consists of ten Soccer Centres across Bedfordshire and North Hertfordshire , two Centres of Excellence ( one in Luton , one in Dunstable ) , and an Academy in Baldock that caters for players in the under @-@ 9 to under @-@ 16 age groups .
= = = Notable former players = = =
= = Backroom staff = =
As of 26 July 2016 .
= = = Directors = = =
Chairman : Nick Owen
Vice Chairman : David Wilkinson
Chief Executive : Gary Sweet
Senior Operations Manager : Kevan Platt
Directors : Paul Ballantyne , Bob Curson , Mike Herrick
Associate Directors : Stephen Browne , Mick Pattinson
Financial Director : Simon Gibb
Club Secretary : Mark Dennis
= = = Management = = =
Manager : Nathan Jones
Assistant Manager : Paul Hart
First Team Coach : Joaquin Gomez
Goalkeeping Coach : Kevin Dearden
Head of Sports Science : Jared Roberts @-@ Smith
Chief Recruitment Officer : Mick Harford
Head of Youth Operations : Dan Walder
Youth Academy and Development Manager : Andy Awford
Youth Team Manager : Paul Driver
Physiotherapist : Simon Parsell
= = Managers = =
As of 17 December 2015 . Only managers in charge for a minimum of 50 competitive matches are counted .
Key : M |
= matches ; W =
matches won ; D |
= matches drawn ; L =
matches lost
= = Honours = =
Luton Town 's major honours are detailed below ; non @-@ League achievements are omitted . For a list of all club honours , including those won outside the Football League , see List of Luton Town F.C. records and statistics : Honours and achievements .
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= Parable of the Sunfish =
" The Parable of the Sunfish " is an anecdote with which Ezra Pound opens ABC of Reading , a 1934 work of literary criticism . Pound uses this anecdote to emphasize an empirical approach for learning about art , in contrast to relying on commentary rooted in abstraction . While the parable is based on students ' recollections of Louis Agassiz 's teaching style , Pound 's retelling diverges from these sources in several respects . The parable has been used to illustrate the benefits of scientific thinking , but more recent literary criticism has split on whether the parable accurately reflects the scientific process and calls into question Pound 's empirical approach to literature .
= = The Parable = =
The text of the parable below is excerpted from Pound 's ABC of Reading .
A post @-@ graduate student equipped with honors and diplomas went to Agassiz to receive the final and finishing touches . The great man offered him a small fish and told him to describe it .
Post @-@ Graduate Student : " That 's only a sunfish . "
Agassiz : " I know that . Write a description of it . "
After a few minutes the student returned with the description of the Ichthus Heliodiplodokus , or whatever term is used to conceal the common sunfish from vulgar knowledge , family of Heliichtherinkus , etc . , as found in textbooks of the subject .
Agassiz again told the student to describe the fish .
The student produced a four @-@ page essay . Agassiz then told him to look at the fish . At the end of three weeks the fish was in an advanced state of decomposition , but the student knew something about it .
= = Context = =
= = = ABC of Reading = = =
Pound opens ABC of Reading with the following pronouncement :
The proper METHOD for studying poetry and good letters is the method of contemporary biologists , that is careful first @-@ hand examination of the matter , and continual COMPARISON of one ' slide ' or specimen with another . No man is equipped for modern thinking until he has understood the anecdote of Agassiz and the sunfish .
In the parable , a graduate student is sent to noted biologist Louis Agassiz to complete his education , and Agassiz asks the student three times to describe a sunfish specimen . The student replies with , in turn , the common name of the fish , a brief summary of the species , and a four @-@ page essay on the species . Agassiz finally tells the student to " look at the fish " and " [ a ] t the end of three weeks the fish was in an advanced state of decomposition , but the student knew something about it . " The text of the parable itself spans 131 words over sixteen lines and is often reproduced in full when cited .
Pound contrasts this empiricism against knowledge gained through increasingly abstract definitions . As an example , Pound relates what might happen if a European is asked to define " red " . After the initial response that red is a color , Pound imagines asking for a definition of color and having it described in terms of vibration , with vibration then defined in terms of energy , and that successive abstractions eventually reach a level where language has lost its power . Returning to empiricism , Pound reminds the reader that the progress of science increased rapidly once " Bacon had suggested the direct examination of phenomena , and after Galileo and others had stopped discussing things so much , and had begun really to look at them " . Pound provides several other examples of the same contrasting ideas throughout the first chapter , ranging over topics as diverse as chemistry , Chinese writing , and Stravinsky . At the end of the chapter he summarizes his argument by claiming abstraction does not expand knowledge .
= = = Literary essays = = =
Pound subsequently refers to the parable in two essays : " The Teacher 's Mission " and " Mr Housman at Little Bethel " . Both were republished in The Literary Essays of Ezra Pound and reference Agassiz without including details of the parable . " The Teacher 's Mission " in particular provides a straightforward explanation of how Pound wished the parable to be interpreted .
= = = = " Mr Housman at Little Bethel " = = = =
In January 1934 , Pound published a critique of A. E. Housman 's The Name and Nature of Poetry in the Criterion . As part of the critique , Pound offers an emendation to Housman 's claim that " the intelligence " of the eighteenth century involved " some repressing and silencing of poetry " . Pound replies that the root cause was the tendency towards abstract statements , which came about in part because eighteenth century authors " hadn 't heard about Professor Agassiz 's fish . "
= = = = " The Teacher 's Mission " = = = =
Also in 1934 , Pound published an essay critiquing existing methods for teaching literature in general and university @-@ level instruction methods in particular . He identifies the root of the problem as abstraction and uses the word " liberty " as an example of a term where a specific , concrete meaning has been lost . Pound finds this situation " inexcusable AFTER the era of ' Agassiz and the fish ' " and demands an approach to general education that " parallels [ ... ] biological study based on EXAMINATION and COMPARISON of particular specimens . "
= = = Shaler 's Autobiography = = =
Nathaniel Shaler left his humanist studies and joined Agassiz 's lab at Harvard University , having already read Agassiz 's introductory essay on classification . His autobiography details his initial interactions with Agassiz . With regard to his first assignment , Shaler recorded that Agassiz brought him a small fish to study with the stipulation that Shaler not discuss it with anyone or read anything on the topic until Agassiz had given him permission . When Shaler asked Agassiz for more explicit instructions , Agassiz replied that he could not be more explicit than saying " [ f ] ind out what you can without damaging the specimen " . After the first hours , Shaler thought he had " compassed that fish , " but despite Agassiz always being " within call " he was not asked to present his conclusions . During the course of the following week , Shaler recorded the details of " how the scales went in series , their shape , the form and placement of the teeth , etc . "
At length on the seventh day , came the question " Well ? " and my disgorge of learning to him as he sat on the edge of my table puffing his cigar . At the end of the hour 's telling , he swung off and away , saying " That is not right . "
Shaler concluded Agassiz was testing him to see if he was capable of " doing hard , continuous work without the support of a teacher " and redoubled his efforts , starting from scratch and , over the course of seven ten @-@ hour days , managed to describe the specimen to Agassiz 's satisfaction .
= = = Scudder 's " Look at your fish ! " = = =
Samuel Hubbard Scudder recorded a similar experience , first published in 1874 as " Look at Your Fish " in Every Saturday magazine . Agassiz again starts his new student off with a fish preserved in alcohol and instructs the student to " look at it " , and promises " by and by I will ask what you have seen . " As opposed to Pound 's decomposing sunfish , Scudder 's account emphasizes the care taken to keep the specimen in good condition :
I was to keep the fish before me in a tin tray , and occasionally moisten the surface with alcohol from the jar ... In ten minutes I had seen all that could be seen in that fish , and started in search of the Professor – who had , however , left the Museum ; and when I returned , after lingering over some of the odd animals stored in the upper apartment , my specimen was dry all over . I dashed the fluid over the fish as if to resuscitate the beast from a fainting fit , and looked with anxiety for a return of the normal sloppy appearance . This little excitement over , nothing was done but to return to a steadfast gaze at my mute companion .
Scudder provides the additional detail that " instruments of all kinds were interdicted " , including any magnifying glass . After several hours Agassiz asks for a report and Scudder describes " the fringed gill @-@ arches and moveable operculum ; the pores of the head , fleshy lips and lidless eyes ; the lateral line , the spinous fins and forked tail ; the compressed and arched body . " Disappointed , Agassiz informs his student that he has failed to observe " the most conspicuous features of the animal " and commands him to " look again , look again ! " The mortified Scudder is eventually asked to consider overnight what he has seen , and is able to report to Agassiz the following morning that " the fish has symmetrical sides with paired organs , " which was the observation Agassiz was looking for . However , when Scudder then asked what he should do next , Agassiz replied , " Oh , look at your fish ! " which Scudder did for another two full days .
= = = Cooper 's Louis Agassiz as a Teacher = = =
In 1917 , English professor Lane Cooper from Cornell University published a collection of reminiscences of Agassiz . The book included notes from several notable contributors , including Scudder and Cooper , William James , Professor Addison Emery Verrill ( " [ Agassiz 's ] plan was to make young students depend on natural objects rather than on statements in books " ) , and Professor Edward S. Morse , who wrote that Agassiz 's method was " simply to let the student study intimately one object at a time . " Cooper prefigures Pound 's interest by remarking on the " close , though not obvious , relation between investigation in biology or zoology and the observation and comparison of these organic forms which we call form of literature and works of art " , concluding that " We study a poem , the work of man 's art , in the same way that Agassiz made Shaler study a fish . " Critic Robert Scholes concludes that Pound had access to this book and used the material within it as the source for the parable that opens ABC of Reading .
= = Interpretation and criticism = =
= = = Agassiz = = =
Science historian Mary P. Winsor provides extensive commentary on Agassiz 's initial assignments for his students . The solution to the " riddle " , as she calls it , lies in a similar anecdote given by Agassiz in his Essay on Classification :
Suppose that the innumerable articulated animals , which are counted by tens of thousands , nay , perhaps by hundreds of thousands , had never made their appearance upon the surface of the globe , with one single exception : that , for instance , our Lobster ( Homarus americanus ) were the only representative of that extraordinarily diversified type , — how should we introduce that species of animals in our systems ?
Agassiz provides several potential solutions : the species of lobster could have a single genus " by the side of all the other classes with their orders , families , etc . " , or a family with one genus and one species , or a class with one order and one genus , etc . Agassiz concludes a single species is sufficient to derive the entirety of the hierarchy : at the time , this would have been " a distinct genus , a distinct family , a distinct class , a distinct branch . " The point of the sunfish is not observing characteristics that distinguish individuals , species and genus , but rather characteristics that are held in common higher up the taxonomic hierarchy . Scudder 's observation that finally satisfies Agassiz is that the sunfish has bilateral , paired organs ; a characteristic that Winsor notes is common to all vertebrates .
= = = Pound = = =
Pound , echoing Cooper , opens ABC of Reading by stating that the correct method for the study of poetry is " the method of contemporary biologists " and that " No man is equipped for modern thinking until he has understood the anecdote of Agassiz and the fish . " Commentators have summarized Pound 's position with the term empiricism , but have divided over whether the parable endorses or indicts the idea .
The simplest interpretations in scientific writing , history of science , and literary criticism take the parable at face value , accepting empiricism and observation as legitimate techniques . For example , when writing about stellar atmospheres , Dimitri Mihalas states that " it is specimens , not facts , that are the ultimate empirical currency that we must use if we wish to purchase a valid theory " before beginning a discussion of Pound 's sunfish .
Moving from acceptance of empiricism to an understanding of its limitations , Christopher Tilley emphasizes in his comments on " scientific archeology " that Pound 's student " was not simply learning about ' reality ' , the sunfish , but a way of approaching that reality – a discourse bound up in a particular thought tradition ( empiricism ) " . Robert Scholes reaches a similar conclusion , noting that the student " seems to be reporting about a real and solid world in a perfectly transparent language , but actually he is learning how to produce a specific kind of discourse , controlled by a particular scientific paradigm " .
Author Bob Perelman takes the suspicion of empiricism one step further in his 1994 The Trouble With Genius : Reading Pound , Joyce , Stein , and Zukofsky . Perelman discusses the parable as one of two anecdotes in ABC of Reading that frame Pound 's discussion of Chinese ideograms . The former describes attendance at two hypothetical concerts : one of Debussy and another of Ravel . Pound states that a person who attended both concerts knows more about the composers than someone who has only read " ALL of the criticisms that have ever been written of both " . Perelman considers the contradiction between " everyone " and " knowledge " to be the key to Pound 's thinking : only a gifted or lucky few are able to apprehend the truth ( whether by attending the concert or observing the specimen ) ; the rest can only make do with " a fog of clichés , received ideas , second @-@ hand and second @-@ rate opinions , written darkness . " With regard to the parable , Perelman observes the lack of " scientific institutions , pedagogic procedures , or communicable terminologies " where any mediating written descriptions ( " sunfish " , " diplodokus " ) only serve to obscure knowledge . Knowledge ultimately resides within Agassiz rather than the world , and " [ w ] hat looks initially like a commitment to empiricism has led instead to an authoritarian idealism . "
Two critics have also commented on the parable 's implications in describing the nature of knowledge in terms of the decay of Pound 's fish . Celeste Goodridge notes that Marianne Moore 's 1934 review of Pound 's Cantos uses a detailed metaphor of a grasshopper wing to describe the conversations therein . In Goodridge 's opinion , Moore 's " microscopic examination " both undercuts the work as well as " pays homage , in its precision , to Pound 's reverence for ' the applicability of scientific method to literary criticism . ' " Goodridge then reproduces the parable in full and comments , " Agassiz teaches Pound that all knowledge is necessarily fragmented and does not constitute a whole . " Knowledge of the fish cannot begin until decay has commenced , reducing the specimen to its constituent parts .
Peter Nicholas Baker reaches a fundamentally different conclusion . He begins the discussion of the parable by first quoting Pound on the topic of genius :
The genius can pay in nugget and in lump gold ; it is not necessary that he bring up his knowledge into the mint of consciousness , stamp it either into the coin of conscientiously analyzed form @-@ detail knowledge or into the paper money of words before he transmit it .
Baker finds the most striking feature of the parable to be the absence of description of the fish . Baker asks : " Do readers of this anecdote learn about the fish , or rather about a certain kind of authoritarian teaching practice ? " Baker claims that Pound 's images of coining metal are just as unrealistic as his ideas regarding science and the scientific method . The reader , following Pound 's student , reaches knowledge through intuition alone ; the decomposing fish , so far as epistemology is concerned , has become " transparent " .
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= Rheinmetall 120 mm gun =
The Rheinmetall 120 mm gun is a smoothbore tank gun designed and produced by the West German Rheinmetall @-@ DeTec AG company , developed in response to Soviet advances in armor technology and development of new armored threats . Production began in 1974 , with the first version of the gun , known as the L / 44 as it was 44 calibers long , used on the German Leopard 2 tank and soon produced under license for the American M1A1 Abrams and other tanks . The American version , the M256 , uses a coil spring recoil system instead of a hydraulic system . The 120 @-@ millimetre ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) gun has a length of 5 @.@ 28 metres ( 17 @.@ 3 ft ) , and the gun system weighs approximately 3 @,@ 317 kilograms ( 7 @,@ 313 lb ) .
By 1990 , the L / 44 was not considered powerful enough to deal with the future Soviet armour , which stimulated an effort by Rheinmetall to develop a better main armament . This first revolved around a 140 @-@ millimetre ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) tank gun named Neue Panzerkanone 140 ( " new tank gun 140 " ) , but later turned into a compromise which led to the development of an advanced 120 mm gun , the L / 55 , based on the same internal geometry as the L / 44 and installed in the same breech and mount . The L / 55 is 1 @.@ 3 metres ( 4 @.@ 3 ft ) longer , giving an increased muzzle velocity to ammunition fired through it . As the L / 55 retains the same barrel geometry , it can fire the same ammunition as the L / 44 .
This gun was retrofitted into German and Dutch Leopard 2s , and chosen as the main gun of the Spanish Leopard 2E and the Greek Leopard 2HEL . It was tested on the British Challenger 2 as a potential replacement for its current weapon , the rifled L30 120 mm cannon .
A variety of ammunition has been developed for use by tanks with guns based on Rheinmetall 's original L / 44 design . This includes a series of kinetic energy penetrators , such as the American M829 series , and chemical energy anti @-@ tank warheads . Recent ammunition includes a wide range of new anti @-@ personnel rounds and demolition munitions , giving tanks armed with the L / 44 and its derivatives greater versatility on the modern battlefield . The LAHAT , developed in Israel , is a gun @-@ launched missile which has received interest from Germany and other Leopard 2 users , and is designed to defeat both land armour and combat helicopters . The Israelis also introduced a new anti @-@ personnel munition which limits collateral damage by controlling the fragmentation of the projectile .
= = Background = =
Because of concerns about the inability of the 105 @-@ millimetre ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) L7 tank gun then in use across NATO forces to penetrate new Soviet armor , as proved in German tests on four T @-@ 62 Soviet tanks captured by Israel following the June 1967 Six Day War , Rheinmetall was paid for the development of a new tank gun , a project started in 1965 , as the Bundeswehr felt a more powerful gun was needed for its new tanks . The first instance of a larger Soviet tank gun was witnessed on the chassis of a modified T @-@ 55 in 1961 . In 1965 , the Soviet Union 's T @-@ 62 made its first public appearance , armed with a 115 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 5 in ) smoothbore tank gun . The Soviet decision to increase the power of its tank 's main armament had come when , in the early 1960s , an Iranian tank commander defected over the Soviet border in a brand @-@ new M60 Patton tank , which was armed with the British Royal Ordnance L7 . Despite the introduction of the T @-@ 62 , in 1969 their T @-@ 64 tank was rearmed with a new 125 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) tank gun , while in 1972 Nizhny Tagil began production of the T @-@ 72 tank , also armed with the 125 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) gun . For example , at the fighting at Sultan Yakoub , during the 1982 Lebanon War , the Israeli government claimed to have destroyed nine Syrian T @-@ 72s with the Merkava main battle tank , armed with an Israeli production version of the American M68 105 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) tank gun ( which in turn was based on the British L7 ) . Whether or not true , the Soviets test @-@ fired a number of Israeli M111 Hetz armor @-@ piercing discarding sabot rounds at Kubinka , finding the 105 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) round was able to perforate the T @-@ 72 's sloped front section plate but not its turret armor . In response , the Soviets developed the T @-@ 72M1 . This led Israel to opt for a 120 mm tank gun during the development process of the Merkava III main battle tank . This case is similar to the American decision to replace the M68 105 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) tank gun with Rheinmetall 's 120 mm gun in 1976 ; the introduction of the T @-@ 64A had raised the question within the armor community whether the new ammunition for the existing gun caliber could effectively deal with the new Soviet tank .
In 1963 , Germany and the United States had already embarked on a joint tank program , known as the MBT @-@ 70 . The new tank carried a three @-@ man crew , with the driver in the turret , an automatic loader for the main gun , a 20 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) autocannon as secondary armament , an active hydropneumatic suspension and spaced armour on the glacis plate and the front turret . The new tank concept also had improved armament , a 152 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) missile @-@ launching main gun , designed to fire the MGM @-@ 51 Shillelagh anti @-@ tank missile . However , the German Army was interested in a tank gun which could fire conventional ammunition . Although there were attempts to modify the 152 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) tank gun to do so , the process proved extremely difficult , and the Germans began development of the future Rheinmetall 120 mm gun instead .
In 1967 , the German Ministry of Defense decided to re @-@ open a Leopard 1 improvement program , known as the Vergoldeter Leopard ( " Gilded Leopard " ) , later renamed the Keiler ( " Wild Boar " ) . Krauss @-@ Maffei was chosen as the contractor , and two prototypes were developed in 1969 and 1970 . This program grew into the Leopard 2 ; the first prototype of the new tank was delivered in 1972 , equipped with a 105 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) smoothbore main gun . Between 1972 and 1975 , a total of 17 prototypes were developed . The new 120 mm gun 's ten @-@ year development effort , which had begun in 1964 , ended in 1974 . Ten of the 17 turrets built were equipped with the 105 mm smoothbore gun , and the other seven were equipped with the larger 120 mm gun . Another program aimed to mount the 152 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) missile @-@ gun was also developed in an attempt to save components from the MBT @-@ 70 , but in 1971 the program was ended for economic reasons . Instead , the Germans opted for Rheinmetall 's 120 mm L / 44 smoothbore tank gun .
= = Design features = =
Rheinmetall 's L / 44 tank gun has a caliber of 120 mm , and a length of 44 calibers ( 5 @.@ 28 meters ( 17 @.@ 3 ft ) ) . The gun 's barrel weighs 1 @,@ 190 kilograms ( 2 @,@ 620 lb ) , and on the M1 Abrams the gun mount weighs 3 @,@ 317 kilograms ( 7 @,@ 313 lb ) , while the new barrel ( L / 55 ) is 55 calibers long , 1 @.@ 30 meters ( 4 @.@ 3 ft ) longer . The bore evacuator and the gun 's thermal sleeve , designed to regulate the temperature of the barrel , are made of glass @-@ reinforced plastic , while the barrel has a chrome lining to increase barrel life . Originally the gun had an EFC barrel life of ~ 1 @,@ 500 rounds , but with recent advances in propellant technology the average life has increased even further . The gun 's recoil mechanism is composed of two hydraulic retarders and a hydropneumatic assembly .
= = = Rheinmetall L / 44 120mm = = =
Production of the German Leopard 2 and the new 120 mm tank gun began in 1979 , fulfilling an order for the German Army . Although the American M1 Abrams was originally armed with the M68A1 105 mm gun ( a version of the L7 ) , the United States Army had planned to fit the tank with a larger main gun at a later date , and the tank 's turret had been designed to accommodate a larger 120 mm gun . The larger gun was integrated into the M1A1 Abrams , with the first vehicle coming off the production line in 1985 The gun , known as the M256 , was based on the L / 44 tank gun , although manufactured at Watervliet Arsenal and modified to increase the resistance of the barrels to fracture and fatigue . Tanks armed with versions of Rheinmetall 's gun produced under licence include Japan 's Type 90 and South Korea 's K1A1 . The gun had made a huge turn in technological history .
= = = Rheinmetall L / 55 120mm = = =
The appearance of new Soviet tanks such as the T @-@ 80B during the late 1970s and early 1980s demanded the development of new technologies and weapons to counter the threat posed to Western armor . The T @-@ 80B had increased firepower and a new composite ceramic armor . The T @-@ 72 also went through a modernization program in an attempt to bring it up to the standards of the T @-@ 80B . In 1985 the new T @-@ 72B version entered production , with a new laminate armor protection system ; its turret armor , designed primarily to defeat anti @-@ tank missiles , surpassed the T @-@ 80B 's in protection .
The German government began the development of the Leopard 3 , although this was canceled after the fall of the Soviet Union . On 29 October 1991 , the governments of Switzerland , the Netherlands and Germany agreed to cooperate in the development of a modernization program for the Leopard 2 . Part of this program included the introduction of a longer 120 mm tank gun , a cheaper alternative to a brand new tank gun , increasing the maximum range of the gun by an estimated 1 @,@ 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 yd ) . Although the gun is longer , allowing for a higher peak pressure from the propellant , the geometry remains the same , allowing the gun to fire the same ammunition as that fired from the shorter version . The longer barrel allows ammunition to attain higher velocities ; for example , with new kinetic energy penetrators ammunition can reach velocities of around 1 @,@ 800 m / s ( 5 @,@ 900 ft / s ) . The new barrel weighs 1 @,@ 347 kg ( 2 @,@ 970 lb ) .
The longer tank gun has been retrofitted into the Leopard 2 , creating a model known as the Leopard 2A6 . Both the Spanish Leopard 2E and the Greek Leopard 2HEL , as derivatives of the Leopard 2A6 , use the 55 caliber @-@ long tank gun .
= = Ammunition = =
A variety of rounds have been developed for Rheinmetall 's tank gun . For example , a long line of armor @-@ piercing discarding sabot ( APDS ) rounds was developed by Rheinmetall . Originally , the Leopard 2 was outfitted with the DM23 kinetic energy penetrator , based on the Israeli M111 Hetz . The DM23 was eventually replaced by the DM33 , which was also adopted by Japan , Italy , Netherlands and Switzerland . The DM33 has a three @-@ part aluminum sabot and a two @-@ part tungsten penetrator , and is said to be able to penetrate 560 millimetres ( 22 in ) of steel armor at a range of 2 @,@ 000 meters ( 2 @,@ 200 yd ) . The DM43 is a further development of this round , co @-@ developed between Germany and France . The introduction of the longer barrel came hand in hand with the introduction of a new kinetic energy penetrator , the DM53 . With the projectile including sabot weighing in at 8 @.@ 35 kilograms with a 38 : 1 length to diameter ratio and with a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 750 meters per second ( 5 @,@ 700 ft / s ) , the DM53 has an effective engagement range of up to 4 @,@ 000 meters ( 4 @,@ 400 yd ) . A further development , called the DM63 , improved upon the round by introducing a new temperature @-@ independent propellant , which allows the propellant to have a constant pattern of expansion between ambient temperatures inside the gun barrel from − 47 ° C ( − 53 ° F ) to + 71 ° C ( 160 ° F ) . The new propellant powders , known as surface @-@ coated double @-@ base ( SCDB ) propellants , allow the DM63 to be used in many climates with consistent results . The new ammunition has been accepted into service with the Dutch and Swiss , as well as German , armies .
The United States developed its own kinetic energy penetrator ( KEP ) tank round in the form of an Armor @-@ Piercing Fin @-@ Stabilized Discarding @-@ Sabot ( APFSDS ) round , using a depleted uranium ( DU ) alloy long @-@ rod penetrator ( LRP ) , designated as the M829 , followed by improved versions . An immediate improvement , known as the M829A1 , was called the " Silver Bullet " after its good combat performance during the Gulf War against Iraqi T @-@ 55s , T @-@ 62s and T @-@ 72 tanks . The M829 series centers around the depleted uranium penetrator , designed to penetrate enemy armor through kinetic energy and to shatter inside the turret , doing much damage within the tank . In 1998 , the United States military introduced the M829A2 , which has an improved depleted uranium penetrator and composite sabot petals . In 2002 , production began of the ( $ 10 @,@ 000 per round ) M829A3 using a more efficient propellant ( RPD @-@ 380 stick ) , a lighter injection @-@ molded sabot , and a longer ( 800mm ) and heavier ( 10 kg / 22 lb ) DU penetrator , which is said to be able to defeat the latest versions of Russian Kontakt @-@ 5 explosive reactive armor ( ERA ) . This variant is unofficially referred to by Abrams tank crews as the " super sabot " . In response to the M829A3 , the Russian army designed Relikt , the most modern Russian ERA , which is claimed to be twice as effective as Kontakt @-@ 5 . A further improved M829E4 round with a segmented penetrator to defeat Relikt has been under development since 2011 and was to be fielded as the M829A4 in 2015 .
Both Germany and the United States have developed several other rounds . These include the German DM12 multi @-@ purpose anti @-@ tank projectile ( MPAT ) , based on the technology in a high explosive anti @-@ tank ( HEAT ) warhead . However , it has been found that the DM12 's armor @-@ killing abilities are limited by the lack of blast and fragmentation effects , and that the round is less valuable against lightly armored targets . The United States also has a MPAT type projectile , known as the M830 . This was later developed into the M830A1 , which allows the M1 Abrams to use the round against helicopters . The M1 Abrams can use the M1028 canister round , which is an anti @-@ personnel / anti @-@ helicopter munition , packed with over 1 @,@ 000 tungsten balls . The United States Armed Forces accepted a new demolition round , called the M908 Obstacle Defeating Round , based on the M830A1 MPAT , but with the proximity fuse replaced by a hardened nose cap . The cap allows the round to impact and embed itself in concrete , then exploding inside the target and causing more damage .
The Israeli Army introduced a new round known as the Laser Homing Anti @-@ Tank ( LAHAT ) projectile . Using a semi @-@ active laser homing guidance method , the LAHAT can be guided by the tank 's crew or by teams on the ground , while the missile 's trajectory can be selected to either attack from the top ( to defeat enemy armor ) or direct attack ( to engage enemy helicopters ) . Furthermore , the missile can be fired by both 105 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) and 120 mm tank guns . The LAHAT has been offered as an option for the Leopard 2 , and has been marketed by both Israel Military Industries and Rheinmetall to Leopard 2 users . Israeli Merkavas make use of a round known as the APAM , which is an anti @-@ personnel munition designed to release fragmentation at controlled intervals to limit the extent of damage . Fragments are shaped to have enough kinetic energy to penetrate body armor .
Poland has introduced a series of projectiles for Rheinmetall 's tank gun , including an armor @-@ piercing penetrator target practice round ( APFSDS @-@ T @-@ TP ) , a high @-@ explosive round , and a high @-@ explosive target practice ( HE @-@ TP ) projectile . The ammunition is manufactured by Zakłady Produkcji Specjalnej Sp. z o.o.
= = Operators = =
Due to tank sales , Rheinmetall 's L / 44 tank gun has been manufactured for other nations . For example , the Leopard 2 armed with the 44 caliber long gun , has been sold to the Netherlands , Switzerland , Sweden , Spain , Austria , Denmark , Finland , and other countries . Egypt had manufactured 700 – 800 M1A1 Abrams by 2005 , and in 2008 requested permission to build another 125 tanks ; their M256 main guns ( the US version of the L / 44 ) were manufactured by Watervliet Arsenal . The M1A1 has also been exported to Australia , while the M1A2 Abrams has been exported to Saudi Arabia and Kuwait . The American license @-@ built M256 has also been offered by General Dynamics Land Systems as part of the M60 @-@ 2000 Main Battle Tank which would upgrade older M60 Patton tanks to have capabilities of their M1A1 Abrams at a reduced cost , though the company has not yet found a buyer .
The Leopard 2A6 and its longer L / 55 main gun have been exported for use by the Canadian Army , and the Netherlands upgraded part of its original fleet of Leopard 2s with the more powerful armament . The British Army has tested Rheinmetall 's longer gun , possibly looking to replace the current L30A1 120 mm L / 55 rifled main gun on the Challenger 2 . Two Challenger 2s were modified to undergo firing trials . World Industries Ace Corporation ( WIA ) , a Korea @-@ based powertrain company affiliated with Hyundai Kia Motors Group , is also producing the L / 55 under license for the new K2 Black Panther , a fourth generation South Korean main battle tank .
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= Tyntesfield =
Tyntesfield is a Victorian Gothic Revival house and estate near Wraxall , North Somerset , England . The house is a Grade I listed building named after the Tynte baronets , who had owned estates in the area since about 1500 . The location was formerly that of a 16th @-@ century hunting lodge , which was used as a farmhouse until the early 19th century . In the 1830s a Georgian mansion was built on the site , which was bought by English businessman William Gibbs , whose huge fortune came from guano used as fertilizer . In the 1860s Gibbs had the house significantly expanded and remodelled ; a chapel was added in the 1870s . The Gibbs family owned the house until the death of Richard Gibbs in 2001 .
Tyntesfield was purchased by the National Trust in June 2002 , after a fundraising campaign to prevent it being sold to private interests and ensure it would be open to the public . The house was opened to visitors for the first time just 10 weeks after the acquisition , and as more rooms are restored they are added to the tour .
The mansion was visited by 216 @,@ 759 people in 2014 , a rise of 1 per cent on the previous year .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
The land on which the house and its estate were developed was originally part of the Tynte family estate . The family had lived in the area since the 1500s , but their primary residence was Halswell House in Goathurst , near Bridgwater .
By the late 1700s , John Tynte owned what is now the Tyntesfield estate ; at that time the house was approached by an avenue of elm trees , planted after they were bequeathed in the 1678 will of Sir Charles Harbord to the people of Wraxall in memory of two boys he had apprenticed from the village . The Tynte 's had originally lived on the estate , but by the early 1800s , John had made Chelvey Court in Brockley his principal residence . Tynte 's Place was downgraded to a farmhouse and leased to John Vowles . In 1813 , George Penrose Seymour of the adjoining Belmont estate purchased the property and gave it to his son , the Rev. George Turner Seymour . He in turn built a new Georgian mansion on the site of the former Saddler 's Tenement , and demolished the old farmhouse . Further remodelling was undertaken by Robert Newton of Nailsea .
= = = Purchase by the Gibbs family = = =
In 1843 , the property was bought by businessman William Gibbs , who made his fortune in the family business , Antony Gibbs & Sons . From 1847 the firm had an effective monopoly in the import and marketing to Europe and North America of guano from Peru as a fertilizer . This was mined by indentured Chinese labour on the Chincha Islands in conditions which the Peruvian government acknowledged in 1856 had degenerated " into a kind of Negro slave trade " . The firm 's profits from this trade were such that William Gibbs became the richest non @-@ noble man in England .
Throughout his life , William Gibbs and his wife Matilda Blanche Crawley @-@ Boevey ( known as Blanche ) , principally lived in London , for the greater part of his marriage at 16 Hyde Park Gardens , which the family owned until Blanche 's death . But as he travelled regularly on business to the Port of Bristol he required a residence in the area ; thus it was , in 1843 , he came to buy Tyntes Place , which he subsequently renamed Tyntesfield . Within a few years of making his purchase , Gibbs began a major program of rebuilding and enlarging of the mansion .
The architectural style selected for the rebuilding was a loose Gothic combining many forms and reinventions of the medieval style . The choice of Gothic was influenced by William and Blanche Gibb 's Anglo @-@ Catholic beliefs as a followers of the Oxford Movement . This wing of the Anglican Church advocated the view set out in the architect Augustus Pugin 's 1836 book Contrasts , which argued for the revival of the medieval Gothic style , and " a return to the faith and the social structures of the Middle Ages " . The Oxford Movement , of which both Pugin and Gibbs were disciples , later took this philosophy a step further and claimed that the Gothic style was the only architecture suitable for Christian worship . Thus it became a symbolic display of Christian beliefs and lifestyle , and was embraced by devout Victorians such as Gibbs . The completion of the mansion 's chapel further accentuated the building 's medieval monastical air so beloved by the Oxford Movement 's devotees . When completed , the ecclesiastical design was reinforced by a dominating square tower with a steeply pitched roof adorned by four tourelles , which was demolished in 1935 .
= = = Redevelopment = = =
In 1854 William Gibbs commissioned John Gregory Crace , an architect he was already using elsewhere , to redesign and decorate the principal rooms at Tyntesfield . These new designs included gilded panelling , woodwork , moulding and chimneypieces all in the Gothic style .
Rebuilding work did not begin in earnest until 1863 , when William Gibbs had the property substantially remodelled in a Gothic Revival style . William Cubitt & Co. were the builders and John Norton was the architect . Norton 's design enveloped the original house . He added an extra floor , two new wings and towers . Norton emphasised the importance of architectural continuity in restoration and rebuilding relating to several historical periods . As a result , while some walls remained plain , others were adorned with Gothic and naturalistic carvings to fit in with the previous architectural styles .
= = = = Design = = = =
The house is built of two types of Bath Stone , and is highly picturesque , bristling with turrets and possessing an elaborate roof . The combined effect of the architecture and chosen materials has been described by journalist Sir Simon Jenkins as " severe " . During restoration , stonemasons either conserved or , on occasion , copy @-@ carving new sections , carving new mouldings to replace standard architectural elements that formed the weathering , as well repointing most of the miles of lime pointing . All stone was accurately matched to the original , with Veyzeys quarry near Tetbury providing Cotswold oolitic limestone . The house , which includes the servants ' wing and the chapel , was made a Grade II * listed building in 1973 , and has since been upgraded to Grade I.
The front ( facing east over the gardens towards Backwell Hill ) and north ( entrance courtyard ) are faced in one shade of ochreous Bath Stone , while the south ( rear ) , which is mainly allocated to the service area and servants quarters , is faced in cheaper red @-@ tinged Draycott marble rubble , and has some plastered finishes . All facades have many Gothic main windows , Tudor oriel windows , chimneys and attic dormers . Norton topped the design with an irregular roof , its various pitches and gables emphasising the building 's asymmetrical architecture . The final external addition was a huge ironwork conservatory by Hart , Son , Peard and Co. to the rear . The end result was described by novelist Charlotte Mary Yonge , a cousin of Blanche Gibbs , as " like a church in spirit " .
The interiors were also in the Gothic style . Crace was again engaged to remodel the interiors , in some places extending or adapting his initial works , in others providing new schemes . Other notable features of the house are glass by Powell and Wooldridge , ironwork by Hart , Son , Peard and Co. and mosaics by Salviati . George Plucknett was Cubitt 's foreman , who was related to James Plunkett of Collier and Plucknett , furniture makers of Warwick . The result was that Gibbs ordered a number of specially commissioned pieces from the firm , including a fully fitted bathroom for his wife . All of these fine pieces of craftsmanship were added to by Gibb 's expanding collection of artworks .
While the reconstruction on the house was being undertaken , William Gibbs had rented Mamhead Park in Devon . The total cost of redevelopment to create a house with 23 main bedrooms and 47 in total including servants ' accommodation came to £ 70 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 6 @,@ 040 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) . The sum was equivalent to 18 months gross profit from all of Gibbs 's business interests . After completion of the main building works , Gibbs created more cash by selling shares in Antony Gibbs & Sons to his nephew Henry Hucks Gibbs ( later Lord Aldenham ) , which enabled him to purchase two adjoining properties – including Belmont to the east from his nephew George Lewis Monck Gibbs – to create a farming estate , founded on dairy production and forestry management . Added to further by later land purchases , at its peak the Tyntesfield estate spanned over 6 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 400 ha ) , encompassing 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 400 ha ) of forestry , from Portishead in the north to south of the valley in which the main house lay . The house and estate employed more than 500 workers .
= = = Chapel = = =
Gibbs ' final addition to Tyntesfield was added between 1872 and 1877 , when he commissioned Arthur Blomfield to add a Gothic chapel to the north side of the house . Modelled on Sainte @-@ Chapelle in Paris , it housed an organ by William Hill & Sons , and below a vault in which Gibbs intended to be buried . However , combined opposition from both the vicar of the local All Saints Church , Wraxall and the church 's patron , a member of the Gorges family , led to the Bishop of Bath and Wells decreeing that he would not sanction the consecration of Tyntesfield 's chapel , through fears that it would take power away from the local population fully into Gibb 's hands . Despite this , the chapel formed a central part of life at Tyntesfield , and prayers were said twice @-@ daily by the family and their guests . Throughout their period of residence , the family would also open the chapel to local people on an annual basis , often during Rogation days and at Christmas . In praise of the resultant final building , Yonge described the chapel as the final completion of the Tyntesfield project , providing " a character to the household almost resembling that of Little Gidding " . Little Gidding in Huntingdonshire was the home of Nicholas Ferrar during the reign of Charles I who was much idealized by 19th @-@ century Anglo @-@ Catholics .
= = Owners = =
= = = William Gibbs : 1846 – 75 = = =
Seven children were born to William and Matilda . All were devout Anglicans , with William and his wife being supporters of the Oxford Movement . He was a major benefactor of Keble College , Oxford , and dedicated the later part of his life to philanthropic works . Also being teetotal , he added to the estate 's holding by buying the local Failand Inn , which enabled him to control any riotous behaviour ( it was sold to Courage Brewery in 1962 by the second Lord Wraxall ) . William Gibbs died in the house on 3 April 1875 . After a service at the estate chapel on 9 April , 30 estate workers carried his coffin to All Saints Church , Wraxall . He is buried within the family plot in the church grounds .
= = = Antony Gibbs : 1875 – 1907 = = =
The estate then passed to William 's eldest son Antony . After graduating with a Master of Arts degree from Exeter College , Oxford , he joined the North Somerset Yeomanry where he attained the rank of Major . He married Janet Louisa Merivale on 22 June 1872 , and returned to Tyntesfield to manage the family estate . Antony held various positions of authority , including Justice of the Peace and later Deputy Lieutenant of Somerset . The couple had 10 children .
During the 1880s , Antony had Henry Woodyer redesign the hallway staircase . This allowed more light to permeate the lower floors from the glazed lantern roof , and hence turn the hallway into a reception room . Woodyer also extended the Dining Room by taking in part of the original housekeeper 's room . Crace 's original wallpaper – a British imitation of Japanese paper , that itself imitated Spanish tooled leather – was lightened by a 14 @-@ year @-@ old apprentice who hand @-@ painted in a cream background . The sideboard , which had been commissioned from Collier and Plucknett , was further extended . New items were also ordered from Collier and Plucknett . Simultaneously , Antony had electricity installed , an early UK example of houses being lit in this way . Antony spent the first night after turning on the electrical system watching the main entrance light , to ensure that it did not create a fire and was hence safe for his family . At some point between 1868 and 1884 a water hydraulic lift was installed by Waygood and Co . , the remains of which were discovered in 2008 . A wooden lift car was discovered on the ground floor and a 55 @-@ inch ( 1 @,@ 400 mm ) spanning sheave in the roof space .
= = = George Abraham Gibbs , 1st Baron Wraxall : 1907 – 31 = = =
George Abraham Gibbs , 1st Baron Wraxall served as a colonel in the North Somerset Yeomanry and served heroically in the Boer War campaign . On his return to England he married the Hon. Victoria Florence de Burgh Long ; the couple moved to Clyst St George in Devon . Between 1918 and 1928 , he served as MP for Bristol West and was elevated to the peerage as Baron Wraxall in 1928 , for which his appointment as Treasurer of the Household had been instrumental .
Under his ownership , the Drawing Room was redecorated in a Renaissance Venetian style , In the process , Crace 's stencilling was over painted and then covered by damasked silk , the Norton fireplace was removed , the furniture replaced with Edwardian pieces , and the carpet dyed by Sketchleys . In 1917 , to assist the war effort , the ironwork conservatory was razed , and its ironwork melted down for ammunition .
Survived by a daughter , Albina , George 's first wife died at Tyntesfield from influenza in 1920 . In 1927 , George married Ursula Mary Lawley , a daughter of Sir Arthur Lawley ( later the 6th and last Baron Wenlock ) . The couple had two sons , George ( known as Richard ) and Eustace . George died at Tyntesfield on 28 October 1931 , aged 58 .
= = = Ursula , Lady Wraxall : 1931 – 79 = = =
Lord Wraxall 's widow , Ursula , Lady Wraxall , was left with two children under two years of age , little income , and a large estate . Noted for her efficiency and practicality , when the clock tower , the focal point of the house , needed substantial repairs in 1935 to overcome dry and wet rot , she simply had it disassembled , stored the metal parts for possible later usage and realigned the roof as if the clock tower had never existed .
During the Second World War , Clifton High School was relocated to the property , and in 1941 the U.S. Army Medical Corps established a facility for wounded soldiers , known as the 74th General Hospital , in the estate grounds . The construction of this temporary tented village resulted in the US Army Engineers breaching what was then England 's longest holly hedge . With many tents later replaced by prefabricated buildings and some nissen huts , at one point in the war following D @-@ Day it became the largest US Army hospital in Europe . During the hostilities , management of the estate 's farmland was assumed by the Ministry of Agriculture ( MoA ) , leaving Lady Wraxall only the Home Farm .
Bombs often landed on the estate during the blitz of Bristol . In September 1940 , during a raid on the Bristol Aeroplane Company factory at Filton , bombs cut off the estate 's water supply , and during a later raid , one bomb badly damaged the lantern roof light over the hallway . In 1946 , after the end of the war , Lady Wraxall applied to the Ministry of Defence for a repair grant , but was turned down . As a result damp , and latterly birds , entered the house through the roof light , until the house came into the ownership of the National Trust and was repaired .
= = = Richard Gibbs , 2nd Baron Wraxall : 1979 – 2001 = = =
George Richard Lawley Gibbs , known as Richard , was born on 16 May 1928 , and was educated at Eton College and Sandhurst . He spent eight years with the Coldstream Guards . He never married and was succeeded by his brother , Sir Eustace Gibbs , a diplomat , who became the third Baron Wraxall .
Richard died unmarried in 2001 from complications arising from an asthma attack , having reduced his usage of the substantial accommodation within Tyntesfield to just three rooms .
= = National Trust purchase = =
Concerned with the demolition and desecration of various historic country houses since the end of the Second World War – 450 great houses were completely demolished in England between 1945 and 1955 – in the 1970s the National Trust commissioned architect Mark Girouard to catalogue and assess the remaining Victorian country houses across the United Kingdom for significance and structural integrity . He published his findings in a report , and later in the book The Victorian Country House , which in the revised second edition of 1976 included Tyntesfield as allowing access . With the Trust as a result placing Tyntesfield second on its list of priorities for preservation , Girouard said of the property :
There is no other Victorian country house which so richly represents its age as Tyntesfield .
In his later life , Richard Gibbs recognised that the diverse interests of the large family , and the need to invest heavily in even basic refurbishment of the house to make it weather @-@ secured and habitable , would require the family to sell Tyntesfield . Recognising also that substantial death duties would become payable on his death , Richard drew up a will based around a trust that would allow his fortune to pass to the surviving children of his brother and half sister , a total of 19 beneficiaries .
When Richard died , the trust he had set up stated that , should the trustees agree by majority that the estate should be sold , such a sale should be completed within 12 months , and to the highest bidder . The house and estate of 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 400 ha ) of farmland , 650 acres ( 260 ha ) of woodlands , plus 30 houses and cottages , were listed for sale by Savills in three main lots ( total estimated at £ 15 million ) ; with Christie 's contracted to secure the sale of the house and estate contents via a separate auction ( total estimated at a further £ 15 million ) .
Having not bought a county house since the 1991 purchase of Chastleton House , which took seven years to open to the public , and competing with no special status amongst the bidders , the rumoured competitors to the Trust were listed by the media to have included composer Lord Andrew Lloyd Webber , and pop stars Madonna and Kylie Minogue . However , the new Director @-@ General of the National Trust , Fiona Reynolds , launched a £ 35 million appeal in May 2002 via the " Save Tyntesfield " campaign , with support from designer Laurence Llewelyn @-@ Bowen , newsreader Jon Snow and several top architects and historians . The Trust 's appeal collected £ 8 @.@ 2 million in just 100 days , with : £ 3 million + from the public ; and two substantial anonymous donations of £ 1 million and £ 4 million . The Trust also received funding from the National Heritage Memorial Fund , totaling £ 17 @.@ 4 million after negotiations with its chair , Liz Forgan , its largest single grant ever which caused some controversy . The National Lottery has earmarked a further £ 25 million for the major conservation work that is needed .
As a result of the auction , the former " Tyntesfield Estate " no longer exists . The National Trust purchased only the main central part of the Estate which comprises the house , the kitchen garden , and the park . The trust also sold off additional lands . The resultant preserved house and surrounding gardens sat on a total of 150 acres ( 61 ha ) of land are now simply known as Tyntesfield . Charlton Farm , is now home to Children 's Hospice South West , which provides palliative care to children with terminal illnesses . Charlton House was sold into private hands , having been since 1927 the home of the Downs School .
= = = Initial conservation = = =
After taking ownership in 2002 , National Trust staff secured the house and gardens , preserving them and the contents , and then catalogued the contents of the house which had been collected by the four generations of the family . Starting out with a staff of 30 volunteers , by 2013 the total of employed and volunteer staff exceeded 600 , more than the number engaged by any other National Trust property .
The initial conservation work focused around weatherproofing the house . The repair of the roof , which is 20 times the size of the average British families home , was made possible by the erection of an extensive free @-@ standing scaffold roof structure . At the height of the restoration works , 28 miles ( 45 km ) of scaffolding tubes covered the building 's entire exterior . This allowed over 18 months repairs and restoration to take place , including the final restoration of the original bold red and black tiled geometric diaper pattern . The entire property was rewired with special cabling , copper sheathed ( fire and rodent proofed ) . Much of the original lead piping was replaced and a fireproofing scheme , mainly through the design of a suitable compartmentation system was designed and implemented . Interior scaffolding was installed in the 43 feet ( 13 m ) high hallway to repair the lantern rooflight , and to provide access to other high points of the interior . These initial works cost more than £ 10 million , much of which was raised through donations via the " Save Tyntesfield " campaign and the sale of lottery tickets to visitors .
The Trust had been reluctant to allow visitors to the house while work was underway , especially taking into account the costs of Health and Safety requirements and the delays these could cause to the essential preservation works . But the need for cash dictated the answer , and the Trust learnt that , through giving the public close access to the preservation works , they actually gave more additional donations as a result of seeing where their money was going and how they were making a difference .
= = Estate = =
= = = House interior = = =
Principal rooms include the Library , Drawing Room , Billiard Room , Dining Room and Chapel . During restoration , the National Trust , for the first time , allowed visitors to become involved in the restoration process and " witness the challenge of bringing Tyntesfield back to life . "
The Library is regarded as the most important gentleman 's library in the possession of the Trust . The carpet and some of the furnishings in the Library were designed by Crace , whilst the book collection is the most extensive Victorian library collection owned by the Trust .
The centre of the house is occupied by the hallway and staircase , which show the greatest number of changes since the original design .
Once the Trust took ownership , scaffolding was placed in the hallway to repair the roof lantern . While this was in place the architectural paint analyst Lisa Oestreicher was able to examine the decorative scheme that had been used in the spaces and room frequented by the public . Three principal phases were identified : 1860s original ; 1870s updates and adaptions ; 1887 – 90 redecoration , which returned the main spaces to the original green colours and motifs created by Crace . Once lantern repairs were complete , the Trust replaced the elderly chenille carpet destroyed by contractors working for Christie 's with a new Wilton carpet with a replica design by Linney Cooper , bought with £ 45 @,@ 000 from public lottery donations .
= = = Contents = = =
Christie 's originally estimated the house contents at in excess of 10 @,@ 000 items , but by 2008 a total of 30 @,@ 000 items had been listed including : William Butterfield designed silver ; original print books by Pugin and Ruskin ; an unexploded Second World War bomb ; a jewel @-@ encrusted chalice ; a roll of 19th @-@ century flock wallpaper ; and a coconut with carved face and hair . By 2013 the inventory had risen to 47 @,@ 154 items , with still more rooms to unpack and catalog .
= = = Paintings = = =
Many of the family 's extensive collection of paintings , most sourced from Spain by William , were donated to the Trust . In part this was due to their poor condition , which involved not just water but also ironically guano damage . The most important painting in the collection is the 17th @-@ century work by Zambrano of St Lawrence , which hangs in the middle of one of the walls of the hall . It was cleaned and repaired by local art conservators Bush and Berry , who are based in a chapel William Gibbs built in the village of Flax Bourton . In 2011 the Trust bought the painting The Mater Dolorosa ( Mother of Sorrows ) by Bartolomé Esteban Murillo at Christie 's auction in New York , which had hung at Tyntesfield since William purchased it until some time after 1910 .
= = = Home Farm Visitor Centre = = =
The Home Farm buildings were built in the 1880s , split over two levels . To the south is a two @-@ storey covered yard with a timber roof structure , used for the rearing of farm animals . On the upper level is the main yard , where to the east and west are two wings , one side of which housed the former piggery . The farm offices make up the north wing , to fully enclose the square but gently south @-@ sloping yard .
The Grade II * listed buildings needed full renovation , which took a secondary priority in the Trust 's plans after the house . The Trust have converted the buildings into an integrated and self @-@ contained visitor centre , which opened in mid @-@ 2011 with :
Upper yard :
Ticket and information office
Demonstration area : country crafts from visiting crafts people
Plant centre : excess plants raised by the gardeners are sold to raise funds
Farm @-@ themed play area
Secondhand books stall : proceeds from which raise funds for the Trust
Restaurant : the former two @-@ story covered yard has been fully renovated and converted into a cafe / restaurant ; it also houses the gift shop . A new @-@ build staircase , lift and bridge walkway all in steel provide access from the upper yard
A separate building to the east provides power and heat to the visitor centre , using a combination of solar thermal panels , photovoltaic cells and a biomass boiler .
= = = Park = = =
The house sits within 150 acres ( 61 ha ) of parkland , which the Trust gained from the auction and retained around the property to preserve the house within its environment . The wooded park leads down a tree @-@ lined drive to balustraded terraces , and paths lead to the rose garden , summer houses , the aviary and the former concrete @-@ lined lake , which has been empty since the Second World War .
= = = Kitchen garden = = =
The kitchen garden includes glasshouses and frames , the large classical Orangery and quarters for the gardeners .
= = = Orangery = = =
The Grade II * listed Orangery was once the architectural focal point of the kitchen garden complex . But when the Trust bought the property , the Orangery was in such a precarious state of deterioration that it was on English Heritage 's Heritage at Risk Register in the highest priority category , A.
Built in 1897 , it is a rare surviving example of a late Victorian orangery in the Classical style , constructed from ashlar and red brick . It has a seven @-@ bay east / west plan with central entrances and three bays north / south , topped by a fully glazed ironwork hipped @-@ roof . An entablature with protruding horizontal geison sits above Ionic half @-@ column supports and corner pilasters . The centre entrance bay on the west front towards the kitchen garden breaks forward as a portico , with pairs of giant engaged columns and broken pediment with a small oculus . Between each pair of columns are large round @-@ headed windows with Gibbs surrounds and keystones .
To preserve and restore the Orangery , the Trust teamed @-@ up with City of Bath College and Nimbus Conservation Ltd in an innovative partnership , whereby 12 trainee stonemasons worked alongside professional craftsmen to hone their skills and carry out the specialist stonework needed . The Trust also introduced workshops for other restoration professionals , academics and eventually opened them to interested members of the public , where all were educated in a hands @-@ on environment in the skills required to repair the building . For this crafts @-@ based training initiative , in 2011 the Trust won a Daily Telegraph sponsored English Heritage Angel Award .
The budget for the works was £ 420 @,@ 000 , with initial work focused on stabilising the foundations and lower masonry . Much of this was achieved through the injection of stabilising materials into the foundations , which needed time to cure and solidify . Works then progressed to the walls and roof , and finally the decorative embellishments . Today , while part of the Orangery is a dedicated café , the rest is an international education centre of excellence for the Trust , training new craftsmen and restoration specialists .
= = = Aviary = = =
The aviary at Tyntesfield is situated to the west of the house , adjacent to the footings of the old conservatory . It was built in 1880 to house exotic birds , but was converted into a playhouse for Doreen , the first Lord Wraxall 's daughter . The aviary is considered one of the most distinctive features of the estate , and is Grade II listed .
= = = Sawmill = = =
Located on a site originally occupied by a foreman 's office when the land was used for quarrying , the new sawmill building was completed in 1899 , providing electricity via two enclosed steam engines and pneumatic power across the estate . The engines were housed in what is now called the Engine Room , while the Lantern Room held multiple lead acid batteries . After opening , the decision was made to relocate the estate 's entire sawmill to the building , to enable better access to electrical power . The steam engines were replaced by diesel generators , and electricity was provided from the national grid post @-@ WW2 . In the 1960s , the sawmill was decommissioned and all wood sold to third party contractors to be converted into sawn wood products .
Under the Trust 's ownership the sawmill has been renovated and converted into a combined learning , educational and rentable function space for businesses and members of the public . It is most often used by National Trust staff and volunteers to educate visiting school groups . The building now houses the biomass boiler for the main house , which saves 141 tonnes of CO2 a year over the old oil @-@ fired boiler . Another section of the former wood shed was used as a new roost site for bat species , creating a " bat palace " . The centre was opened in May 2009 by Dame Jenny Abramsky , Chair of the Heritage Lottery Fund , who partially funded the works .
= = = Wildlife = = =
= = = = Bats = = = =
Ten of the seventeen species of UK bat are found on the property , eight within the structure of the house alone . Species found include the rare and threatened lesser horseshoe bat and greater horseshoe bat . Maintenance work is timed to fit in with hibernating and mating schedules , and new roosts are created during any building work . Visitors may see some of the property 's bats on a closed @-@ circuit television system .
= = Visitor access = =
Visitor access is via the main entrance on the B3128 road , which can be accessed from the M5 motorway following the signs from either junction 19 or 20 . Free parking is available 50 metres ( 160 ft ) from the Home Farm Visitor Centre and ticket office . The nearest train station is Nailsea and Backwell , which is just over 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) away . A frequent bus service runs from Bristol Bus Station .
The Home Farm Visitor Centre is the first point of access , and provides various services including a cafe , restaurant , shop , toilets and the ticket office . Charges for entry are made either to the estate and gardens , or the house and estate gardens . Entry to the house is via timed ticket in 30 @-@ minute entry blocks . There is a 400 @-@ metre ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) walkway from the visitor centre to the house through the gardens and some woods , or a bio @-@ diesel bus can be taken along a route via the house to the Orangery .
Attractions vary by season , but include six geocaching trails . Various walks focusing on wildlife and habitats are all located on public rights of way , enabling them to be access without charge throughout the year .
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= Cat =
The domestic cat ( Latin : Felis catus ) or the feral cat ( Latin : Felis silvestris catus ) is a small , typically furry , carnivorous mammal . They are often called house cats when kept as indoor pets or simply cats when there is no need to distinguish them from other felids and felines . Cats are often valued by humans for companionship and for their ability to hunt vermin . There are more than 70 cat breeds ; different associations proclaim different numbers according to their standards .
Cats are similar in anatomy to the other felids , with a strong , flexible body , quick reflexes , sharp retractable claws , and teeth adapted to killing small prey . Cat senses fit a crepuscular and predatory ecological niche . Cats can hear sounds too faint or too high in frequency for human ears , such as those made by mice and other small animals . They can see in near darkness . Like most other mammals , cats have poorer color vision and a better sense of smell than humans . Cats , despite being solitary hunters , are a social species and cat communication includes the use of a variety of vocalizations ( mewing , purring , trilling , hissing , growling , and grunting ) , as well as cat pheromones and types of cat @-@ specific body language .
Cats have a high breeding rate . Under controlled breeding , they can be bred and shown as registered pedigree pets , a hobby known as cat fancy . Failure to control the breeding of pet cats by neutering and the abandonment of former household pets has resulted in large numbers of feral cats worldwide , requiring population control . This has contributed , along with habitat destruction and other factors , to the extinction of many bird species . Cats have been known to extirpate a bird species within specific regions and may have contributed to the extinction of isolated island populations . Cats are thought to be primarily , though not solely , responsible for the extinction of 33 species of birds , and the presence of feral and free ranging cats makes some locations unsuitable for attempted species reintroduction in otherwise suitable locations .
Since cats were venerated in ancient Egypt , they were commonly believed to have been domesticated there , but there may have been instances of domestication as early as the Neolithic from around 9 @,@ 500 years ago ( 7 @,@ 500 BC ) . A genetic study in 2007 concluded that domestic cats are descended from Near Eastern wildcats , having diverged around 8 @,@ 000 BC in West Asia . A 2016 study found that leopard cats were undergoing domestication independently in China around 5 @,@ 500 BC , though this line of partially domesticated cats leaves no trace in the domesticated populations of today .
As of a 2007 study , cats are the second most popular pet in the United States by number of pets owned , behind the first , which is freshwater fish .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
The felids are a rapidly evolving family of mammals that share a common ancestor only 10 – 15 million years ago and include lions , tigers , cougars and many others . Within this family , domestic cats ( Felis catus ) are part of the genus Felis , which is a group of small cats containing about seven species ( depending upon classification scheme ) . Members of the genus are found worldwide and include the jungle cat ( Felis chaus ) of southeast Asia , European wildcat ( F. silvestris silvestris ) , African wildcat ( F. s. lybica ) , the Chinese mountain cat ( F. bieti ) , and the Arabian sand cat ( F. margarita ) , among others .
The domestic cat was first classified as Felis catus by Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae published in 1758 . Because of modern phylogenetics , domestic cats are usually regarded as another subspecies of the wildcat , F. silvestris . This has resulted in mixed usage of the terms , as the domestic cat can be called by its subspecies name , Felis silvestris catus . Wildcats have also been referred to as various subspecies of F. catus , but in 2003 , the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature fixed the name for wildcats as F. silvestris . The most common name in use for the domestic cat remains F. catus , following a convention for domesticated animals of using the earliest ( the senior ) synonym proposed . Sometimes , the domestic cat has been called Felis domesticus or Felis domestica , as proposed by German naturalist J. C. P. Erxleben in 1777 but these are not valid taxonomic names and have been used only rarely in scientific literature , because Linnaeus 's binomial takes precedence . A population of Transcaucasian black feral cats was once classified as Felis daemon ( Satunin 1904 ) but now this population is considered to be a part of domestic cat .
All the cats in this genus share a common ancestor that probably lived around 6 – 7 million years ago in Asia . The exact relationships within the Felidae are close but still uncertain , e.g. the Chinese mountain cat is sometimes classified ( under the name Felis silvestris bieti ) as a subspecies of the wildcat , like the North African variety F. s. lybica .
In comparison to dogs , cats have not undergone major changes during the domestication process , as the form and behavior of the domestic cat is not radically different from those of wildcats and domestic cats are perfectly capable of surviving in the wild . Fully domesticated house cats often interbreed with feral F. catus populations . This limited evolution during domestication means that hybridisation can occur with many other felids , notably the Asian leopard cat . Several natural behaviors and characteristics of wildcats may have predisposed them for domestication as pets . These traits include their small size , social nature , obvious body language , love of play and relatively high intelligence . Several small felid species may have an inborn tendency towards tameness .
Cats have either a mutualistic or commensal relationship with humans . Two main theories are given about how cats were domesticated . In one , people deliberately tamed cats in a process of artificial selection as they were useful predators of vermin . This has been criticized as implausible , because the reward for such an effort may have been too little ; cats generally do not carry out commands and although they do eat rodents , other species such as ferrets or terriers may be better at controlling these pests . The alternative idea is that cats were simply tolerated by people and gradually diverged from their wild relatives through natural selection , as they adapted to hunting the vermin found around humans in towns and villages .
= = Nomenclature and etymology = =
The English word ' cat ' ( Old English catt ) is in origin a loanword , introduced to many languages of Europe from Latin cattus and Byzantine Greek κάττα , including Portuguese and Spanish gato , French chat , German Katze , Lithuanian katė , and Old Church Slavonic kotka , among others . The ultimate source of the word is Afroasiatic , presumably from Late Egyptian čaute , the feminine of čaus " wildcat " . An alternative word with cognates in many languages is English ' puss ' ( ' pussycat ' ) . Attested only from the 16th century , it may have been introduced from Dutch poes or from Low German puuskatte , related to Swedish kattepus , or Norwegian pus , pusekatt . Similar forms exist in Lithuanian puižė and Irish puiscín . The etymology of this word is unknown , but it may have simply arisen from a sound used to attract a cat .
A group of cats is referred to as a " clowder " or a " glaring " , a male cat is called a " tom " or " tomcat " ( or a " gib " , if neutered ) , an unaltered female is called a " queen " , and a juvenile cat is referred to as a " kitten " . The male progenitor of a cat , especially a pedigreed cat , is its " sire " , and its female progenitor is its " dam " . In Early Modern English , the word ' kitten ' was interchangeable with the now @-@ obsolete word ' catling ' .
A pedigreed cat is one whose ancestry is recorded by a cat fancier organization . A purebred cat is one whose ancestry contains only individuals of the same breed . Many pedigreed and especially purebred cats are exhibited as show cats . Cats of unrecorded , mixed ancestry are referred to as domestic short @-@ haired or domestic long @-@ haired cats , by coat type , or commonly as random @-@ bred , moggies ( chiefly British ) , or ( using terms borrowed from dog breeding ) mongrels or mutt @-@ cats .
While the African wildcat is the ancestral subspecies from which domestic cats are descended , and wildcats and domestic cats can completely interbreed ( Being subspecies of the same species ) , several intermediate stages occur between domestic pet and pedigree cats on one hand and those entirely wild animals on the other . The semiferal cat , a mostly outdoor cat , is not owned by any one individual , but is generally friendly to people and may be fed by several households . Feral cats are associated with human habitation areas and may be fed by people or forage for food , but are typically wary of human interaction .
= = Biology = =
= = = Anatomy = = =
Domestic cats are similar in size to the other members of the genus Felis , typically weighing between 4 and 5 kg ( 9 and 10 lb ) . Some breeds , however , such as the Maine Coon , can occasionally exceed 11 kg ( 24 lb ) . Conversely , very small cats , less than 2 kg ( 4 lb ) , have been reported . The world record for the largest cat is 21 kg ( 50 lb ) . The smallest adult cat ever officially recorded weighed around 1 kg ( 2 lb ) . Feral cats tend to be lighter as they have more limited access to food than house cats . In the Boston area , the average feral adult male will weigh 4 kg ( 9 lb ) and average feral female 3 kg ( 7 lb ) . Cats average about 23 – 25 cm ( 9 – 10 in ) in height and 46 cm ( 18 in ) in head / body length ( males being larger than females ) , with tails averaging 30 cm ( 12 in ) in length .
Cats have seven cervical vertebrae , as do almost all mammals ; 13 thoracic vertebrae ( humans have 12 ) ; seven lumbar vertebrae ( humans have five ) ; three sacral vertebrae like most mammals ( humans have five ) ; and a variable number of caudal vertebrae in the tail ( humans retain three to five caudal vertebrae , fused into an internal coccyx ) . The extra lumbar and thoracic vertebrae account for the cat 's spinal mobility and flexibility . Attached to the spine are 13 ribs , the shoulder , and the pelvis . Unlike human arms , cat forelimbs are attached to the shoulder by free @-@ floating clavicle bones which allow them to pass their body through any space into which they can fit their head .
The cat skull is unusual among mammals in having very large eye sockets and a powerful and specialized jaw . Within the jaw , cats have teeth adapted for killing prey and tearing meat . When it overpowers its prey , a cat delivers a lethal neck bite with its two long canine teeth , inserting them between two of the prey 's vertebrae and severing its spinal cord , causing irreversible paralysis and death . Compared to other felines , domestic cats have narrowly spaced canine teeth , which is an adaptation to their preferred prey of small rodents , which have small vertebrae . The premolar and first molar together compose the carnassial pair on each side of the mouth , which efficiently shears meat into small pieces , like a pair of scissors . These are vital in feeding , since cats ' small molars cannot chew food effectively , and cats are largely incapable of mastication . Though cats tend to have better teeth than most humans , with decay generally less likely because of a thicker protective layer of enamel , a less damaging saliva , less retention of food particles between teeth , and a diet mostly devoid of sugar , they are nonetheless subject to occasional tooth loss and infection .
Cats , like dogs , are digitigrades . They walk directly on their toes , with the bones of their feet making up the lower part of the visible leg . Cats are capable of walking very precisely , because like all felines , they directly register ; that is , they place each hind paw ( almost ) directly in the print of the corresponding fore paw , minimizing noise and visible tracks . This also provides sure footing for their hind paws when they navigate rough terrain . Unlike most mammals , when cats walk , they use a " pacing " gait ; that is , they move the two legs on one side of the body before the legs on the other side . This trait is shared with camels and giraffes . As a walk speeds up into a trot , a cat 's gait changes to be a " diagonal " gait , similar to that of most other mammals ( and many other land animals , such as lizards ) : the diagonally opposite hind and fore legs move simultaneously .
Like almost all members of the Felidae , cats have protractable and retractable claws . In their normal , relaxed position , the claws are sheathed with the skin and fur around the paw 's toe pads . This keeps the claws sharp by preventing wear from contact with the ground and allows the silent stalking of prey . The claws on the fore feet are typically sharper than those on the hind feet . Cats can voluntarily extend their claws on one or more paws . They may extend their claws in hunting or self @-@ defense , climbing , kneading , or for extra traction on soft surfaces . Most cats have five claws on their front paws , and four on their rear paws . The fifth front claw ( the dewclaw ) is proximal to the other claws . More proximally is a protrusion which appears to be a sixth " finger " . This special feature of the front paws , on the inside of the wrists , is the carpal pad , also found on the paws of big cats and dogs . It has no function in normal walking , but is thought to be an antiskidding device used while jumping . Some breeds of cats are prone to polydactyly ( extra toes and claws ) . These are particularly common along the northeast coast of North America .
= = = Physiology = = =
Cats are familiar and easily kept animals , and their physiology has been particularly well studied ; it generally resembles those of other carnivorous mammals , but displays several unusual features probably attributable to cats ' descent from desert @-@ dwelling species . For instance , cats are able to tolerate quite high temperatures : Humans generally start to feel uncomfortable when their skin temperature passes about 38 ° C ( 100 ° F ) , but cats show no discomfort until their skin reaches around 52 ° C ( 126 ° F ) , and can tolerate temperatures of up to 56 ° C ( 133 ° F ) if they have access to water .
Cats conserve heat by reducing the flow of blood to their skin and lose heat by evaporation through their mouths . Cats have minimal ability to sweat , with glands located primarily in their paw pads , and pant for heat relief only at very high temperatures ( but may also pant when stressed ) . A cat 's body temperature does not vary throughout the day ; this is part of cats ' general lack of circadian rhythms and may reflect their tendency to be active both during the day and at night . Cats ' feces are comparatively dry and their urine is highly concentrated , both of which are adaptations to allow cats to retain as much water as possible . Their kidneys are so efficient , they can survive on a diet consisting only of meat , with no additional water , and can even rehydrate by drinking seawater .
Cats are obligate carnivores : their physiology has evolved to efficiently process meat , and they have difficulty digesting plant matter . In contrast to omnivores such as rats , which only require about 4 % protein in their diet , about 20 % of a cat 's diet must be protein . Cats are unusually dependent on a constant supply of the amino acid arginine , and a diet lacking arginine causes marked weight loss and can be rapidly fatal . Another unusual feature is that the cat cannot produce taurine , with taurine deficiency causing macular degeneration , wherein the cat 's retina slowly degenerates , causing irreversible blindness .
A cat 's gastrointestinal tract is adapted to meat eating , being much shorter than that of omnivores and having low levels of several of the digestive enzymes needed to digest carbohydrates . These traits severely limit the cat 's ability to digest and use plant @-@ derived nutrients , as well as certain fatty acids . Despite the cat 's meat @-@ oriented physiology , several vegetarian or vegan cat foods have been marketed that are supplemented with chemically synthesized taurine and other nutrients , in attempts to produce a complete diet . However , some of these products still fail to provide all the nutrients cats require , and diets containing no animal products pose the risk of causing severe nutritional deficiencies .
Cats do eat grass occasionally . A proposed explanation is that cats use grass as a source of folic acid . Another proposed explanation is that it is used to supply dietary fiber .
= = = Senses = = =
Cats have excellent night vision and can see at only one @-@ sixth the light level required for human vision . This is partly the result of cat eyes having a tapetum lucidum , which reflects any light that passes through the retina back into the eye , thereby increasing the eye 's sensitivity to dim light . Another adaptation to dim light is the large pupils of cats ' eyes . Unlike some big cats , such as tigers , domestic cats have slit pupils . These slit pupils can focus bright light without chromatic aberration , and are needed since the domestic cat 's pupils are much larger , relative to their eyes , than the pupils of the big cats . At low light levels a cat 's pupils will expand to cover most of the exposed surface of its eyes . However , domestic cats have rather poor color vision and ( like most nonprimate mammals ) have only two types of cones , optimized for sensitivity to blue and yellowish green ; they have limited ability to distinguish between red and green . A 1993 paper reported a response to middle wavelengths from a system other than the rods which might be due to a third type of cone . However , this appears to be an adaptation to low light levels rather than representing true trichromatic vision .
Cats have excellent hearing and can detect an extremely broad range of frequencies . They can hear higher @-@ pitched sounds than either dogs or humans , detecting frequencies from 55 Hz to 79 @,@ 000 Hz , a range of 10 @.@ 5 octaves , while humans and dogs both have ranges of about 9 octaves . Cats can hear ultrasound , which is important in hunting because many species of rodents make ultrasonic calls . However , they do not communicate using ultrasound like rodents do . Cats ' hearing is also sensitive and among the best of any mammal , being most acute in the range of 500 Hz to 32 kHz . This sensitivity is further enhanced by the cat 's large movable outer ears ( their pinnae ) , which both amplify sounds and help detect the direction of a noise .
Cats have an acute sense of smell , due in part to their well @-@ developed olfactory bulb and a large surface of olfactory mucosa , about 5 @.@ 8 cm2 ( 0 @.@ 90 in2 ) in area , which is about twice that of humans . Cats are sensitive to pheromones such as 3 @-@ mercapto @-@ 3 @-@ methylbutan @-@ 1 @-@ ol , which they use to communicate through urine spraying and marking with scent glands . Many cats also respond strongly to plants that contain nepetalactone , especially catnip , as they can detect that substance at less than one part per billion . About 70 — 80 % of cats are affected by nepetalactone . This response is also produced by other plants , such as silver vine ( Actinidia polygama ) and the herb valerian ; it may be caused by the smell of these plants mimicking a pheromone and stimulating cats ' social or sexual behaviors .
Cats have relatively few taste buds compared to humans ( 470 or so versus more than 9 @,@ 000 on the human tongue ) . Domestic and wild cats share a gene mutation that keeps their sweet taste buds from binding to sugary molecules , leaving them with no ability to taste sweetness . Their taste buds instead respond to amino acids , bitter tastes , and acids . Cats and many other animals have a Jacobson 's organ located in their mouths that allows them to taste @-@ smell certain aromas in a way which humans have no experience of . Cats also have a distinct temperature preference for their food , preferring food with a temperature around 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) which is similar to that of a fresh kill and routinely rejecting food presented cold or refrigerated ( which would signal to the cat that the " prey " item is long dead and therefore possibly toxic or decomposing ) .
To aid with navigation and sensation , cats have dozens of movable whiskers ( vibrissae ) over their body , especially their faces . These provide information on the width of gaps and on the location of objects in the dark , both by touching objects directly and by sensing air currents ; they also trigger protective blink reflexes to protect the eyes from damage .
Most breeds of cat have a noted fondness for settling in high places , or perching . In the wild , a higher place may serve as a concealed site from which to hunt ; domestic cats may strike prey by pouncing from a perch such as a tree branch , as does a leopard . Another possible explanation is that height gives the cat a better observation point , allowing it to survey its territory . During a fall from a high place , a cat can reflexively twist its body and right itself using its acute sense of balance and flexibility . This is known as the cat righting reflex . An individual cat always rights itself in the same way , provided it has the time to do so , during a fall . The height required for this to occur is around 90 cm ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) . Cats without a tail ( e.g. Manx cats ) also have this ability , since a cat mostly moves its hind legs and relies on conservation of angular momentum to set up for landing , and the tail is little used for this feat .
= = = Health = = =
The average lifespan of pet cats has risen in recent years . In the early 1980s it was about seven years , rising to 9 @.@ 4 years in 1995 and 12 – 15 years in 2014 . However , cats have been reported as surviving into their 30s , with the oldest known cat , Creme Puff , dying at a verified age of 38 .
Spaying or neutering increases life expectancy : one study found neutered male cats live twice as long as intact males , while spayed female cats live 62 % longer than intact females . Having a cat neutered confers health benefits , because castrated males cannot develop testicular cancer , spayed females cannot develop uterine or ovarian cancer , and both have a reduced risk of mammary cancer .
Despite widespread concern about the welfare of free @-@ roaming cats , the lifespans of neutered feral cats in managed colonies compare favorably with those of pet cats . Neutered cats in managed colonies can also live long lives .
= = = = Diseases = = = =
Cats can suffer from a wide range of health problems , including infectious diseases , parasites , injuries , and chronic disease . Vaccinations are available for many of these diseases , and domestic cats are regularly given treatments to eliminate parasites such as worms and fleas .
= = = = Poisoning = = = =
In addition to obvious dangers such as rodenticides , insecticides , and herbicides , cats may be poisoned by many chemicals usually considered safe by their human guardians , because their livers are less effective at some forms of detoxification than those of many other animals , including humans and dogs . Some of the most common causes of poisoning in cats are antifreeze and rodent baits . Cats may be particularly sensitive to environmental pollutants . When a cat has a sudden or prolonged serious illness without any obvious cause , it has possibly been exposed to a toxin .
Many human medicines should never be given to cats . For example , the painkiller paracetamol ( or acetaminophen , sold as Tylenol and Panadol ) is extremely toxic to cats : even very small doses need immediate treatment and can be fatal . Even aspirin , which is sometimes used to treat arthritis in cats , is much more toxic to them than to humans and must be administered cautiously . Similarly , application of minoxidil ( Rogaine ) to the skin of cats , either accidentally or by well @-@ meaning guardians attempting to counter loss of fur , has sometimes been fatal . Essential oils can be toxic to cats and cases have been reported of serious illnesses caused by tea tree oil , including flea treatments and shampoos containing it .
Other common household substances that should be used with caution around cats include mothballs and other naphthalene products . Phenol @-@ based products ( e.g. Pine @-@ Sol , Dettol / Lysol or hexachlorophene ) are often used for cleaning and disinfecting near cats ' feeding areas or litter boxes , but these can sometimes be fatal . Ethylene glycol , often used as an automotive antifreeze , is particularly appealing to cats , and as little as a teaspoonful can be fatal . Some human foods are toxic to cats ; for example chocolate can cause theobromine poisoning , although ( unlike dogs ) few cats will eat chocolate . Large amounts of onions or garlic are also poisonous to cats . Many houseplants are also dangerous , such as Philodendron species and the leaves of the Easter lily ( Lilium longiflorum ) , which can cause permanent and life @-@ threatening kidney damage .
= = = Genetics = = =
The domesticated cat and its closest wild ancestor are both diploid organisms that possess 38 chromosomes and roughly 20 @,@ 000 genes . About 250 heritable genetic disorders have been identified in cats , many similar to human inborn errors . The high level of similarity among the metabolism of mammals allows many of these feline diseases to be diagnosed using genetic tests that were originally developed for use in humans , as well as the use of cats as animal models in the study of the human diseases .
= = Behavior = =
Outdoor cats are active both day and night , although they tend to be slightly more active at night . The timing of cats ' activity is quite flexible and varied , which means house cats may be more active in the morning and evening , as a response to greater human activity at these times . Although they spend the majority of their time in the vicinity of their home , housecats can range many hundreds of meters from this central point , and are known to establish territories that vary considerably in size , in one study ranging from 7 to 28 hectares ( 17 – 69 acres ) .
Cats conserve energy by sleeping more than most animals , especially as they grow older . The daily duration of sleep varies , usually between 12 and 16 hours , with 13 and 14 being the average . Some cats can sleep as much as 20 hours . The term " cat nap " for a short rest refers to the cat 's tendency to fall asleep ( lightly ) for a brief period . While asleep , cats experience short periods of rapid eye movement sleep often accompanied by muscle twitches , which suggests they are dreaming .
= = = Sociability = = =
Although wildcats are solitary , the social behavior of domestic cats is much more variable and ranges from widely dispersed individuals to feral cat colonies that form around a food source , based on groups of co @-@ operating females . Within such groups , one cat is usually dominant over the others . Each cat in a colony holds a distinct territory , with sexually active males having the largest territories , which are about 10 times larger than those of female cats and may overlap with several females ' territories . These territories are marked by urine spraying , by rubbing objects at head height with secretions from facial glands , and by defecation . Between these territories are neutral areas where cats watch and greet one another without territorial conflicts . Outside these neutral areas , territory holders usually chase away stranger cats , at first by staring , hissing , and growling , and if that does not work , by short but noisy and violent attacks . Despite some cats cohabiting in colonies , they do not have a social survival strategy , or a pack mentality , and always hunt alone .
However , some pet cats are poorly socialized . In particular , older cats may show aggressiveness towards newly arrived kittens , which may include biting and scratching ; this type of behavior is known as feline asocial aggression .
Though cats and dogs are believed to be natural enemies , they can live together if correctly socialized .
Life in proximity to humans and other domestic animals has led to a symbiotic social adaptation in cats , and cats may express great affection toward humans or other animals . Ethologically , the human keeper of a cat may function as a sort of surrogate for the cat 's mother , and adult housecats live their lives in a kind of extended kittenhood , a form of behavioral neoteny . The high @-@ pitched sounds housecats make to solicit food may mimic the cries of a hungry human infant , making them particularly hard for humans to ignore .
= = = Communication = = =
Domestic cats use many vocalizations for communication , including purring , trilling , hissing , growling / snarling , grunting , and several different forms of meowing . By contrast , feral cats are generally silent . Their types of body language , including position of ears and tail , relaxation of the whole body , and kneading of the paws , are all indicators of mood . The tail and ears are particularly important social signal mechanisms in cats ; for example , a raised tail acts as a friendly greeting , and flattened ears indicates hostility . Tail @-@ raising also indicates the cat 's position in the group 's social hierarchy , with dominant individuals raising their tails less often than subordinate animals . Nose @-@ to @-@ nose touching is also a common greeting and may be followed by social grooming , which is solicited by one of the cats raising and tilting its head .
Purring may have developed as an evolutionary advantage as a signalling mechanism of reassurance between mother cats and nursing kittens . Post @-@ nursing cats often purr as a sign of contentment : when being petted , becoming relaxed , or eating . The mechanism by which cats purr is elusive . The cat has no unique anatomical feature that is clearly responsible for the sound . It was , until recent times , believed that only the cats of the Felis genus could purr . However , felids of the Panthera genus ( tiger , lion , jaguar , and leopard ) also produce sounds similar to purring , but only when exhaling .
= = = Grooming = = =
Cats are known for spending considerable amounts of time licking their coat to keep it clean . The cat 's tongue has backwards @-@ facing spines about 500 μm long , which are called papillae . These contain keratin which makes them rigid so the papillae act like a hairbrush . Some cats , particularly longhaired cats , occasionally regurgitate hairballs of fur that have collected in their stomachs from grooming . These clumps of fur are usually sausage @-@ shaped and about 2 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 2 in ) long . Hairballs can be prevented with remedies that ease elimination of the hair through the gut , as well as regular grooming of the coat with a comb or stiff brush . Some cats can develop a compulsive behavior known as psychogenic alopecia , or excessive grooming .
= = = Fighting = = =
Among domestic cats , males are more likely to fight than females . Among feral cats , the most common reason for cat fighting is competition between two males to mate with a female . In such cases , most fights are won by the heavier male . Another common reason for fighting in domestic cats is the difficulty of establishing territories within a small home . Female cats also fight over territory or to defend their kittens . Neutering will decrease or eliminate this behavior in many cases , suggesting that the behavior is linked to sex hormones .
When cats become aggressive , they try to make themselves appear larger and more threatening by raising their fur , arching their backs , turning sideways and hissing or spitting . Often , the ears are pointed down and back to avoid damage to the inner ear and potentially listen for any changes behind them while focused forward . They may also vocalize loudly and bare their teeth in an effort to further intimidate their opponent . Fights usually consist of grappling and delivering powerful slaps to the face and body with the forepaws as well as bites . Cats also throw themselves to the ground in a defensive posture to rake their opponent 's belly with their powerful hind legs .
Serious damage is rare , as the fights are usually short in duration , with the loser running away with little more than a few scratches to the face and ears . However , fights for mating rights are typically more severe and injuries may include deep puncture wounds and lacerations . Normally , serious injuries from fighting are limited to infections of scratches and bites , though these can occasionally kill cats if untreated . In addition , bites are probably the main route of transmission of feline immunodeficiency virus . Sexually active males are usually involved in many fights during their lives , and often have decidedly battered faces with obvious scars and cuts to their ears and nose .
= = = Hunting and feeding = = =
Cats hunt small prey , primarily birds and rodents , and are often used as a form of pest control . Domestic cats are a major predator of wildlife in the United States , killing an estimated 1 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 7 billion birds and 6 @.@ 9 – 20 @.@ 7 billion mammals annually . The bulk of predation in the United States is done by 80 million feral and stray cats . Effective measures to reduce this population are elusive , meeting opposition from cat enthusiasts . In the case of free @-@ ranging pets , equipping cats with bells and not letting them out at night will reduce wildlife predation .
Free @-@ fed feral cats and house cats tend to consume many small meals in a single day , although the frequency and size of meals varies between individuals . Cats use two hunting strategies , either stalking prey actively , or waiting in ambush until an animal comes close enough to be captured . Although it is not certain , the strategy used may depend on the prey species in the area , with cats waiting in ambush outside burrows , but tending to actively stalk birds .
Perhaps the best known element of cats ' hunting behavior , which is commonly misunderstood and often appalls cat owners because it looks like torture , is that cats often appear to " play " with prey by releasing it after capture . This behavior is due to an instinctive imperative to ensure that the prey is weak enough to be killed without endangering the cat . This behavior is referred to in the idiom " cat @-@ and @-@ mouse game " or simply " cat and mouse " .
Another poorly understood element of cat hunting behavior is the presentation of prey to human guardians . Ethologist Paul Leyhausen proposed that cats adopt humans into their social group and share excess kill with others in the group according to the dominance hierarchy , in which humans are reacted to as if they are at , or near , the top . Anthropologist and zoologist Desmond Morris , in his 1986 book Catwatching , suggests , when cats bring home mice or birds , they are attempting to teach their human to hunt , or trying to help their human as if feeding " an elderly cat , or an inept kitten " . Morris 's hypothesis is inconsistent with the fact that male cats also bring home prey , despite males having no involvement with raising kittens .
Domestic cats select food based on its temperature , smell and texture ; they dislike chilled foods and respond most strongly to moist foods rich in amino acids , which are similar to meat . Cats may reject novel flavors ( a response termed neophobia ) and learn quickly to avoid foods that have tasted unpleasant in the past . They may also avoid sugary foods and milk . Most adult cats are lactose intolerant ; the sugars in milk are not easily digested and may cause soft stools or diarrhea . They can also develop odd eating habits . Some cats like to eat or chew on other things , most commonly wool , but also plastic , cables , paper , string , aluminum foil , or even coal . This condition , pica , can threaten their health , depending on the amount and toxicity of the items eaten .
Though cats usually prey on animals less than half their size , a feral cat in Australia has been photographed killing an adult pademelon weighing around the cat 's size at 4 kg ( 8 @.@ 8 lb ) .
Since cats cannot fully close their lips around something to create suction , they use a lapping method with the tongue to draw liquid upwards into their mouths . Lapping at a rate of four times a second , the cat touches the smooth tip of its tongue to the surface of the water , and quickly retracts it , drawing water upwards .
= = = Play = = =
Domestic cats , especially young kittens , are known for their love of play . This behavior mimics hunting and is important in helping kittens learn to stalk , capture , and kill prey . Cats also engage in play fighting , with each other and with humans . This behavior may be a way for cats to practice the skills needed for real combat , and might also reduce any fear they associate with launching attacks on other animals .
Owing to the close similarity between play and hunting , cats prefer to play with objects that resemble prey , such as small furry toys that move rapidly , but rapidly lose interest ( they become habituated ) in a toy they have played with before . Cats also tend to play with toys more when they are hungry . String is often used as a toy , but if it is eaten , it can become caught at the base of the cat 's tongue and then move into the intestines , a medical emergency which can cause serious illness , even death . Owing to the risks posed by cats eating string , it is sometimes replaced with a laser pointer 's dot , which cats may chase . There are several important issues related to using a laser with a cat ; first most , lasers can cause blindness in cats , even lasers which are sold as " eye safe " can actually be of much higher power of that proclaimed and can cause damages to the eyes . In addition , the cat thinks of the laser point as prey , but gets frustrated as he is unable to catch it .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Female cats are seasonally polyestrous , which means they may have many periods of heat over the course of a year , the season beginning in spring and ending in late autumn . Heat periods occur about every two weeks and last about 4 to 7 days . Multiple males will be attracted to a female in heat . The males will fight over her , and the victor wins the right to mate . At first , the female rejects the male , but eventually the female allows the male to mate . The female utters a loud yowl as the male pulls out of her because a male cat 's penis has a band of about 120 – 150 backwards @-@ pointing penile spines , which are about 1 mm long ; upon withdrawal of the penis , the spines rake the walls of the female 's vagina , which is a trigger for ovulation . This act also occurs to clear the vagina of other sperm in the context of a second ( or more ) mating , thus giving the later males a larger chance of conception .
After mating , the female washes her vulva thoroughly . If a male attempts to mate with her at this point , the female will attack him . After about 20 to 30 minutes , once the female is finished grooming , the cycle will repeat .
Because ovulation is not always triggered by a single mating , females may not be impregnated by the first male with which they mate . Furthermore , cats are superfecund ; that is , a female may mate with more than one male when she is in heat , with the result that different kittens in a litter may have different fathers .
At 124 hours after conception , the morula forms . At 148 hours , early blastocysts form . At 10 – 12 days , implantation occurs .
The gestation period for cats is between 64 and 67 days , with an average of 66 days . The size of a litter usually is three to five kittens , with the first litter usually smaller than subsequent litters . Kittens are weaned between six and seven weeks old , and cats normally reach sexual maturity at 5 – 10 months ( females ) and to 5 – 7 months ( males ) , although this can vary depending on breed . Females can have two to three litters per year , so may produce up to 150 kittens in their breeding span of around ten years .
Cats are ready to go to new homes at about 12 weeks of age , when they are ready to leave their mother . They can be surgically sterilized ( spayed or castrated ) as early as 7 weeks to limit unwanted reproduction . This surgery also prevents undesirable sex @-@ related behavior , such as aggression , territory marking ( spraying urine ) in males and yowling ( calling ) in females . Traditionally , this surgery was performed at around six to nine months of age , but it is increasingly being performed prior to puberty , at about three to six months . In the US , about 80 % of household cats are neutered .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Habitats = = =
Cats are a cosmopolitan species and are found across much of the world . Geneticist Stephen James O 'Brien , of the National Cancer Institute in Frederick , Maryland , remarked on how successful cats have been in evolutionary terms : " Cats are one of evolution 's most charismatic creatures . They can live on the highest mountains and in the hottest deserts . " They are extremely adaptable and are now present on all continents except Antarctica , and on 118 of the 131 main groups of islands — even on isolated islands such as the Kerguelen Islands .
Feral cats can live in forests , grasslands , tundra , coastal areas , agricultural land , scrublands , urban areas , and wetlands . Their habitats even include small oceanic islands with no human inhabitants . Further , the close relatives of domestic cats , the African wildcat ( Felis silvestris lybica ) and the Arabian sand cat ( Felis margarita ) both inhabit desert environments , and domestic cats still show similar adaptations and behaviors . The cat 's ability to thrive in almost any terrestrial habitat has led to its designation as one of the world 's worst invasive species .
As domestic cats are little altered from wildcats , they can readily interbreed . This hybridization poses a danger to the genetic distinctiveness of some wildcat populations , particularly in Scotland and Hungary and possibly also the Iberian Peninsula .
= = = Feral cats = = =
Feral cats are domestic cats that were born in or have reverted to a wild state . They are unfamiliar with and wary of humans and roam freely in urban and rural areas . The numbers of feral cats is not known , but estimates of the US feral population range from 25 to 60 million . Feral cats may live alone , but most are found in large colonies , which occupy a specific territory and are usually associated with a source of food . Famous feral cat colonies are found in Rome around the Colosseum and Forum Romanum , with cats at some of these sites being fed and given medical attention by volunteers .
Public attitudes towards feral cats vary widely , ranging from seeing them as free @-@ ranging pets , to regarding them as vermin . One common approach to reducing the feral cat population is termed ' trap @-@ neuter @-@ return ' , where the cats are trapped , neutered , immunized against rabies and the feline leukemia virus , and then released . Before releasing them back into their feral colonies , the attending veterinarian often nips the tip off one ear to mark it as neutered and inoculated , since these cats may be trapped again . Volunteers continue to feed and give care to these cats throughout their lives . Given this support , their lifespans are increased , and behavior and nuisance problems caused by competition for food are reduced .
= = = Impact on prey species = = =
To date , little scientific data is available to assess the impact of cat predation on prey populations . Even well @-@ fed domestic cats may hunt and kill , mainly catching small mammals , but also birds , amphibians , reptiles , fish , and invertebrates . Hunting by domestic cats may be contributing to the decline in the numbers of birds in urban areas , although the importance of this effect remains controversial . In the wild , the introduction of feral cats during human settlement can threaten native species with extinction . In many cases , controlling or eliminating the populations of non @-@ native cats can produce a rapid recovery in native animals . However , the ecological role of introduced cats can be more complicated . For example , cats can control the numbers of rats , which also prey on birds ' eggs and young , so a cat population can protect an endangered bird species by suppressing mesopredators .
In isolated landmasses , such as Australasia , there are often no other native , medium @-@ sized quadrupedal predators ( including other feline species ) ; this tends to exacerbate the impact of feral cats on small native animals . Native species such as the New Zealand kakapo and the Australian bettong , for example , tend to be more ecologically vulnerable and behaviorally " naive " , when faced with predation by cats . Feral cats have had a major impact on these native species and have played a leading role in the endangerment and extinction of many animals .
Even in places with ancient and numerous cat populations , such as Western Europe , cats appear to be growing in number and independently of their environments ' carrying capacity ( such as the numbers of prey available ) . This may be explained , at least in part , by an abundance of food , from sources including feeding by pet owners and scavenging . For instance , research in Britain suggests that a high proportion of cats hunt only " recreationally " . And in South Sweden , where research in 1982 found that the population density of cats was as high as 2 @,@ 000 per square kilometre ( 5 @,@ 200 / sq mi ) .
= = = Impact on birds = = =
The domestic cat is a significant predator of birds . UK assessments indicate they may be accountable for an estimated 64 @.@ 8 million bird deaths each year . Certain species appear more susceptible than others ; for example , 30 % of house sparrow mortality is linked to the domestic cat . In the recovery of ringed robins ( Erithacus rubecula ) and dunnocks ( Prunella modularis ) , 31 % of deaths were a result of cat predation . The presence of larger carnivores such as coyotes which prey on cats and other small predators reduces the effect of predation by cats and other small predators such as opossums and raccoons on bird numbers and variety . The proposal that cat populations will increase when the numbers of these top predators decline is called the mesopredator release hypothesis . However , a new study suggests cats are a much greater menace than previously thought and feral cats kill several billion birds each year in the United States .
On islands , birds can contribute as much as 60 % of a cat 's diet . In nearly all cases , however , the cat cannot be identified as the sole cause for reducing the numbers of island birds , and in some instances , eradication of cats has caused a ' mesopredator release ' effect ; where the suppression of top carnivores creates an abundance of smaller predators that cause a severe decline in their shared prey . Domestic cats are , however , known to be a contributing factor to the decline of many species , a factor that has ultimately led , in some cases , to extinction . The South Island piopio , Chatham Islands rail , the Auckland Islands merganser , and the common diving petrel are a few from a long list , with the most extreme case being the flightless Stephens Island wren , which was driven to extinction only a few years after its discovery .
Some of the same factors that have promoted adaptive radiation of island avifauna over evolutionary time appear to promote vulnerability to non @-@ native species in modern time . The susceptibility of many island birds is undoubtedly due to evolution in the absence of mainland predators , competitors , diseases , and parasites , in addition to lower reproductive rates and extended incubation periods . The loss of flight , or reduced flying ability is also characteristic of many island endemics . These biological aspects have increased vulnerability to extinction in the presence of introduced species , such as the domestic cat . Equally , behavioral traits exhibited by island species , such as " predatory naivety " and ground @-@ nesting , have also contributed to their susceptibility .
= = Interaction with humans = =
Cats are common pets in Europe and North America , and their worldwide population exceeds 500 million . Although cat guardianship has commonly been associated with women , a 2007 Gallup poll reported that men and women in the United States of America were equally likely to own a cat .
As well as being kept as pets , cats are also used in the international fur and leather industries for making coats , hats , blankets and stuffed toys ; and shoes , gloves and musical instruments respectively ( about 24 cats are needed to make a cat fur coat ) . This use has now been outlawed in the United States , Australia , and the European Union . Cat pelts have been used for superstitious purposes as part of the practise of witchcraft , and are still made into blankets in Switzerland as folk remedies believed to help rheumatism . In the Western intellectual tradition , the idea of cats as everyday objects have served to illustrate problems of quantum mechanics in the Schrödinger 's cat thought experiment .
A few attempts to build a cat census have been made over the years , both through associations or national and international organizations ( such as the Canadian Federation of Humane Societies 's one ) and over the net , but such a task does not seem simple to achieve . General estimates for the global population of domestic cats range widely from anywhere between 200 million to 600 million .
= = = History and mythology = = =
Traditionally , historians tended to think ancient Egypt was the site of cat domestication , owing to the clear depictions of house cats in Egyptian paintings about 3 @,@ 600 years old . However , in 2004 , a Neolithic grave excavated in Shillourokambos , Cyprus , contained the skeletons , laid close to one another , of both a human and a cat . The grave is estimated to be 9 @,@ 500 years old , pushing back the earliest known feline – human association significantly . The cat specimen is large and closely resembles the African wildcat , rather than present @-@ day domestic cats . This discovery , combined with genetic studies , suggests cats were probably domesticated in the Middle East , in the Fertile Crescent around the time of the development of agriculture and then they were brought to Cyprus and Egypt .
Direct evidence for the domestication of cats 5 @,@ 300 years ago in Quanhucun , China has been published by archaeologists and paleontologists from the University of Washington and Chinese Academy of Sciences . The cats are believed to have been attracted to the village by rodents , which in turn were attracted by grain cultivated and stored by humans .
In ancient Egypt , cats were sacred animals , with the goddess Bastet often depicted in cat form , sometimes taking on the war @-@ like aspect of a lioness . The Romans are often credited with introducing the domestic cat from Egypt to Europe ; in Roman Aquitaine , a first- or second @-@ century engraving of a young girl holding a cat is one of two earliest depictions of the Roman domesticated cat . However , cats possibly were already kept in Europe prior to the Roman Empire , as they may have been present in Britain in the late Iron Age . Domestic cats were spread throughout much of the rest of the world during the Age of Discovery , as they were carried on sailing ships to control shipboard rodents and as good @-@ luck charms ( see Ship 's cat ) .
Several ancient religions believed cats are exalted souls , companions or guides for humans , that are all @-@ knowing but mute so they cannot influence decisions made by humans . In Japan , the maneki neko cat is a symbol of good fortune .
Although no species are sacred in Islam , cats are revered by Muslims . Some Western writers have stated Muhammad had a favorite cat , Muezza . He is reported to have loved cats so much , " he would do without his cloak rather than disturb one that was sleeping on it " . The story has no origin in early Muslim writers , and seems to confuse a story of a later Sufi saint , Ahmed ar @-@ Rifa 'i , centuries after Muhammad .
Freyja , the goddess of love , beauty , and fertility in Norse mythology , is depicted as riding a chariot drawn by cats .
Many cultures have negative superstitions about cats . An example would be the belief that a black cat " crossing one 's path " leads to bad luck , or that cats are witches ' familiars used to augment a witch 's powers and skills . The killing of cats in Medieval Ypres , Belgium , is commemorated in the innocuous present @-@ day Kattenstoet ( cat parade ) .
According to a myth in many cultures , cats have multiple lives . In many countries , they are believed to have nine lives , but in Italy , Germany , Greece , Brazil and some Spanish @-@ speaking regions , they are said to have seven lives , while in Turkish and Arabic traditions , the number of lives is six . The myth is attributed to the natural suppleness and swiftness cats exhibit to escape life @-@ threatening situations . Also lending credence to this myth is the fact that falling cats often land on their feet , using an instinctive righting reflex to twist their bodies around . Nonetheless , cats can still be injured or killed by a high fall .
= = Depictions in art = =
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= German destroyer Z4 Richard Beitzen =
The German destroyer Z4 Richard Beitzen was a Type 1934 destroyer built for the Kriegsmarine during the 1930s . At the beginning of World War II in September 1939 , the ship was initially deployed to blockade the Polish coast , but she was soon transferred to the Kattegat where she inspected neutral shipping for contraband goods . In late 1939 and early 1940 , the ship laid two offensive minefields off the English coast that claimed 17 merchant ships . Richard Beitzen was in reserve during the Norwegian Campaign of early 1940 and was transferred to France later that year where she made several attacks on British shipping .
The ship returned to Germany in early 1941 for a refit and was transferred to Norway in June 1941 as part of the preparations for Operation Barbarossa , the German invasion of the Soviet Union . Richard Beitzen spent some time at the beginning of the campaign conducting anti @-@ shipping patrols in Soviet waters , but these were generally fruitless . She escorted a number of German convoys in the Arctic later in the year . The ship escorted several German heavy cruisers at the beginning and end of their anti @-@ shipping raids in 1942 . She participated in the Battle of the Barents Sea when Convoy JW 51B was attacked on 31 December 1942 near the North Cape , Norway .
Richard Beitzen spent much of 1943 escorting ships to and from Norway until November when she ran aground in November . Badly damaged , repairs lasted until August 1944 when she returned to Norway and resumed her former duties . The ship had another grounding incident in November and was under repair until February 1945 . While escorting a convoy in April , she was badly damaged by aircraft and was still under repair when the war ended on 9 May . Richard Beitzen was eventually allocated to the British when the surviving warships were divided between the Allies after the war . They made no use of the ship before scrapping her in 1949 .
= = Design and description = =
Richard Beitzen had an overall length of 119 meters ( 390 ft 5 in ) and was 114 meters ( 374 ft 0 in ) long at the waterline . The ship had a beam of 11 @.@ 30 meters ( 37 ft 1 in ) , and a maximum draft of 4 @.@ 23 meters ( 13 ft 11 in ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 223 long tons ( 2 @,@ 259 t ) at standard load and 3 @,@ 156 long tons ( 3 @,@ 207 t ) at deep load . The two Wagner geared steam turbine sets , each driving one propeller shaft , were designed to produce 70 @,@ 000 PS ( 51 @,@ 000 kW ; 69 @,@ 000 shp ) using steam provided by six high @-@ pressure Wagner boilers . The ship had a designed speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) , but her maximum speed was 38 @.@ 7 knots ( 71 @.@ 7 km / h ; 44 @.@ 5 mph ) . Richard Beitzen carried a maximum of 752 metric tons ( 740 long tons ) of fuel oil which was intended to give a range of 4 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 100 km ; 5 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) , but the ship proved top @-@ heavy in service and 30 % of the fuel had to be retained as ballast low in the ship . The effective range proved to be only 1 @,@ 530 nmi ( 2 @,@ 830 km ; 1 @,@ 760 mi ) at 19 knots . The crew numbered 10 officers and 315 enlisted men , plus an additional four officers and 19 enlisted men if serving as a flotilla flagship .
The ship carried five 12 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 34 guns in single mounts with gun shields , two each superimposed , fore and aft . The fifth gun was carried on top of the aft superstructure . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of four 3 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 30 guns in two twin mounts abreast the rear funnel and six 2 cm C / 30 guns in single mounts . Richard Beitzen carried eight above @-@ water 53 @.@ 3 @-@ centimeter ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes in two power @-@ operated mounts . A pair of reload torpedoes were provided for each mount . Four depth charge throwers were mounted on the sides of the rear deckhouse and they were supplemented by six racks for individual depth charges on the sides of the stern . Enough depth charges were carried for either two or four patterns of 16 charges each . Mine rails could be fitted on the rear deck that had a maximum capacity of 60 mines . A system of passive hydrophones designated as ' GHG ' ( Gruppenhorchgerät ) was fitted to detect submarines .
An active sonar system was scheduled to be installed in June 1940 , but it is uncertain when it was actually done . During the war , the ship 's light anti @-@ aircraft armament was augmented several times . Improved 2 cm C / 38 guns replaced the original C / 30 guns and three additional guns were added sometime in 1941 . The two guns on the aft shelter deck were replaced by a single 2 cm quadruple Flakvierling mount , probably during her late 1941 refit . Richard Beitzen appears not have any additional AA guns added after this time .
= = Construction and career = =
Richard Beitzen , named after Lieutenant ( Kapitänleutnant ) Richard Beitzen who commanded the 14th Torpedo Boat Flotilla in World War I and was killed in action in March 1918 , was ordered on 7 July 1934 and laid down at Deutsche Werke , Kiel , on 7 January 1935 as yard number K245 . The ship was launched on 30 November 1935 and completed on 13 May 1937 . Her first captain was Lieutenant Commander ( Fregattenkapitän ) Hans @-@ Joachim Gadow . She made a port visit to Ulvik , Norway in April 1938 , together with her sisters Z2 Georg Thiele and Z3 Max Schultz . Upon her return she was taken in hand by Deutsche Werke to have her bow rebuilt to reduce the amount of water that came over the bow in head seas . This increased her length by .3 meters ( 1 ft 0 in ) . The ship participated in the August Fleet Review and the following fleet exercise . On 26 October , she was assigned to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla ( 1 . Zerstörer @-@ Flottille ) . In December , Richard Beitzen , together with her sisters Z1 Leberecht Maass , Georg Thiele , and Max Schultz , sailed to the area of Iceland to evaluate their seaworthiness in a North Atlantic winter with their new bows . On 23 – 24 March 1939 , the ship was one of the destroyers that escorted Adolf Hitler aboard the pocket battleship Deutschland to occupy Memel . She participated in the fleet exercise the next month in the western Mediterranean and made several visits to Spanish and Moroccan ports in April and May . Upon her return , Richard Beitzen was accidentally rammed in the stern by the escort ship F9 .
When World War II began in September 1939 , Richard Beitzen was initially deployed in the western Baltic to enforce a blockade of Poland , but she was soon transferred to the Kattegat where she inspected neutral shipping for contraband goods beginning in mid @-@ September as one turbine was not operational . On the night of 12 / 13 December , German destroyers sortied to lay minefields off the British coast . Under the command of Commodore ( Kommodore ) Friedrich Bonte in his flagship Z19 Hermann Künne , Richard Beitzen , Z8 Bruno Heinemann , Z14 Friedrich Ihn , and Z15 Erich Steinbrinck laid 240 mines off the mouth of the River Tyne , where the navigation lights were still lit . The British were unaware of the minefield 's existence and lost eleven ships totaling 18 @,@ 979 gross register tons ( GRT ) . En route home the destroyers were ordered to escort the crippled light cruisers Leipzig and Nürnberg which had been torpedoed by the submarine HMS Salmon while covering the destroyers ' withdrawal . Despite their escort , the submarine HMS Ursula managed to sneak inside the anti @-@ submarine screen and fired a salvo of six torpedoes at Leipzig in the Elbe estuary the following day . Two of the torpedoes struck F9 which sank three minutes later with heavy loss of life , but the other torpedoes missed .
Bonte led a destroyer minelaying sortie to the Newcastle area on the night of 10 / 11 January with Ihn , Heidkamp , Eckoldt , Z22 Anton Schmitt , Richard Beitzen , and Z20 Karl Galster . Ihn had problems with her boilers that reduced her maximum speed to 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) and she had to be escorted back to Germany by Beitzen . This minefield only claimed one fishing trawler of 251 tons . Max Schultz , Richard Beitzen and Z16 Friedrich Eckoldt laid 110 magnetic mines in the Shipwash area , off Harwich , on 9 / 10 February 1940 that sank six ships of 28 @,@ 496 GRT and damaged another .
On 22 February 1940 , Richard Beitzen and five other destroyers , Z3 Max Schultz , Z1 Leberecht Maass , Z6 Theodor Riedel , Z13 Erich Koellner and Eckoldt , sailed for the Dogger Bank to intercept British fishing vessels in " Operation Wikinger " . En route , the flotilla was erroneously attacked by a Heinkel He 111 bomber from Bomber Wing 26 ( Kampfgeschwader 26 ) . Leberecht Maass was hit by at least one bomb , lost steering , and broke in half , sinking with the loss of 280 of her crew . During the rescue effort , Max Schultz hit a mine and sank with the loss of her entire crew of 308 . Hitler ordered a Court of Inquiry to be convened to investigate the cause of the losses and it concluded that both ships that been sunk by bombs from the He 111 . The Kriegsmarine had failed to notify its destroyers that the Luftwaffe was making anti @-@ shipping patrols at that time and had also failed to inform the Luftwaffe that its destroyers would be at sea . Postwar evidence revealed that one or both ships struck a British minefield laid by the destroyers Ivanhoe and Intrepid .
Richard Beitzen was held in reserve for the German invasion of Norway on 9 April . Two days later , she escorted the light cruiser Köln home to Wilhelmshaven . The ship helped to lay a minefield in the Kattegat from 28 April to 20 May and then began a refit that lasted until September . She was transferred to Brest , France , in October . On the night of 24 – 25 November , Richard Beitzen , Z10 Hans Lody and Z20 Karl Galster sortied from Brest , bound for the Land 's End area . En route they encountered some fishing ships south @-@ west of Wolf Rock and engaged them with gunfire with little effect . The German ships then spotted a small convoy and sank one of the three merchantmen and damaged another . The flash from the guns alerted the five destroyers of the British 5th Destroyer Flotilla , but they could not intercept the German destroyers before dawn . Three nights later the German ship sortied again for the same area . They encountered two tugboats and a barge , but only sank one of the former and the barge , totaling 424 GRT . This time the 5th Destroyer Flotilla was able to intercept around 06 : 30 on 29 November . The Germans opened fire first , each destroyer firing four torpedoes , of which only two from Z10 Hans Lody hit their target , HMS Javelin . The torpedoes hit at each end of the ship and blew off her bow and stern , but the British were able to tow her home . Sometime in 1939 – 41 the ship was fitted with a FuMO 21 or FuMO 24 radar set above the bridge .
During January 1941 , the ship laid a minefield off the coast of south @-@ east England . The following month , she escorted the heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper on leaving and returning to Brest . Richard Beitzen departed for Kiel briefly on 16 March to begin a refit . She was then sent to Kirkenes , Norway in July 1941 . Now a part of the 6th Destroyer Flotilla ( 6 . Zerstörer @-@ Flottille ) , she participated in a sortie on 12 – 13 July that sank two small Soviet ships at the cost of expending 80 % of their ammunition . Another sortie on 22 July saw Richard Beitzen sink a Soviet flying boat on the water . She was damaged by shock from near @-@ misses during another sortie on 9 August during which the Germans sank a converted fishing trawler and departed for Germany for repairs five days later .
She escorted the battleship Tirpitz for several days in mid @-@ January 1942 as the battleship sailed from the Baltic to Trondheim , Norway . Richard Beitzen , together with the rest of the 5th Zerstörer Flotille , sailed from Kiel on 24 January for France as part of the preparations for the Channel Dash . On the evening of 25 January , Z8 Bruno Heinemann struck two mines laid by HMS Plover off the Belgian coast and sank . Richard Beitzen rescued 200 of the survivors and proceeded to Le Havre to put them ashore before reaching Brest on the 26th . The German ships departed Brest on 11 February , totally surprising the British . Richard Beitzen helped to repel an attack by five British destroyers and was damaged by a near @-@ miss from a Bristol Blenheim bomber that she shot down with her newly installed 20 cm Flakvierling . Shortly afterwards , the ship joined four other destroyers in escorting Prinz Eugen and the heavy cruiser Admiral Scheer to Trondheim . Heavy weather forced Richard Beitzen and two other destroyers to return to port before reaching Trondheim and Prinz Eugen was badly damaged by a British submarine after their separation . After her return , the ship needed her machinery overhauled and began a refit at Bremen on 14 March . After it was completed she screened the heavy cruiser Lützow to Bogen Bay , Norway and laid a minefield in the Skaggerak en route .
Richard Beitzen took part in the preliminaries of Operation Rösselsprung , an attempt to intercept Arctic convoy PQ @-@ 17 in July . Admiral Scheer and Lützow formed one group while Tirpitz and Admiral Hipper composed another . While en route to the rendezvous point at the Altafjord , Lützow and three destroyers ran aground , forcing the entire group to abandon the operation . Richard Beitzen , in the meantime escorted two oil tankers to the Altafjord on 2 – 3 July . During Operation Wunderland in August , Richard Beitzen , Z16 Friedrich Eckoldt and Z15 Erich Steinbrinck escorted Admiral Scheer at the beginning and end of its mission to attack Soviet shipping in the Kara Sea . They also escorted the minelayer Ulm as it departed to lay a minefield off Cape Zhelaniya in mid @-@ August . On 13 – 15 October , Beitzen , Z16 Friedrich Eckoldt , and the destroyers Z27 and Z30 laid a minefield off the Kanin Peninsula at the mouth of the White Sea that sank the Soviet icebreaker Mikoyan . Three weeks later , the same four destroyers escorted Admiral Hipper as she attempted to intercept Allied merchant ships proceeding independently to Soviet ports in early November .
= = = Battle of the Barents Sea = = =
During Operation Regenbogen , the attempt to intercept Convoy JW 51B sailing from the UK to the Soviet Union in late December , Richard Beitzen , Z16 Friedrich Eckoldt , and Z29 escorted Admiral Hipper as she attempted to occupy the attention of the convoy 's escort while Lützow and three other destroyers attacked the convoy . The three destroyers separated from Hipper to search for the convoy and were successful on the morning of 31 December . The destroyer HMS Obdurate spotted them in turn and closed to investigate when the German ships opened fire at a range of 8 @,@ 000 meters ( 8 @,@ 700 yd ) . Obdurate turned away to rejoin the convoy without sustaining any damage and the German ships did not pursue as they had been ordered to rejoin Hipper . The Germans found the minesweeper HMS Bramble , which had been detached earlier from the convoy to search for stragglers , as they maneuvered to close with the convoy and the destroyers were ordered to sink her while Hipper engaged the convoy 's escorting destroyers . This took some time in the poor visibility and Hipper was surprised in the meantime by the British covering force of the light cruisers Sheffield and Jamaica . After sinking Bramble , the German destroyers attempted to rejoin Hipper , but had no idea that British cruisers were in the area . They confused Sheffield with Hipper when they spotted each other at 4 @,@ 000 meters ( 4 @,@ 400 yd ) range and were totally surprised when Sheffield opened fire on Z16 Friedrich Eckoldt with every gun she possessed , sinking her with the loss of all hands . Richard Beitzen was not engaged before she escaped into the darkness .
Commander ( Fregattenkapitän ) Hans Dominik assumed command in January 1943 and the ship escorted the damaged Admiral Hipper and Köln down to Kristiansand at the end of the month . She began escorting convoys between that port and Aarhus , Denmark before she escorted the battleship Scharnhorst to Altafjord in early March . The following month she screened Nürnberg during the latter 's return to the Baltic and began a refit at Swinemunde that lasted until October . Returning to the Arctic , she ran aground in the Karmsund on 27 October that extensively damaged her . Richard Beitzen was refloated on 5 November and towed to Haugesund for emergency repairs . She reached Bergen on 26 November for temporary repairs that took until 18 December to effect . The ship arrived at Stettin five days later , but repairs , which included fitting a new bow , did not begin until 17 January as the dry dock was already occupied . The repairs were completed in June , but machinery problems meant that she was not operational again until 5 August when she reached Horten , Norway .
Richard Beitzen resumed escort work and laid mines in the Skagerrak until she ran aground again in November . Repairs were slow and she was not fully operational until 15 February 1945 . The ship was badly damaged by radar @-@ equipped bombers while screening a convoy on the morning of 24 April and put into Oslo , Norway for repairs that were not completed before the end of the war the next month . Richard Beitzen was captured by the British on 14 May and temporarily turned over to the Royal Norwegian Navy on 15 July while the Allies decided on the disposition of the captured ships . She was allocated to Britain at the end of 1945 and was then towed to Rosyth in February 1946 . Richard Beitzen was ordered to be used as a target in September , but a heavy leak three months later caused her to be beached lest she sink . Temporary repairs were made and she was allocated for disposal in January 1947 . Richard Beitzen was allocated to C. W. Dorkin for breaking up the following year and she was towed to their facility in Gateshead on 10 January 1949 .
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= Maximian =
Maximian ( Latin : Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus Herculius Augustus ; c . 250 – c . July 310 ) was Roman Emperor from 286 to 305 . He was Caesar from 285 to 286 , then Augustus from 286 to 305 . He shared the latter title with his co @-@ emperor and superior , Diocletian , whose political brain complemented Maximian 's military brawn . Maximian established his residence at Trier but spent most of his time on campaign . In the late summer of 285 , he suppressed rebels in Gaul known as the Bagaudae . From 285 to 288 , he fought against Germanic tribes along the Rhine frontier . Together with Diocletian , he launched a scorched earth campaign deep into Alamannic territory in 288 , temporarily relieving the Rhine provinces from the threat of Germanic invasion .
The man he appointed to police the Channel shores , Carausius , rebelled in 286 , causing the secession of Britain and northwestern Gaul . Maximian failed to oust Carausius , and his invasion fleet was destroyed by storms in 289 or 290 . Maximian 's subordinate , Constantius , campaigned against Carausius ' successor , Allectus , while Maximian held the Rhine frontier . The rebel leader was ousted in 296 , and Maximian moved south to combat piracy near Hispania and Berber incursions in Mauretania . When these campaigns concluded in 298 , he departed for Italy , where he lived in comfort until 305 . At Diocletian 's behest , Maximian abdicated on May 1 , 305 , gave the Augustan office to Constantius , and retired to southern Italy .
In late 306 , Maximian took the title of Augustus again and aided his son Maxentius ' rebellion in Italy . In April 307 , he attempted to depose his son , but failed and fled to the court of Constantius ' successor , Constantine ( who was both Maximian 's step @-@ grandson and also his son @-@ in @-@ law ) , in Trier . At the Council of Carnuntum in November 308 , Diocletian and his successor , Galerius , forced Maximian to renounce his imperial claim again . In early 310 , Maximian attempted to seize Constantine 's title while the emperor was on campaign on the Rhine . Few supported him , and he was captured by Constantine in Marseille . Maximian committed suicide in the summer of 310 on Constantine 's orders . During Constantine 's war with Maxentius , Maximian 's image was purged from all public places . However , after Constantine ousted and killed Maxentius , Maximian 's image was rehabilitated , and he was deified .
= = Early life = =
Maximian was born near Sirmium ( modern Sremska Mitrovica , Serbia ) in the province of Pannonia , around 250 into a family of shopkeepers . Beyond that , the ancient sources contain vague allusions to Illyricum as his homeland , to his Pannonian virtues , and to his harsh upbringing along the war @-@ torn Danube frontier . Maximian joined the army , serving with Diocletian under the emperors Aurelian ( r . 270 – 275 ) and Probus ( r . 276 – 282 ) . He probably participated in the Mesopotamian campaign of Carus in 283 and attended Diocletian 's election as emperor on November 20 , 284 at Nicomedia . Maximian 's swift appointment by Diocletian as Caesar is taken by the writer Stephen Williams and historian Timothy Barnes to mean that the two men were longterm allies , that their respective roles were pre @-@ agreed and that Maximian had probably supported Diocletian during his campaign against Carinus ( r . 283 – 285 ) but there is no direct evidence for this .
With his great energy , firm aggressive character and disinclination to rebel , Maximian was an appealing candidate for imperial office . The fourth @-@ century historian Aurelius Victor described Maximian as " a colleague trustworthy in friendship , if somewhat boorish , and of great military talents " . Despite his other qualities , Maximian was uneducated and preferred action to thought . The panegyric of 289 , after comparing his actions to Scipio Africanus ' victories over Hannibal during the Second Punic War , suggested that Maximian had never heard of them . His ambitions were purely military ; he left politics to Diocletian . The Christian rhetor Lactantius suggested that Maximian shared Diocletian 's basic attitudes but was less puritanical in his tastes , and took advantage of the sensual opportunities his position as emperor offered . Lactantius charged that Maximian defiled senators ' daughters and traveled with young virgins to satisfy his unending lust , though Lactantius ' credibility is undermined by his general hostility towards pagans .
Maximian had two children with his Syrian wife , Eutropia : Maxentius and Fausta . There is no direct evidence in the ancient sources for their birthdates . Modern estimates of Maxentius ' birth year have varied from c . 277 to 287 , and most date Fausta 's birth to c . 289 or 290 . Theodora , the wife of Constantius Chlorus , is often called Maximian 's stepdaughter by ancient sources , leading to claims by Otto Seeck and Ernest Stein that she was born from an earlier marriage between Eutropia and Afranius Hannibalianus . Barnes challenges this view , saying that all " stepdaughter " sources derive their information from the partially unreliable work of history Kaisergeschichte , while other , more reliable sources , refer to her as Maximian 's natural daughter . Barnes concludes that Theodora was born no later than c . 275 to an unnamed earlier wife of Maximian , possibly one of Hannibalianus ' daughters .
= = Appointment as Caesar = =
At Mediolanum ( Milan , Italy ) in July 285 , Diocletian proclaimed Maximian as his co @-@ ruler , or Caesar . The reasons for this decision are complex . With conflict in every province of the Empire , from Gaul to Syria , from Egypt to the lower Danube , Diocletian needed a lieutenant to manage his heavy workload . Historian Stephen Williams suggests that Diocletian considered himself a mediocre general and needed a man like Maximian to do most of his fighting .
Next , Diocletian was vulnerable in that he had no sons , just a daughter , Valeria , who could never succeed him . He was forced therefore to seek a co @-@ ruler from outside his family and that co @-@ ruler had to be someone he trusted . ( The historian William Seston has argued that Diocletian , like heirless emperors before him , adopted Maximian as his filius Augusti ( " Augustan son " ) upon his appointment to the office . Some agree , but the historian Frank Kolb has stated that arguments for the adoption are based on misreadings of the papyrological evidence . Maximian did take Diocletian 's nomen ( family name ) Valerius , however . )
Finally , Diocletian knew that single rule was dangerous and that precedent existed for dual rulership . Despite their military prowess , both sole @-@ emperors Aurelian and Probus had been easily removed from power . In contrast , just a few years earlier , the emperor Carus and his sons had ruled jointly , albeit not for long . Even the first emperor , Augustus , ( r . 27 BC – AD 19 ) , had shared power with his colleagues and more formal offices of co @-@ emperor had existed from Marcus Aurelius ( r . 161 – 180 ) on .
The dual system evidently worked well . About 287 , the two rulers ' relationship was re @-@ defined in religious terms , with Diocletian assuming the title Iovius and Maximian Herculius . The titles were pregnant with symbolism : Diocletian @-@ Jove had the dominant role of planning and commanding ; Maximian @-@ Hercules the heroic role of completing assigned tasks . Yet despite the symbolism , the emperors were not " gods " in the Imperial cult ( although they may have been hailed as such in Imperial panegyrics ) . Instead , they were the gods ' instruments , imposing the gods ' will on earth . Once the rituals were over , Maximian assumed control of the government of the West and was dispatched to Gaul to fight the rebels known as Bagaudae while Diocletian returned to the East .
= = Early campaigns in Gaul and Germany = =
The Bagaudae of Gaul are obscure figures , appearing fleetingly in the ancient sources , with their 285 uprising being their first appearance . The fourth @-@ century historian Eutropius described them as rural people under the leadership of Amandus and Aelianus , while Aurelius Victor called them bandits . The historian David S. Potter suggests that they were more than peasants , seeking either Gallic political autonomy or reinstatement of the recently deposed Carus ( a native of Gallia Narbonensis , in what would become southern France ) : in this case , they would be defecting imperial troops , not brigands . Although poorly equipped , led and trained – and therefore a poor match for Roman legions – Diocletian certainly considered the Bagaudae sufficient threat to merit an emperor to counter them .
Maximian traveled to Gaul , engaging the Bagaudae late in the summer of 285 . Details of the campaign are sparse and provide no tactical detail : the historical sources dwell only on Maximian 's virtues and victories . The panegyric to Maximian in 289 records that the rebels were defeated with a blend of harshness and leniency . As the campaign was against the Empire 's own citizens , and therefore distasteful , it went unrecorded in titles and official triumphs . Indeed , Maximian 's panegyrist declares : " I pass quickly over this episode , for I see in your magnanimity you would rather forget this victory than celebrate it . " By the end of the year , the revolt had significantly abated , and Maximian moved the bulk of his forces to the Rhine frontier , heralding a period of stability .
Maximian did not put down the Bagaudae swiftly enough to avoid a Germanic reaction . In the autumn of 285 , two barbarian armies – one of Burgundians and Alamanni , the other of Chaibones and Heruli – forded the Rhine and entered Gaul . The first army was left to die of disease and hunger , while Maximian intercepted and defeated the second . He then established a Rhine headquarters in preparation for future campaigns , either at Moguntiacum ( Mainz , Germany ) , Augusta Treverorum ( Trier , Germany ) , or Colonia Agrippina ( Cologne , Germany ) .
= = Carausius = =
Although most of Gaul was pacified , regions bordering the English Channel still suffered from Frankish and Saxon piracy . The emperors Probus and Carinus had begun to fortify the Saxon Shore , but much remained to be done . For example , there is no archaeological evidence of naval bases at Dover and Boulogne during 270 – 285 . In response to the pirate problem , Maximian appointed Mausaeus Carausius , a Menapian from Germania Inferior ( southern and western Netherlands ) to command the Channel and to clear it of raiders . Carausius fared well , and by the end of 285 he was capturing pirate ships in great numbers .
Maximian soon heard that Carausius was waiting until the pirates had finished plundering before attacking and keeping their booty himself instead of returning it to the population at large or into the imperial treasury . Maximian ordered Carausius ' arrest and execution , prompting him to flee to Britain . Carausius ' support among the British was strong , and at least two British legions ( II Augusta and XX Valeria Victrix ) defected to him , as did some or all of a legion near Boulogne ( probably XXX Ulpia Victrix ) . Carausius quickly eliminated the few remaining loyalists in his army and declared himself Augustus .
Maximian could do little about the revolt . He had no fleet – he had given it to Carausius – and was busy quelling the Heruli and the Franks . Meanwhile , Carausius strengthened his position by enlarging his fleet , enlisting Frankish mercenaries , and paying his troops well . By the autumn of 286 , Britain , much of northwestern Gaul , and the entire Channel coast , was under his control . Carausius declared himself head of an independent British state , an Imperium Britanniarum and issued coin of a markedly higher purity than that of Maximian and Diocletian , earning the support of British and Gallic merchants . Even Maximian 's troops were vulnerable to Carausius ' influence and wealth .
= = Maximian appointed Augustus = =
Spurred by the crisis with Carausius , on April 1 , 286 , Maximian took the title of Augustus . This gave him the same status as Carausius – so the clash was between two Augusti , rather than between an Augustus and a Caesar – and , in Imperial propaganda , Maximian was proclaimed Diocletian 's brother , his equal in authority and prestige . Diocletian could not have been present at Maximian 's appointment , causing Seeck to suggest that Maximian usurped the title and was only later recognized by Diocletian in hopes of avoiding civil war . This suggestion has not won much support , and the historian William Leadbetter has recently refuted it . Despite the physical distance between the emperors , Diocletian trusted Maximian enough to invest him with imperial powers , and Maximian still respected Diocletian enough to act in accordance with his will .
In theory , the Roman Empire was not divided by the dual imperium . Though divisions did take place – each emperor had his own court , army , and official residences – these were matters of practicality , not substance . Imperial propaganda from 287 on insists on a singular and indivisible Rome , a patrimonium indivisum . As the panegyrist of 289 declares to Maximian : " So it is that this great empire is a communal possession for both of you , without any discord , nor would we endure there to be any dispute between you , but plainly you hold the state in equal measure as once those two Heracleidae , the Spartan Kings , had done . " Legal rulings were given and imperial celebrations took place in both emperors ' names , and the same coins were issued in both parts of the empire . Diocletian sometimes issued commands to Maximian 's province of Africa ; Maximian could presumably have done the same for Diocletian 's territory .
= = Campaigns against Rhenish tribes = =
= = = Campaigns in 286 and 287 = = =
Maximian realized that he could not immediately suppress Carausius and campaigned instead against Rhenish tribes . These tribes were probably greater threats to Gallic peace anyway and included many supporters of Carausius . Although Maximian had many enemies along the river , they were more often in dispute with each other than in combat with the Empire . Few clear dates survive for Maximian 's campaigns on the Rhine beyond a general range of 285 to 288 . While receiving the consular fasces on January 1 , 287 , Maximian was interrupted by news of a barbarian raid . Doffing his toga and donning his armor , he marched against the barbarians and , although they were not entirely dispersed , he celebrated a victory in Gaul later that year .
Maximian believed the Burgundian and Alemanni tribes of the Moselle @-@ Vosges region to be the greatest threat , so he targeted them first . He campaigned using scorched earth tactics , laying waste to their land and reducing their numbers through famine and disease . After the Burgundians and Alemanni , Maximian moved against the weaker Heruli and Chaibones . He cornered and defeated them in a single battle . He fought in person , riding along the battle line until the Germanic forces broke . Roman forces pursued the fleeing tribal armies and routed them . With his enemies weakened from starvation , Maximian launched a great invasion across the Rhine . He moved deep into Germanic territory , bringing destruction to his enemies ' homelands and demonstrating the superiority of Roman arms . By the winter of 287 , he had the advantage and the Rhenish lands were free of Germanic tribesmen . Maximian 's panegyrist declared : " All that I see beyond the Rhine is Roman . "
= = = Joint campaign against the Alamanni = = =
The following spring , as Maximian made preparations for dealing with Carausius , Diocletian returned from the East . The emperors met that year , but neither date nor place is known with certainty . They probably agreed on a joint campaign against the Alamanni and a naval expedition against Carausius .
Later in the year , Maximian led a surprise invasion of the Agri Decumates – a region between the upper Rhine and upper Danube deep within Alamanni territory – while Diocletian invaded Germany via Raetia . Both emperors burned crops and food supplies as they went , destroying the Germans ' means of sustenance . They added large swathes of territory to the Empire and allowed Maximian 's build @-@ up to proceed without further disturbance . In the aftermath of the war , towns along the Rhine were rebuilt , bridgeheads created on the eastern banks at such places as Mainz and Cologne , and a military frontier was established , comprising forts , roads , and fortified towns . A military highway through Tornacum ( Tournai , Belgium ) , Bavacum ( Bavay , France ) , Atuatuca Tungrorum ( Tongeren , Belgium ) , Mosae Trajectum ( Maastricht , Netherlands ) , and Cologne connected points along the frontier .
= = = Constantius , Gennobaudes , and resettlement = = =
In early 288 , Maximian appointed his praetorian prefect Constantius Chlorus , husband of Maximian 's daughter Theodora , to lead a campaign against Carausius ' Frankish allies . These Franks controlled the Rhine estuaries , thwarting sea @-@ attacks against Carausius . Constantius moved north through their territory , wreaking havoc , and reaching the North Sea . The Franks sued for peace and in the subsequent settlement Maximian reinstated the deposed Frankish king Gennobaudes . Gennobaudes became Maximian 's vassal and , with lesser Frankish chiefs in turn swearing loyalty to Gennobaudes , Roman regional dominance was assured .
Maximian allowed a settlement of Frisii , Salian Franks , Chamavi and other tribes along a strip of Roman territory , either between the Rhine and Waal rivers from Noviomagus ( Nijmegen , Netherlands ) to Traiectum , ( Utrecht , Netherlands ) or near Trier . These tribes were allowed to settle on the condition that they acknowledged Roman dominance . Their presence provided a ready pool of manpower and prevented the settlement of other Frankish tribes , giving Maximian a buffer along the northern Rhine and reducing his need to garrison the region .
= = Later campaigns in Britain and Gaul = =
= = = Failed expedition against Carausius = = =
By 289 , Maximian was prepared to invade Carausius ' Britain , but for some reason the plan failed . Maximian 's panegyrist of 289 was optimistic about the campaign 's prospects , but the panegyrist of 291 made no mention of it . Constantius ' panegyrist suggested that his fleet was lost to a storm , but this might simply have been to diminish the embarrassment of defeat . Diocletian curtailed his Eastern province tour soon after , perhaps on learning of Maximian 's failure . Diocletian returned in haste to the West , reaching Emesa by May 10 , 290 , and Sirmium on the Danube by July 1 , 290 .
Diocletian met Maximian in Milan either in late December 290 or January 291 . Crowds gathered to witness the event , and the emperors devoted much time to public pageantry . Potter , among others , has surmised that the ceremonies were arranged to demonstrate Diocletian 's continuing support for his faltering colleague . The rulers discussed matters of politics and war in secret , and they may have considered the idea of expanding the imperial college to include four emperors ( the Tetrarchy ) . Meanwhile , a deputation from the Roman Senate met with the rulers and renewed its infrequent contact with the imperial office . The emperors would not meet again until 303 .
Following Maximian 's failure to invade in 289 , an uneasy truce with Carausius began . Maximian tolerated Carausius ' rule in Britain and on the continent but refused to grant the secessionist state formal legitimacy . For his part , Carausius was content with his territories beyond the Continental coast of Gaul . Diocletian , however , would not tolerate this affront to his rule . Faced with Carausius ' secession and further challenges on the Egyptian , Syrian , and Danubian borders , he realized that two emperors were insufficient to manage the Empire . On March 1 , 293 at Milan , Maximian appointed Constantius to the office of Caesar . On either the same day or a month later , Diocletian did the same for Galerius , thus establishing the " Tetrarchy " , or " rule of four " . Constantius was made to understand that he must succeed where Maximian had failed and defeat Carausius .
= = = Campaign against Allectus = = =
Constantius met expectations quickly and efficiently and by 293 had expelled Carausian forces from northern Gaul . In the same year , Carausius was assassinated and replaced by his treasurer , Allectus . Constantius marched up the coast to the Rhine and Scheldt estuaries where he was victorious over Carausius ' Frankish allies , taking the title Germanicus maximus . His sights now set on Britain , Constantius spent the following years building an invasion fleet . Maximian , still in Italy after the appointment of Constantius , was apprised of the invasion plans and , in the summer of 296 , returned to Gaul . There , he held the Rhenish frontiers against Carausius ' Frankish allies while Constantius launched his invasion of Britain . Allectus was killed on the North Downs in battle with Constantius ' praetorian prefect , Asclepiodotus . Constantius himself had landed near Dubris ( Dover ) and marched on Londinium ( London ) , whose citizens greeted him as a liberator .
= = Campaigns in North Africa = =
With Constantius ' victorious return , Maximian was able to focus on the conflict in Mauretania ( Northwest Africa ) . As Roman authority weakened during the third century , nomadic Berber tribes harassed settlements in the region with increasingly severe consequences . In 289 , the governor of Mauretania Caesariensis ( roughly modern Algeria ) gained a temporary respite by pitting a small army against the Bavares and Quinquegentiani , but the raiders soon returned . In 296 , Maximian raised an army , from Praetorian cohorts , Aquileian , Egyptian , and Danubian legionaries , Gallic and German auxiliaries , and Thracian recruits , advancing through Spain that autumn . He may have defended the region against raiding Moors before crossing the Strait of Gibraltar into Mauretania Tingitana ( roughly modern Morocco ) to protect the area from Frankish pirates .
By March 297 , Maximian had begun a bloody offensive against the Berbers . The campaign was lengthy , and Maximian spent the winter of 297 – 298 resting in Carthage before returning to the field . Not content to drive them back into their homelands in the Atlas Mountains – from which they could continue to wage war – Maximian ventured deep into Berber territory . The terrain was unfavorable , and the Berbers were skilled at guerrilla warfare , but Maximian pressed on . Apparently wishing to inflict as much punishment as possible on the tribes , he devastated previously secure land , killed as many as he could , and drove the remainder back into the Sahara . His campaign was concluded by the spring of 298 and , on March 10 , he made a triumphal entry into Carthage . Inscriptions there record the people 's gratitude to Maximian , hailing him – as Constantius had been on his entry to London – as redditor lucis aeternae ( " restorer of the eternal light " ) . Maximian returned to Italy in 299 to celebrate another triumph in Rome in the spring .
= = Leisure and retirement = =
After his Mauretanian campaign , Maximian returned to the north of Italy , living a life of leisure in palaces in Milan and Aquilea , and leaving warfare to his subordinate Constantius . Maximian was more aggressive in his relationship with the Senate than Constantius , and Lactantius contends that he terrorized senators , to the point of falsely charging and subsequently executing several , including the prefect of Rome in 301 / 2 . In contrast , Constantius kept up good relations with the senatorial aristocracy and spent his time in active defense of the empire . He took up arms against the Franks in 300 or 301 and in 302 – while Maximian was resting in Italy – continued to campaign against Germanic tribes on the Upper Rhine .
Maximian was only disturbed from his rest in 303 by Diocletian 's vicennalia , the 20 @-@ year anniversary of his reign , in Rome . Some evidence suggests that it was then that Diocletian exacted a promise from Maximian to retire together , passing their titles as Augusti to the Caesars Constantius and Galerius . Presumably Maximian 's son Maxentius and Constantius ' son Constantine – children raised in Nicomedia together – would then become the new Caesars . While Maximian might not have wished to retire , Diocletian was still in control and there was little resistance . Before retirement , Maximian would receive one final moment of glory by officiating at the Secular Games in 304 .
On May 1 , 305 , in separate ceremonies in Milan and Nicomedia , Diocletian and Maximian retired simultaneously . The succession did not go entirely to Maximian 's liking : perhaps because of Galerius ' influence , Severus and Maximinus were appointed Caesar , thus excluding Maxentius . Both the newly appointed Caesars had had long military careers and were close to Galerius : Maximinus was his nephew and Severus a former army comrade . Maximian quickly soured to the new tetrarchy , which saw Galerius assume the dominant position Diocletian once held . Although Maximian led the ceremony that proclaimed Severus as Caesar , within two years he was sufficiently dissatisfied to support his son 's rebellion against the new regime . Diocletian retired to the expansive palace he had built in his homeland , Dalmatia near Salona on the Adriatic . Maximian retired to villas in Campania or Lucania , where he lived a life of ease and luxury . Although far from the political centers of the Empire , Diocletian and Maximian remained close enough to stay in regular contact .
= = Maxentius ' rebellion = =
After the death of Constantius on July 25 , 306 , Constantine assumed the title of Augustus . This displeased Galerius , who instead offered Constantine the title of Caesar , which Constantine accepted . The title of Augustus then went to Severus . Maxentius was jealous of Constantine 's power , and on October 28 , 306 , he persuaded a cohort of imperial guardsmen to declare him as Augustus . Uncomfortable with sole leadership , Maxentius sent a set of imperial robes to Maximian and saluted him as " Augustus for the second time " , offering him theoretic equal rule but less actual power and a lower rank .
Galerius refused to recognize Maxentius and sent Severus with an army to Rome to depose him . As many of Severus ' soldiers had served under Maximian , and had taken Maxentius ' bribes , most of the army defected to Maxentius . Severus fled to Ravenna , which Maximian besieged . The city was strongly fortified so Maximian offered terms , which Severus accepted . Maximian then seized Severus and took him under guard to a public villa in southern Rome , where he was kept as a hostage . In the autumn of 307 , Galerius led a second force against Maxentius but he again failed to take Rome , and retreated north with his army mostly intact .
While Maxentius built up Rome 's defenses , Maximian made his way to Gaul to negotiate with Constantine . A deal was struck in which Constantine would marry Maximian 's younger daughter Fausta and be elevated to Augustan rank in Maxentius ' secessionist regime . In return , Constantine would reaffirm the old family alliance between Maximian and Constantius , and support Maxentius ' cause in Italy but would remain neutral in the war with Galerius . The deal was sealed with a double ceremony in Trier in the late summer of 307 , at which Constantine married Fausta and was declared Augustus by Maximian .
Maximian returned to Rome in the winter of 307 – 8 but soon fell out with his son and in the spring of 308 challenged his right to rule before an assembly of Roman soldiers . He spoke of Rome 's sickly government , disparaged Maxentius for having weakened it , and ripped the imperial toga from Maxentius ' shoulders . He expected the soldiers to recognize him but they sided with Maxentius , and Maximian was forced to leave Italy in disgrace .
On November 11 , 308 , to resolve the political instability , Galerius called Diocletian ( out of retirement ) and Maximian to a general council meeting at the military city of Carnuntum on the upper Danube . There , Maximian was forced to abdicate again and Constantine was again demoted to Caesar , with Maximinus the Caesar in the east . Licinius , a loyal military companion to Galerius , was appointed Augustus of the West In early 309 Maximian returned to the court of Constantine in Gaul , the only court that would still accept him . After Constantine and Maximinus refused to be placated with the titles of Sons of the Augusti , they were promoted in early 310 , with the result that there were now four Augusti .
= = Rebellion against Constantine = =
In 310 , Maximian rebelled against Constantine while the Emperor was on campaign against the Franks . Maximian had been sent south to Arles with part of Constantine 's army to defend against attacks by Maxentius in southern Gaul . In Arles , Maximian announced that Constantine was dead and took up the imperial purple . Although Maximian offered bribes to all who would support him , most of Constantine 's army remained loyal , and Maximian was compelled to leave the city . Constantine soon heard of the rebellion , abandoned his campaign against the Franks , and moved quickly to southern Gaul , where he confronted the fleeing Maximian at Massilia ( Marseille ) . The town was better able to withstand a long siege than Arles , but it made little difference as loyal citizens opened the rear gates to Constantine . Maximian was captured , reproved for his crimes , and stripped of his title for the third and last time . Constantine granted Maximian some clemency but strongly encouraged his suicide . In July 310 , Maximian hanged himself .
Despite the earlier rupture in relations , after Maximian 's suicide Maxentius presented himself as his father 's devoted son . He minted coins bearing his father 's deified image and proclaimed his desire to avenge his death .
Constantine initially presented the suicide as an unfortunate family tragedy . By 311 , however , he was spreading another version . According to this , after Constantine had pardoned him , Maximian planned to murder Constantine in his sleep . Fausta learned of the plot and warned Constantine , who put a eunuch in his own place in bed . Maximian was apprehended when he killed the eunuch and was offered suicide , which he accepted . In addition to the propaganda , Constantine instituted a damnatio memoriae on Maximian , destroying all inscriptions referring to him and eliminating any public work bearing his image .
Constantine defeated Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge on October 28 , 312 . Maxentius died , and Italy came under Constantine 's rule . Eutropia swore on oath that Maxentius was not Maximian 's son , and Maximian 's memory was rehabilitated . His apotheosis under Maxentius was declared null and void , and he was re @-@ consecrated as a god , probably in 317 . He began appearing on Constantine 's coinage as divus , or divine , by 318 , together with the deified Constantius and Claudius Gothicus . The three were hailed as Constantine 's forbears . They were called " the best of emperors " . Through his daughters Fausta and Flavia , Maximian was grandfather or great @-@ grandfather to every reigning emperor from 337 to 363 .
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= Washington State Route 231 =
State Route 231 ( SR 231 ) is a 74 @.@ 97 @-@ mile ( 120 @.@ 65 km ) long state highway in the U.S. state of Washington serving communities in Lincoln and Stevens counties . The highway , located entirely west of Spokane in the Inland Empire , serves Sprague , Edwall , Reardan , Springdale and Chewelah . The route extends from SR 23 north of Sprague to a concurrency with U.S. Route 2 ( US 2 ) near Reardan and an intersection with US 395 south of Chewelah .
Although SR 231 was established in 1964 , the US 2 concurrency has existed as State Road 7 since 1909 . Later , Secondary State Highway 2G ( SSH 2G ) and Secondary State Highway 3J ( SSH 3J ) were established in 1937 and formed SR 231 in 1964 . The highway crosses the Spokane River on the Spokane River Bridge at Long Lake Dam , which was constructed in 1949 and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1995 before repair work in late 2008 .
= = Route description = =
State Route 231 ( SR 231 ) begins at SR 23 0 @.@ 79 miles ( 1 @.@ 27 km ) north of Sprague and a diamond interchange with Interstate 90 ( I @-@ 90 ) , co @-@ signed as U.S. Route 395 ( US 395 ) . SR 23 is the " parent " or main route of SR 231 and travels northwest to Harrington and south to Downtown Sprague , spanning 66 @.@ 00 miles ( 106 @.@ 22 km ) , 8 @.@ 97 miles ( 14 @.@ 44 km ) shorter than SR 231 . Traveling northeast , the highway traverses a hill and cliff , passing Browns Lake , and turns west . The direction of the roadway becomes north through a narrow valley and SR 231 arrives in Edwall as Oregon Street . The roadway briefly turns east as Main Street before crossing a BNSF Railway line and continuing northeast alongside the tracks . After turning north into the plains , the highway parallels Crab Creek to intersect US 2 west of Reardan .
Becoming concurrent with US 2 , the road becomes Broadway Street and enters Reardan . SR 231 turns north at Aspen Street and crosses the Eastern Washington Gateway Railroad and a marsh via a causeway . As Spring Creek Road , the highway travels northwest parallel to Spring Creek into Spring Creek Canyon . After the canyon , the roadway crosses the Spokane River on the Spokane River Bridge at Long Lake Dam , the border between Lincoln and Stevens counties , west of Little Falls Dam and Long Lake . Nearly a mile north of the bridge , SR 231 intersects SR 291 , a connector to Spokane . After the intersection , the highway travels north through the community of Ford and continues through a valley into Springdale . Within Springdale , the roadway is named Second Street and intersects SR 292 , which connects east to US 395 near Loon Lake . After crossing a BNSF Railway track , Second Street turns west as Shaffer Street and passes the Springdale Community Health Center , the local medical clinic . SR 231 crosses Sheep Creek and the same railway as Second Street and leaves Springdale , parallel to the railroad , into a valley . The highway intersects former SR 232 and ends at an intersection with US 395 4 @.@ 27 miles ( 6 @.@ 87 km ) south of Chewelah .
= = History = =
SR 231 was established in 1964 , but sections of the current route have been in the state highway system as early as 1909 , when State Road 7 was established and included a section near Reardan . In 1913 , the Inland Empire Highway was established and connected Loon Lake to Springdale and Chewelah . A county @-@ maintained road connected Sprague to Browns Lake by 1919 and in 1923 , State Road 7 became State Road 2 and the Inland Empire Highway became State Road 3 . The U.S. route system was formed in 1926 and two highways , numbered U.S. Route 10 ( US 10 ) and U.S. Route 395 ( US 395 ) , were co @-@ signed with State Roads 2 and 3 , respectively . State Road 2 became Primary State Highway 2 ( PSH 2 ) in 1937 and a secondary route , Secondary State Highway 2G ( SSH 2G ) was created , extending from Sprague to Reardan , in 1937 . State Road 3 became PSH 3 during the same year and a secondary route , SSH 3J , was also established to span from the Little Falls Dam at Long Lake to Springdale .
US 10 was replaced by the western extension of US 2 in 1946 . Three years later , in 1949 , the Spokane River Bridge at Long Lake Dam was constructed and spanned from the southern terminus of SSH 3J to Lincoln County . In 1957 , PSH 3 and US 395 were moved to an eastern route bypassing Springdale , while SSH 3J was extended north towards Chewelah and a branch of the highway was added to Loon Lake , both along the former route of PSH 3 . SSH 3J was extended south to PSH 2 and US 2 in Reardan , east of the northern terminus of SSH 2G , in 1963 . During the 1964 highway renumbering , SR 231 was created from SSH 2G and SSH 3J and became concurrent with US 2 ; US 2 replaced PSH 2 and US 395 replaced PSH 3 , while the branch of SSH 3J to Loon Lake became SR 292 . The Spokane River Bridge was added to the National Register of Historic Places on June 2 , 1995 along with the rest of the bridges on the Spokane River northwest of Spokane , and the bridge was repaired in late 2008 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Suillus collinitus =
Suillus collinitus is a pored mushroom of the genus Suillus in the family Suillaceae . It is an edible mushroom found in European pine forests . The mushroom has a reddish to chestnut @-@ brown cap that reaches up to 11 cm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) in diameter , and a yellow stem measuring up to 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) tall by 1 to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick . On the underside of the cap are small angular pores , initially bright yellow before turning greenish @-@ brown with age . A characteristic feature that helps to distinguish it from similar Suillus species , such as S. granulatus , is the pinkish mycelia at the base of the stem .
Molecular analysis has shown the species to be related to other typical Mediterranean Suillus species such as S. bellinii , S. luteus , and S. mediterraneensis . S. collinitus is a mycorrhizal species , and forms associations with several species of pine , most notably the Aleppo pine . This tree species is commonly used in reforestation schemes and soil conservation against erosion in the Mediterranean region , and S. collinitus is often used as a beneficial inoculant to help the young trees better survive in typically harsh soil conditions .
= = Taxonomy , phylogeny , and naming = =
The species was first described as Boletus collinitus by Elias Magnus Fries in 1838 . Otto Kuntze transferred it to the genus Suillus in his 1898 Revisio Generum Plantarum . In 1969 Dutch mycologist H.S.C. Huijsman described the variety S. collinitus var. aureus ( as S. fluryi var. aureus ; S. fluryi is a synonym of S. collinitus ) based on a collection from Switzerland . The variety velatipes was described in 1998 by Giampaolo Simonini and colleagues from Italian collections .
A 1996 molecular analysis of 38 different Suillus species used the sequences of their internal transcribed spacers to infer phylogenetic relationships and clarify the taxonomy of the genus . The results indicated that S. collinitus is most closely related to a specimen of S. granuatus collected from Nepal . According to the authors , this Nepalese isolate probably represents a species distinct from North American and European isolates , based on morphology and host tree association . In 2006 , a phylogenetic analysis of Suillus isolates collected from Spain showed that S. collinitus was closely related to other species " typical of the Mediterranean area " , namely S. bellinii , S. luteus , and S. mediterraneensis .
The specific epithet collinitus is derived from Latin , and means " smeared " or " greased " . The British botanist Mordecai Cubitt Cooke called the mushroom the " ringless yellow boletus " in an 1873 publication .
= = Description = =
The fruit body of Suillus collinitus is a medium to large , fleshy bolete . The cap is initially rounded , becoming convex and finally flat , reaching up to 11 cm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) in diameter . The cap is covered with a brown cuticle of variable shade that is decorated with minuscule radial striations , which become more obvious in fully expanded specimens and especially in dry weather . The cap is often shaped irregularly and becomes viscid ( sticky ) when damp . The tubes are short and their stem attachment is usually slightly decurrent to adnate . The small and angular pores are yellow but darken with age . Young , fresh specimens sometimes bear droplets of a clear fluid that collect on the pore surface .
The cylindrical stem is often short and stubby , typically 4 – 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 8 in ) tall by 1 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick , coloured yellowish and ornamented with sparse reddish @-@ brown granules . There is no ring . The base of the stem bears pink overtones and is attached to distinctively pink mycelial threads , which are visible when the fruit body is uprooted . The flesh is yellowish , thick and soft . In a colour reaction test with ammonia solution , the flesh turns reddish .
The spores are seen ochre @-@ brown in mass , but pale yellow when viewed with a light microscope . They are fusiform ( tapered at each end ) , sized 8 – 10 @.@ 5 by 3 – 4 @.@ 5 μm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells of the hymenium ) are four @-@ spored .
Especially characteristic for S. collinitus are the cap striations and pink mycelium . The fungus in many aspects resembles S. granulatus – a common species in European pine forests . S. granulatus , however , has a homogenous brown cap without striations , and its mycelium is characteristically white .
= = = Varieties = = =
Two varieties of S. collinitus have been described . S. collinitus var. aureus has a golden @-@ yellow cap . S. collinitus var. velatipes , originally found in Italy growing in poor acidic soil in association with Aleppo pine ( Pinus halepensis ) , is distinguished by a glutinous brown veil at the base of the stem , and a slender white felting at the cap margin .
= = = Similar species = = =
Suillus collinitus is often found in the same habitat with other thermophilic species , including S. mediterraneensis and S. bellinii , especially in the Mediterranean basin . Some common species which occur throughout much of Europe and also associate with two @-@ needled pines include S. luteus and S. granulatus .
= = = Edibility = = =
Various authors regard Suillus collinitus as edible with a sour odor and nondescript taste . It is advisable , as for all species of Suillus , to pick only young specimens and to peel the cuticle before preparation . The mushroom contains several tocopherols , a class of chemical compounds collectively known as vitamin E , and which confer antioxidant activity . They also contain several organic acids , most predominantly the pairs malic and quinic acids , and citric and ketoglutaric acid , which respectively make up 42 % and 30 % of total organic acids . The composition and concentration of organic acids in mushrooms are major factors in influencing their flavour ; some organic acids contribute to antioxidant activity .
= = Distribution , habitat , and ecology = =
Suillus collinitus is found throughout Europe . It is an ectomycorrhizal fungus , forming mutually beneficial symbiotic relationships with several species of pine ( Pinus ) . These include several two @-@ needled European species of pine : Aleppo pine ( P. halepensis ) European black pine ( P. nigra ) , stone pine ( P. pinea ) , and Scots pine ( P. sylvestris ) . The fungus favours limestone soils . S. collinitus is thermophilic , commonly occurring in southern Europe . It is rarely seen in more northern regions , such as the British Isles and Poland . It is red @-@ listed in Denmark as near @-@ threatened , and in Estonia as endangered . It has also been collected in Iran .
Suillus collinitus is the most frequent fungus associating with Aleppo pine – a hardy tree utilised for reforestation schemes and soil conservation against erosion in the Mediterranean region . A study performed in the south of France discovered that S. collinitus and S. mediterraneensis are multi @-@ stage ectomycorrhizal fungi , associating with both young and mature stands of Aleppo pine . These two species may play a key role in the survival and adaptation of this species of pine on disturbed calcareous sites . Roots mycorrhizal with S. collinitus were found capable of surviving successive disturbances by fire or ploughing . Moreover , the fungus retained its viability to propagate via its mycelial network which helped the recolonisation effort of newly introduced trees . The fungus has also been shown to improve the growth of Mediterranean pines grown in greenhouses and nurseries . Unlike other Suillus species that grow in wet climates , such as S. grevillei and S. spraguei , S. collinitus does not typically produce fruit bodies in young plantations . This fruiting behaviour may be attributed to the typically nutrient @-@ poor xeric Mediterranean environment in combination with a lack of tree canopy . The absence of above @-@ ground indicators of fungal presence makes analysis of underground populations difficult ; molecular markers have been developed to assist in monitoring fungal growth and ectomycorrhizal formation and persistence in young plantations .
The ectomycorrizhae formed between several Suillus species and Aleppo pine has been studied under in vitro conditions in the laboratory . Tree shoots inoculated with either S. collinitus , S. bellinii , and S. mediterraneensis tended to grow better and showed superior mycorrhizal development than other tested Suillus species , suggesting that the three have a " physiological specificity " for the tree . A 2010 publication reported that the fungal hyphae are covered in crystals of oxalic acid , which , in addition to reducing soil pH , reduces grazing by the soil microarthropod Folsomia candida .
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= McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 4 Phantom II =
The McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 4 Phantom II is a tandem two @-@ seat , twin @-@ engine , all @-@ weather , long @-@ range supersonic jet interceptor aircraft / fighter @-@ bomber originally developed for the United States Navy by McDonnell Aircraft . It first entered service in 1960 with the U.S. Navy . Proving highly adaptable , it was also adopted by the U.S. Marine Corps and the U.S. Air Force , and by the mid @-@ 1960s had become a major part of their respective air wings .
The Phantom is a large fighter with a top speed of over Mach 2 @.@ 2 . It can carry more than 18 @,@ 000 pounds ( 8 @,@ 400 kg ) of weapons on nine external hardpoints , including air @-@ to @-@ air missiles , air @-@ to @-@ ground missiles , and various bombs . The F @-@ 4 , like other interceptors of its time , was designed without an internal cannon . Later models incorporated an M61 Vulcan rotary cannon . Beginning in 1959 , it set 15 world records for in @-@ flight performance , including an absolute speed record , and an absolute altitude record .
During the Vietnam War , the F @-@ 4 was used extensively ; it served as the principal air superiority fighter for both the Navy and Air Force , and became important in the ground @-@ attack and aerial reconnaissance roles late in the war . The Phantom has the distinction of being the last U.S. fighter flown to attain ace status in the 20th century . During the Vietnam War , the U.S. Air Force had one pilot and two weapon systems officers ( WSOs ) , and the US Navy had one pilot and one radar intercept officer ( RIO ) become aces by achieving five aerial kills against enemy fighter aircraft . The F @-@ 4 continued to form a major part of U.S. military air power throughout the 1970s and 1980s , being gradually replaced by more modern aircraft such as the F @-@ 15 Eagle and F @-@ 16 in the U.S. Air Force , the Grumman F @-@ 14 Tomcat in the U.S. Navy , and the F / A @-@ 18 Hornet in the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps .
The F @-@ 4 Phantom II remained in use by the U.S. in the reconnaissance and Wild Weasel ( Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses ) roles in the 1991 Gulf War , finally leaving service in 1996 . It was also the only aircraft used by both U.S. flight demonstration teams : the USAF Thunderbirds ( F @-@ 4E ) and the US Navy Blue Angels ( F @-@ 4J ) . The F @-@ 4 was also operated by the armed forces of 11 other nations . Israeli Phantoms saw extensive combat in several Arab – Israeli conflicts , while Iran used its large fleet of Phantoms in the Iran – Iraq War . Phantoms remain in front line service with seven countries , and in use as a target drone in the U.S. Air Force . Phantom production ran from 1958 to 1981 , with a total of 5 @,@ 195 built , making it the most numerous American supersonic military aircraft .
= = Development = =
= = = Origins = = =
In 1952 , McDonnell 's Chief of Aerodynamics , Dave Lewis , was appointed by CEO Jim McDonnell to be the company 's preliminary design manager . With no new aircraft competitions on the horizon , internal studies concluded the Navy had the greatest need for a new and different aircraft type : an attack fighter .
In 1953 , McDonnell Aircraft began work on revising its F3H Demon naval fighter , seeking expanded capabilities and better performance . The company developed several projects including a variant powered by a Wright J67 engine , and variants powered by two Wright J65 engines , or two General Electric J79 engines . The J79 @-@ powered version promised a top speed of Mach 1 @.@ 97 . On 19 September 1953 , McDonnell approached the United States Navy with a proposal for the " Super Demon " . Uniquely , the aircraft was to be modular — it could be fitted with one- or two @-@ seat noses for different missions , with different nose cones to accommodate radar , photo cameras , four 20 mm ( .79 in ) cannon , or 56 FFAR unguided rockets in addition to the nine hardpoints under the wings and the fuselage . The Navy was sufficiently interested to order a full @-@ scale mock @-@ up of the F3H @-@ G / H , but felt that the upcoming Grumman XF9F @-@ 9 and Vought XF8U @-@ 1 already satisfied the need for a supersonic fighter .
The McDonnell design was therefore reworked into an all @-@ weather fighter @-@ bomber with 11 external hardpoints for weapons and on 18 October 1954 , the company received a letter of intent for two YAH @-@ 1 prototypes . On 26 May 1955 , four Navy officers arrived at the McDonnell offices and , within an hour , presented the company with an entirely new set of requirements . Because the Navy already had the Douglas A @-@ 4 Skyhawk for ground attack and F @-@ 8 Crusader for dogfighting , the project now had to fulfill the need for an all @-@ weather fleet defense interceptor . A second crewman was added to operate the powerful radar .
= = = XF4H @-@ 1 prototype = = =
The XF4H @-@ 1 was designed to carry four semi @-@ recessed AAM @-@ N @-@ 6 Sparrow III radar @-@ guided missiles , and to be powered by two J79 @-@ GE @-@ 8 engines . As in the McDonnell F @-@ 101 Voodoo , the engines sat low in the fuselage to maximize internal fuel capacity and ingested air through fixed geometry intakes . The thin @-@ section wing had a leading edge sweep of 45 ° and was equipped with blown flaps for better low @-@ speed handling .
Wind tunnel testing had revealed lateral instability requiring the addition of 5 ° dihedral to the wings . To avoid redesigning the titanium central section of the aircraft , McDonnell engineers angled up only the outer portions of the wings by 12 ° , which averaged to the required 5 ° over the entire wingspan . The wings also received the distinctive " dogtooth " for improved control at high angles of attack . The all @-@ moving tailplane was given 23 ° of anhedral to improve control at high angles of attack while still keeping the tailplane clear of the engine exhaust . In addition , air intakes were equipped with variable geometry ramps to regulate airflow to the engines at supersonic speeds . All @-@ weather intercept capability was achieved thanks to the AN / APQ @-@ 50 radar . To accommodate carrier operations , the landing gear was designed to withstand landings with a sink rate of 23 ft / s ( 7 m / s ) , while the nose strut could extend by some 20 in ( 51 cm ) to increase angle of attack at takeoff .
On 25 July 1955 , the Navy ordered two XF4H @-@ 1 test aircraft and five YF4H @-@ 1 pre @-@ production examples . The Phantom made its maiden flight on 27 May 1958 with Robert C. Little at the controls . A hydraulic problem precluded retraction of the landing gear but subsequent flights went more smoothly . Early testing resulted in redesign of the air intakes , including the distinctive addition of 12 @,@ 500 holes to " bleed off " the slow @-@ moving boundary layer air from the surface of each intake ramp . Series production aircraft also featured splitter plates to divert the boundary layer away from the engine intakes . The aircraft soon squared off against the XF8U @-@ 3 Crusader III . Due to operator workload , the Navy wanted a two @-@ seat aircraft and on 17 December 1958 the F4H was declared a winner . Delays with the J79 @-@ GE @-@ 8 engines meant that the first production aircraft were fitted with J79 @-@ GE @-@ 2 and − 2A engines , each having 16 @,@ 100 lbf ( 71 @.@ 8 kN ) of afterburning thrust . In 1959 , the Phantom began carrier suitability trials with the first complete launch @-@ recovery cycle performed on 15 February 1960 from Independence .
There were proposals to name the F4H " Satan " and " Mithras " . In the end , the aircraft was given the less controversial name " Phantom II " , the first " Phantom " being another McDonnell jet fighter , the FH @-@ 1 Phantom . The Phantom II was briefly given the designation F @-@ 110A and the name " Spectre " by the USAF , but neither name was officially used .
= = = Production = = =
Early in production , the radar was upgraded to the Westinghouse AN / APQ @-@ 72 , and AN @-@ APG @-@ 50 with a larger radar antenna , necessitating the bulbous nose , and the canopy was reworked to improve visibility and make the rear cockpit less claustrophobic . During its career the Phantom underwent many changes in the form of numerous variants developed .
The USAF received Phantoms as the result of Defense Secretary Robert McNamara 's push to create a unified fighter for all branches of the military . After an F @-@ 4B won the " Operation Highspeed " fly @-@ off against the Convair F @-@ 106 Delta Dart , the USAF borrowed two Naval F @-@ 4Bs , temporarily designating them F @-@ 110A " Spectre " in January 1962 , and developed requirements for their own version . Unlike the navy 's focus on interception , the USAF emphasized a fighter @-@ bomber role . With McNamara 's unification of designations on 18 September 1962 , the Phantom became the F @-@ 4 with the naval version designated F @-@ 4B and USAF F @-@ 4C . The first air force Phantom flew on 27 May 1963 , exceeding Mach 2 on its maiden flight .
The USN operated the F4H @-@ 1 ( re @-@ designated F @-@ 4A in 1962 ) with J79 @-@ GE @-@ 2 and -2A engines of 16 @,@ 100 lbf ( 71 @.@ 62 kN ) thrust and later builds receiving -8 engines . A total of 45 F @-@ 4As were built and none saw combat and most ended up as test or training aircraft . The USN and USMC received the first definitive Phantom , the F @-@ 4B which was equipped with the Westinghouse APQ @-@ 72 radar ( pulse only ) , a Texas Instruments AAA @-@ 4 Infra @-@ red search and track pod under the nose , an AN / AJB @-@ 3 bombing system and powered by J79 @-@ GE @-@ 8 , -8A and -8B engines of 10 @,@ 900 lbf ( 48 @.@ 5 kN ) dry and 16 @,@ 950 lbf ( 75 @.@ 4 kN ) afterburner ( reheat ) with the first flight on 25 March 1961 . 649 F @-@ 4Bs were built with deliveries beginning in 1961 and VF @-@ 121 Pacemakers receiving the first examples at NAS Miramar .
The F @-@ 4J had improved air @-@ to @-@ air and ground @-@ attack capability ; deliveries begun in 1966 and ended in 1972 with 522 built . It was equipped with J79 @-@ GE @-@ 10 engines with 17 @,@ 844 lbf ( 79 @.@ 374 kN ) thrust , the Westinghouse AN / AWG @-@ 10 Fire Control System ( making the F @-@ 4J the first fighter in the world with operational look @-@ down / shoot @-@ down capability ) , a new integrated missile control system and the AN / AJB @-@ 7 bombing system for expanded ground attack capability .
The F @-@ 4N ( updated F @-@ 4Bs ) with smokeless engines and F @-@ 4J aerodynamic improvements started in 1972 under a U.S. Navy @-@ initiated refurbishment program called " Project Bee Line " with 228 converted by 1978 . The F @-@ 4S model resulted from the refurbishment of 265 F @-@ 4Js with J79 @-@ GE @-@ 17 smokeless engines of 17 @,@ 900 lbf ( 79 @.@ 379 kN ) , AWG @-@ 10B radar with digitized circuitry for improved performance and reliability , Honeywell AN / AVG @-@ 8 Visual Target Acquisition Set or VTAS ( world 's first operational Helmet Sighting System ) , classified avionics improvements , airframe reinforcement and leading edge slats for enhanced maneuvering . The USMC also operated the RF @-@ 4B with reconnaissance cameras with 46 built .
Phantom II production ended in the United States in 1979 after 5 @,@ 195 had been built ( 5 @,@ 057 by McDonnell Douglas and 138 in Japan by Mitsubishi ) . Of these , 2 @,@ 874 went to the USAF , 1 @,@ 264 to the Navy and Marine Corps , and the rest to foreign customers . The last U.S.-built F @-@ 4 went to South Korea , while the last F @-@ 4 built was an F @-@ 4EJ built by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries in Japan and delivered on 20 May 1981 . As of 2008 , 631 Phantoms were in service worldwide , while the Phantom also remains in use as a target drone operated by the U.S. military .
= = = World records = = =
To show off their new fighter , the Navy led a series of record @-@ breaking flights early in Phantom development : All in all , the Phantom set 16 world records . Except for Skyburner , all records were achieved in unmodified production aircraft . Five of the speed records remained unbeaten until the F @-@ 15 Eagle appeared in 1975 .
Operation Top Flight : On 6 December 1959 , the second XF4H @-@ 1 performed a zoom climb to a world record 98 @,@ 557 ft ( 30 @,@ 040 m ) . Commander Lawrence E. Flint , Jr . , USN accelerated his aircraft to Mach 2 @.@ 5 ( 1 @,@ 650 mph ; 2 @,@ 660 km / h ) at 47 @,@ 000 ft ( 14 @,@ 330 m ) and climbed to 90 @,@ 000 ft ( 27 @,@ 430 m ) at a 45 ° angle . He then shut down the engines and glided to the peak altitude . As the aircraft fell through 70 @,@ 000 ft ( 21 @,@ 300 m ) , Flint restarted the engines and resumed normal flight .
On 5 September 1960 , an F4H @-@ 1 averaged 1 @,@ 216 @.@ 78 mph ( 1 @,@ 958 @.@ 16 km / h ) over a 500 km ( 311 mi ) closed @-@ circuit course .
On 25 September 1960 , an F4H @-@ 1F averaged 1 @,@ 390 @.@ 24 mph ( 2 @,@ 237 @.@ 37 km / h ) over a 100 km ( 62 @.@ 1 mi ) closed @-@ circuit course . FAIRecord File Number 8898 .
Operation LANA : To celebrate the 50th anniversary of Naval aviation ( L is the Roman numeral for 50 and ANA stood for Anniversary of Naval Aviation ) on 24 May 1961 , Phantoms flew across the continental United States in under three hours and included several tanker refuelings . The fastest of the aircraft averaged 869 @.@ 74 mph ( 1 @,@ 400 @.@ 28 km / h ) and completed the trip in 2 hours 47 minutes , earning the pilot ( and future NASA Astronaut ) , Lieutenant Richard Gordon , USN and RIO , Lieutenant Bobbie Young , USN , the 1961 Bendix trophy .
Operation Sageburner : On 28 August 1961 , a F4H @-@ 1F Phantom II averaged 1 @,@ 452 @.@ 777 kilometers per hour ( 902 @.@ 714 miles per hour ) over a 3 mi ( 4 @.@ 82 km ) course flying below 125 feet ( 38 @.@ 1 m ) at all times . Commander J.L. Felsman , USN was killed during the first attempt at this record on 18 May 1961 when his aircraft disintegrated in the air after pitch damper failure .
Operation Skyburner : On 22 December 1961 , a modified Phantom with water injection set an absolute world record speed of 1 @,@ 606 @.@ 342 mph ( 2 @,@ 585 @.@ 086 km / h ) .
On 5 December 1961 , another Phantom set a sustained altitude record of 66 @,@ 443 @.@ 8 feet ( 20 @,@ 252 m ) .
Operation High Jump : A series of time @-@ to @-@ altitude records was set in early 1962 : 34 @.@ 523 seconds to 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 9 @,@ 840 ft ) , 48 @.@ 787 seconds to 6 @,@ 000 meters ( 19 @,@ 700 ft ) , 61 @.@ 629 seconds to 9 @,@ 000 meters ( 29 @,@ 500 ft ) , 77 @.@ 156 seconds to 12 @,@ 000 meters ( 39 @,@ 400 ft ) , 114 @.@ 548 seconds to 15 @,@ 000 meters ( 49 @,@ 200 ft ) , 178 @.@ 5 seconds to 20 @,@ 000 meters ( 65 @,@ 600 ft ) , 230 @.@ 44 seconds to 25 @,@ 000 metres ( 82 @,@ 000 ft ) , and 371 @.@ 43 seconds to 30 @,@ 000 metres ( 98 @,@ 400 ft ) .
= = Design = =
= = = Overview = = =
The F @-@ 4 Phantom is a tandem @-@ seat fighter @-@ bomber designed as a carrier @-@ based interceptor to fill the U.S. Navy 's fleet defense fighter role . Innovations in the F @-@ 4 included an advanced pulse @-@ Doppler radar and extensive use of titanium in its airframe .
Despite imposing dimensions and a maximum takeoff weight of over 60 @,@ 000 lb ( 27 @,@ 000 kg ) , the F @-@ 4 has a top speed of Mach 2 @.@ 23 and an initial climb rate of over 41 @,@ 000 ft / min ( 210 m / s ) . The F @-@ 4 's nine external hardpoints have a capability of up to 18 @,@ 650 pounds ( 8 @,@ 480 kg ) of weapons , including air @-@ to @-@ air and air @-@ to @-@ surface missiles , and unguided , guided , and thermonuclear weapons . Like other interceptors of its day , the F @-@ 4 was designed without an internal cannon .
The baseline performance of a Mach 2 @-@ class fighter with long range and a bomber @-@ sized payload would be the template for the next generation of large and light / middle @-@ weight fighters optimized for daylight air combat .
= = = Flight characteristics = = =
In air combat , the Phantom 's greatest advantage was its thrust , which permitted a skilled pilot to engage and disengage from the fight at will . The massive aircraft , designed to fire radar @-@ guided missiles from beyond visual range , lacked the agility of its Soviet opponents and was subject to adverse yaw during hard maneuvering . Although thus subject to irrecoverable spins during aileron rolls , pilots reported the aircraft to be very communicative and easy to fly on the edge of its performance envelope . In 1972 , the F @-@ 4E model was upgraded with leading edge slats on the wing , greatly improving high angle of attack maneuverability at the expense of top speed .
The J79 engines produced noticeable amounts of black smoke ( at mid @-@ throttle / cruise settings ) , a severe disadvantage in that the enemy could spot the aircraft . This was solved on the F @-@ 4S fitted with the − 10A engine variant which used a smokeless combustor .
The F @-@ 4 's biggest weakness , as it was initially designed , was its lack of an internal cannon . For a brief period , doctrine held that turning combat would be impossible at supersonic speeds and little effort was made to teach pilots air combat maneuvering . In reality , engagements quickly became subsonic , as pilots would slow down in an effort to get behind their adversaries . Furthermore , the relatively new heat @-@ seeking and radar @-@ guided missiles at the time were frequently reported as unreliable and pilots had to use multiple shots ( also known as ripple @-@ firing ) , just to hit one enemy fighter . To compound the problem , rules of engagement in Vietnam precluded long @-@ range missile attacks in most instances , as visual identification was normally required . Many pilots found themselves on the tail of an enemy aircraft but too close to fire short @-@ range Falcons or Sidewinders . Although by 1965 USAF F @-@ 4Cs began carrying SUU @-@ 16 external gunpods containing a 20 mm ( .79 in ) M61A1 Vulcan Gatling cannon , USAF cockpits were not equipped with lead @-@ computing gunsights until the introduction of the SUU @-@ 23 , virtually assuring a miss in a maneuvering fight . Some Marine Corps aircraft carried two pods for strafing . In addition to the loss of performance due to drag , combat showed the externally mounted cannon to be inaccurate unless frequently boresighted , yet far more cost @-@ effective than missiles . The lack of a cannon was finally addressed by adding an internally mounted 20 mm ( .79 in ) M61A1 Vulcan on the F @-@ 4E .
= = = Costs = = =
Note : Original amounts were in 1965 United States dollars . The figures in these tables have been adjusted for inflation .
= = Operational history = =
= = = United States Navy = = =
On 30 December 1960 , the VF @-@ 121 " Pacemakers " at NAS Miramar became the first Phantom operator with its F4H @-@ 1Fs ( F @-@ 4As ) . The VF @-@ 74 " Be @-@ devilers " at NAS Oceana became the first deployable Phantom squadron when it received its F4H @-@ 1s ( F @-@ 4Bs ) on 8 July 1961 . The squadron completed carrier qualifications in October 1961 and Phantom 's first full carrier deployment between August 1962 and March 1963 aboard Forrestal . The second deployable U.S. Atlantic Fleet squadron to receive F @-@ 4Bs was the VF @-@ 102 " Diamondbacks " , who promptly took their new aircraft on the shakedown cruise of Enterprise . The first deployable U.S. Pacific Fleet squadron to receive the F @-@ 4B was the VF @-@ 114 " Aardvarks " , which participated in the September 1962 cruise aboard USS Kitty Hawk .
By the time of the Tonkin Gulf incident , 13 of 31 deployable navy squadrons were armed with the type . F @-@ 4Bs from Constellation made the first Phantom combat sortie of the Vietnam War on 5 August 1964 , flying bomber escort in Operation Pierce Arrow . The first Phantom air @-@ to @-@ air victory of the war took place on 9 April 1965 when an F @-@ 4B from VF @-@ 96 " Fighting Falcons " piloted by Lieutenant ( junior grade ) Terence M. Murphy and his RIO , Ensign Ronald Fegan , shot down a Chinese MiG @-@ 17 " Fresco " . The Phantom was then shot down , probably by an AIM @-@ 7 Sparrow from one of its wingmen . There continues to be controversy over whether the Phantom was shot down by MiG guns or , as enemy reports later indicated , an AIM @-@ 7 Sparrow III from one of Murphy 's and Fegan 's wingmen . On 17 June 1965 , an F @-@ 4B from VF @-@ 21 " Freelancers " piloted by Commander Louis Page and Lieutenant John C. Smith shot down the first North Vietnamese MiG of the war .
On 10 May 1972 , Lieutenant Randy " Duke " Cunningham and Lieutenant ( junior grade ) William P. Driscoll flying an F @-@ 4J , call sign " Showtime 100 " , shot down three MiG @-@ 17s to become the first American flying aces of the war . Their fifth victory was believed at the time to be over a mysterious North Vietnamese ace , Colonel Nguyen Toon , now considered mythical . On the return flight , the Phantom was damaged by an enemy surface @-@ to @-@ air missile . To avoid being captured , Cunningham and Driscoll flew their burning aircraft using only the rudder and afterburner ( the damage to the aircraft rendered conventional control nearly impossible ) , until they could eject over water .
During the war , U.S. Navy F @-@ 4 Phantom squadrons participated in 84 combat tours with F @-@ 4Bs , F @-@ 4Js , and F @-@ 4Ns . The navy claimed 40 air @-@ to @-@ air victories at a cost of 73 Phantoms lost in combat ( seven to enemy aircraft , 13 to SAMs , and 53 to AAA ) . An additional 54 Phantoms were lost in mishaps .
In 1984 , the F @-@ 4Ns had been retired , and by 1987 the last F @-@ 4Ss were retired in the US Navy deployable squadrons . On 25 March 1986 , an F @-@ 4S belonging to the VF @-@ 151 " Vigilantes , " became the last active duty U.S. Navy Phantom to launch from an aircraft carrier , in this case , Midway . On 18 October 1986 , an F @-@ 4S from the VF @-@ 202 " Superheats " , a Naval Reserve fighter squadron , made the last @-@ ever Phantom carrier landing while operating aboard America . In 1987 , the last of the Naval Reserve @-@ operated F @-@ 4S aircraft were replaced by F @-@ 14As . The last Phantoms in service with the Navy were QF @-@ 4 target drones operated by the Naval Air Warfare Center at NAS Point Mugu , California . These airframes were subsequently retired in 2004 .
= = = United States Marine Corps = = =
The Marine Corps received its first F @-@ 4Bs in June 1962 , with the " Black Knights " of VMFA @-@ 314 at Marine Corps Air Station El Toro , California becoming the first operational squadron . Marine Phantoms from VMFA @-@ 531 ' Gray Ghosts ' were assigned to Da Nang airbase on South Vietnam 's northeast coast on 10 May 1965 and were initially assigned to provide air defense for the USMC . They soon began close air support missions ( CAS ) and VMFA @-@ 314 ' Black Knights ' , VMFA @-@ 323 ' Death Rattlers ' , and VMFA @-@ 542 ' Bengals ' soon arrived at the primitive airfield . Marine F @-@ 4 pilots claimed three enemy MiGs ( two while on exchange duty with the USAF ) at the cost of 75 aircraft lost in combat , mostly to ground fire , and four in accidents . VMCJ @-@ 1 Golden Hawks ( now VMAQ @-@ 1 and VMAQ @-@ 4 which has the old RM tailcode ) flew the first RF @-@ 4B photo recon mission on 3 November 1966 from Da Nang and remained there until 1970 with no RF @-@ 4B losses and one damaged by AAA . VMCJ @-@ 2 and VMCJ @-@ 3 ( now VMAQ @-@ 3 ) provided aircraft for VMCJ @-@ 1 in Da Nang and VMFP @-@ 3 was formed in 1975 at MCAS El Toro , CA consolidating all USMC RF @-@ 4 @-@ Bs in one unit that became known as " The Eyes of the Corps . " VMFP @-@ 3 disestablished in August 1990 after the Advanced Tactical Airborne Reconnaissance System was introduced for the F / A @-@ 18 Hornet . The F @-@ 4 continued to equip fighter @-@ attack squadrons in both Marine Corps active and reserve units throughout the 1960s , 1970s and 1980s and into the early 1990s . In the early 1980s , these squadrons began to transition to the F / A @-@ 18 Hornet , starting with the same squadron that introduced the F @-@ 4 to the Marine Corps , VMFA @-@ 314 at MCAS El Toro , California . On 18 January 1992 , the last Marine Corps Phantom , an F @-@ 4S in the Marine Corps Reserve , was retired by the " Cowboys " of VMFA @-@ 112 , after which the squadron was re @-@ equipped with F / A @-@ 18 Hornets .
= = = United States Air Force = = =
In USAF service , the F @-@ 4 was initially designated the F @-@ 110 Spectre prior to the introduction of the 1962 United States Tri @-@ Service aircraft designation system . The USAF quickly embraced the design and became the largest Phantom user . The first USAF Phantoms in Vietnam were F @-@ 4Cs from the 555th Tactical Fighter Squadron " Triple Nickel " , which arrived in December 1964 .
Unlike the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps , which flew the Phantom with a Naval Aviator ( pilot ) in the front seat and a Naval Flight Officer as a radar intercept officer ( RIO ) in the back seat , the USAF initially flew its Phantoms with a rated Air Force Pilot in front and back seats . While the rear pilot ( GIB , or " guy in back " ) could fly and ostensibly land the aircraft , he had fewer flight instruments and a very restricted forward view . The Air Force later assigned a rated Air Force Navigator qualified as a weapon / targeting systems officer ( later designated as weapon systems officer or WSO ) in the rear seat instead of another pilot . However , all USAF Phantoms retained dual flight controls throughout their service life .
On 10 July 1965 , F @-@ 4Cs of the 45th Tactical Fighter Squadron , 15th TFW , on temporary assignment in Ubon , Thailand , scored the USAF 's first victories against North Vietnamese MiG @-@ 17s using AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder air @-@ to @-@ air missiles . On 26 April 1966 , an F @-@ 4C from the 480th Tactical Fighter Squadron scored the first aerial victory by a U.S. aircrew over a North Vietnamese MiG @-@ 21 " Fishbed " . On 24 July 1965 , another Phantom from the 45th Tactical Fighter Squadron became the first American aircraft to be downed by an enemy SAM , and on 5 October 1966 an 8th Tactical Fighter Wing F @-@ 4C became the first U.S. jet lost to an air @-@ to @-@ air missile , fired by a MiG @-@ 21 .
Early aircraft suffered from leaks in wing fuel tanks that required re @-@ sealing after each flight and 85 aircraft were found to have cracks in outer wing ribs and stringers . There were also problems with aileron control cylinders , electrical connectors , and engine compartment fires . Reconnaissance RF @-@ 4Cs made their debut in Vietnam on 30 October 1965 , flying the hazardous post @-@ strike reconnaissance missions . The USAF Thunderbirds used the F @-@ 4E from the 1969 season until 1974 .
Although the F @-@ 4C was essentially identical to the Navy / Marine Corps F @-@ 4B in flight performance and carried the AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder missiles , USAF @-@ tailored F @-@ 4Ds initially arrived in June 1967 equipped with AIM @-@ 4 Falcons . However , the Falcon , like its predecessors , was designed to shoot down heavy bombers flying straight and level . Its reliability proved no better than others and its complex firing sequence and limited seeker @-@ head cooling time made it virtually useless in combat against agile fighters . The F @-@ 4Ds reverted to using Sidewinders under the " Rivet Haste " program in early 1968 , and by 1972 the AIM @-@ 7E @-@ 2 " Dogfight Sparrow " had become the preferred missile for USAF pilots . Like other Vietnam War Phantoms , the F @-@ 4Ds were urgently fitted with radar homing and warning ( RHAW ) antennas to detect the Soviet @-@ built S @-@ 75 Dvina SAMs .
From the initial deployment of the F @-@ 4C to Southeast Asia , USAF Phantoms performed both air superiority and ground attack roles , supporting not only ground troops in South Vietnam but also conducting bombing sorties in Laos and North Vietnam . As the F @-@ 105 force underwent severe attrition between 1965 and 1968 , the bombing role of the F @-@ 4 proportionately increased until after November 1970 ( when the last F @-@ 105D was withdrawn from combat ) it became the primary USAF tactical ordnance delivery system . In October 1972 the first squadron of EF @-@ 4C Wild Weasel aircraft deployed to Thailand on temporary duty . The " E " prefix was later dropped and the aircraft was simply known as the F @-@ 4C Wild Weasel .
Sixteen squadrons of Phantoms were permanently deployed between 1965 and 1973 , and 17 others deployed on temporary combat assignments . Peak numbers of combat F @-@ 4s occurred in 1972 , when 353 were based in Thailand . A total of 445 Air Force Phantom fighter @-@ bombers were lost , 370 in combat and 193 of those over North Vietnam ( 33 to MiGs , 30 to SAMs , and 307 to AAA ) .
The RF @-@ 4C was operated by four squadrons , and of the 83 losses , 72 were in combat including 38 over North Vietnam ( seven to SAMs and 65 to AAA ) . By war 's end , the U.S. Air Force had lost a total of 528 F @-@ 4 and RF @-@ 4C Phantoms . When combined with U.S. Navy and Marine Corps losses of 233 Phantoms , 761 F @-@ 4 / RF @-@ 4 Phantoms were lost in the Vietnam War .
On 28 August 1972 , Captain Steve Ritchie became the first USAF ace of the war . On 9 September 1972 , WSO Capt Charles B. DeBellevue became the highest @-@ scoring American ace of the war with six victories. and WSO Capt Jeffrey Feinstein became the last USAF ace of the war on 13 October 1972 . Upon return to the United States , DeBellevue and Feinstein were assigned to undergraduate pilot training ( Feinstein was given a vision waiver ) and requalified as USAF pilots in the F @-@ 4 . USAF F @-@ 4C / D / E crews scored 107 ½ MiG kills in Southeast Asia ( 50 by Sparrow , 31 by Sidewinder , five by Falcon , 15 @.@ 5 by gun , and six by other means ) .
On 31 January 1972 , the 170th Tactical Fighter Squadron / 183d Tactical Fighter Group of the Illinois Air National Guard became the first Air National Guard unit to transition to Phantoms from Republic F @-@ 84F Thunderstreaks which were found to have corrosion problems . Phantoms would eventually equip numerous tactical fighter and tactical reconnaissance units in the USAF active , National Guard , and reserve .
On 2 June 1972 , a Phantom flying at supersonic speed shot down a MiG @-@ 19 over Thud Ridge in Vietnam for the first supersonic gun kill . At a recorded speed of Mach 1 @.@ 2 , Major Phil Handley 's shoot down was the first and only recorded gun kill while flying at supersonic speeds .
On 15 August 1990 , 24 F @-@ 4G Wild Weasel Vs and six RF @-@ 4Cs were deployed to Shaikh Isa AB , Bahrain , for Operation Desert Storm . The F @-@ 4G was the only aircraft in the USAF inventory equipped for the Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses ( SEAD ) role , and was needed to protect coalition aircraft from Iraq 's extensive air defense system . The RF @-@ 4C was the only aircraft equipped with the ultra @-@ long @-@ range KS @-@ 127 LOROP ( long @-@ range oblique photography ) camera , and was used for a variety of reconnaissance missions . In spite of flying almost daily missions , only one RF @-@ 4C was lost in a fatal accident before the start of hostilities . One F @-@ 4G was lost when enemy fire damaged the fuel tanks and the aircraft ran out of fuel near a friendly airbase . The last USAF Phantoms , F @-@ 4G Wild Weasel Vs from 561st Fighter Squadron , were retired on 26 March 1996 . The last operational flight of the F @-@ 4G Wild Weasel was from the 190th Fighter Squadron , Idaho Air National Guard , in April 1996 . The last operational USAF / ANG F @-@ 4 to land was flown by Maj Mike Webb and Maj Gary Leeder of the Idaho ANG .
Like the Navy , the Air Force has operated QF @-@ 4 target drones , serving with the 82d Aerial Targets Squadron at Tyndall Air Force Base , Florida , and Holloman Air Force Base , New Mexico . It was expected that the F @-@ 4 would remain in the target role with the 82d ATRS until at least 2015 , when they would be replaced by early versions of the F @-@ 16 Fighting Falcon converted to a QF @-@ 16 configuration . Several QF @-@ 4s also retain capability as manned aircraft and are maintained in historical color schemes , being displayed as part of Air Combat Command 's Heritage Flight at air shows , base open houses , and other events while serving as non @-@ expendable target aircraft during the week . On 19 November 2013 , BAE Systems delivered the last QF @-@ 4 aerial target to the Air Force . The example had been in storage for over 20 years before being converted . Over 16 years , BAE had converted 314 F @-@ 4 and RF @-@ 4 Phantom IIs into QF @-@ 4s and QRF @-@ 4s , with each aircraft taking six months to adapt . As of December 2013 , QF @-@ 4 and QRF @-@ 4 aircraft had flown over 16 @,@ 000 manned and 600 unmanned training sorties , with 250 unmanned aircraft being shot down in firing exercises . The remaining QF @-@ 4s and QRF @-@ 4s held their training role until the first of 126 QF @-@ 16s were delivered by Boeing . The final flight of an Air Force QF @-@ 4 from Tyndall AFB took place on 27 May 2015 to Holloman AFB . After Tyndall AFB ceased operations , the 53d Weapons Evaluation Group at Holloman became the fleet of 22 QF @-@ 4s ' last remaining operator . The base will continue using them to fly manned test and unmanned live fire test support and Foreign Military Sales testing until January 2017 , when the remaining airframes will be demilitarized .
= = = Non @-@ U.S. air forces = = =
The Phantom has served with the air forces of many countries , including Australia , Egypt , Germany , United Kingdom , Greece , Iran , Israel , Japan , Spain , South Korea and Turkey .
= = = = Australia = = = =
The Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) leased 24 USAF F @-@ 4Es from 1970 to 1973 while waiting for their order for the General Dynamics F @-@ 111C to be delivered . They were so well @-@ liked that the RAAF considered retaining the aircraft after the F @-@ 111Cs were delivered . They were operated from RAAF Amberley by No. 1 Squadron and No. 6 Squadron .
= = = = Egypt = = = =
In 1979 , the Egyptian Air Force purchased 35 former USAF F @-@ 4Es along with a number of Sparrow , Sidewinder , and Maverick missiles from the U.S. for $ 594 million as part of the " Peace Pharaoh " program . An additional seven surplus USAF aircraft were purchased in 1988 . Three attrition replacements had been received by the end of the 1990s .
= = = = Germany = = = =
The German Air Force ( Luftwaffe ) initially ordered the reconnaissance RF @-@ 4E in 1969 , receiving a total of 88 aircraft from January 1971 . In 1982 , the initially unarmed RF @-@ 4Es were given a secondary ground attack capability ; these aircraft were later retired in 1994 .
In 1973 , under the " Peace Rhine " program , the Luftwaffe purchased the lightened and simplified F @-@ 4F which was upgraded in the mid @-@ 1980s . 24 German F @-@ 4F Phantom IIs were operated by the 49th Tactical Fighter Wing of the USAF at Holloman AFB to train Luftwaffe crews until December 2004 . In 1975 , Germany also received 10 F @-@ 4Es for training in the U.S. In the late 1990s , these were withdrawn from service after being replaced by F @-@ 4Fs . Germany also initiated the Improved Combat Efficiency ( ICE ) program in 1983 . The 110 ICE @-@ upgraded F @-@ 4Fs entered service in 1992 , and were expected to remain in service until 2012 . All the remaining Luftwaffe Phantoms were based at Wittmund with Jagdgeschwader 71 ( fighter wing 71 ) in Northern Germany and WTD61 at Manching . The German Air Force retired its last F @-@ 4Fs on 29 June 2013 . German F @-@ 4Fs flew 279 @,@ 000 hours from entering service on 31 August 1973 until retirement .
= = = = Greece = = = =
In 1971 , the Hellenic Air Force ordered brand new F @-@ 4E Phantoms , with deliveries starting in 1974 . In the early 1990s , the Hellenic AF acquired surplus RF @-@ 4Es and F @-@ 4Es from the Luftwaffe and U.S. ANG .
Following the success of the German ICE program , on 11 August 1997 , a contract was signed between DASA of Germany and Hellenic Aerospace Industry for the upgrade of 39 aircraft to the very similar " Peace Icarus 2000 " standard . The Hellenic AF operates 34 upgraded F @-@ 4E @-@ PI2000 ( 338 and 339 Squadrons ) and 12 RF @-@ 4E aircraft ( 348 Squadron ) as of September 2013 .
= = = = Iran = = = =
In the 1960s and 1970s when the U.S. and Iran were on friendly terms , the U.S. sold 225 F @-@ 4D , F @-@ 4E , and RF @-@ 4E Phantoms to Iran . The Imperial Iranian Air Force saw at least one engagement , resulting in a loss , after an RF @-@ 4C was rammed by a Soviet MiG @-@ 21 during Project Dark Gene , an ELINT operation during the Cold War .
The Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force Phantoms saw heavy action in the Iran – Iraq War in the 1980s and are kept operational by overhaul and servicing from Iran 's aerospace industry . Notable operations of Iranian F @-@ 4s during the war included Operation Scorch Sword , an attack by two F @-@ 4s against the Iraqi Osirak nuclear reactor site near Baghdad on 30 September 1980 , and the attack on H3 , a 4 April 1981 strike by eight Iranian F @-@ 4s against the H @-@ 3 complex of air bases in the far west of Iraq , which resulted in many Iraqi aircraft being destroyed or damaged for no Iranian losses . Iranian F @-@ 4s were in use as of late 2014 ; the aircraft reportedly conducted air strikes on ISIS targets in the eastern Iraqi province of Diyala .
= = = = Israel = = = =
The Israeli Air Force was the largest foreign operator of the Phantom , flying both newly built and ex @-@ USAF aircraft , as well as several one @-@ off special reconnaissance variants . The first F @-@ 4Es , nicknamed " Kurnass " ( Sledgehammer ) , and RF @-@ 4Es , nicknamed " Orev " ( Raven ) , were delivered in 1969 under the " Peace Echo I " program . Additional Phantoms arrived during the 1970s under " Peace Echo II " through " Peace Echo V " and " Nickel Grass " programs . Israeli Phantoms saw extensive combat during Arab – Israeli conflicts , first seeing action during the War of Attrition . In the 1980s , Israel began the " Kurnass 2000 " modernization program which significantly updated avionics . The last Israeli F @-@ 4s were retired in 2004 .
= = = = Japan = = = =
From 1968 , the Japan Air Self @-@ Defense Force purchased a total of 140 F @-@ 4EJ Phantoms without aerial refueling , Bullpup ASM system , nuclear control system and ground attack capabilities . Mitsubishi built 138 under license in Japan and 14 unarmed reconnaissance RF @-@ 4Es were imported . Of these , 96 F @-@ 4EJs have since been modified to the F @-@ 4EJ Kai ( 改 , modified ) standard . 15 F @-@ 4EJs were converted to reconnaissance aircraft designated RF @-@ 4EJ , with similar upgrades as the F @-@ 4EJ Kai . Japan had a fleet of 90 F @-@ 4s in service in 2007 . It has been studying several replacement fighters .
= = = = South Korea = = = =
The Republic of Korea Air Force purchased its first batch of secondhand USAF F @-@ 4D Phantoms in 1968 under the " Peace Spectator " program . The F @-@ 4Ds continued to be delivered until 1988 . The " Peace Pheasant II " program also provided new @-@ built and former USAF F @-@ 4Es .
= = = = Spain = = = =
The Spanish Air Force acquired its first batch of ex @-@ USAF F @-@ 4C Phantoms in 1971 under the " Peace Alfa " program . Designated C.12 , the aircraft were retired in 1989 . At the same time , the air arm received a number of ex @-@ USAF RF @-@ 4Cs , designated CR.12. In 1995 – 1996 , these aircraft received extensive avionics upgrades . Spain retired its RF @-@ 4s in 2002 .
= = = = Turkey = = = =
The Turkish Air Force ( TAF ) received 40 F @-@ 4Es in 1974 , with a further 32 F @-@ 4Es and 8 RF @-@ 4Es in 1977 – 78 under the " Peace Diamond III " program , followed by 40 ex @-@ USAF aircraft in " Peace Diamond IV " in 1987 , and a further 40 ex @-@ U.S. Air National Guard Aircraft in 1991 . A further 32 RF @-@ 4Es were transferred to Turkey after being retired by the Luftwaffe between 1992 and 1994 . In 1995 , Israel Aerospace Industries ( IAI ) implemented an upgrade similar to Kurnass 2000 on 54 Turkish F @-@ 4Es which were dubbed the F @-@ 4E 2020 Terminator . Turkish F @-@ 4s , and more modern F @-@ 16s have been used to strike Kurdish PKK bases in ongoing military operations in Northern Iraq . On 22 June 2012 , a Turkish RF @-@ 4E was shot down by Syrian air defenses while flying a reconnaissance flight near the Turkish @-@ Syrian border . Turkey has stated the reconnaissance aircraft was in international airspace when it was shot down , while Syrian authorities stated it was inside Syrian airspace . Turkish F @-@ 4s remained in use as of 2015 .
On 24 February 2015 , two RF @-@ 4Es crashed in the Malatya region in the southeast of Turkey , under yet unknown circumstances , killing both crew of two each . On 5 March 2015 , an F @-@ 4E @-@ 2020 crashed in central Anatolia killing both crew . After the recent accidents , the TAF withdrew RF @-@ 4Es from active service . Turkey was reported to have used F @-@ 4 jets to attack PKK separatists and the ISIS capital on 19 September 2015 . The Turkish Air Force has reportedly used the F @-@ 4E 2020s against the more recent Third Phase of the PKK conflict on heavy bombardment missions into Iraq on 15 November 2015 , 12 January 2016 , and 12 March 2016 .
= = = = United Kingdom = = = =
The United Kingdom bought versions based on the U.S. Navy 's F @-@ 4J for use with the Royal Air Force and the Royal Navy 's Fleet Air Arm . The main differences were the use of the British Rolls @-@ Royce Spey engines and of British @-@ made avionics . The RN and RAF versions were given the designation F @-@ 4K and F @-@ 4M respectively , and entered service with the British military aircraft designations Phantom FG.1 ( fighter / ground attack ) and Phantom FGR.2 ( fighter / ground attack / reconnaissance ) . Initially , the FGR.2 was used in the ground attack and reconnaissance role , primarily with RAF Germany , while 43 Squadron was formed in the air defence role using the FG.1s that had been intended for the Fleet Air Arm for use aboard HMS Eagle . The superiority of the Phantom over the English Electric Lightning in terms of both range and weapon load , combined with the successful introduction of the SEPECAT Jaguar , meant that , during the mid @-@ 1970s , most of the ground attack Phantoms in Germany were redeployed to the UK to replace air defence Lightning squadrons . A second RAF squadron , 111 Squadron , was formed on the FG.1 in 1979 after the disbandment of 892 NAS .
In 1982 , during the Falklands War , three Phantom FGR2s of No. 29 Squadron were on active Quick Reaction Alert duty on Ascension Island to protect the base from air attack . After the Falklands War , 15 upgraded ex @-@ USN F @-@ 4Js , known as the F @-@ 4J ( UK ) entered RAF service to compensate for one interceptor squadron redeployed to the Falklands .
Around 15 RAF squadrons received various marks of Phantom , many of them based in Germany . The first to be equipped was No. 6 Squadron at RAF Leuchars in July 1969 . One noteworthy deployment was to No. 43 Squadron where Phantom FG1s remained the squadron equipment for 20 years , arriving in September 1969 and departing in July 1989 . During this period the squadron was based at Leuchars .
The interceptor Phantoms were replaced by the Panavia Tornado F3 from the late 1980s onwards , and the last British Phantoms were retired in October 1992 when No. 74 Squadron was disbanded .
Specifications
= = = Civilian use = = =
Sandia National Laboratories used an F @-@ 4 mounted on a " rocket sled " in a crash test to see the results of an aircraft hitting a reinforced concrete structure , such as a nuclear power plant .
One aircraft , an F @-@ 4D ( civilian registration N749CF ) , is operated by the Massachusetts @-@ based non @-@ profit organization Collings Foundation as a " living history " exhibit . Funds to maintain and operate the aircraft , which is based in Houston , Texas , are raised through donations / sponsorships from public and commercial parties .
NASA used the F @-@ 4 to photograph and film Titan II missiles after launch from Cape Canaveral during the 1960s . Retired US Air Force Colonel Jack Petry described how he put his F @-@ 4 into a Mach 1 @.@ 2 dive synchrionized to the launch countdown , then " ' walked the ( rocket 's ) contrail ' up to the intercept , tweaking closing speed and updating mission control while camera pods mounted under each wing shot film at 900 frames per second . " Petry 's Phantom stayed with the Titan for 90 seconds , then broke away as the missile continued into space . NASA 's Dryden Flight Research Center acquired an F @-@ 4A on 3 December 1965 . It made 55 flights in support of short programs , chase on X @-@ 15 missions and lifting body flights . The F @-@ 4 also supported a biomedical monitoring program involving 1 @,@ 000 flights by NASA Flight Research Center aerospace research pilots and students of the USAF Aerospace Research Pilot School flying high @-@ performance aircraft . The pilots were instrumented to record accurate and reliable data of electrocardiogram , respiration rate and normal acceleration . In 1967 , the Phantom supported a brief military @-@ inspired program to determine whether an airplane 's sonic boom could be directed and whether it could be used as a weapon of sorts , or at least an annoyance . NASA also flew an F @-@ 4C in a spanwise blowing study from 1983 to 1985 , after which it was returned .
= = Variants = =
F @-@ 4A , B , J , N and S
Variants for the U.S. Navy and the U.S. Marine Corps . F @-@ 4B was upgraded to F @-@ 4N , and F @-@ 4J was upgraded to F @-@ 4S .
F @-@ 110 Spectre , F @-@ 4C , D and E
Variants for the U.S. Air Force . F @-@ 4E introduced an internal M61 Vulcan cannon . The F @-@ 4D and E were the most numerously built , widely exported , and also extensively used under the Semi Automatic Ground Environment ( SAGE ) U.S. air defense system .
F @-@ 4G Wild Weasel V
A dedicated SEAD variant for the U.S. Air Force with updated radar and avionics , converted from F @-@ 4E . The designation F @-@ 4G was applied earlier to an entirely different U.S. Navy Phantom .
F @-@ 4K and M
Variants for the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force , respectively , re @-@ engined with Rolls @-@ Royce Spey turbofans .
F @-@ 4EJ
Simplified F @-@ 4E exported to and license @-@ built in Japan .
F @-@ 4F
Simplified F @-@ 4E exported to Germany .
QRF @-@ 4C , QF @-@ 4B , E , G , N and S
Retired aircraft converted into remote @-@ controlled target drones used for weapons and defensive systems research by USAF and USN / USMC .
RF @-@ 4B , C , and E
Tactical reconnaissance variants .
= = Operators = =
Australia
Royal Australian Air Force ( retired )
Egypt
Egyptian Air Force ( retired )
Germany
German Air Force ( retired )
Greece
Hellenic Air Force
Iran
Imperial Iranian Air Force ( former )
Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force
Israel
Israeli Air Force ( retired )
Japan
Japan Air Self @-@ Defense Force
Spain
Spanish Air Force ( retired )
South Korea
Republic of Korea Air Force
Turkey
Turkish Air Force
United Kingdom
Royal Air Force ( retired )
Fleet Air Arm ( retired )
United States
United States Air Force ( retired )
United States Navy ( retired )
United States Marine Corps ( retired )
= = Culture = =
= = = Nicknames = = =
The Phantom gathered a number of nicknames during its career . Some of these names included " Snoopy " , " Rhino " , " Double Ugly " , " Old Smokey " , the " Flying Anvil " , " Flying Footlocker " , " Flying Brick " , " Lead Sled " , the " Big Iron Sled " and the " St. Louis Slugger " . In recognition of its record of downing large numbers of Soviet @-@ built MiGs , it was called the " World 's Leading Distributor of MiG Parts " . As a reflection of excellent performance in spite of its bulk , the F @-@ 4 was dubbed " the triumph of thrust over aerodynamics . " German Luftwaffe crews called their F @-@ 4s the Eisenschwein ( " Iron Pig " ) , Fliegender Ziegelstein ( " Flying Brick " ) and Luftverteidigungsdiesel ( " Air Defense Diesel " ) .
Imitating the spelling of the aircraft 's name , McDonnell issued a series of patches . Pilots became " Phantom Phlyers " , backseaters became " Phantom Pherrets " , fans of the F @-@ 4 " Phantom Phanatics " , and call it the " Phabulous Phantom " . Ground crewmen who worked on the aircraft are known as " Phantom Phixers " .
= = = The Spook = = =
The aircraft 's emblem is a whimsical cartoon ghost called " The Spook " , which was created by McDonnell Douglas technical artist , Anthony " Tony " Wong , for shoulder patches . The name " Spook " was coined by the crews of either the 12th Tactical Fighter Wing or the 4453rd Combat Crew Training Wing at MacDill AFB . The figure is ubiquitous , appearing on many items associated with the F @-@ 4 . The Spook has followed the Phantom around the world adopting local fashions ; for example , the British adaptation of the U.S. " Phantom Man " is a Spook that sometimes wears a bowler hat and smokes a pipe .
= = Aircraft on display = =
Worldwide there are several F @-@ 4 Phantom IIs on display . For example , a Phantom II F @-@ 4C @-@ 15 @-@ MC , 63 @-@ 7699 , which is on loan from the USAF Museum , is on display at the Midland Air Museum , Coventry , England ; a Phantom II F4H @-@ 1 , BuNo 145310 , U.S. Navy , is located at French Valley Airport , Murrieta , California , USA ; and there is a dwindling number of reserve F @-@ 4s stored at Davis @-@ Monthan Air Force Base , Arizona , USA . The Museum of Flight at Boeing Field in Seattle has an F @-@ 4C Phantom II on display . This F @-@ 4C was built in 1965 and served in Vietnam , shooting down three MiG @-@ 21s . The United States Air Force Academy has an F @-@ 4 on display in the south @-@ east corner of the Terrazzo with six MiG kills during the Vietnam War to its credit . Luke AFB also has a Phantom on display , having facilitated the F @-@ 4 training mission there for several years before the initial adaptation of the F @-@ 15 training mission , said training mission later assumed by Holloman AFB , then Tyndall AFB and finally Kingsley Field ANGB .
The Collings Foundation operates one aircraft , an F @-@ 4D , as a " living history " exhibit .
= = Notable accidents = =
On 6 June 1971 , Hughes Airwest Flight 706 , a McDonnell Douglas DC @-@ 9 @-@ 31 collided in mid @-@ air with a United States Marine Corps F @-@ 4B Phantom above the San Gabriel Mountains , while en route from Los Angeles International Airport to Salt Lake City . All 49 on board the DC @-@ 9 and one of the crew on the F @-@ 4 were killed .
On 9 August 1974 , a Royal Air Force Phantom FGR2 was involved in a fatal collision with a civilian PA @-@ 25 @-@ 235 Pawnee crop @-@ sprayer over Norfolk , England .
On 21 March 1987 , Captain Dean Paul Martin ( son of entertainer Dean Martin ) , a pilot in the 163d Tactical Fighter Group of the California Air National Guard , crashed his F @-@ 4C into San Gorgonio Mountain , California shortly after departure from March AFB . Both Martin and his weapons system officer ( WSO ) Captain Ramon Ortiz were killed .
= = Specifications ( F @-@ 4E ) = =
Data from The Great Book of Fighters Quest for Performance , Encyclopedia of USAF Aircraft , and McDonnell F @-@ 4 Phantom : Spirit in the Skies
General characteristics
Crew : 2
Length : 63 ft 0 in ( 19 @.@ 2 m )
Wingspan : 38 ft 4 @.@ 5 in ( 11 @.@ 7 m )
Height : 16 ft 6 in ( 5 @.@ 0 m )
Wing area : 530 @.@ 0 ft ² ( 49 @.@ 2 m ² )
Airfoil : NACA 0006 @.@ 4 – 64 root , NACA 0003 @-@ 64 tip
Empty weight : 30 @,@ 328 lb ( 13 @,@ 757 kg )
Loaded weight : 41 @,@ 500 lb ( 18 @,@ 825 kg )
Max. takeoff weight : 61 @,@ 795 lb ( 28 @,@ 030 kg )
Powerplant : 2 × General Electric J79 @-@ GE @-@ 17A axial compressor turbojets , 11 @,@ 905 lbf dry thrust ( 52 @.@ 9 kN ) , 17 @,@ 845 lbf in afterburner ( 79 @.@ 4 kN ) each
Zero @-@ lift drag coefficient : 0 @.@ 0224
Drag area : 11 @.@ 87 ft ² ( 1 @.@ 10 m ² )
Aspect ratio : 2 @.@ 77
Fuel capacity : 1 @,@ 994 U.S. gal ( 7 @,@ 549 L ) internal , 3 @,@ 335 U.S. gal ( 12 @,@ 627 L ) with three external tanks ( 370 U.S. gal ( 1 @,@ 420 L ) tanks on the outer wing hardpoints and either a 600 or 610 U.S. gal ( 2 @,@ 310 or 2 @,@ 345 L ) tank for the centerline station ) .
Maximum landing weight : 36 @,@ 831 lb ( 16 @,@ 706 kg )
Performance
Maximum speed : Mach 2 @.@ 23 ( 1 @,@ 472 mph , 2 @,@ 370 km / h ) at 40 @,@ 000 ft ( 12 @,@ 190 m )
Cruise speed : 506 kn ( 585 mph , 940 km / h )
Combat radius : 367 nmi ( 422 mi , 680 km )
Ferry range : 1 @,@ 403 nmi ( 1 @,@ 615 mi , 2 @,@ 600 km ) with 3 external fuel tanks
Service ceiling : 60 @,@ 000 ft ( 18 @,@ 300 m )
Rate of climb : 41 @,@ 300 ft / min ( 210 m / s )
Wing loading : 78 lb / ft ² ( 383 kg / m ² )
lift @-@ to @-@ drag : 8 @.@ 58
Thrust / weight : 0 @.@ 86 at loaded weight , 0 @.@ 58 at MTOW
Takeoff roll : 4 @,@ 490 ft ( 1 @,@ 370 m ) at 53 @,@ 814 lb ( 24 @,@ 410 kg )
Landing roll : 3 @,@ 680 ft ( 1 @,@ 120 m ) at 36 @,@ 831 lb ( 16 @,@ 706 kg )
Armament
E @-@ model has a 20 mm M61 Vulcan cannon mounted internally under the nose .
Up to 18 @,@ 650 lb ( 8 @,@ 480 kg ) of weapons on nine external hardpoints , including general purpose bombs , cluster bombs , TV- and laser @-@ guided bombs , rocket pods , air @-@ to @-@ ground missiles , anti @-@ ship missiles , gun pods , and nuclear weapons . Reconnaissance , targeting , electronic countermeasures and baggage pods , and external fuel tanks may also be carried .
4 × AIM @-@ 7 Sparrow in fuselage recesses plus 4 × AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinders on wing pylons ; upgraded Hellenic F @-@ 4E and German F @-@ 4F ICE carry AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAM , Japanese F @-@ 4EJ Kai carry AAM @-@ 3 , UK Phantoms carried Skyflash missiles
1 × 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 787 in ) M61A1 Vulcan 6 @-@ barrel Gatling cannon , 640 rounds
4 × AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder , Python @-@ 3 ( F @-@ 4 Kurnass 2000 )
4 × AIM @-@ 7 Sparrow , AAM @-@ 3 ( F @-@ 4EJ Kai )
4 × AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAM for F @-@ 4F ICE , F @-@ 4E AUP ( Hellenic Air Force )
6 × AGM @-@ 65 Maverick
4 × AGM @-@ 62 Walleye
4 × AGM @-@ 45 Shrike , AGM @-@ 88 HARM , AGM @-@ 78 Standard ARM
4 × GBU @-@ 15
18 × Mk.82 , GBU @-@ 12
5 × Mk.84 , GBU @-@ 10 , GBU @-@ 14
18 × CBU @-@ 87 , CBU @-@ 89 , CBU @-@ 58
Nuclear weapons , including the B28EX , B61 , B43 and B57
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= WhoBob WhatPants ? =
" What Ever Happened to SpongeBob ? " , promotionally known as " WhoBob WhatPants ? " , is the 18th episode of the fifth season and the 98th overall episode of the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants . The episode originally aired on Nickelodeon in the United States on October 13 , 2008 .
The series follows the adventures and endeavors of the title character and his various friends in the underwater city of Bikini Bottom . In this episode , SpongeBob feels neglected and ends up a nuisance when he tries to hang out with the other characters . They all call him " Idiot Boy " , so SpongeBob decides to pack up and leave Bikini Bottom . Along the way , he accidentally bumps his head , making him lose his memory . SpongeBob wanders away into a new place called New Kelp City and attempts to get a new job , unaware he is becoming a target for a criminal gang known as The Bubble Poppin ' Boys , while Patrick , Sandy and a reluctant Squidward try to find him .
The episode was written by Casey Alexander , Zeus Cervas , and Steven Banks , and was directed by Alan Smart and Tom Yasumi . The episode features guest appearance by Ray Liotta as the voice of Trevor , the episode 's villain . The episode 's premiere pulled an average of 7 @.@ 7 million viewers , but was met with mixed to negative reviews .
= = Plot summary = =
SpongeBob wakes up on a normal day as usual and attempts to hang out with Patrick , Squidward and Sandy , however he ends up angering them each , causing them to call him " Idiot Boy " . SpongeBob heads to the Krusty Krab but ends up creating a mishap that results in getting two dollars fried and reduced to bits , with a furious Mr. Krabs kicking him out of the restaurant and like the others did , Mr. Krabs calls SpongeBob " Idiot Boy " . SpongeBob decides to leave Bikini Bottom and tells Gary that he has a year 's supply of snail food to eat since SpongeBob will not be there to feed him . After leaving Bikini Bottom , he is frightened by bizarre people and as he runs in fear , SpongeBob falls off a cliff and bumps his head , knocking himself unconscious . Back in Bikini Bottom , Patrick and Sandy enter SpongeBob 's house and Sandy finds that Gary 's food bowl has a note from SpongeBob , saying he has left so that he will not bother anyone ever again . After Sandy reads it , she and Patrick show remorse .
Meanwhile , SpongeBob wakes up with amnesia . He sees two fishes who have found his clothes and express interest in using them ; SpongeBob mentions that he cannot remember anything except hitting his head , so the fish tell him that his name is " CheeseHead BrownPants " . However , they run away when they find out SpongeBob has a bottle of bubble soap . He wonders what the problem was and spots New Kelp City . Sandy and Patrick arrive at the Krusty Krab where customers have gathered , angered about not getting their orders , Sandy then shows the note from SpongeBob to Mr. Krabs . After he reads it , they all become upset about making him leave ( except for Squidward who is happy about SpongeBob being gone ) . Mr. Krabs has the customers leave the restaurant , so that he and the other can decide on how to find SpongeBob .
SpongeBob wanders around New Kelp City and upon getting accused of pickpocketing by a civilian and noticing his hunger , decides he needs to get a job . Each time he gets a job however , he uses bubble blowing , resulting in him getting fired . Back in Bikini Bottom , after Squidward ( who is determent to not see SpongeBob again ) destroys a device that Sandy made to find SpongeBob , Mr. Krabs orders him to look for SpongeBob . Squidward refuses at first but changes his mind when Mr. Krabs prompts him with his retirement gift : a Fabergé egg .
SpongeBob 's activity with blowing bubbles , brings up a confrontation with " the Bubble Poppin ' Boys " , a greaser @-@ like gang who have scared the city into never blowing bubbles because they keep being blinded by the bubbles whenever they pop . After they attack , SpongeBob uses his bubble blowing to trap the gang in a giant bubble that flies them out of town . He is rewarded by getting the position of mayor of New Kelp City while the previous mayor resigns .
Sandy , Patrick , and Squidward arrive at a gas station and from reading a newspaper article , discover SpongeBob 's appointment as mayor of New Kelp City . But when they go to New Kelp City to retrieve him , SpongeBob cannot remember who they are . Squidward hi @-@ jinks SpongeBob 's limousine and gets away from the city with SpongeBob , Patrick and Sandy in tow and they return to the Krusty Krab . SpongeBob still does not recall the eatery and wants to return to New Kelp City to resume his job as mayor . Delighted that SpongeBob is leaving again , Squidward requests for his jewel encrusted egg but slips and accidentally throws the egg onto SpongeBob 's head , which causes his memory to come back . But even so , SpongeBob still wants to return to New Kelp City . He changes his mind after a breaking news report comes on , saying that the bubbles in New Kelp City are blinding the citizens , and a thug threatens to do something to SpongeBob if he ever comes back . SpongeBob starts cooking Krabby Patties again , much to his friends ' delight . With a sigh of happiness , SpongeBob says that it looks like he will be back in Bikini Bottom . Upon hearing this , Squidward takes out his brain and drops it in a trash can .
= = Production = =
" What Ever Happened to SpongeBob ? " , also known as " WhoBob WhatPants ? " , was a special episode written by Casey Alexander , Zeus Cervas , and Steven Banks . It was directed by Alan Smart . Alexander and Cervas also functioned as storyboard directors . The episode was first announced by Nickelodeon on September 24 , 2008 on a press release . According to the network , SpongeBob " wanders the ocean , a stranger in his own pants , " and finds himself in a rough part of New Kelp City , where he faces off against the Boys ' gangleader , Liotta 's character .
The episode originally aired in the United States on October 13 , 2008 . From October 3 , 2008 , TurboNick featured a special playlist of content dedicated to the episode , including a sneak @-@ peek of the special , themed episodes , short @-@ form content , song clips , and an instant replay of the special following the television premiere . Nick.com , in 2008 , presented a new game called " SpongeBob SquarePants : WhoBob WhatPants ? " to celebrate the episode 's television airing . The episode also features SpongeBob 's signature sea chanty altered to " WhoBob WhatPants ? " during the chorus answers in the title sequence .
In addition to the regular cast , American Emmy Award Winning actor Ray Liotta guest starred in the episode as the voice of Trevor , the leader of New Kelp City 's Bubble Poppin ' Boys gang , and the main villain in the episode .
On October 14 , 2008 , " What Ever Happened to SpongeBob ? " became available in the DVD compilation called SpongeBob 's WhoBob WhatPants , along with six other episodes including " Goo Goo Gas " , " The Two Faces of Squidward " , " SpongeHenge " , " Banned in Bikini Bottom " , and " Stanley S. SquarePants " .
= = Reception = =
" What Ever Happened to SpongeBob ? " was viewed by 7 @.@ 7 million audiences . This ranked the program the number one most viewed entertainment show of the night , and the number two most viewed show in all categories after ESPN Monday Night Football . Despite the high ratings , the episode received mixed to negative reviews from critics . Maddy Pumila said that the episode was " extremely fun and entertaining . " He added " I hadn 't watched Spongebob in a while , but the laughs in this episode provided more laughs than I would get in an entire day . "
Maxie Zeus of Toon Zone cited the episode as an example of the series ' decline . Lesley Aeschliman of Yahoo ! Voices wrote " I have to look at this special like the ' Friend or Foe ? ' special . While ' WhoBob WhatPants ? ' works well as a regular story for SpongeBob SquarePants , I 'm not entirely convinced that it deserved to be hyped up as a special . While this story had the potential to be ' special material , ' it just didn 't materialize in the final produced product . " Roy Hrab of DVD Verdict said , " It makes me sad to think about how something so pleasurable has declined into something so tedious . " Paul Mavis of DVD Talk said , " With a laugh @-@ skimpy script , ' What Ever Happened to SpongeBob ? ' may be confirming a trend I noticed back with the last original SpongeBob toon to get its own disc release , Pest of the West : SpongeBob shorts are starting to get tired . And ' What Ever Happened to SpongeBob ? ' is even less funny than ' Pest of the West ' , " adding the episode was " Not a good sign . "
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= Iron ( III ) chloride =
Iron ( III ) chloride , also called ferric chloride , is an industrial scale commodity chemical compound , with the formula FeCl3 and with iron in the + 3 oxidation state . The colour of iron ( III ) chloride crystals depends on the viewing angle : by reflected light the crystals appear dark green , but by transmitted light they appear purple @-@ red . Anhydrous iron ( III ) chloride is deliquescent , forming hydrated hydrogen chloride mists in moist air . It is rarely observed in its natural form , mineral molysite , known mainly from some fumaroles .
When dissolved in water , iron ( III ) chloride undergoes hydrolysis and gives off heat in an exothermic reaction . The resulting brown , acidic , and corrosive solution is used as a flocculant in sewage treatment and drinking water production , and as an etchant for copper @-@ based metals in printed circuit boards . Anhydrous iron ( III ) chloride is a fairly strong Lewis acid , and it is used as a catalyst in organic synthesis .
= = Nomenclature = =
The descriptor hydrated or anhydrous is used when referring to iron ( III ) chloride , to distinguish between the two common forms . The hexahydrate is usually given as the simplified empirical formula FeCl3 ⋅ 6H2O . It may also be given as trans- [ Fe ( H2O ) 4Cl2 ] Cl ⋅ 2H2O and the systematic name tetraaquadichloroiron ( III ) chloride dihydrate , which more clearly represents its structure .
= = Structure and properties = =
Anhydrous iron ( III ) chloride adopts the BiI3 structure , which features octahedral Fe ( III ) centres interconnected by two @-@ coordinate chloride ligands . Iron ( III ) chloride hexahydrate consists of trans- [ Fe ( H2O ) 4Cl2 ] + cationic complexes and chloride anions , with the remaining two H2O molecules embedded within the monoclinic crystal structure .
Iron ( III ) chloride has a relatively low melting point and boils at around 315 ° C. The vapour consists of the dimer Fe2Cl6 ( c.f. aluminium chloride ) which increasingly dissociates into the monomeric FeCl3 ( D3h point group molecular symmetry ) at higher temperature , in competition with its reversible decomposition to give iron ( II ) chloride and chlorine gas .
= = Preparation = =
Anhydrous iron ( III ) chloride may be prepared by union of the elements :
2 Fe ( s ) + 3 Cl2 ( g ) → 2 FeCl3 ( s )
Solutions of iron ( III ) chloride are produced industrially both from iron and from ore , in a closed @-@ loop process .
Dissolving iron ore in hydrochloric acid
Fe3O4 ( s ) + 8 HCl ( aq ) → FeCl2 ( aq ) + 2 FeCl3 ( aq ) + 4 H2O
Oxidation of iron ( II ) chloride with chlorine
2 FeCl2 ( aq ) + Cl2 ( g ) → 2 FeCl3 ( aq )
Oxidation of iron ( II ) chloride with oxygen
4FeCl2 ( aq ) + O2 + 4HCl → 4FeCl3 ( aq ) + 2H2O
Reacting Iron with hydrochloric acid , then with hydrogen peroxide . The hydrogen peroxide is the oxidant in turning ferrous chloride into ferric chloride
Like many other hydrated metal chlorides , hydrated iron ( III ) chloride can be converted to the anhydrous salt by refluxing with thionyl chloride . Conversion of the hydrate to anhydrous iron ( III ) chloride is not accomplished by heating , as HCl and iron oxychlorides are produced .
= = Reactions = =
Iron ( III ) chloride undergoes hydrolysis to give an acidic solution . When heated with iron ( III ) oxide at 350 ° C , iron ( III ) chloride gives iron oxychloride , a layered solid and intercalation host .
FeCl3 + Fe2O3 → 3 FeOCl
It is a moderately strong Lewis acid , forming adducts with Lewis bases such as triphenylphosphine oxide , e.g. FeCl3 ( OPPh3 ) 2 where Ph = phenyl . It also reacts with other chloride salts to give the yellow tetrahedral FeCl4 − ion . Salts of FeCl4 − in hydrochloric acid can be extracted into diethyl ether .
Alkali metal alkoxides react to give the metal alkoxide complexes of varying complexity . The compounds can be dimeric or trimeric . In the solid phase a variety of multinuclear complexes have been described for the nominal stoichiometric reaction between FeCl3 and sodium ethoxide :
FeCl3 + 3 [ C2H5O ] − Na + → Fe ( OC2H5 ) 3 + 3 NaCl
Oxalates react rapidly with aqueous iron ( III ) chloride to give [ Fe ( C2O4 ) 3 ] 3 − . Other carboxylate salts form complexes , e.g. citrate and tartrate .
= = = Oxidation = = =
Iron ( III ) chloride is a mild oxidising agent , for example , it is capable of oxidising copper ( I ) chloride to copper ( II ) chloride .
FeCl3 + CuCl → FeCl2 + CuCl2
It also reacts with iron to form iron ( II ) chloride :
2 FeCl3 + Fe → 3 FeCl2
Reducing agents such as hydrazine convert iron ( III ) chloride to complexes of iron ( II ) .
= = Uses = =
= = = Industrial = = =
In industrial application , iron ( III ) chloride is used in sewage treatment and drinking water production . In this application , FeCl3 in slightly basic water reacts with the hydroxide ion to form a floc of iron ( III ) hydroxide , or more precisely formulated as FeO ( OH ) − , that can remove suspended materials .
[ Fe ( H2O ) 6 ] 3 + + 4 HO − → [ Fe ( H2O ) 2 ( HO ) 4 ] − + 4 H2O → [ Fe ( H2O ) O ( HO ) 2 ] − + 6 H2O
It is also used as a leaching agent in chloride hydrometallurgy , for example in the production of Si from FeSi . ( Silgrain process )
Another important application of iron ( III ) chloride is etching copper in two @-@ step redox reaction to copper ( I ) chloride and then to copper ( II ) chloride in the production of printed circuit boards .
FeCl3 + Cu → FeCl2 + CuCl
FeCl3 + CuCl → FeCl2 + CuCl2
Iron ( III ) chloride is used as catalyst for the reaction of ethylene with chlorine , forming ethylene dichloride ( 1 @,@ 2 @-@ dichloroethane ) , an important commodity chemical , which is mainly used for the industrial production of vinyl chloride , the monomer for making PVC .
H2C = CH2 + Cl2 → ClCH2CH2Cl
= = = Laboratory use = = =
In the laboratory iron ( III ) chloride is commonly employed as a Lewis acid for catalysing reactions such as chlorination of aromatic compounds and Friedel @-@ Crafts reaction of aromatics . It is less powerful than aluminium chloride , but in some cases this mildness leads to higher yields , for example in the alkylation of benzene :
The ferric chloride test is a traditional colorimetric test for phenols , which uses a 1 % iron ( III ) chloride solution that has been neutralised with sodium hydroxide until a slight precipitate of FeO ( OH ) is formed . The mixture is filtered before use . The organic substance is dissolved in water , methanol or ethanol , then the neutralised iron ( III ) chloride solution is added — a transient or permanent coloration ( usually purple , green or blue ) indicates the presence of a phenol or enol .
This reaction is exploited in the Trinder spot test , which is used to indicate the presence of salicylates , particularly salicylic acid , which contains a phenolic OH group .
This test can be used to detect the presence of gamma @-@ Hydroxybutyric acid and gamma @-@ butyrolactone , which cause it to turn red @-@ brown .
= = = Other uses = = =
Used in anhydrous form as a drying reagent in certain reactions .
Used to detect the presence of phenol compounds in organic synthesis e.g. : examining purity of synthesised Aspirin .
Used in water and wastewater treatment to precipitate phosphate as iron ( III ) phosphate .
Used by American coin collectors to identify the dates of Buffalo nickels that are so badly worn that the date is no longer visible .
Used by Blade @-@ smiths and Artisans in Pattern welding to etch the metal , giving it a contrasting effect , to view metal layering or imperfections .
Used to etch the widmanstatten pattern in iron meteorites .
Necessary for the etching of photogravure plates for printing photographic and fine art images in intaglio and for etching rotogravure cylinders used in the printing industry .
Used to make printed circuit boards ( PCBs ) .
Used in veterinary practice to treat overcropping of an animal 's claws , particularly when the overcropping results in bleeding .
Reacts with cyclopentadienylmagnesium bromide in one preparation of ferrocene , a metal @-@ sandwich complex .
Sometimes used in a technique of Raku ware firing , the iron coloring a pottery piece shades of pink , brown , and orange .
Used to test the pitting and crevice corrosion resistance of stainless steels and other alloys .
Used in conjunction with NaI in acetonitrile to mildly reduce organic azides to primary amines .
Used in an animal thrombosis model .
Used in energy storage systems
Historically it was used to make direct positive blueprints ; U.S. patent 241 @,@ 713 , May 17 1881
= = Safety = =
Iron ( III ) chloride is toxic , highly corrosive and acidic . The anhydrous material is a powerful dehydrating agent .
Although reports of poisoning in humans are rare , ingestion of ferric chloride can result in serious morbidity and mortality . Inappropriate labeling and storage lead to accidental swallowing or misdiagnosis . Early diagnosis is important , especially in seriously poisoned patients .
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= Edward Drinker Cope =
Edward Drinker Cope ( July 28 , 1840 – April 12 , 1897 ) was an American paleontologist and comparative anatomist , as well as a noted herpetologist and ichthyologist . He was a founder of the Neo @-@ Lamarckism school of thought . Born to a wealthy Quaker family , Cope distinguished himself as a child prodigy interested in science ; he published his first scientific paper at the age of 19 . Though his father tried to raise Cope as a gentleman farmer , he eventually acquiesced to his son 's scientific aspirations . Cope married his cousin and had one child ; the family moved from Philadelphia to Haddonfield , New Jersey , although Cope would maintain a residence and museum in Philadelphia in his later years .
Cope had little formal scientific training , and he eschewed a teaching position for field work . He made regular trips to the American West , prospecting in the 1870s and 1880s , often as a member of United States Geological Survey teams . A personal feud between Cope and paleontologist Othniel Charles Marsh led to a period of intense fossil @-@ finding competition now known as the Bone Wars . Cope 's financial fortunes soured after failed mining ventures in the 1880s , forcing him to sell off much of his fossil collection . He experienced a resurgence in his career toward the end of his life before dying on April 12 , 1897 .
Though Cope 's scientific pursuits nearly bankrupted him , his contributions helped to define the field of American paleontology . He was a prodigious writer , with 1 @,@ 400 papers published over his lifetime , although his rivals debated the accuracy of his rapidly published works . He discovered , described , and named more than 1 @,@ 000 vertebrate species , including hundreds of fishes and dozens of dinosaurs . His proposal for the origin of mammalian molars is notable among his theoretical contributions . " Cope 's rule " , however , the hypothesis that mammalian lineages gradually grow larger over geologic time , while named after him , is " neither explicit nor implicit " in his work .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Edward Drinker Cope was born on July 28 , 1840 , the eldest son of Alfred and Hanna Cope . The death of his mother when he was three years old seemed to have had little effect on young Edward , as he mentioned in his letters that he had no recollection of her . His stepmother , Rebecca Biddle , filled the maternal role ; Cope referred to her warmly , as well as his younger stepbrother , James Biddle Cope . Alfred , an orthodox member of the Religious Society of Friends or Quakers , operated a lucrative shipping business started by his father , Thomas P. Cope , in 1821 . He was a philanthropist who gave money to the Society of Friends , the Philadelphia Zoological Gardens , and the Institute for Colored Youth .
Edward was born and raised in a large stone house called " Fairfield " , whose location is now within the boundaries of Philadelphia . The 8 acres ( 3 @.@ 2 ha ) of pristine and exotic gardens of the house offered a landscape that Edward was able to explore . The Copes began teaching their children to read and write at a very young age , and took Edward on trips across New England and to museums , zoos , and gardens . Cope 's interest in animals became apparent at a young age , as did his natural artistic ability .
Alfred intended to give his son the same education he himself had received . At age nine , Edward was sent to a day school in Philadelphia and in 1853 at the age of 12 , Edward was sent to the Friends ' Boarding School at Westtown , near West Chester , Pennsylvania . The school was founded in 1799 with fundraising by members of the Society of Friends ( Quakers ) , and provided much of the Cope family 's education . The prestigious school was expensive , costing Alfred $ 500 in tuition each year , and in his first year , Edward studied algebra , chemistry , scripture , physiology , grammar , astronomy , and Latin . Edward 's letters home requesting a larger allowance show he was able to manipulate his father , and he was , according to author and Cope biographer Jane Davidson , " a bit of a spoiled brat " . His letters suggest he was lonely at the school — it was the first time he had been away from his home for an extended period . Otherwise , Edward 's studies progressed much like a typical boy — he consistently had " less than perfect " or " not quite satisfactory " marks for conduct from his teachers , and did not work hard on his penmanship lessons , which may have contributed to his often illegible handwriting as an adult .
Edward returned to Westtown in 1855 , accompanied by two of his sisters . Biology began to interest him more that year , and he studied natural history texts in his spare time . While at the school , he frequently visited the Academy of Natural Sciences . Edward often obtained bad marks due to quarreling and bad conduct . His letters to his father show he chafed at farm work and betrayed flashes of the temper for which he would later become well known . After sending Edward back to the farm for summer break in 1854 and 1855 , Alfred did not return Edward to school after spring 1856 . Instead , Alfred attempted to turn his son into a gentleman farmer , which he considered a wholesome profession that would yield enough profit to lead a comfortable life , and improve the undersized Edward 's health . Until 1863 , Cope 's letters to his father continually expressed his yearning for a more professional scientific career than that of a farmer , which he called " dreadfully boring " .
While working on farms , Edward continued his education on his own . In 1858 , he began working part @-@ time at the Academy of Natural Sciences , reclassifying and cataloguing specimens , and published his first series of research results in January 1859 . Cope began taking French and German classes with a former Westtown teacher . Though Alfred resisted his son 's pursuit of a science career , he paid for his son 's private studies . Instead of working the farm his father bought for him , Edward rented out the land and used the income to further his scientific endeavors .
Alfred finally gave in to Edward 's wishes and paid for university classes . Cope attended the University of Pennsylvania in the 1861 and / or 1862 academic years , studying comparative anatomy under Joseph Leidy , one of the most influential anatomists and paleontologists at the time . Cope asked his father to pay for a tutor in both German and French , " not so much for their own sake , " wrote Edward , " but as for their value in enabling me to read their books of a literary or scientific character . " During this period , he had a job recataloging the herpetological collection at the Academy of Natural Sciences , where he became a member at Leidy 's urging . Cope 's job lasted two years and he visited the Smithsonian Institution on occasion , where he became acquainted with Spencer Baird , who was an expert in the fields of ornithology and ichthyology . In 1861 , he published his first paper on Salamandridae classification ; over the next five years he published primarily on reptiles and amphibians . Cope 's membership in the Academy of Natural Sciences and American Philosophical Society gave him outlets to publish and announce his work ; many of his early paleontological works were published by the Philosophical Society .
= = = European travels = = =
In 1863 – 1864 during the American Civil War , Edward traveled through Europe , taking the opportunity to visit the most esteemed museums and societies of the time . Initially , he seemed interested in helping out at a field hospital , but in letters to his father later on in the war , this aspiration seemed to disappear ; instead Edward considered working in the American South to assist freed African Americans . Davidson suggests Edward 's correspondence with Leidy and Ferdinand Hayden , who worked as field surgeons during the war , might have informed Edward of the horrors of the occupation . Edward was involved in a love affair ; his father did not approve . Whether Edward or the unnamed woman ( whom he at one point intended to marry ) broke off the relationship is unknown , but he took the breakup poorly . Biographer and paleontologist Henry Fairfield Osborn attributed Edward 's sudden departure for Europe as a method of keeping him from being drafted into the Civil War . Cope did write to his father from London on February 11 , 1864 , " I shall get home in time to catch and be caught by the new draft . I shall not be sorry for this , as I know certain persons who would be mean enough to say that I have gone to Europe to avoid the war . " Eventually , Cope took the pragmatic approach and waited out the conflict . He may have suffered from mild depression during this period , and often complained of boredom .
Despite his torpor , Edward proceeded with his tour of Europe , and met with some of the most highly esteemed scientists of the world during his travels through France , Germany , Great Britain , Ireland , Austria , Italy , and Eastern Europe , most likely with introductory letters from Leidy and Spencer Baird . In the winter of 1863 , Edward met Othniel Charles Marsh while in Berlin . Marsh , age 32 , was attending the University of Berlin . He held two university degrees in comparison to Edward 's lack of formal schooling past 16 , but Edward had written 37 scientific papers in comparison to Marsh 's two published works . While they would later become rivals , on meeting , the two men appeared to take a liking to each other . Marsh led Edward on a tour of the city , and they stayed together for days . After Edward left Berlin , the two maintained correspondence , exchanging manuscripts , fossils , and photographs . Edward burned many of his journals and letters from Europe upon his return to the United States . Friends intervened and stopped Cope from destroying some of his drawings and notes , in what author Url Lanham deemed a " partial suicide " .
= = = Family and early career = = =
Upon returning to Philadelphia in 1864 , the Cope family made every effort to secure Edward a teaching post as the Professor of Zoology at Haverford College , a small Quaker school where the family had philanthropic ties . The college awarded him an honorary master 's degree so he could have the position . Cope even began to think about marriage and consulted his father in the matter , telling him of the girl he would like to marry : " an amiable woman , not over sensitive , with considerable energy , and especially one inclined to be serious and not inclined to frivolity and display — the more truly Christian of course the better — seems to be the most practically the most suitable for me , though intellect and accomplishments have more charm . " Cope thought of Annie Pim , a member of the Society of Friends , as less a lover than companion , declaring , " her amiability and domestic qualities generally , her capability of taking care of a house , etc . , as well as her steady seriousness weigh far more with me than any of the traits which form the theme of poets ! " Cope 's family approved of his choice , and the marriage took place in July 1865 at Pim 's farmhouse in Chester County , Pennsylvania . The two had a single daughter , Julia Biddle Cope , born June 10 , 1866 . Cope 's return to the United States also marked an expansion of his scientific studies ; in 1864 , he described several fishes , a whale , and the amphibian Amphibamus grandiceps ( his first paleontological contribution . )
During the period between 1866 and 1867 , Cope went on trips to western parts of the country . He related to his father his scientific experiences ; to his daughter he sent descriptions of animal life as part of her education . Cope found educating his students at Haverford " a pleasure " , but wrote to his father that he " could not get any work done . " He resigned from his position at Haverford and moved his family to Haddonfield , in part to be closer to the fossil beds of western New Jersey . Due to the time @-@ consuming nature of his Haverford position , Cope had not had time to attend to his farm and had let it out to others , but eventually found he was in need of more money to fuel his scientific habits . Pleading with his father for money to pursue his career , he finally sold the farm in 1869 . Alfred apparently did not press his son to continue farming , and Edward focused on his scientific career . He continued his continental travels , including trips to Virginia , Tennessee , and North Carolina . He visited caves across the region . He stopped these cave explorations after an 1871 trip to the Wyandotte Caves in Indiana , but remained interested in the subject . Cope had visited Haddonfield many times in the 1860s , paying periodic visits to the marl pits . The fossils he found in these pits became the focus of several papers , including a description in 1868 of Elasmosaurus platyurus and Laelaps . Marsh accompanied him on one of these excursions . Cope 's proximity to the beds after moving to Haddonfield made more frequent trips possible . The Copes lived comfortably in a frame house backed by an apple orchard . Two maids tended the estate , which entertained a number of guests . Cope 's only concern was for more money to spend on his scientific work .
The 1870s were the golden years of Cope 's career , marked by his most prominent discoveries and rapid flow of publications . Among his descriptions were the therapsid Lystrosaurus ( 1870 ) , the archosauromorph Champsosaurus ( 1876 ) , and the sauropod Amphicoelias ( 1878 ) , possibly the largest dinosaur ever discovered . In the period of one year , from 1879 to 1880 , Cope published 76 papers based on his travels through New Mexico and Colorado , and on the findings of his collectors in Texas , Kansas , Oregon , Colorado , Wyoming , and Utah . During the peak years , Cope published around 25 reports and preliminary observations each year . The hurried publications led to errors in interpretation and naming — many of his scientific names were later canceled or withdrawn . In comparison , Marsh wrote and published less frequently and more succinctly — his works appearance in the widespread American Journal of Science led to faster reception abroad , and subsequently Marsh 's reputation grew more rapidly than Cope 's .
In autumn 1871 , Cope began prospecting farther west to the fossil fields of Kansas . Leidy and Marsh had been to the region earlier , and Cope employed one of Marsh 's guides , Benjamin Mudge , who was in want of a job . Cope 's companion Charles Sternberg described the lack of water and good food available to Cope and his helpers on these expeditions . Cope would suffer from a " severe attack of nightmare " in which " every animal of which we had found trace during the day played with him at night ... sometimes he would lose half the night in this exhausting slumber . " Nevertheless , Cope continued to lead the party from sunrise to sunset , sending letters to his wife and child describing his finds . The severe desert conditions and Cope 's habit of overworking himself till he was bedridden caught up with him , and in 1872 , he broke down from exhaustion . Cope maintained a regular pattern of summers spent prospecting and winters writing up his findings from 1871 to 1879 .
Throughout the decade , Cope traveled across the West , exploring rocks of the Eocene in 1872 and the Titanothere Beds of Colorado in 1873 . In 1874 , Cope was employed with the Wheeler survey , a group of surveys led by George Montague Wheeler that mapped parts of the United States west of the 100th meridian . The survey traveled through New Mexico , whose Puerco formations , he wrote to his father , provided " the most important find in geology I have ever made " . The New Mexico bluffs contained millions of years of formation and subsequent deformation , and were in an area which had not been visited by Leidy or Marsh . Being part of the survey had other advantages ; Cope was able to draw on fort commissaries and defray publishing costs . While there was no salary , his findings would be published in the annual reports the surveys printed . Cope brought Annie and Julia along on one such survey , and rented a house for them at Fort Bridger , but he spent more of his own money on these survey trips than he would have liked .
Alfred died December 4 , 1875 , and left Edward with an inheritance of nearly a quarter of a million dollars . Alfred 's death was a blow to Cope ; his father was a constant confidant . The same year marked a suspension of much of Cope 's field work and a new emphasis on writing up discoveries of the previous years . His chief publication of the time , The Vertebrata of the Cretaceous Formations of the West , was a collection of 303 pages and 54 illustration plates . The memoir summarized his experiences prospecting in New Jersey and Kansas . Cope now had the finances to hire multiple teams to search for fossils for him year @-@ round and he advised the Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition on their fossil displays . Cope 's studies of marine reptiles of Kansas closed in 1876 , opening a new focus on terrestrial reptiles . The same year , Cope moved from Haddonfield to 2100 and 2102 Pine Street in Philadelphia . He converted one of the two houses into a museum where he stored his growing collection of fossils . Cope 's expeditions took him across Kansas , Colorado , New Mexico , Wyoming , and Montana . His initial journey into the Clarendon beds of Upper Miocene and Lower Pliocene of Texas led to an affiliation with the Geological Survey of Texas . Cope 's papers on the region constitute some of his most important paleontological contributions . In 1877 , he purchased half the rights to the American Naturalist to publish the papers he produced at a rate so high , Marsh questioned their dating .
Cope returned to Europe in August 1878 in response to an invitation to join the British Association for the Advancement of Science 's Dublin meeting . He was warmly welcomed in England and France , and met with the distinguished paleontologists and archeologists of the period . Marsh 's attempts to sully Cope 's reputation had made little impact on anyone save paleontologist Thomas Henry Huxley , who according to Osborn , " alone treated [ Cope ] with coolness " . Following the Dublin meeting , Cope spent two days with the French Association for the Advancement of Science . At each gathering , Cope exhibited dinosaur restorations by Philadelphia colleague John A. Ryder and various charts and plates from geological surveys of the 1870s led by Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden . He returned to London on October 12 , meeting with anatomist Richard Owen , ichthyologist Albert Günther , and paleontologist H. G. Seeley . While in Europe , Cope purchased a great collection of fossils from Argentina . Cope never found time to describe the collection and many of the boxes remained unopened until his death .
= = = Bone Wars = = =
Cope 's relations with Marsh turned into a competition for fossils between the two , known today as the Bone Wars . The conflict 's seeds began upon the men 's return to the United States in the 1860s . Cope introduced his colleague to the marl pit owner Albert Vorhees when the two visited the site . Marsh went behind Cope 's back and made a private agreement with Vorhees : any fossils that Vorhees 's men found were sent back to Marsh at New Haven . When Marsh was at Haddonfield examining one of Cope 's fossil finds — a complete skeleton of a large aquatic plesiosaur , Elasmosaurus , that had four flippers and a long neck — he commented that the fossil 's head was on the wrong end , evidently stating that Cope had put the skull at the end of the vertebrae of the tail . Cope was outraged and the two argued for some time until they agreed to have Leidy examine the bones and determine who was right . Leidy came , picked up the head of the fossil and put it on the other end . Cope was horrified since he had already published a paper on the fossil with the error at the American Philosophical Society . He immediately tried to buy back the copies , but some remained with their buyers ( Marsh and Leidy kept theirs ) . The whole ordeal might have passed easily enough had Leidy not exposed the cover @-@ up at the next society meeting , not to alienate Cope , but only in response to Cope 's brief statement where he never admitted he was wrong . Cope and Marsh would never talk to each other amicably again , and by 1873 , open hostility had broken out between them .
The rivalry between the two increased towards the latter half of the 1870s . In 1877 , Marsh received a letter from Arthur Lakes , a schoolteacher in Golden , Colorado . Lakes had been hiking in the mountains near the town of Morrison with his friend , H. C. Beckwith , looking for fossilized leaves in the Dakota sandstone . Instead , the pair found large bones embedded in the rock . Lakes wrote that the bones were " apparently a vertebra and a humerus bone of some gigantic saurian . " While Lakes sent Marsh some 1 @,@ 500 pounds of bone , he also sent Cope some of the specimens . Marsh published his finds first , and having been paid $ 100 for the finds Lakes wrote to Cope that the samples should be forwarded to Marsh . Cope was offended by the slight . Meanwhile , Cope received bones from school superintendent O.W. Lucas in March 1877 from Canon City ; the remains were of a dinosaur even bigger than Lakes ' that Marsh had described .
Word that Lakes had notified Cope of his finds galvanized Marsh into action . When Marsh heard from Union Pacific Railroad workers W.E. Carlin and W.H. Reed about a vast boneyard northwest of Laramie in Como Bluff , Marsh sent his agent , Samuel Wendell Williston , to take charge of the digging . Cope , in response , learned of Carlin and Reed 's discoveries and sent his own men to find bones in the area . The two scientists attempted to sabotage each other 's progress . Cope was described as a genius and what Marsh lacked in intelligence , he easily made up for in connections — Marsh 's uncle was George Peabody , a rich banker who supported Marsh with money , and a secure position at the Peabody Museum . Marsh lobbied John Wesley Powell to act against Cope and attempted to persuade Hayden to " muzzle " Cope 's publishing . Both men tried to spy on the other 's whereabouts and attempted to offer their collectors more money in the hopes of recruiting them to their own side . Cope was able to recruit David Baldwin in New Mexico and Frank Williston in Wyoming from Marsh . Cope and Marsh were extremely secretive as to the source of their fossils . When Henry Fairfield Osborn , at the time a student at Princeton , visited Cope to ask where to travel to look for fossils in the West , Cope politely refused to answer .
When Cope arrived back in the United States after his tour of Europe in 1878 , he had nearly two years of fossil findings from Lucas . Among these dinosaurs was Camarasaurus , one of the most recognizable dinosaur recreations of the time . The summer of 1879 took Cope to Salt Lake City , San Francisco , and north to Oregon , where he was amazed at the rich flora and the blueness of the Pacific Ocean . In 1879 , the United States Congress consolidated the various government survey teams into the United States Geological Survey with Clarence King as its leader . This was discouraging to Cope because King named Marsh , an old college friend , as the chief paleontologist . The period of Cope 's and Marsh 's paleontological digs in the American West spanned from 1877 to 1892 , by which time both men exhausted much of their financial resources .
= = = Later years = = =
The 1880s proved disastrous for Cope . Marsh 's close association with the Geological Survey gave him the resources to employ 54 staff members over the course of ten years . His teaching position at Yale meant he had guaranteed access to the American Journal of Science for publication . Cope had his interest in the Naturalist , but it drained him of funds . After Hayden was removed from the survey , Cope lost his source of government funding . His fortune was not enough to support his rivalry , so Cope invested in mining . Most of his properties were silver mines in New Mexico ; one mine yielded an ore vein worth $ 3 million in silver chloride . Cope visited the mines each summer from 1881 to 1885 , taking the opportunity to supervise or collect other minerals . For a while he made good money , but the mines stopped producing and by 1886 he had to give up his now @-@ worthless stocks . The same year he received a teaching position at the University of Pennsylvania . He continued to travel west , but realized he would not be able to best Marsh in cornering the market for bones ; he had to release the collectors he had hired and sell his collections . During this period , he published 40 to 75 papers each year . With the failure of his mines , Cope began searching for a job , but was turned down at the Smithsonian and American Museum of Natural History . He turned to giving lectures for hire and writing magazine articles . Each year , he lobbied Congress for an appropriation with which to finish his work on " Cope 's Bible " , a volume on Tertiary vertebrates , but was continually turned down . Rather than work with Powell and the survey , Cope tried to inflame sentiment against them .
At Marsh 's urging , Powell pushed for Cope to return specimens he had unearthed during his employment under the government surveys . This was an outrage to Cope , who had used his own money while working as a volunteer . In response , Cope went to the editor of the New York Herald and promised a scandalous headline . Since 1885 , Cope had kept an elaborate journal of mistakes and misdeeds that both Marsh and Powell had committed over the years . From scientific errors to publishing mistakes , he had them written down in a journal he kept in the bottom drawer of his Pine Street desk . Cope sought out Marsh 's assistants , who complained of being denied access and credit by their employer and of being chronically underpaid . Reporter William Hosea Ballou ran the first article on January 12 , 1890 , in what would become a series of newspaper debates between Marsh , Powell , and Cope . Cope attacked Marsh for plagiarism and financial mismanagement , and attacked Powell for his geological classification errors and misspending of government @-@ allocated funds . Marsh and Powell published their own side of the story and , in the end , little changed . No congressional hearing was created to investigate Powell 's alleged misallocation of funds , while Cope and Marsh were not held responsible for any mistakes . Indirectly , however , the attacks may have been influential in Marsh 's fall from power in the survey . Due to pressure from Powell over bad press , Marsh was removed from his position for the government surveys . Cope 's relations with the president of the University of Pennsylvania soured , and the entire funding for paleontology in the government surveys was pulled .
Cope took his sinking fortunes in stride . In writing to Osborn about the articles , he laughed at the outcome , saying , " It will now rest largely with you whether or not I am supposed to be a liar and am actuated by jealousy and disappointment . I think Marsh is impaled on the horns of Monoclonius sphenocerus . " Cope was well aware of his enemies and was carefree enough to name a species after a combination of " Cope " and " hater " , Anisonchus cophater . Through his years of financial hardship , he was able to continue publishing papers — his most productive years were 1884 and 1885 , with 79 and 62 papers published , respectively . The 1880s marked the publication of two of the best @-@ known fossil taxa described by Cope : the pelycosaur Edaphosaurus in 1882 and the early dinosaur Coelophysis in 1889 . In 1889 , he succeeded Leidy , who had died the previous year , as professor of zoology at the University of Pennsylvania . The small yearly stipend was enough for Cope 's family to move back into one of the townhouses he had been forced to relinquish earlier .
In 1892 , Cope ( then 52 years old ) was granted expense money for field work from the Texas Geological Survey . With his finances improved , he was able to publish a massive work on the Batrachians of North America , which was the most detailed analysis and organization of the continent 's frogs and amphibians ever mastered , and the 1 @,@ 115 @-@ page The Crocodilians Lizards and Snakes of North America . In the 1890s , his publication rate increased to an average of 43 articles a year . His final expedition to the West took place in 1894 , when he prospected for dinosaurs in South Dakota and visited sites in Texas and Oklahoma . The same year , Julia was married to William H. Collins , a Haverford astronomy professor . The couple 's ages — Julia was 28 and the groom 35 — were past the conventions of Victorian marriage . After their European honeymoon , the couple returned to Haverford . While Annie moved to Haverford , as well , Cope did not . His official reason was the long commute and late lectures he gave in Philadelphia . In private correspondence , however , Osborn wrote that the two had essentially separated , though they remained on amiable terms .
Cope sold his collections to the American Museum of Natural History in 1895 ; his set of 10 @,@ 000 American fossil mammals sold for $ 32 @,@ 000 , lower than Cope 's asking price of $ 50 @,@ 000 . The purchase was financed by the donations from New York 's high society . Cope sold three other collections for $ 29 @,@ 000 . While his collection contained more than 13 @,@ 000 specimens , Cope 's fossil hoard was still much smaller than Marsh 's collection , valued at over a million dollars . The University of Pennsylvania bought part of Cope 's ethnological artifact collection for $ 5 @,@ 500 . The Academy of Natural Sciences , Philadelphia 's foremost museum , did not bid on any of Cope 's sales due to bad blood between Cope and the museum 's leaders ; as a result , many of Cope 's major finds left the city . Cope 's proceeds from the sales allowed him to rehire Sternberg to prospect for fossils on his behalf .
= = = Death = = =
In 1896 , Cope began suffering from a gastrointestinal illness he said was cystitis . His wife cared for him in Philadelphia when she was able ; at other times , Cope 's university secretary , Anna Brown , tended to him . Cope at this time lived in his Pine Street museum and rested on a cot surrounded by his fossil finds . Cope often prescribed himself medications , including large amounts of morphine , belladonna , and formalin , a substance based on formaldehyde used to preserve specimens . Osborn was horrified by Cope 's actions and made arrangements for surgery , but the plans were put on hold after a temporary improvement in Cope 's health . Cope went to Virginia looking for fossils , became ill again , and returned to his home very weak . Osborn visited Cope on April 5 , inquiring about Cope 's health , but the sick paleontologist pressed his friend for his views on the origin of mammals . Word of Cope 's illness spread , and he was visited by friends and colleagues ; even in a feverish condition Cope delivered lectures from his bed . Cope died on April 12 , 1897 , 16 weeks short of his 57th birthday .
Sternberg , still prospecting for Cope that spring , was woken by a liveryman who relayed word from Annie that Cope had died three days earlier . Sternberg wrote in his memoirs , " I had lost friends before , and I had known what it was to bury my own dead , even my firstborn son , but I had never sorrowed more deeply than I did over the news . " Cope 's Quaker funeral consisted of six men : Osborn , his colleague William Berryman Scott , Cope 's friend Persifor Frazer , son @-@ in @-@ law Collins , Horatio Wood , and Harrison Allen . The six sat around Cope 's coffin among the fossils and Cope 's pets , a tortoise and a Gila monster , for what Osborn called " a perfect Quaker silence ... an interminable length of time . " Anticipating the quiet , Osborn had brought along a Bible and read an excerpt from the Book of Job , ending by saying , " These are the problems to which our friend devoted his life . "
The coffin was loaded on a hearse and carried to a gathering at Fairfield ; much of the gathering was spent in silence . After the coffin was removed , the assembled began talking . Frazer recalled that each person remembered Cope differently , and " Few men succeeded so well in concealing from anyone ... all the sides of his multiform character . " Osborn , intending to follow the coffin to the graveyard , was instead pulled aside by Collins and taken to the reading of Cope 's will — Osborn and Cope 's brother @-@ in @-@ law John Garrett were named executors . Cope gave his family a choice of his books , with the remainder to be sold or donated to the University of Pennsylvania . After debts were handled , Cope left small bequests to friends and family — Anna Brown and Julia received $ 5000 each , while the remainder went to Annie . Cope 's estate was valued at $ 75 @,@ 327 , not including additional revenue raised by sales of fossils to the American Museum of Natural History , for a total of $ 84 @,@ 600 . Some specimens preserved in alcohol made their way to the Academy of Natural Sciences , including a few Gordian worms .
Cope insisted through his will that no graveside service or burial be held ; he had donated his body to science . He issued a final challenge to Marsh at his death : he had his skull donated to science so his brain could be measured , hoping his brain would be larger than that of his adversary ; at the time , brain size was thought to be the true measure of intelligence . Marsh never accepted the challenge , and Cope 's skull is reportedly still preserved at the University of Pennsylvania . His ashes were placed at the institute with those of Leidy , while his bones were extracted and kept in a locked drawer to be studied by anatomy students .
Osborn listed Cope 's cause of death as uremic poisoning , combined with a large prostate , but the true cause of death is unknown . Many believed Cope had died of syphilis contracted from the women with whom he fraternized during his travels . In 1995 , Davidson gained permission to have the skeleton examined by a medical doctor at the university . Dr. Morrie Kricun , a professor of radiology , concluded no evidence of bony syphilis was found on Cope 's skeleton .
Public mentions of Cope 's passing were relatively slight . The Naturalist ran four photographs , a six @-@ page obituary by editor J. S. Kingsley , and a two @-@ page remembrance by Frazer . The National Academy of Sciences ' official memoir was submitted years later and written by Osborn . The American Journal of Science devoted six paragraphs to Cope 's passing , and incorrectly gave his age as 46 . Cope was survived by his rival Marsh , who was suffering poor health .
= = Evolution = =
As a young man , Cope read Charles Darwin 's Voyage of a Naturalist , which had little effect on him . The only comment about Darwin 's book recorded by Cope was that Darwin discussed " too much geology " from the account of his voyage . Due to his background in taxonomy and paleontology , Cope focused on evolution in terms of changing structure , rather than emphasizing geography and variation within populations as Darwin had . Over his lifetime , Cope 's views on evolution shifted .
His original view , described in the paper " On the Origin of Genera " ( 1868 ) , held that while Darwin 's natural selection may affect the preservation of superficial characteristics in organisms , natural selection alone could not explain the formation of genera . Cope 's suggested mechanism for this action was a " steady progressive development of organization " through what Cope termed " a continual crowding backward of the successive steps of individual development " . In Cope 's view , during embryological development , an organism could complete its growth with a new stage of development beyond its parents , taking it to a higher level of organization . Later individuals would inherit this new level of development — thus evolution was a continuous advance of organization , sometimes slowly and other times suddenly ; this view is known as the law of acceleration .
Cope 's beliefs later evolved to one with an increased emphasis on continual and utilitarian evolution with less involvement of a Creator . He became one of the founders of the Neo @-@ Lamarckism school of thought , which holds that an individual can pass on traits acquired in its lifetime to offspring . Although the view has been shown incorrect , it was the prevalent theory among paleontologists in Cope 's time . In 1887 , Cope published his own " Origin of the Fittest : Essays in Evolution " , detailing his views on the subject . He was a strong believer in the law of use and disuse — that an individual will slowly , over time , favor an anatomical part of its body so much that it will become stronger and larger as time progresses down the generations . The giraffe , for example , stretched its neck to reach taller trees and passed this acquired characteristic to its offspring in a developmental phase that is added to gestation in the womb .
Cope 's Theology of Evolution ( 1887 ) argued that consciousness comes from the mind of the universe and governs evolution by directing animals to new goals . According to Sideris ( 2003 ) , " [ Cope ] argued that organisms respond to changes in their environments by an exercise of choice . Consciousness itself , he maintained , was the principal force in evolution . Cope credited God with having built into evolution a life force that propelled organisms toward even higher levels of consciousness . "
= = Personality and legacy = =
Julia assisted Osborn in writing a biography of her father , titled Cope : Master Naturalist . She would not comment on the name of the woman with whom her father had had an affair prior to his first European travel . Julia is believed to have burned any of the scandalous letters and journals Cope had kept , but many of his friends were able to give their recollections of the scandalous nature of some of Cope 's unpublished routines . Charles R. Knight , a former friend called , " Cope 's mouth the filthiest , from hearsay that in [ Cope 's ] heyday no woman was safe within five miles of him . " As Julia was the major financier behind The Master Naturalist , she wanted to keep her father 's name in good standing and refused to comment on any misdeeds her father may have committed .
Cope was described by zoologist Henry Weed Fowler as " a man of medium height and build , but always impressive with his great energy and activity " . To him , Fowler wrote , " [ Cope ] was both genial and always interesting , easily approachable , and both kindly and helpful . " Cope 's affability during visits to the Academy of Natural Sciences to compare specimens was later recalled by his colleague Witmer Stone : " I have often seen him busily engaged in such comparisons , all the while whistling whole passages from grand opera , or else counting the scales on the back of a lizard , while he conversed in a most amusing manner with some small street urchin who had drifted into the museum and was watching in awe with eyes and mouth wide open . " His self @-@ taught nature , however , meant that he was largely hostile to bureaucracy and politics . He had a famous temper ; one friend called Cope a " militant paleontologist " . Despite his faults , he was generally well liked by his contemporaries . American paleontologist Alfred Romer wrote that , " [ Cope 's ] little slips from virtue were those we might make ourselves , were we bolder " .
Cope was raised as a Quaker , and was taught that the Bible was literal truth . Although he never confronted his family about their religious views , Osborn writes that Cope was at least aware of the conflict between his scientific career and his religion . Osborn writes : " If Edward harbored intellectual doubts about the literalness of the Bible ... he did not express them in his letters to his family but there can be little question ... that he shared the intellectual unrest of the period . " Lanham writes that Cope 's religious fervor ( which seems to have subsided after his father 's death ) was embarrassing to even his devout Quaker associates . Biographer Jane Davidson believes that Osborn overstated Cope 's internal religious conflicts . She ascribes Cope 's deference to his father 's beliefs as an act of respect or a measure to retain his father 's financial support . Frazer 's reminiscences about his friend suggest Cope often told people what they wanted to hear , rather than his true views .
Cope 's views on human races would today be considered racist , but his beliefs were used by scientists of the time as an excuse for imperialism . He believed that if , " a race was not white then it was inherently more ape @-@ like " . He was not opposed to blacks because of the color of their skin but their " degrading vices " , believing that the " inferior Negro should go back to Africa . " He did not blame blacks for their perceived " poor virtue " , but wrote , " A vulture will always eat carrion when surrounded on all hands by every kind of cleaner food . It is the nature of the bird . " Cope was against the modern view of women 's rights , believing in the husband 's role as protector ; he was opposed to women 's suffrage , as he felt they would be unduly influenced by their husbands .
In fewer than 40 years as a scientist , Cope published over 1 @,@ 400 scientific papers , a record that stands to this day . These include three major volumes : On the Origin of Genera ( 1867 ) , The Vertebrata of the Tertiary Formations of the West ( 1884 ) and " Essays in Evolution " . He discovered a total of 56 new dinosaur species during the Bone Wars compared to Marsh 's 80 . Although Cope is today known as a herpetologist and paleontologist , his contributions extended to ichthyology , in which he catalogued 300 species of fishes over three decades . In total , he discovered and described over 1 @,@ 000 species of fossil vertebrates and published 600 separate titles .
The salamander Dicamptodon copei ( Nussbaum , 1970 ) , the dinosaur Drinker nisti ( Bakker et al . , 1990 ) , the lizard Gambelia wislizenii copeii ( H. C. Yarrow , Cope 's gray treefrog Hyla chrysoscelis , and the splash tetra Copella arnoldi ( Regan , 1912 ) are among the many species named for Cope . Currently , 21 fish species named copei are distributed among 11 families . Copeia is the journal of the American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists ( ASIH ) , founded in 1913 by John Treadwell Nichols . Cope 's Pine Street home is recognized as a national landmark .
= = Selected works = =
On The Origin of Genera ; From the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia , Oct. 1868 ( Merrihew & Son , 1869 )
The Vertebrata of the Tertiary Formations of the West ( Government Printing Office , 1884 ) .
" The Origin of the Fittest : Essays on Evolution " ( Nature , 1887 ) . Google Books / Archive.org
The Crocodilians , Lizards and Snakes of North America ( Government Printing Office , 1900 ) .
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= Martin Brodeur =
Martin Pierre Brodeur ( French pronunciation : [ maʁtɛ ̃ bʁɔdœʁ ] ; born May 6 , 1972 ) is a Canadian former ice hockey goaltender and the assistant general manager of the St. Louis Blues of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . In his 21 @-@ season tenure with the New Jersey Devils , he won three Stanley Cup championships and five Eastern Conference titles in 17 postseason campaigns . He also won two Olympic gold medals with Team Canada in the 2002 and 2010 Winter Olympic Games , as well as several other medals with Team Canada in other international competitions . Brodeur is widely regarded as one of the greatest goaltenders of all time .
Brodeur holds numerous NHL and franchise records , including all @-@ time regular season wins ( 691 ) , losses ( 397 ) , shutouts ( 125 ) , and games played ( 1 @,@ 266 ) . He won at least 30 games in twelve straight seasons between 1995 – 96 and 2007 – 08 and is the only goalie in NHL history with eight 40 @-@ win seasons . He is a four @-@ time Vezina Trophy winner , a five @-@ time Jennings Trophy winner , a ten @-@ time NHL All @-@ Star , a Calder Memorial Trophy winner , and one of only two NHL goaltenders to score a goal in both the regular season and the playoffs .
Brodeur used a hybrid style of goaltending by standing up more than butterfly style goalies , though he adapted to more modern techniques at the latter stage of his career . He was known for his puck handling , his positional play , and his reflexes , especially with his glove hand . Brodeur 's prowess at puck handling was so notorious that it led in part to the NHL changing its rules regarding where goalies were allowed to handle the puck outside of the goal crease , leading to its moniker of " The Brodeur Rule " . He announced his retirement in the middle of the 2014 – 15 season after a brief stint with the Blues , having played in seven games with the team .
= = Early life = =
Brodeur 's success followed his father Denis , who played in the 1956 Olympics for Team Canada and won a bronze medal . After his playing career , Denis was a longtime photographer for the Montreal Canadiens . For more than 20 years , he attended all Montreal games and practices , and when Brodeur was old enough , he came along . Brodeur idolized their goaltender Patrick Roy .
Brodeur started playing hockey as a forward . His goaltending career began when his coach asked him if he wanted to play as a backup at the position in a youth tournament . Brodeur explained :
The next season my coach came up to me and said , ' Do you want to be a goalie or forward this year ? ' It was the biggest decision of my life , and I was seven years old . I don 't know why I decided , but I thought it would be fun to play goal .
Brodeur 's play in goal was soon noticed by fans and scouts . In 1990 , he made it to the Quebec Major Junior League . While playing with the Saint @-@ Hyacinthe Laser , Brodeur made the QMJHL All @-@ Rookie team and the QMJHL 2nd All @-@ Star Team in 1992 .
Brodeur was drafted by the New Jersey Devils in the first round ( 20th overall ) in the 1990 NHL Entry Draft .
= = NHL career = =
= = = New Jersey Devils = = =
= = = = 1991 – 95 = = = =
In the 1991 – 92 NHL season , Brodeur spent most of his time with the Utica Devils of the AHL , but was called up to the NHL on an emergency basis for four games when New Jersey 's goaltenders Chris Terreri and Craig Billington became injured . Brodeur won his NHL debut against the Boston Bruins , 4 – 2 , and played in one playoff game that season . Brodeur spent the following season in the AHL with Utica . However , in the 1993 – 94 season , Brodeur returned to the NHL permanently and gained recognition when he won the Calder Trophy , an annual award for the best rookie in the NHL . He led the Devils to the second @-@ best record in the league and the Eastern Conference Finals in the playoffs , where they lost to the New York Rangers in seven games . He finished 2nd in goals against average ( GAA ) ( 2 @.@ 40 ) and 4th in save percentage ( .915 ) in 47 games played during the regular season , helping him eventually land the starting job over Terreri .
In the 1994 – 95 NHL season , which was shortened to 48 games due to a four @-@ month lockout , the Devils finished tied for 9th overall , 5th in their conference , and they were not considered a Stanley Cup contender . With the leadership of Brodeur , they defeated the Boston Bruins in the 1st round , shutting them out in three of their four wins . In the second round against Pittsburgh , Brodeur gave up only eight goals and helped the Devils defeat the Penguins in five games . In the third round , the Devils defeated Philadelphia in six games , giving them their first Stanley Cup Final appearance in franchise history , against the heavily favoured Detroit Red Wings . The strong play of Brodeur and the Devils ' infamous " trap " method made the series lopsided in favour of New Jersey , who swept the Red Wings 4 games to 0 while holding them to only seven goals in four games . Brodeur won a Stanley Cup in only his second full season in the NHL . After the victory , he was quoted as saying :
In the last game against Detroit , the time from ten minutes left to one minute left was probably the longest nine minutes of my life . But from one to zero was probably the greatest time I 've ever had . I didn 't want the clock to run out . It was such a great feeling : people crying in the stands , people jumping up and down , people cheering . Guys couldn 't even sit up on the bench . It was probably the best minute of my life .
= = = = 1995 – 99 = = = =
After a year of success , the Devils were in the middle of the pack for most of the 1995 – 96 season and barely missed the playoffs . Brodeur played in 74 of his team 's 82 games , setting a single @-@ season record for most minutes played by a goalie , while having the 2nd @-@ most shutouts ( 6 ) in the league . He was named the starter in the All @-@ Star Game for the Eastern Conference and stopped all 12 shots he faced . He finished fourth in voting for the Vezina Trophy , which is awarded to the league 's top goaltender . Brodeur also played on Team Canada during the 1996 World Cup of Hockey , where Canada lost to the United States in the gold medal finals .
In the 1996 – 97 season , the Devils finished 3rd in the NHL . Brodeur was runner @-@ up for the Vezina Trophy , was named to the All @-@ Star team , and had the lowest goals against average by a goalie in almost 30 years , earning him the Jennings Trophy . He also had 10 shutouts and a .927 save percentage . On April 17 , 1997 , in the first game of a first @-@ round playoff matchup against the Montreal Canadiens , Brodeur fired the puck the length of the ice and into the Canadiens ' empty net to ensure a 5 – 2 victory . It was only the second time in NHL history that a goaltender had scored in the playoffs , and the fifth time overall . The Devils went on to win that series , but lost in the second round to the rival New York Rangers .
The following year , Brodeur had 43 wins and 10 shutouts in the regular season . The Devils finished first in the Eastern Conference , but lost in the first round of the playoffs to the eighth @-@ seeded Ottawa Senators . Once again , Brodeur made the All @-@ Star Team , finished as a runner @-@ up for the Vezina Trophy , and won the Jennings Trophy .
In the 1998 – 99 season , the Devils finished first in the Eastern Conference for the third straight year , with Brodeur winning 39 games . He was among the contenders for the Vezina Trophy and started in the All @-@ Star game , making his fourth appearance . However , the Devils lost in the first round to the Penguins . It was the worst playoff performance in Brodeur 's five @-@ year career , as he allowed 20 goals in seven games with an .856 save percentage .
= = = = 1999 – 2004 = = = =
During the 1999 – 2000 season , on February 15 , 2000 , Brodeur was credited with his second career goal , as Brodeur was the last Devils player on the ice to touch the puck before Daymond Langkow of the Philadelphia Flyers accidentally put the puck into his own empty net during a delayed penalty call against the Devils . Brodeur had previously tapped the puck behind his net , stopping an attempted wrap @-@ around by a Philadelphia Flyer .
That season , Brodeur won 43 games for the second time in his career , and the Devils finished with the fourth spot in the Eastern Conference after losing the division to the Philadelphia Flyers by two points . Brodeur helped the Devils sweep the Florida Panthers in the first round , giving up only six goals in four games . In the next round against the Toronto Maple Leafs he recorded two shutouts , including one in the final game of the series as the Devils went on to win four games to two , setting up a showdown with rival Philadelphia in the Eastern Conference Finals . The Flyers took a commanding 3 – 1 series lead and had home ice to close out the series , but Brodeur gave up only one goal in each of the remaining three games of the series , propelling the Devils to the surprising come from behind series victory in 7 games . They went on to play the Dallas Stars in the Stanley Cup Final , who had a higher seed but fewer regular season points , giving the Devils home ice advantage in the series . After taking game one with a 7 @-@ goal rally against Dallas , the Devils were led by Brodeur the rest of the way as he gave up only six goals in the next five games , giving the team their second Stanley Cup Championship in six years .
The next year , Brodeur topped the 40 @-@ win mark for the third time in his career , despite having an average GAA and save @-@ percentage throughout the season . He played in the All @-@ Star Game for the 6th consecutive season , and helped the Devils earn the top seed in the Eastern Conference . In the first round Brodeur recorded two shutouts against the Carolina Hurricanes and the Devils took the series in six games . After struggling to beat 7th @-@ seeded Toronto in seven games , the Devils had little trouble defeating the 6th @-@ seeded Penguins in the Eastern Conference Finals , where Brodeur added two more shutouts , both on the road . In their second straight Stanley Cup finals appearance , the Devils played a back @-@ and @-@ forth series against the top seeded Colorado Avalanche , and lost in seven games .
In the 2001 – 02 season , Brodeur finished among the league leaders in wins and GAA . Brodeur continued to lead the league in victories and remained a Vezina and MVP candidate . The next season , in 2002 – 03 , Brodeur finally achieved what had been eluding him his whole career : the Vezina Trophy . He also won the Jennings Trophy again , was a Hart Memorial Trophy finalist for the league 's Most Valuable Player , and was named a 1st Team All @-@ Star and started in the All @-@ Star Game . With one of the most impressive playoff performances of his career , Brodeur guided the Devils to their third Stanley Cup victory after dramatic seven @-@ game series wins against the top @-@ seeded Ottawa Senators and the surprising 7th @-@ seeded Mighty Ducks of Anaheim . He posted 3 shutouts against Anaheim and had a playoff total of 7 overall , breaking Dominik Hašek 's NHL record of 6 ( Hašek had recorded his 6 shutouts for Detroit the previous year ) . Despite this , the Conn Smythe Trophy for playoff MVP was awarded to Anaheim goaltender Jean @-@ Sébastien Giguère , who became the first player not on the championship team to be named playoff MVP since Ron Hextall of Philadelphia in 1987 . Some hockey writers speculated a New Jersey player did not win because there were multiple candidates , resulting in a split vote among the sportswriters who selected the winner . In the 2003 – 04 season , Brodeur won his second consecutive Vezina Trophy and Jennings trophy . He was also a first Team All @-@ Star , a starter in the NHL All @-@ Star Game , and a finalist for the Hart Trophy again . The Devils lost the Atlantic Division title by 1 point to the Philadelphia Flyers , who thus obtained the third seed and home ice advantage against the sixth @-@ seeded Devils in the first round of the playoffs . This would be too much for Brodeur and the Devils to overcome , as the Flyers went on to defeat them in five games .
= = = = The Brodeur Rule = = = =
After the 2004 – 05 lockout and before the start of the 2005 – 06 season , the league instituted a new rule preventing goaltenders from playing the puck behind the goal line , except within a trapezoid @-@ shaped zone located behind the net . The trapezoid begins at the goal line with angled lines six feet from each goal post and widens to 28 feet at the end boards . Former Flyers general manager Bobby Clarke was one of the leaders in getting the trapezoid implemented . This was viewed by many as singling out Brodeur , who was one of the best at getting behind the net to handle the puck , and has come to be known as the " Brodeur Rule " .
At the 2009 NHL General Managers ' Meeting , it was discussed whether the rule should be eliminated as a solution to the increasing number of injuries on defenseman who are being hit hard by forechecking forwards . The forecheckers were no longer impeded by defencemen holding them up because of the crackdown on interference which created situations where defencemen were being hit at high speeds . Brodeur believed that revoking the trapezoid could result in more scoring and more exciting games . He explained , " If you give the liberty to the goalies to play the puck , they 'll mess up more than they 're successful . " He also expressed his concern for defencemen , " It 's a no @-@ brainer if they want to start to eliminate these huge hits for the defencemen ... Whenever my defencemen or somebody was getting a big hit , I felt guilty that I let that guy get hit like that . Now , I 've got to sit and watch all the time ... You 've got to try to find something because so many guys are getting hurt . " At the time of his statement , Devils defencemen Paul Martin , Johnny Oduya and Bryce Salvador were all out with injuries .
Ultimately the suggestion was rejected and the rule stayed in place . Toronto Maple Leafs former GM Brian Burke said , " We had originally approved a rule where the goaltenders couldn 't handle the puck behind the net at all . The game was turning into a tennis match . You 'd dump it in and the goalie would throw it out and now with the soft chip into the corner it turns into a puck battle and a forecheck opportunity , which is what we wanted . "
= = = = 2005 – 09 = = = =
After the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout canceled the 2004 – 05 season , Brodeur signed a contract extension with the Devils on January 27 , 2006 , that would pay him $ 31 @.@ 2 million over six years . In the 2005 – 06 season he posted 43 wins , adding onto his NHL records of what was now five 40 @-@ win seasons and ten consecutive 30 @-@ win seasons . After struggling early in the season , his impressive play later on made him a finalist for the Vezina Trophy for the third straight year , and helped lead the Devils to a surprising comeback in the last two months of the season that resulted in them winning the Atlantic Division in the final game of the year . In the first round of the playoffs , he beat the Rangers for the first time in his career , leading the Devils to a four @-@ game sweep . But a 4 – 1 series loss to the Carolina Hurricanes eliminated the Devils in the next round .
In the 2006 – 07 season , Brodeur made his ninth NHL All @-@ Star Game appearance in Dallas , Texas , won his third Vezina Trophy and rose on several NHL records lists . On December 8 , 2006 , he posted a 2 – 0 victory over the Philadelphia Flyers for his 462nd career win , moving him into 2nd place on the all @-@ time list ahead of Ed Belfour . Just a few weeks later , on December 26 , Brodeur beat the Pittsburgh Penguins 3 – 0 to record his 85th career shutout , moving him past Glenn Hall for 3rd place on that all @-@ time list and 1st place among all active goalies . On February 1 , 2007 , Brodeur beat the Philadelphia Flyers 6 – 5 in overtime to take the all @-@ time lead in overtime ( non @-@ shootout ) wins with 45 , passing Roy . The Devils first 38 wins of the season were all with Brodeur in net , leading him to set a NHL record for most consecutive wins for a team .
On April 3 , 2007 , Brodeur tied the NHL record for most wins in a single season with 47 , set by Bernie Parent in 1973 – 74 , in a 2 – 1 shootout victory against the Ottawa Senators . Two days later , he broke the record with his 48th win in a 3 – 2 victory over the Philadelphia Flyers , which helped the Devils clinch their seventh Atlantic Division title and the second seed in the Eastern Conference .
In the Eastern Conference Quarterfinals against the seventh @-@ seeded Tampa Bay Lightning , Brodeur started out shaky and the Devils fell behind two @-@ games @-@ to @-@ one . He rebounded , however , to finish the series , and helped the team advance in six games , while passing Grant Fuhr for second place in all @-@ time playoff victories . In the second round against the Ottawa Senators , Brodeur could not continue his stellar play and allowed 15 goals in only five games en route to a 4 – 1 series defeat to the Senators .
In the 2007 – 08 season , Brodeur became the second goalie in NHL history to reach 500 wins with a victory against the Philadelphia Flyers on November 17 , 2007 . The only other goalie to achieve the feat is Patrick Roy . Brodeur was also named the starting goalie for the Eastern Conference in the 2007 – 08 NHL All Star Game in Atlanta . However , he was unable to participate because of a family obligation . New York Islanders goalie Rick DiPietro took over as starter of the game , while Boston Bruins goalie Tim Thomas took the last spot for goalies .
After losing a bitter series against the rival New York Rangers in the opening round of the 2008 NHL playoffs , Brodeur refused to shake Sean Avery 's hand . During game three of the series , in an unusual move , Avery turned to face Brodeur during a 5 @-@ on @-@ 3 power play , and began waving his hands and stick in front of Brodeur 's face in an effort to distract him . The day after this game the NHL announced that it had revised its unsportsmanlike conduct rule , now known as The Sean Avery Rule , effectively outlawing such antics .
Brodeur started wearing a new painted mask design for the 2008 – 09 NHL season with a stylized " MB30 " on the front , replacing the " J " that had been on his mask for his entire NHL career . During a game on November 1 , 2008 , Brodeur suffered a " bruised elbow " which would later be diagnosed as a torn distal biceps tendon , the first major injury in his career . Following surgery on November 6 , he would miss 16 weeks of the season before playing his next game on February 26 , 2009 . Upon returning from the injury , Brodeur registered a 4 – 0 shutout against the Colorado Avalanche for his 99th career shutout . Three days later , he recorded his 100th career shutout against the Philadelphia Flyers , three short of Terry Sawchuk 's NHL record .
= = = = 2009 – 14 = = = =
Beginning in 2009 , Brodeur broke a number of career records for goaltenders , including :
Most career wins , breaking Patrick Roy 's record of 551 .
Most playoff shutouts , breaking Patrick Roy 's record of 23 .
Most minutes played , breaking Patrick Roy 's record of 60 @,@ 235 minutes .
Most games played , surpassing Patrick Roy 's record of 1 @,@ 029 .
Most regular @-@ season shutouts , breaking Terry Sawchuk 's record of 103 .
On December 30 , 2009 , Brodeur and the Devils shut out the Penguins , 2 – 0 . It was his 105th career shutout , giving him the all @-@ time professional record , surpassing George Hainsworth 's total of 104 combined in the NHL ( 94 ) and Western Canada Hockey League ( 10 ) . On April 6 , 2010 , Brodeur reached his 600th career win by defeating the Thrashers 3 – 0 . This was also his 110th career shutout .
In the 2009 – 10 NHL season , Brodeur led the NHL in wins ( 45 ) , shutouts ( 9 ) , games played ( 77 ) and minutes played ( 4 @,@ 499 ) . He also won his fifth Jennings Trophy and had the third @-@ best GAA in the league , leading his team to back @-@ to @-@ back division wins that included a 6 – 0 regular @-@ season sweep of the defending Stanley Cup champion Pittsburgh Penguins . However , the Devils lost in the first round of the playoffs , losing to the seventh @-@ seeded team Philadelphia Flyers in five games . Brodeur went on to record 23 wins during the 2010 – 11 NHL season , which saw the Devils slump during the first half of the season , only to miss the playoffs narrowly after a hot winning streak during the season 's latter half .
The Devils returned to the playoffs in the 2011 – 12 NHL season , as Brodeur recorded his 14th 30 @-@ win season . In Game 1 of the conference quarterfinals against the Florida Panthers , Brodeur became only the second goaltender to record 100 playoff wins in a 3 – 2 Devils victory . In Game 4 with a 4 – 0 victory , Brodeur broke the NHL career playoff shutout record with his 24th , surpassing Patrick Roy , who had 23 .
On May 25 , 2012 , Brodeur and the Devils defeated the New York Rangers 3 – 2 on an overtime goal by Adam Henrique , leading to Brodeur 's fifth Stanley Cup Finals appearance . The Devils lost in the Finals to the Los Angeles Kings in six games .
During the off @-@ season of 2012 , Brodeur hired agent Pat Brisson leading many to believe he would test free @-@ agency or retire . However , on July 2 , 2012 , Brodeur agreed to a two @-@ year , $ 9 million deal to remain with the Devils , alongside backup goalie Johan Hedberg .
On March 21 , 2013 , in his first game back from a month @-@ long absence due to a pinched nerve injury in his upper back , Brodeur was credited with a power play goal against the Carolina Hurricanes , making him the only NHL goalie to record three career goals , and the second goalie to have scored on the power play ( Evgeni Nabokov was the first ) . On June 28 , 2013 , it was announced that Brodeur would be the cover athlete for EA 's NHL 14 video game . He defeated finalist Sergei Bobrovsky in an online vote .
On June 7 , 2014 , Brodeur told ESPN he would test the free agency market for the 2014 – 15 season , ending his 21 @-@ year tenure with the Devils .
= = = St. Louis Blues = = =
On November 26 , 2014 Brodeur signed a tryout contract with the St. Louis Blues after their starting netminder , Brian Elliott , was injured . A week later , on December 2 , Brodeur signed a one @-@ year , $ 700 @,@ 000 deal with the Blues .
On January 27 , 2015 , it was reported that Brodeur had decided to retire from the NHL . Brodeur announced the news at a press conference two days later . He retired having started just six games with the Blues , going 3 @-@ 3 @-@ 0 .
= = Post @-@ NHL career = =
Upon announcing his retirement , Brodeur was hired by the Blues as a special assistant to GM Doug Armstrong . On May 22 , 2015 , Armstrong announced that Brodeur and the Blues had agreed to a three @-@ year contract naming Brodeur as an assistant general manager of the team .
On February 8 , 2016 , the New Jersey Devils unveiled a bronze statue of Brodeur which will be displayed outside the Prudential Center . The following evening , February 9 , 2016 , Brodeur 's No. 30 jersey was retired by the New Jersey Devils .
= = International play = =
Brodeur was selected as Team Canada 's back @-@ up goalie to Patrick Roy for the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano , Japan , but did not get to play . Canada failed to win a medal after losing the bronze @-@ medal match to Finland , a game in which many people thought Brodeur should have played .
In the 2002 Olympics at Salt Lake City , Utah , Brodeur was initially named the backup behind Curtis Joseph . But following Joseph 's losing the tournament opener against Sweden , Brodeur was named the starting goaltender the rest of the way , and won gold for Canada . He had the best GAA in the tournament and went undefeated , stopping 31 of 33 shots in the gold @-@ medal victory over Team USA .
Brodeur then led Team Canada to a World Cup of Hockey championship in 2004 , allowing only 5 goals in five games . He led all goalies in GAA and save percentage while going undefeated . He had another impressive performance for the team at the world hockey championships in the following year . After this , The Sports Forecaster 2005 – 06 said the following :
Brodeur is arguably the top goaltender in the world . Fresh off a World Cup win in 2004 and another strong performance at the 2005 IIHF World hockey championships . He 's the game 's best puck @-@ handling goaltender , though the NHL 's new rules changes may somewhat alter that effectiveness .
Brodeur was selected as Team Canada 's starter in the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin , Italy . He started in 4 of 6 games , but Canada failed to win a medal after losing to Russia in the quarterfinals .
He was one of the three goalies on Team Canada for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver , Canada . He registered a shootout win against Switzerland and a loss to the United States . After the loss to the US , he was benched for the remainder of the 2010 Games in favour of Roberto Luongo .
Brodeur was selected to represent Canada in :
1996 IIHF World Championships ( silver )
1996 World Cup of Hockey ( silver )
1998 Winter Olympic Games ( 4th place )
2002 Winter Olympic Games ( gold )
2004 World Cup of Hockey ( champion )
2005 IIHF World Championships ( silver )
2006 Winter Olympics ( lost quarterfinal )
2010 Winter Olympics ( gold )
= = Personal life = =
Brodeur married Melanie Dubois ( a native of Saint @-@ Liboire , Quebec ) in August 1995 and has four children : Anthony , born in 1995 ; twin sons , William and Jeremy , born in 1996 ; and Annabelle Antoinette , born in 2002 . Melanie filed for divorce during the 2003 playoffs amid reports that Brodeur was having an affair with Genevieve Nault , the wife of Melanie 's brother . The incident added some fuel to the fire for hecklers during the playoffs . The reports proved to be true , as he and Genevieve married in June 2008 . Their first child together , Maxime Philippe Brodeur , was born in November 2009 .
Brodeur is regarded as an engaging raconteur in his spare time . He has hosted a street hockey tournament in his hometown of St. Leonard , Quebec , for each of the Devils ' Stanley Cup championships , where he plays his childhood position of forward . His oldest brother , Denis Jr . , is a photographer like their father , and his other older brother , Claude , was a pitcher in the Montreal Expos ' farm system . He has two sisters , Line and Sylvie .
In 2005 , Brodeur began co @-@ authoring his autobiography , Brodeur : Beyond the Crease , with long @-@ time Toronto Star columnist and ESPN contributor Damien Cox , which was released in October 2006 . Some of the things Brodeur talks about in the book are player salaries and contracts , NHL marketing , Lou Lamoriello , and the Devils ' new arena in Newark , the Prudential Center . Brodeur also includes his views on the " new NHL " after the lockout , and how it affects his career . The book 's photographs were shot by Brodeur 's late father , Denis .
Brodeur co @-@ owns a business called " La Pizzeria Etc . " with former teammate Sheldon Souray . The idea came about after Souray was traded to play in Montreal , the city in which the business now operates . Brodeur is also co @-@ owner of the Spa d 'Howard , also based in his native Quebec .
Brodeur was a resident of North Caldwell , New Jersey , and currently resides in West Orange , New Jersey , near the Devils former practice facility , South Mountain Arena . He became a naturalized United States citizen on December 1 , 2009 , but per IIHF rules would only be able to compete for Canada . In the summer months , he lives in Morin @-@ Heights , Québec .
On June 30 , 2013 , the Devils traded for the 208th pick in the 2013 NHL Entry Draft and Brodeur was asked to make the announcement to select his son , Anthony . In August of 2015 , Anthony signed with the Penticton Vees of the British Columbia Hockey League .
= = Career statistics = =
Bolded numbers indicate league leader .
Italicized numbers indicate NHL records .
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
Bolded numbers indicate tournament leader .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Milestones = = =
Brodeur is the youngest goaltender in NHL history to reach the 300 , 400 and 500 regular season win plateaus , and is the only goaltender to reach 600 regular season wins , finishing his career 9 wins short of 700 . His 300th victory came on December 15 , 2001 , with a 39 @-@ save shutout against the Ottawa Senators at the Corel Centre . His 400th victory was on March 23 , 2004 , at the Office Depot Center in Sunrise , Florida , as the Devils defeated the hometown Florida Panthers . Brodeur stopped twenty @-@ one shots , and needed to work overtime to get the win . With the victory he also became the first goaltender to win 400 games playing every game for the same team . Brodeur reached the 500 win plateau on November 17 , 2007 , against the Philadelphia Flyers , with a 6 – 2 win . On March 15 , 2008 , he earned his seventh 40 @-@ win season of his career , the most of any goaltender in NHL history . On April 6 , 2010 , Brodeur reached 600 wins with a 3 – 0 shutout over the Atlanta Thrashers . On April 5 , 2012 , in a 2 – 1 win over the Detroit Red Wings , he reached his 14th 30 @-@ win season , again the most of any NHL goaltender .
On March 14 , 2009 , Brodeur recorded his 551st career win against the Montreal Canadiens at the Bell Centre to tie Patrick Roy for the most in NHL history in his hometown and where Roy played the first half of his career . To acknowledge their fellow countryman , the crowd of Canadiens fans chanted Brodeur 's name at the end of the game and gave him a standing ovation . Brodeur 's father Denis was at the game taking pictures . Three nights later , in a 3 – 2 win over the Chicago Blackhawks , Brodeur became the all @-@ time NHL leader in regular season wins by a goaltender with 552 .
On November 27 , 2009 , Brodeur broke the record for most minutes ever played by an NHL goaltender , breaking Patrick Roy 's record of 60 @,@ 235 .
On December 7 , 2009 , Brodeur tied Sawchuk 's record for regular season shutouts at 103 in a 3 – 0 victory over the Buffalo Sabres . Twelve nights later , Brodeur broke the record set by Patrick Roy for games played by a goaltender in the National Hockey League ( 1 @,@ 030 games ) . Two weeks after tying Sawchuk 's shutout record , Brodeur recorded his 104th regular season shutout , breaking Sawchuk 's record with a 4 – 0 victory over the Pittsburgh Penguins , stopping all 35 shots . On December 30 , 2009 , Brodeur and the Devils again shut out the Pittsburgh Penguins , 2 – 0 . It was his 105th career shutout , giving him the all @-@ time professional record , surpassing George Hainsworth 's total of 104 combined in the NHL ( 94 ) and Western Canada Hockey League ( 10 ) .
On April 19 , 2012 , Brodeur passed Patrick Roy 's record for most career playoff shutouts at 24 in a 4 – 0 victory over the Florida Panthers .
On January 22 , 2013 , Brodeur posted his 120th career shutout in the regular season with a 24 @-@ save 3 – 0 victory over the Flyers .
On June 28 , 2013 , EA revealed that Brodeur had been selected as the cover athlete for NHL 14 .
On December 14 , 2013 , Brodeur posted his 124th career shutout in the regular season with a 33 @-@ save 3 – 0 victory over the Tampa Bay Lightning .
= = = Records = = =
In over 16 seasons with the New Jersey Devils , Brodeur holds several notable NHL records as listed below . Most of these records Brodeur has broken were held by goalies who have played at least a full 20 @-@ year career .
= = = = Career = = = =
NHL records as of December 29 , 2014
Most regular season wins : 691
Most regular season shutouts : 125
Most regular season losses : 396
Most playoff shutouts : 24
Most shutouts , regular season & playoffs combined : 149
Most overtime wins : 47
Most 40 @-@ win seasons : 8
Most 30 @-@ win seasons : 14
Most consecutive 40 @-@ win seasons : 3 ( tied with Evgeni Nabokov )
Most consecutive 35 @-@ win seasons : 11
Most consecutive 30 @-@ win seasons : 12
Youngest goalie to reach 300 , 400 and 500 career wins
Only goalie to reach 600 career wins
Most career saves : 28 @,@ 508
Most games played by an NHL goaltender : 1 @,@ 259 ( also most played with a single team )
Most total minutes played by an NHL goaltender : 74 @,@ 083
Only NHL goalie to score a game @-@ winning goal
Most career goals by a goaltender , including playoffs : 3
Most career goals by a goaltender in the regular season : 2
Only goalie to win 100 games in two separate buildings ( Continental Airlines Arena and Prudential Center )
= = = = Regular season = = = =
Most wins in a single season ( 48 , in 2006 – 07 ; tied with Washington Capitals ' Braden Holtby )
Most minutes played in a single season ( 4 @,@ 697 , in 2006 – 07 )
= = = = Playoffs = = = =
These statistics are accurate as of the end of the 2012 Stanley Cup playoffs .
Most shutouts in a playoff campaign ( 7 , in 2003 ) .
Most shutouts in a Stanley Cup final ( 3 , in 2003 ; tied with Toronto Maple Leafs ' Frank McCool ) .
Third goaltender to win the Stanley Cup with a Game 7 shutout in 2003 .
First goaltender in history to have 3 shutouts in two different playoff series ( 1995 against Boston in the Conference Quarterfinals , 2003 against Anaheim in the Stanley Cup Final ) .
Most points and assists in a playoff campaign ( 4 assists , in 2012 ) .
Brodeur is second all @-@ time in playoff games played ( to Patrick Roy 's 247 ) , playoff wins ( to Roy 's 151 ) , games played in a single regular season ( to Grant Fuhr 's 79 in the 1996 – 97 season ) , and eighth all @-@ time in goals @-@ against average ( minimum 250 NHL games played ) . Brodeur also acquired more than 30 franchise records , including most all @-@ time regular season and playoff wins , shutouts , lowest goals @-@ against @-@ average , and is second in games played ( 1205 ) as a Devil to Ken Daneyko 's 1283 games . The only major awards he was eligible to win but never did are the Hart Memorial Trophy , given to the regular season 's most valuable player , and the Conn Smythe Trophy , granted annually to the most outstanding player in the postseason .
= = Awards and honours = =
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= Falkirk Wheel =
The Falkirk Wheel is a rotating boat lift in Scotland , connecting the Forth and Clyde Canal with the Union Canal . The lift , named after the nearby town of Falkirk in central Scotland , opened in 2002 . It reconnects the two canals for the first time since the 1930s as part of the Millennium Link project .
The plan to regenerate central Scotland 's canals and reconnect Glasgow with Edinburgh was led by British Waterways with support and funding from seven local authorities , the Scottish Enterprise Network , the European Regional Development Fund , and the Millennium Commission . Planners decided early on to create a dramatic 21st @-@ century landmark structure to reconnect the canals , instead of simply recreating the historic lock flight .
The wheel raises boats by 24 metres ( 79 ft ) , but the Union Canal is still 11 metres ( 36 ft ) higher than the aqueduct which meets the wheel . Boats must also pass through a pair of locks between the top of the wheel and the Union Canal . The Falkirk Wheel is the only rotating boat lift of its kind in the world , and one of two working boat lifts in the United Kingdom , the other being the Anderton boat lift .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ 1933 link = = =
The two canals served by the wheel were previously connected by a series of 11 locks . With a 35 @-@ metre ( 115 ft ) difference in height , it required 3 @,@ 500 tonnes ( 3 @,@ 400 long tons ; 3 @,@ 900 short tons ) of water per run and took most of a day to pass through the flight .
By the 1930s these had fallen into disuse , and the locks were dismantled in 1933 . The Forth and Clyde canal closed at the end of 1962 , and by the mid @-@ 1970s the Union canal was filled in at both ends , rendered impassable by culverts in two places and run in pipes under a housing estate . The British Waterways Board ( BWB ) came into existence on 1 January 1963 , the day the Forth and Clyde was closed , with the objective of finding a broad strategy for the future of canals in the United Kingdom .
In 1976 , the BWB decided after a meeting with local councils that the Forth and Clyde canal , fragmented by various developments , was to have its remaining navigability preserved by building new bridges with sufficient headroom for boats and continuing to maintain the existing locks . Restoration of sea @-@ to @-@ sea navigation was deemed too expensive at the time , but there were to be no further restrictions on its use . A 1979 survey report documented 69 obstructions to navigation , and sought the opinions of twenty interested parties to present the Forth and Clyde Local ( Subject ) Plan in 1980 .
= = = Proposal = = =
The Lotteries Act 1993 resulted in the creation of the Millennium Commission to disseminate funds raised by the sale of lottery tickets for selected " good causes . " In 1996 , when sufficient funds had been accumulated , the Commission invited applications to " do anything they thought desirable ... to support worthwhile causes which would mark the year 2000 and the start of the new millennium . " The conditions were that the Commission would fund no more than half of the project , with the remaining balance being covered by project backers .
The BWB had made an earlier plan for the reopening of the canal link , which comprehensively covered the necessary work . In 1994 , the BWB announced its plan to bid for funding , which was submitted in 1995 on behalf of the Millennium Link Partnership . The plans called for the canals to be opened to their original operating dimensions , with 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) of space above the water . The whole project had a budget of £ 78 million .
On Valentine 's Day 1997 , the Commission announced it would support the Link with £ 32 million of funding , 42 % of the project cost . The Wheel and its associated basin was priced at £ 17 million , more than a fifth of the total budget . Another £ 46 million had to be raised in the next two years before construction could commence , with contributions from BWB , seven local councils , Scottish Enterprise , and private donations being augmented by £ 8 @.@ 6 million from the European Regional Development Fund .
= = = Design = = =
The Morrison @-@ Bachy Soletanche Joint Venture Team submitted their original design , which resembled a Ferris wheel with four gondolas in 1999 . It was agreed by all parties that the design was functional , but not the showpiece the BWB were looking for . After being asked to reconsider , a 20 @-@ strong team of architects and engineers was assembled by British Waterways . Led by Tony Kettle from architects RMJM the initial concepts and images were created with the mechanical concepts proposed by the design team from Butterley and M G Bennetts . This was an intense period of work with the final design concept completed in a three @-@ week period during the summer of 1999 . The final design was a cooperative effort between the British Waterways Board , engineering consultants Arup , Butterley Engineering and RMJM .
Diagrams of gear systems that had been proposed in the very first concepts were modeled by Kettle using his 8 @-@ year @-@ old daughter 's Lego . Drawings and artist impressions were shown to clients and funders . The visitor centre was designed by another RMJM architect , Paul Stallan .
Inspirations for the design include a double @-@ headed Celtic axe , the propellor of a ship and the ribcage of a whale . Kettle described the Wheel as " a beautiful , organic flowing thing , like the spine of a fish , " and the Royal Fine Art Commission for Scotland described it as " a form of contemporary sculpture . "
Models and renderings of the Falkirk Wheel were displayed in a 2012 exhibition at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London . Since 2007 , the Falkirk Wheel has been featured on the obverse of the new series of £ 50 notes issued by the Bank of Scotland . The series of notes commemorates Scottish engineering achievements with illustrations of bridges in Scotland such as the Glenfinnan Viaduct and the Forth Bridge .
= = = Construction = = =
In March 1999 the Secretary of State for Scotland cut the first sod of turf to begin work at lock 31 on the Forth and Clyde canal . Over 1000 people were employed in the construction of the wheel , which has been designed to last for at least 120 years .
The wheel was fully constructed and assembled at the Butterley Engineering plant in Ripley , Derbyshire . The structure was then dismantled in the summer of 2001 , and transported on 35 lorry loads to Falkirk , before being reassembled into five sections on the ground and lifted into place . Construction of the canal required 250 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 8 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of excavation , a 160 @-@ metre ( 520 ft ) canal tunnel of 8 metres ( 26 ft ) diameter , aqueducts of 20 metres ( 66 ft ) and 120 metres ( 390 ft ) , three set of locks and a number of bridges , as well as 600 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) of access roads . The 180 metres ( 590 ft ) Rough Castle Tunnel was driven in three stages , with the two upper quarters being drilled with a standard excavator before the lower half was dug using a modified road planer in 100 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) layers . This technique was 15 per cent cheaper and reduced the build time of the tunnel by two weeks .
= = = Technical considerations = = =
The ground on which the wheel is built was previously used as an open cast fire clay mine , a coal mine , and a tar works , resulting in contamination of the canal with tar and mercury . 20 metres ( 66 ft ) of loosely packed backfill from the mining operations containing large sandstone boulders was not considered adequately solid foundation for the size of the structure , so deep foundations with thirty 22 metres ( 72 ft ) concrete piles socketed onto the bedrock were used .
Due to the changing load as the wheel rotates in alternating directions , some sections experience total stress reversals . In order to avoid fatigue that could lead to cracks , sections were bolted rather than welded , using over 14 @,@ 000 bolts and 45 @,@ 000 bolt holes .
The aqueduct , engineered by ARUP , was originally described as " unbuildable , " but was eventually realised using 40 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) rebar . The original plans also showed the canal being built straight through the Antonine Wall , but this was changed after a petition in favour of two locks and a tunnel under the wall .
= = = Opening ceremony = = =
On 24 May 2002 , Queen Elizabeth II opened the Falkirk Wheel as part of her Golden Jubilee celebrations . The opening was delayed a month due to flooding caused by vandals who forced open the wheel 's gates . The damage , which cost £ 350 @,@ 000 to repair , resulted in the dry well being flooded , damaging electrical and hydraulic equipment .
= = Operation = =
= = = Structure = = =
The wheel has an overall diameter of 35 metres ( 115 ft ) and consists of two opposing arms extending 15 metres beyond the central axle and taking the shape of a Celtic @-@ inspired , double @-@ headed axe . Two sets of these axe @-@ shaped arms are connected to a 3 @.@ 8 @-@ metre ( 12 ft ) diameter central axle of length 28 metres ( 92 ft ) . Two diametrically opposed water @-@ filled caissons , each with a capacity of 250 @,@ 000 litres ( 55 @,@ 000 imp gal ; 66 @,@ 000 US gal ) , are fitted between the ends of the arms .
The caissons or gondolas always carry a combined weight of 500 tonnes ( 490 long tons ; 550 short tons ) of water and boats , with the gondolas themselves each weighing 50 tonnes ( 49 long tons ; 55 short tons ) . Care is taken to maintain the water levels on each side , thus balancing the weight on each arm . According to Archimedes ' principle , floating objects displace their own weight in water , so when the boat enters , the amount of water leaving the caisson weighs exactly the same as the boat . This is achieved by maintaining the water levels on each side to within ± 37 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) using a site @-@ wide computer control system comprising water level sensors , automated sluices and pumps . It takes 22 @.@ 5 kilowatts ( 30 @.@ 2 hp ) to power ten hydraulic motors , which consume 1 @.@ 5 kilowatt @-@ hours ( 5 @.@ 4 MJ ) per half @-@ turn , roughly the same as boiling eight kettles of water .
The two caissons are 6 @.@ 5 metres ( 21 ft ) wide , and can hold up to four 20 @-@ metre @-@ long ( 66 ft ) canal boats . Watertight doors at each end match doors located on the upper structure and lower dock pit . Due to space concerns , where a normal hinged door would dramatically reduce the useful length of the caisson , vertically rising doors were chosen . The doors are raised from a recess in the base of the caisson and powered by a hydraulic lance when docked .
= = = Engine room = = =
The area housing the machinery to drive the wheel is located in the final pillar of the aqueduct , and contains seven chambers connected by ladders . Access is by a door located at ground level or an entrance halfway up the tower with a gantry crane to facilitate the installation of equipment .
The ground floor houses the transformers for powering the wheel . When the wheel was flooded by vandals in April 2002 , this room was filled to within 8 cm ( 3 in ) of the 11 kV busbars . On the first floor is a standby generator and switchgear should the mains supply to the wheel fail . The second floor houses a pair of hydraulic pumps that drive the hydraulic motors in the chamber above . Power is supplied directly to the axle with 10 hydraulic motors , which also double as brakes . Connected to each motor is a 100 : 1 gear system to reduce the rotation speed .
= = = Mechanism = = =
The caissons are required to turn with the wheel in order to remain level . Whilst the weight of the caissons on the bearings is generally sufficient to rotate them , a gearing mechanism using three large identically sized gears connected by two smaller ones ensures that they turn at precisely the correct speed and remain correctly balanced .
Each end of each caisson is supported on small wheels , which run on rails on the inside face of the eight @-@ metre diameter holes at the ends of the arms . The rotation is controlled by a train of gears : an alternating pattern of three eight @-@ metre diameter ring gears and two smaller idler gears , all with external teeth , as shown in the picture . The large central gear is fitted loosely over the axle at its machine @-@ room end and fixed in place prevent it from rotating . The two smaller gears are fixed to each of the arms of the wheel at its machine @-@ room end . When the motors rotate the central axle , the arms swing and the small gears engage the central gear , which results in the smaller gears rotating at a higher speed than the wheel but in the same direction . The smaller gears engage the large ring gears at the end of the caissons , driving them at the same speed as the wheel but in the opposite direction . This cancels the rotation due to the arms and keeps the caissons stable and perfectly level .
= = = Docking @-@ pit = = =
The docking @-@ pit is a drydock @-@ like port isolated from the lower canal basin by means of watertight gates and kept dry by means of water pumps . When the wheel stops with its arms in the vertical position it is possible for boats to enter and exit the lower caisson when the gates are open without flooding the docking @-@ pit . The space below the caisson is empty .
Without the docking @-@ pit , the caissons and extremities of the arms of the wheel would be immersed in water at the lower canal basin each time the wheel rotated . The buoyancy of the lower caisson would make it more difficult to turn the wheel .
= = = Visitor centre = = =
A visitor centre is located on the east side of the lower basin . Boat trips on the wheel depart approximately once an hour . Since the wheel opened , around 4 @.@ 4 million people have visited and 1 @.@ 3 million have taken a boat trip , with around 400 @,@ 000 people visiting the wheel annually .
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= Nikolai Podgorny =
Nikolai Viktorovich Podgorny ( Russian : Никола ́ й Ви ́ кторович Подго ́ рный ; IPA : [ nʲɪkɐˈlaj ˈvʲiktərəvʲɪtɕ pɐdˈgornɨj ] , Ukrainian : Микола Вікторович Підгорний ; 18 February [ O.S. 5 February ] 1903 – 11 January 1983 ) was a Soviet statesman during the Cold War . He served as First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Ukraine from 1957 to 1963 and as Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet from 1965 to 1977 . He was replaced as Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet in 1977 by General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev . That same year he lost his seat in the Political Bureau ( Politburo ) and was forced to resign from active politics .
Podgorny was born in the city of Karlovka in 1903 to a Ukrainian working @-@ class family . He graduated in from a local worker 's school in 1926 , and in 1931 from the Kiev Technological Institute of Food Industry . He became a member of the All @-@ Union Communist Party ( bolsheviks ) in 1930 . Like his friend and ally Andrei Kirilenko , Podgorny climbed up the Soviet hierarchy through the industrial ladder ( delivering the production goals set by the bureaucrats in charge of the centrally planned economy ) . By 1953 he had become Second Secretary of the Communist Party of Ukraine . After Anastas Mikoyan 's resignation , Podgorny was voted into office as Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet . After Premier Alexei Kosygin 's fall from favour Podgorny became the second most powerful figure in the Soviet Union until his removal as head of state in 1977 .
= = Early life = =
Podgorny was born on 18 February [ O.S. 5 February ] 1903 in Karlovka , Russian Empire , to a Ukrainian working @-@ class family . Podgorny started work at the age of 17 as a student at the mechanical workshops in Karlovka . After the Russian Revolution Podgorny became one of the founders of the Karlovka Komsomol . He served as a Secretary of the Komsomol from 1921 to 1923 . In 1926 Podgorny graduated from a local workers ' school , and then from the Kiev Technological Institute of Food Industry in 1931 . In 1930 , Podgorny became a member of the All @-@ Union Communist Party ( bolsheviks ) . Following his graduation Podgorny started working in the sugar industry . He was promoted to deputy chief engineer of Vinnytsia in 1937 and was promoted in 1939 as the chief engineer of the Kamenetz @-@ Podolsk Oblast sugar trusts . By the end of 1939 Podgorny had become Deputy People 's Commissar for Food Industry of the Ukrainian SSR . The next year Podgorny was appointed Deputy People 's Commissar for Food Industry of the Soviet Union .
= = Ukraine and national politics ( 1942 – 1963 ) = =
Podgorny became the Director of the Moscow Technological Institute of Food Industry in 1942 , during the Great Patriotic War ( World War II ) . After the liberation of Ukraine from the hands of Nazi Germany , Podgorny reestablished Soviet control over Ukraine on the orders of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic ( Ukrainian SSR ) and the Soviet Government . In the post @-@ war years Podgorny regained his old office of Deputy People 's Commissar for Food Industry of the Ukrainian SSR , but was later appointed in 1946 as a Permanent Representative to the Council of Ministers of the Ukrainian SSR . In April 1950 he was made First Secretary of the Kharkiv Regional Committee of the Communist Party of Ukraine ( CPU ) . In 1953 Podgorny was elevated to Second Secretary of the Central Committee ( CC ) of the CPU . From 1957 to 1963 he was First Secretary of the CC of the CPU . In this role , Podgorny worked on reorganising and modernising the Ukrainian economy , which had been destroyed during the war years . He worked to increase the rate of industrial and agricultural production and to improve people 's welfare . He paid particular attention to improving party organisation and educating new cadres .
In 1960 Podgorny became a member of the Politburo ( Political Bureau ) and by 1963 had risen to prominence within the Soviet hierarchy as a member of the Secretariat of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union ( CPSU ) . As a protégé and close companion of Nikita Khrushchev , he travelled with him to United Nations headquarters in 1960 . He acted as a Soviet emissary to Czechoslovakia , East Germany , Canada , and Yugoslavia . Podgorny 's beliefs were strongly influenced by Khrushchev , and under Leonid Brezhnev 's rule , Podgorny was one of the most liberal members within the Soviet leadership , even more liberal than Premier Alexei Kosygin .
Podgorny briefly fell out of Khruschev 's favor in 1961 when he blamed bad corn yields in the Ukrainian SSR on " bad weather " . Khrushchev claimed the crops had been " stolen " and " pilfered " . However , in 1962 , Podgorny reported to Khrushchev that agricultural output had again increased : Under Podgorny 's leadership , the Ukrainian SSR had doubled Ukraine 's supply of grain to the state from the previous year . Because of his handling of agriculture , First World commentators saw Podgorny as one of Khrushchev 's many potential heirs . According to historian Ilya Zemtsov , the author of Chernenko : The Last Bolshevik : The Soviet Union on the Eve of Perestroika , Brezhnev began starting a conspiracy against Khrushchev when he found out that he had chosen Podgorny , and not himself , as his potential successor . The coup evidently took Podgorny by surprise , seeing that he left Moscow on 10 October , two days before the coup was initiated .
= = Head of state ( 1965 – 1977 ) = =
= = = Appointment and the collective leadership = = =
During the 1964 ouster to remove Khrushchev as First Secretary and Premier , Podgorny and Brezhnev appealed to the Central Committee , blaming Khrushchev for economic failures and accusing him of voluntarism and immodest behavior . Influenced by Brezhnev and his allies , Politburo members voted to remove Khrushchev from office . In the aftermath of Khrushchev 's removal , a collective leadership was formed , headed by Brezhnev as First Secretary , Alexei Kosygin as head of government , and Anastas Mikoyan as head of state . Before becoming head of state , Podgorny served as the party 's Second Secretary , and was therefore in charge of the Party 's Organisational Division . In this capacity , Podgorny threatened Brezhnev 's position as First Secretary because the Organisational Division , if Podgorny chose so , could easily be turned into his own power base within the party . Brezhnev allied himself with Alexander Shelepin , the KGB chairman , to oppose both Podgorny and Kosygin .
Podgorny 's position was constantly threatened by Brezhnev and his allies . In an article in Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta from February 1965 , the newspaper criticised the Kharkiv Party organisation which Podgorny had previously headed , but also its management of the economy . By indirectly criticising Podgorny , the article raised doubts about his qualifications as a leading member of the Soviet leadership . Podgorny launched a counterattack in his 1965 speech in Baku , Azerbaijani Soviet Socialist Republic , where he criticised the Soviet leadership 's heavy industrial policy . This , as it turned out , would be a move he would regret for life . Instead of offending just Brezhnev and Shelepin , he offended the whole conservative wing of the leadership . To make matters even worse for Podgorny , Mikhail Suslov , who had kept outside of the conflict , sided with Brezhnev , and called his views " revisionist " . Later in 1965 , Podgorny lost his seat in the Secretariat , and on 9 December 1965 he replaced Mikoyan as Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet . His removal from the Secretariat also signalled the end of his wish to assume the First Secretaryship .
The majority of Politburo members under Brezhnev were conservative communists . Even so , Podgorny remained one of the most liberal @-@ minded members in the Era of Stagnation . Other liberal @-@ minded Politburo members included Kosygin and Andrei Kirilenko . Factionalism within the Soviet leadership in the 1960s led Podgorny to become more active ; he held several speeches in Moscow and went on numerous state visits at the expense of Brezhnev and Kosygin 's popularity . There was speculation in Soviet society that Podgorny was trying to replace Kosygin as Premier , or even Brezhnev as General Secretary , due to his increasing presence in the late 1960s . The 24th Party Congress , while reaffirming Brezhnev 's and Kosygin 's respective positions , made it clear that Podgorny had become a major player in Soviet politics . The collective leadership was eventually left powerless in the late 1970s when Brezhnev had close to full control over the Politburo .
= = = Diplomatic protocol = = =
In 1967 , just before the outbreak of the Six @-@ Day War , Podgorny delivered an intelligence report to Egyptian Vice President Anwar Sadat which claimed , falsely , that Israeli troops were massing along the Syrian border . That same year , he engaged in a dialogue with Pope Paul VI as part of the pontiff 's ostpolitik ; the result was greater openness for the Roman Catholic Church in Eastern Europe . In 1971 Podgorny went on two state visits , the first to the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) and the second to North Vietnam ; Kosygin went on a visit to Canada while Brezhnev visited Yugoslavia . Podgorny frequently paid visits to North Vietnam during the Vietnam War to discuss Soviet @-@ Vietnamese foreign relations . In 1973 , Podgorny visited Finland and Mohammed Daoud Khan 's Afghanistan .
Brezhnev conspired to oust Podgorny as early as 1970 . The reason was simple : Brezhnev was third , while Podgorny was first in the ranking of Soviet diplomatic protocol . Since September 1970 Brezhnev tried to form an opposition in the Politburo to oust Podgorny . According to Time , " There was some speculation in Moscow " that if Brezhnev didn 't succeed in removing Podgorny he would establish a Council of State modelled after institutions found in , for example , East Germany ( Staatsrat ) , People 's Republic of Bulgaria and the Socialist Republic of Romania . The post of Chairman of the Council of State would give Brezhnev the top state and party job in the USSR . Brezhnev 's backers were unable , and didn 't even try , to remove Podgorny from the head of state post at the 1970 Central Committee plenum . Brezhnev could count on only five votes , while another seven Politburo members were opposed to granting Brezhnev more power ; removing Podgorny would in fact mean the end of the collective leadership .
While Brezhnev was plotting , Podgorny 's position within the Politburo grew stronger . Podgorny had been able to win support from the hardline communists due to Brezhnev 's liberal @-@ minded policy regarding Yugoslavia , military disarmament deals with the First World , and forcing East Germany into a concession with West Germany in the Berlin negotiations .
= = = Later tenure = = =
In the Politburo Podgorny could count on the support of Gennady Voronov and Petro Shelest . Podgorny was constantly in conflict with Kosygin over policy issues in the Politburo . When Podgorny and Kosygin actually agreed on something Brezhnev would find himself in the minority , and forced to follow their decisions . However , Podgorny was pleased about his position within the leadership , and even more pleased by the extension of powers given to the Supreme Soviet . As head of state , Podgorny saw little threat to his position , even if a Central Committee resolution from 1971 had called for the expansion of Party activities in the Soviets .
With Brezhnev 's position consolidated in the early 1970s , he used Podgorny to weaken Kosygin 's position as Chairman of the Council of Ministers by giving the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet some executive powers . With the help from Brezhnev Podgorny managed to make the Council of Ministers subordinate to the Presidium . However , these changes threatened Brezhnev , and Brezhnev would later order Konstantin Chernenko to take a look at the 1936 Soviet Constitution to find a way to weaken Podgorny 's position . As it turned out there were none , Podgorny 's position as head of state meant that he could in fact block any measures taken by Brezhnev to circumscribe his powers . Chernenko did come up with a solution , to make it law that the Party leader would also become the leader of the Government apparatus . The 1977 Soviet Constitution was drafted to weaken the position of Podgorny by making it law that the Party leader was in fact also leader of the Government . The draft which dealt with the leading role of the Party , and its clear supremacy , in Soviet society was approved by the Soviet leadership . The approval of the 1977 Soviet Constitution is considered Podgorny 's death knell .
= = = Removal = = =
Podgorny 's removal from office in 1977 has become the most notable example of power transfer in the late Brezhnev Era . According to Robert Vincent Daniels , Podgorny was before his removal the second most powerful man in the Soviet Union , behind Brezhnev but ahead of Premier Kosygin . The post of Chairman of the Presidium had acquired more powers during his tenure , and had changed from a largely honorary office to the second most important office in the USSR . Though there were some Sovietologists who foresaw Podgorny 's fall , the decision to remove Podgorny from the Politburo took the world by surprise . On 24 May 1977 , a unanimous vote was taken by the Central Committee after Grigory Romanov proposed removing Podgorny from the Politburo . The vote seemed to have taken Podgorny by surprise , and immediately after the vote , he got up from his politburo seat to instead sit with the ordinary members . The Central Committee had however only voted him off the Politburo , and Podgorny still retained the position of Chairman of the Presidium . After his removal from the Politburo Podgorny 's name disappeared from Soviet media . The Soviet media told the Soviet people that he had retired due to his stance against détente and producing more consumer goods . Podgorny finally lost his Chairmanship of the Presidium on 16 June 1977 .
Due to his advanced age , Brezhnev was regarded as too old to carry out some of the functions of head of state . The Supreme Soviet , on Brezhnev 's orders , established the new post of First Deputy Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet , an office equivalent to the post of Vice President . Vasili Kuznetsov , at the age of 76 , was unanimously approved by the Supreme Soviet as First Deputy Chairman of the Presidium .
= = Retirement , death and recognition = =
Podgorny 's life after his resignation is not well documented . The last mention of him in any major Soviet media was his meeting with Urho Kekkonen , the President of Finland . There was never any explanation given , nor a denunciation of him , by the Soviet authorities . Podgorny retained his seat in the Supreme Soviet after his downfall . He was seen at the 61st anniversary reception of the October Revolution at the Grand Palace of the Kremlin in November 1978 by Tokichiro Uomoto , the Japanese Ambassador to the Soviet Union . Podgorny spoke to Brezhnev , Kosygin , and then to Andrei Gromyko , all of whom looked embarrassed by the presence of Podgorny , according to Uomoto . Soon after this incident , Podgorny lost his seat in the Supreme Soviet . In Tretyakov Gallery , Podgorny was removed from the 1977 painting of the Soviet leaders at the Red Square by Dmitriy Nalbandyan in which Podgorny stood between Brezhnev and Kosygin . Podgorny died of cancer on 12 January 1983 , and was buried in Moscow at the Novodevichy cemetery .
As with many other high @-@ standing Soviet officials , Podgorny was honoured with several awards . He was awarded five Orders of Lenin , one Order of the Red Banner and several medals , as well as being awarded several foreign state prizes by the People 's Republic of Bulgaria , the Mongolian People 's Republic , the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic , and Finland .
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= Omaha Beach =
Omaha Beach was the code name for one of the five sectors of the Allied invasion of German @-@ occupied France in the Normandy landings on 6 June 1944 , during World War II . Omaha is on the coast of Normandy , France , facing the English Channel , and is 8 kilometers ( 5 mi ) long , from east of Sainte @-@ Honorine @-@ des @-@ Pertes to west of Vierville @-@ sur @-@ Mer on the right bank of the Douve River estuary . Landings here were necessary to link the British landings to the east at Gold with the American landing to the west at Utah , thus providing a continuous lodgement on the Normandy coast of the Bay of the Seine . Taking Omaha was to be the responsibility of United States Army troops , with sea transport , mine sweeping , and a naval bombardment force provided by the United States Navy and Coast Guard as well as elements from the British , Canadian , Free French and other Allied navies .
On D @-@ Day , the untested 29th Infantry Division , along with nine companies of U.S. Army Rangers redirected from Pointe du Hoc , were to assault the western half of the beach . The battle @-@ hardened 1st Infantry Division was given the eastern half . The initial assault waves , consisting of tanks , infantry , and combat engineer forces , were carefully planned to reduce the coastal defenses and allow the larger ships of the follow @-@ up waves to land .
The primary objective at Omaha was to secure a beachhead of eight kilometres ( 5 miles ) depth , between Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin and the Vire River , linking with the British landings at Gold to the east , and reaching the area of Isigny to the west to link up with VII Corps landing at Utah . Opposing the landings was the German 352nd Infantry Division . Of the 12 @,@ 020 men of the division , 6 @,@ 800 were experienced combat troops , detailed to defend a 53 @-@ kilometer ( 33 mi ) front . The Germans were largely deployed in strongpoints along the coast — the German strategy was based on defeating any seaborne assault at the water line .
Very little went as planned during the landing at Omaha . Difficulties in navigation caused the majority of landing craft to miss their targets throughout the day . The defenses were unexpectedly strong , and inflicted heavy casualties on landing U.S. troops . Under heavy fire , the engineers struggled to clear the beach obstacles ; later landings bunched up around the few channels that were cleared . Weakened by the casualties taken just in landing , the surviving assault troops could not clear the heavily defended exits off the beach . This caused further problems and consequent delays for later landings . Small penetrations were eventually achieved by groups of survivors making improvised assaults , scaling the bluffs between the most heavily defended points . By the end of the day , two small isolated footholds had been won , which were subsequently exploited against weaker defenses further inland , thus achieving the original D @-@ Day objectives over the following days .
= = Terrain and defenses = =
Omaha was bounded at either end by large rocky cliffs . The crescent @-@ shaped beach presented a gently sloping tidal area averaging 300 m ( 330 yd ) between low and high @-@ water marks . Above the tide line was a bank of shingle 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 ft ) high and up to 15 m ( 49 ft ) wide in places . At the western end , the shingle bank rested against a stone ( further east becoming wood ) sea wall which ranged from 1 @.@ 5 – 4 m ( 5 – 13 ft ) in height . For the remaining two thirds of the beach after the seawall ended , the shingle lay against a low sand embankment . Behind the sand embankment and sea wall was a level shelf of sand , narrow at either end and extending up to 200 m ( 220 yd ) inland in the center , and behind that rose steep escarpments or bluffs 30 – 50 m ( 33 – 55 yd ) high , which dominated the whole beach and were cut into by small wooded valleys or draws at five points along the beach , codenamed west to east D @-@ 1 , D @-@ 3 , E @-@ 1 , E @-@ 3 and F @-@ 1 .
The German defensive preparations and the lack of any defense in depth indicated that their plan was to stop the invasion at the beaches . Four lines of obstacles were constructed in the intertidal zone . The first , a non @-@ contiguous line with a small gap in the middle of Dog White and a larger gap across the whole of Easy Red , was 250 m ( 270 yd ) out from the highwater line and consisted of 200 Belgian Gates with mines lashed to the uprights . 30 meters ( 33 yd ) behind these was a continuous line of logs driven into the sand pointing seaward , every third one capped with an anti @-@ tank mine . This defensive measure was not as effective as the Germans would have wished . Another 30 meters ( 33 yd ) shoreward of this line was a continuous line of 450 ramps sloping towards the shore , also with mines attached and designed to force flat @-@ bottomed landing craft to ride up and either flip or detonate the mine . The final line of obstacles was a continuous line of hedgehogs 150 meters ( 160 yd ) from the shoreline . The area between the shingle bank and the bluffs was both wired and mined , and mines were also scattered on the bluff slopes . To some extent , the German barricades set up to prevent tanks advancing on the shores became useful to Allied infantry as they provided cover from machine gun and small arms fire .
Coastal troop deployments , comprising five companies of infantry , were concentrated mostly at 15 strongpoints called Widerstandsnester ( " resistance nests " ) , numbered WN @-@ 60 in the east to WN @-@ 74 near Vierville in the west , located primarily around the entrances to the draws and protected by minefields and wire . Positions within each strongpoint were interconnected by trenches and tunnels . As well as the basic weaponry of rifles and machine guns , more than 60 light artillery pieces were deployed at these strongpoints . The heaviest pieces were located in eight gun casemates and four open positions while the lighter guns were housed in 35 pillboxes . A further 18 anti @-@ tank guns completed the disposition of artillery targeting the beach . Areas between the strongpoints were lightly manned with occasional trenches , rifle pits , and 85 machine @-@ gun emplacements . No area of the beach was left uncovered , and the disposition of weapons meant that flanking fire could be brought to bear anywhere along the beach .
Allied intelligence had identified the coastal defenders as a reinforced battalion ( 800 – 1000 men ) of the 716th Infantry Division . This was a static defensive division estimated to comprise up to 50 % of non @-@ German troops , mostly Russian volunteers and German Volksdeutsche . The recently activated but capable 352nd Infantry Division was believed to be 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) inland at Saint @-@ Lô and was regarded as the most likely force to be committed to a counter @-@ attack . As part of Rommel 's strategy to concentrate defenses at the water 's edge , the 352nd had been ordered forward in March , taking over responsibility for the defense of the portion of the Normandy coast in which Omaha was located . As part of this reorganization , the 352nd also took under its command two battalions of the 726th Grenadier Regiment ( part of the 716th Static Infantry Division ) as well as the 439th Ost @-@ Battalion , which had been attached to the 726th . Omaha Beach fell mostly within ' Coast Defense Sector 2 ' , which stretched westward from Colleville and allocated to the 916th Grenadier Regiment , with the third battalion 726th Grenadier Regiment attached . Two companies of the 726th manned strongpoints in the Vierville area while two companies of the 916th occupied the St. Laurent area strongpoints in the center of Omaha . These positions were supported by the artillery of the first and fourth battalions of the 352nd Artillery Regiment ( twelve 105 mm and four 150 mm howitzers respectively ) . The two remaining companies of the 916th formed a reserve at Formigny , two miles ( 3 km ) inland . East of Colleville , ' Coast Defense Sector 3 ' was the responsibility of the remainder of the 726th Grenadier Regiment . Two companies were deployed at the coast , one in the most easterly series of strongpoints , with artillery support provided by the third battalion of the 352nd Artillery Regiment . The area reserve , comprising the two battalions of the 915th Grenadier Regiment and known as ' Kampfgruppe Meyer ' , was located south @-@ east of Bayeux outside the immediate Omaha area .
The failure to identify the reorganization of the defenses was a rare intelligence breakdown for the Allies . Post @-@ action reports still documented the original estimate and assumed that the 352nd had been deployed to the coastal defenses by chance , a few days previously , as part of an anti @-@ invasion exercise . The source of this inaccurate information came from German prisoners of war from the 352nd Infantry Division captured on D @-@ Day as reported by the 16th Infantry S @-@ 3 D @-@ Day Action Report . In fact , Allied intelligence had already become aware of the relocation of the 352nd Infantry Division on June 4 . This information was passed on to V Infantry Corps and 1st Infantry Division HQ through 1st Army , but at that late stage in the operations , no plans were changed .
= = Plan of attack = =
Omaha was divided into ten sectors , codenamed ( from west to east ) : Charlie , Dog Green , Dog White , Dog Red , Easy Green , Easy White , Easy Red , Fox Green , Fox White , and Fox Red . The initial assault was to be made by two Regimental Combat Teams ( RCT ) , supported by two tank battalions , with two battalions of Rangers also attached . The infantry regiments were organized into three battalions each of around 1 @,@ 000 men . Each battalion was organized as three rifle companies each of up to 240 men , and a support company of up to 190 men . Infantry companies A through D belonged to the 1st battalion of a regiment , E through H to the 2nd , I through M to the 3rd ; the letter ‘ J ’ was not used . ( Individual companies will be referred to in this article by company and regiment , e.g. Company A of the 116th RCT will be ' A / 116 ' ) . In addition , each battalion had a headquarters company of up to 180 men . The tank battalions consisted of three companies , A through C , each of 16 tanks , while the Ranger battalions were organized into six companies , A through F , of around 65 men per company . V Corps ' 56th Signal Battalion was responsible for communications on Omaha Beach with the fleet offshore , especially routing requests for naval gunfire support to the destroyers and USS Arkansas .
The 116th RCT of the 29th Infantry Division was to land two battalions in the western four beaches , to be followed 30 minutes later by the third battalion . Their landings were to be supported by the tanks of the 743rd Tank Battalion ; two companies swimming ashore in amphibious DD tanks and the remaining company landing directly onto the beach from assault craft . To the left of the 116th RCT the 16th RCT of the 1st Infantry Division was also to land two battalions with the third following 30 minutes after , on Easy Red and Fox Green at the eastern end of Omaha . Their tank support was to be provided by the 741st Tank Battalion , again two companies swimming ashore and the third landed conventionally . Three companies of the 2nd Ranger Battalion were to take a fortified battery at Pointe du Hoc , three miles ( 5 km ) to the west of Omaha . Meanwhile , C Company 2nd Rangers was to land on the right of the 116th RCT and take the positions at Pointe de la Percée . The remaining companies of 2nd Rangers and the 5th Ranger Battalion were to follow up at Pointe du Hoc if that action proved to be successful , otherwise they were to follow the 116th into Dog Green and proceed to Pointe du Hoc overland .
The landings were scheduled to start at 06 : 30 , " H @-@ Hour " , on a flooding tide , preceded by a 40 @-@ minute naval and 30 @-@ minute aerial bombardment of the beach defenses , with the DD tanks arriving five minutes before H @-@ Hour . The infantry were organized into specially equipped assault sections , 32 men strong , one section to a landing craft , with each section assigned specific objectives in reducing the beach defenses . Immediately behind the first landings the Special Engineer Task Force was to land with the mission of clearing and marking lanes through the beach obstacles . This would allow the larger ships of the follow @-@ up landings to get through safely at high tide . The landing of artillery support was scheduled to start at H + 90 minutes while the main buildup of vehicles was to start at H + 180 minutes . At H + 195 minutes two further Regimental Combat Teams , the 115th RCT of the 29th Infantry Division and the 18th RCT of the 1st Infantry Division were to land , with the 26th RCT of the 1st Infantry Division to be landed on the orders of the V Corps commander .
The objective was for the beach defenses to be cleared by H + 2 hours , whereupon the assault sections were to reorganize , continuing the battle in battalion formations . The draws were to be opened to allow traffic to exit the beach by H + 3 hours . By the end of the day , the forces at Omaha were to have established a bridgehead five miles ( 8 km ) deep , linked up with the British 50th Division landed at Gold to the east , and be in position to move on Isigny the next day , linking up with the American VII Corps at Utah to the west .
The assault force expected to execute this plan totaled over 34 @,@ 000 men and 3 @,@ 300 vehicles , with naval support provided by two battleships , three cruisers , 12 destroyers , and 105 other ships . These were provided predominantly by the US Navy , but also included British and Free French warships . The 16th RCT ( swollen by 3 @,@ 502 men and 295 vehicles attached for the beach landing ) numbered 9 @,@ 828 troops , 919 vehicles and 48 tanks . To move this force required 2 transport ships , 6 Landing Ships , Tank ( LSTs ) , 53 LCTs , 5 Landing Craft Infantry ( Large ) ( LCI / ( L ) s ) , 81 LCVPs , 18 LCAs , 13 other landing craft , and about 64 DUKWs . Assault craft were crewed by the US Navy , US Coast Guard and the British Royal Navy .
= = Initial assault = =
Despite these preparations , very little went according to plan . Ten landing craft were swamped by the rough seas before they reached the beach , and several others stayed afloat only because their passengers bailed water out with their helmets . Seasickness was prevalent among the troops waiting offshore . On the 16th RCT front , the landing boats passed struggling men in life preservers and on rafts , survivors of the DD tanks which had sunk in the rough sea . Navigation of the landing vehicles was made difficult by the smoke and mist obscuring the landmarks they were to use in guiding themselves in , while a strong current pushed them continually eastward .
As the boats approached to within a few hundred yards of the shore , they came under increasingly heavy fire from automatic weapons and artillery . The force discovered only then the ineffectiveness of the pre @-@ landing bombardment . Delayed by the weather and attempting to avoid the landing craft as they ran in , the bombers had dropped their ordnance too far inland , as a result of an order to wait 10 seconds extra before dropping their bombs . In the bombers , this translated to several miles inland , detonating some landmines that were planted by the Germans , but having no real effect on the coastal defenses . Another issue was the equipping of contact @-@ fuse bombs instead of time @-@ delay fuses in a tradeoff between more craters , meaning more cover for advancing infantry , or no craters , meaning easy vehicle access to the beach .
= = = Tank landings = = =
Because sea conditions were so rough , the decision was made for the 116th RCT to carry the DD tanks of the 743rd tank battalion all the way to the beach , after 27 of the initial 29 DD tanks of the 741st tank battalion swamped while wading to shore . Coming in opposite the heavily defended Vierville draw , Company B of the 743rd Tank Battalion lost all but one of its officers and half of its DD tanks . The other two companies landed to the left of B / 743 without initial loss . On the 16th RCT front , the two DD tanks from the 741st tank battalion that had survived the swim ashore were joined by three others that were landed directly onto the beach because of their LCT 's damaged ramp . The remaining tank company managed to land 14 of its 16 tanks ( although three of these were quickly knocked out ) .
= = = Infantry landings = = =
Of the nine companies landing in the first wave , only Company A of the 116th RCT at Dog Green and the Rangers to their right landed where intended . E / 116 , aiming for Easy Green , ended up scattered across the two beaches of the 16th RCT area . G / 116 , aiming for Dog White , opened up a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ yard ( 900 m ) gap between themselves and A / 116 to their right when they landed at Easy Green instead . I / 16 drifted so far east it did not land for another hour and a half .
As infantry disembarked from the landing craft , they often found themselves on sandbars 50 to 100 yards ( 45 to 90 m ) out . To reach the beach they had to wade through water sometimes neck deep , and they still had 200 yards ( 180 m ) or more to go when they did reach shore . Those that made it to the shingle did so at a walking pace because they were so heavily laden . Most sections had to brave the full weight of fire from small arms , mortars , artillery , and interlocking fields of heavy machine gun fire . Where the naval bombardment set grass fires burning , as it had at Dog Red opposite the Les Moulins strongpoint , the smoke obscured the landing troops and prevented effective fire from being laid down by the defenders . Some sections of G / 116 and F / 116 were able to reach the shingle bank relatively unscathed , though the latter became disorganized after the loss of their officers . G / 116 was able to retain some cohesion , but this was soon lost as they made their way westwards under fire along the shingle in an attempt to reach their assigned objectives . The scattering of the boats was most evident on the 16th RCT front , where parts of E / 16 , F / 16 and E / 116 had intermingled , making it difficult for sections to come together to improvise company assaults that might have reversed the situation caused by the mis @-@ landings . Those scattered sections of E / 116 landing at Easy Red were able to escape heavy casualties , although , having encountered a deep runnel after being landed on a sandbank , they were forced to discard most of their weapons to make the swim ashore .
Casualties were heaviest among the troops landing at either end of Omaha . In the east at Fox Green and the adjacent stretch of Easy Red , scattered elements of three companies were reduced to half strength by the time they gained the relative safety of the shingle , many of them having crawled the 300 yards ( 270 m ) of beach just ahead of the incoming tide . Within 15 minutes of landing at Dog Green on the western end of the beach , A / 116 had been cut to pieces , the leaders among the 120 or so casualties , the survivors reduced to seeking cover at the water 's edge or behind obstacles . The smaller Ranger company to their right had fared a little better , having made the shelter of the bluffs , but were also down to half strength .
L / 16 eventually landed , 30 minutes late , to the left of Fox Green , taking casualties as the boats ran in and more as they crossed the 200 yards ( 180 m ) of beach . The terrain at the very eastern end of Omaha gave them enough protection to allow the 125 survivors to organize and begin an assault of the bluffs . They were the only company in the first wave able to operate as a unit . All the other companies were , at best , disorganized , mostly leaderless and pinned down behind the shingle with no hope of carrying out their assault missions . At worst , they had ceased to exist as fighting units . Nearly all had landed at least a few hundred yards off target , and in an intricately planned operation where each section on each boat had been assigned a specific task , this was enough to throw the whole plan off .
= = = Engineer landings = = =
Like the infantry , the engineers had been pushed off their targets , and only five of the 16 teams arrived at their assigned locations . Three teams came in where there were no infantry or armor to cover them . Working under heavy fire , the engineers set about their task of clearing gaps through the beach obstacles — work made more difficult by loss of equipment , and by infantry passing through or taking cover behind the obstacles they were trying to blow . They also suffered heavy casualties as enemy fire set off the explosives they were working with . Eight men of one team were dragging their pre @-@ loaded rubber boat off the LCM when artillery hit ; only one survived the resulting detonation of their supplies . Another team had just finished laying its explosives when the area was struck by mortar fire . The premature explosion of the charges killed or wounded 19 engineers , as well as some nearby infantry . Nevertheless , the engineers succeeded in clearing six gaps , one each at Dog White and Easy Green on the 116th RCT front , the other four at Easy Red on the 16th RCT front . They had suffered casualties of over 40 % .
= = Second assault wave = =
With the initial targets unaccomplished , the second and larger wave of assault landings brought in reinforcements , support weapons and headquarter elements at 07 : 00 to face nearly the same difficulties as had the first . The second wave was larger , and so the defenders ' fire was less concentrated . The survivors of the first wave were unable to provide effective covering fire , and in places the fresh landing troops suffered casualty rates as high as those of the first wave . Failure to clear paths through the beach obstacles also added to the difficulties of the second wave . In addition , the incoming tide was beginning to hide the remaining obstacles , causing high attrition among the landing craft before they had reached the shore . As in the initial landings , difficult navigation caused disruptive mislandings , scattering the infantry and separating vital headquarters elements from their units .
On the 116th RCT front , the remainder of the 1st Battalion , B / 116 , C / 116 and D / 116 , were due to land in support of A / 116 at Dog Green . Three boats , including their headquarters and beach @-@ master groups , landed too far west , under the cliffs . Their exact casualties in getting across the beach are unknown , but the one @-@ third to one @-@ half that made it to shore spent the rest of the day pinned down by snipers . Not all sections of the badly scattered B / 116 landed there , but those that did were quickly forced to join those survivors of A / 116 fighting for survival at the water 's edge . Two companies of 2nd Rangers , coming in later on the edge of Dog Green , did manage to reach the seawall , but at the cost of half their strength .
To the left of Dog Green sat Dog White , between the Vierville and Les Moulins strongpoints ( defending draws D @-@ 1 and D @-@ 3 ) ; and here was a different story . As a result of earlier mis @-@ landings , and now because of their own mis @-@ landing , the troops of C / 116 found themselves alone at Dog White , with a handful of tanks from the first wave in sight . The smoke from the grass fires covering their advance up the beach , they gained the seawall with few casualties , and were in better shape than any unit on the 116th RCT front so far . Although the 1st Battalion was effectively disarmed of its heavy weapons when D / 116 suffered a disastrous landing , the buildup at Dog White continued . C / 116 was joined by the 5th Ranger Battalion almost in its entirety . The Ranger commander , recognizing the situation at Dog Green on the run @-@ in , ordered the assault craft to divert into Dog White . Like the C / 116 , the smoke covered their advance , although the 2nd Rangers were caught out on the right flank of the Ranger 's landing . This was where the 116th RCT regimental command group , including the 29th Division assistant commander Brigadier General Norman " Dutch " Cota , was able to land relatively unscathed .
Further east , the strongpoint defenses were effective . On the Dog Red / Easy Green boundary , the defenses around the Les Moulins strongpoint took a heavy toll on the remaining 2nd Battalion , with H / 116 and headquarters elements struggling ashore there . The survivors joined the remnants of F / 116 behind the shingle , and here the battalion commander was able to organize 50 men for an improvised advance across the shingle . A further advance up the bluffs just east of Les Moulins was too weak to have any effect and was forced back down . To their left , mainly between the draws on the Easy Green / Easy Red boundary , the 116th RCT 's support battalion landed without too much loss , although they did become scattered , and were too disorganized to play any immediate part in an assault on the bluffs .
On the 16th RCT front , at the eastern end of Easy Red , was another area between strongpoints . This allowed G / 16 and the support battalion to escape complete destruction in their advance up the beach . Nevertheless , most of G / 16 's 63 casualties for the day came before they had reached the shingle . The other 2nd Battalion company landed in the second wave ; H / 16 came in a few hundred yards to the left , opposite the E @-@ 3 draw , and suffered for it – they were put out of action for several hours .
On the eastern @-@ most beach , Fox Green , elements of five different companies had become entangled , and the situation was little improved by the equally disorganized landings of the second wave . Two more companies of the 3rd Battalion joined the melee , and , having drifted east in the first wave , I / 16 finally made their traumatic landing on Fox Green , at 08 : 00 . Two of their six boats were swamped on their detour to the east , and as they came in under fire , three of the four remaining boats were damaged by artillery or mines , and the fourth was hung up on an obstacle . A captain from this company found himself senior officer , and in charge of the badly out of shape 3rd Battalion .
= = = American situation = = =
Along with the infantry landing in the second wave , supporting arms began to arrive , meeting the same chaos and destruction as had the rifle companies . Combat engineers , tasked with clearing the exits and marking beaches , landed off @-@ target and without their equipment . Additionally , with the exception of DD tanks , they did not have the benefit of " Hobart 's Funnies " ( a wide range of British @-@ designed , specially adapted armored vehicles specifically designed to penetrate German fixed defenses ) which had been offered to American commanders , and were accepted . The Americans requested all " Funnies " that were based on the Sherman M4 tank chassis , but the vehicles could not be produced in enough quantity to supply both the Commonwealth forces and American forces in time for D @-@ Day . Even if enough could have been produced in time for D @-@ Day there were not enough LCTs available to carry the DD and wading tanks and the " Funnies " .
Many half @-@ tracks , jeeps and trucks foundered in deep water ; those that made it ashore soon became jammed up on the narrowing beach , making easy targets for the German defenders . Most of the radios were lost , making the task of organizing the scattered and dispirited troops even more difficult , and those command groups that did make the shore found their effectiveness limited to their immediate vicinity . Except for a few surviving tanks and a heavy weapons squad here or there , the assault troops had only their personal weapons , which , having been dragged through surf and sand , invariably needed cleaning before they could be used .
The survivors at the shingle , many facing combat for the first time , found themselves relatively well @-@ protected from small arms fire , but still exposed to artillery and mortars . In front of them lay heavily mined flats exposed to active fire from the bluffs above . Morale naturally became a problem . Many groups were leaderless and witnesses to the fate of neighboring troops and landings coming in around them . Wounded men on the beach were drowning in the incoming tide and incoming landing craft were being pounded and set ablaze .
= = = German situation = = =
As late as 13 : 35 the German 352nd division was reporting that the assault had been hurled back into the sea . From the German vantage point at Pointe de la Percée , overlooking the whole beach from the western end , it seemed that the assault had been stopped at the beach . An officer there noted that troops were seeking cover behind obstacles , and counted ten tanks burning . By 07 : 35 , the third battalion of the 726th Grenadier Regiment , defending Draw F @-@ 1 on Fox Green beach , was reporting that 100 – 200 American troops had penetrated the front , with troops inside the wire at WN @-@ 62 and WN @-@ 61 attacking the Germans from the rear . Casualties among the defenders were mounting . While the 916th regiment , defending the center of the 352nd zone , was reporting that the landings had been frustrated , it was also requesting reinforcements . The request could not be met , because the situation elsewhere in Normandy was becoming more urgent for the defenders . The reserve regiment , the 915th of the 352nd division , which had earlier been ordered against the American airborne landings to the west of Omaha , was diverted to the Gold zone east of Omaha , the defenses there having crumbled .
= = Breakthrough = =
The key geographical features that had influenced the landings also influenced the next phase of the battle : the draws , the natural exits off the beaches , were the main targets in the initial assault plan . The strongly concentrated defenses around these draws meant that the troops landing near them quickly became incapable of carrying out a further assault . In the areas between the draws , at the bluffs , units were able to land in greater strength . Defenses were also weaker away from the draws , thus most advances were made there .
The other key aspect of the next few hours was leadership . The original plan was in tatters , with so many units mis @-@ landed , disorganized and scattered . Most commanders had fallen or were absent , and there were few ways to communicate , other than shouted commands . In places , small groups of men , sometimes scratched together from different companies , in some cases from different divisions , were " ... inspired , encouraged or bullied ... " out of the relative safety of the shingle , starting the grueling task of reducing the defenses atop the bluffs .
= = = Assaulting the bluffs = = =
Survivors of C company 2nd Rangers in the first wave landed on Dog Green around 06 : 45 ; by 07 : 30 , they had scaled the cliffs near Dog White and the Vierville draw . They were joined later by a mis @-@ landed section from B / 116 , and this group spent the better part of the day tying up and eventually taking WN @-@ 73 , which defended draw D @-@ 1 at Vierville .
At 07 : 50 , Cota led the charge off of Dog Green , between WN @-@ 68 and WN @-@ 70 , by forcing gaps in the wire with a Bangalore torpedo and wire cutters . Twenty minutes later , the 5th Rangers joined the advance , and blew more openings . The command party established themselves at the top of the bluff , and elements of G / 116 and H / 116 joined them , having earlier moved laterally along the beach , and now the narrow front had widened to the east . Before 09 : 00 , small parties from F / 116 and B / 116 reached the crests just east of Dog White . The right flank of this penetration was covered by the survivors of the 2nd Rangers ’ A and B companies , who had independently fought their way to the top between 08 : 00 and 08 : 30 . They took WN @-@ 70 ( already heavily damaged by naval shells ) , and joined the 5th Rangers for the move inland . By 09 : 00 more than 600 American troops , in groups ranging from company sized to just a few men , had reached the top of the bluff opposite Dog White and were advancing inland .
The 3rd battalion 116th RCT forced its way across the flats and up the bluff between WN @-@ 66 ( which defended the D @-@ 3 draw at Les Moulins ) , and WN @-@ 65 ( defending the E @-@ 1 draw ) . They advanced in small groups , supported by the heavy weapons of M / 116 , who were held at the base of the bluff . Progress was slowed by mines on the slopes of the bluff , but elements of all three rifle companies , as well as a stray section of G / 116 , had gained the top by 09 : 00 , causing the defenders at WN @-@ 62 to mistakenly report that both WN @-@ 65 and WN @-@ 66 had been taken .
Between 07 : 30 and 08 : 30 elements of G / 16 , E / 16 , and E / 116 came together and climbed the bluffs at Easy Red , between WN @-@ 64 ( defending the E @-@ 1 draw ) and WN @-@ 62 ( the E @-@ 3 draw ) . At 09 : 05 , German observers reported that WN @-@ 61 was lost , and that one machine gun was still firing from WN @-@ 62 . 150 men , mostly from G / 16 , having reached the top hampered more by minefields than by enemy fire , continued south to attack the WN @-@ 63 command post on the edge of Colleville . Meanwhile , E / 16 , led by Second Lieutenant John M. Spalding and Captain Robert L. Sheppard V , turned westward along the top of the bluffs , engaging in a two @-@ hour battle for WN @-@ 64 . His small group of just four men had effectively neutralized this point by mid @-@ morning , taking 21 prisoners — just in time to prevent them from attacking freshly landing troops . On the beach below , the 16th RCT commander , Colonel George Taylor had landed at 08 : 15 . With the words " Two kinds of people are staying on this beach , the dead and those who are going to die – now let 's get the hell out of here ! " he organized groups of men regardless of their unit , putting them under the command of the nearest non @-@ commissioned officer and sending them through the area opened up by G / 16 . By 09 : 30 , the regimental command post was set up just below the bluff crest , and the 1st and 2nd battalions of the 16th RCT were being sent inland as they reached the crest .
On Fox Green , at the eastern end of Omaha , four sections of L / 16 had survived their landing intact and were now leading elements of I / 16 , K / 16 and E / 116 up the slopes . With supporting fire from the heavy weapons of M / 16 , tanks and destroyers , this force eliminated WN @-@ 60 , which defended the draw at F @-@ 1 ; by 09 : 00 , the 3rd battalion 16th RCT was moving inland .
= = = Naval support = = =
The only artillery support for the troops making these tentative advances was from the navy . Finding targets difficult to spot , and in fear of hitting their own troops , the big guns of the battleships and cruisers concentrated fire on the flanks of the beaches . The destroyers were able to get in closer , and from 08 : 00 began engaging their own targets . At 09 : 50 , two minutes after the McCook destroyed a 75 mm gun position in WN @-@ 74 , the destroyers were ordered to get as close in as possible . Some approached within 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 900 m ) several times , scraping bottom and risking running aground . An engineer who had landed in the first wave at Fox Red , watching the Frankford steaming in towards shore , thought she had been badly hit and was being beached . Instead , she turned parallel to the beach and cruised westwards , guns blazing at targets of opportunity . Thinking she would turn back out to sea , the engineer soon saw that she had instead begun backing up , guns still firing . At one point , gunners aboard the Frankford saw an immobilized tank at the water 's edge , still firing . Watching the fall of its shot , they followed up with a salvo of their own . In this manner , the tank acted as the ship 's fire control party for several minutes .
= = = Pre @-@ invasion naval bombardment = = =
General Bradley reviewing Allied troops in England training for D @-@ Day , promised the soldiers that the Germans on the beach would be blasted with naval gunfire before the landing . " You men should consider yourself lucky . You are going to have ringside seats for the greatest show on earth , " he said , meaning naval gunfire . "
Rear Admiral John L. Hall , Jr . , ( Commander Task Force 124 , the " Omaha " Beach Assault Force ) , strongly disapproved of what he considered to be the small amount of air and naval bombardment used . Hall was recorded saying " It 's a crime to send me on the biggest amphibious attack in history with such inadequate naval gunfire support . "
Later analysis of naval support during the pre @-@ landing phase concluded that the navy had provided inadequate bombardment , given the size and extent of the planned assault . Kenneth P. Lord , a U.S. Army planner for the D @-@ Day invasion , says that , upon hearing the naval gunfire support plan for Omaha , which limited support to one battleship , two cruisers and six destroyers , he and other planners were very upset — especially in light of the tremendous naval gunfire support given to landings in the Pacific .
Historian Adrian R. Lewis postulates that American casualties would have been greatly reduced if a longer barrage had been implemented .
= = = German defenses inland = = =
While the coastal defenses had not turned back the invasion at the beach , they had broken up and weakened the assault formations struggling through them . The German emphasis on this Main Line of Resistance ( MLR ) meant that defenses further inland were significantly weaker , and based on small pockets of prepared positions smaller than company sized in strength . This tactic was enough to disrupt American advances inland , making it difficult even to reach the assembly areas , let alone achieve their D @-@ Day objectives . As an example of the effectiveness of German defenses despite weakness in numbers , the 5th Ranger battalion was halted in its advance inland by a single machine gun position hidden in a hedgerow . One platoon attempted to outflank the position , only to run into another machine gun position to the left of the first . A second platoon dispatched to take this new position ran into a third , and attempts to deal with this met with fire from a fourth position . The success of the MLR in blocking the movement of heavy weapons off the beach meant that , after four hours , the Rangers were forced to give up on attempts to move them any further inland .
= = Beachhead = =
Despite penetrations inland , the key beach objectives had not been achieved . The draws necessary for the movement of vehicles off the beach had not been opened , and the strongpoints defending these were still putting up a spirited resistance . The failure to clear beach obstacles forced subsequent landings to concentrate on Easy Green and Easy Red .
Where vehicles were landing , they found a narrow strip of beach with no shelter from enemy fire . Around 08 : 30 , commanders suspended all such landings . This caused a jam of landing craft out to sea . The DUKWs had a particularly hard time of it in the rough conditions . Take the 13 DUKWs carrying the 111th Field Artillery battalion of the 116th RCT : five were swamped soon after disembarking from the LCT , four were lost as they circled in the rendezvous area waiting to land , and one capsized as they turned for the beach . Two were destroyed by enemy fire as they approached the beach and the lone survivor managed to offload its howitzer to a passing craft before it also succumbed to the sea . This one gun eventually landed in the afternoon .
The official record of Omaha reports that " ... the tanks were leading a hard life ... " . According to the commander of the 2nd battalion 116th RCT the tanks " ... saved the day . They shot the hell out of the Germans , and got the hell shot out of them . " As the morning progressed the beach defenses were gradually being reduced , often by tanks . Scattered along the length of the beach , trapped between the sea and the impassable shingle embankment and with no operating radios amongst the commanders , tanks had to be controlled individually . This was perilous work . The commanding officer of the 111th Field Artillery , who had landed ahead of his unit , was killed as he tried to direct the fire of one tank . The command group of the 741st tank battalion lost three out their group of five in their efforts . Additionally , the commander of the 743rd tank battalion became a casualty as he approached one of his tanks with orders . When naval gunfire was brought to bear against the strong @-@ points defending the E @-@ 3 draw , a decision was made to try to force this exit with tanks . Colonel Taylor ordered all available tanks into action against this point at 11 : 00 . Only three were able to reach the rallying point , and two were knocked out as they attempted to go up the draw , forcing the remaining tank to back off .
Reinforcement regiments were due to land by battalion , beginning with the 18th RCT at 09 : 30 on Easy Red . The first battalion to land , 2 / 18 , arrived at the E @-@ 1 draw 30 minutes late after a difficult passage through the congestion off shore . Casualties were light , though . Despite the existence of a narrow channel through the beach obstacles , the ramps and mines there accounted for the loss 22 LCVPs , 2 LCI ( L ) s and 4 LCTs . Supported by tank and subsequent naval fire , the newly arrived troops took the surrender at 11 : 30 of the last strong @-@ point defending the entrance to the E @-@ 1 draw . Although a usable exit was finally opened , congestion prevented an early exploitation inland . The three battalions of the 115th RCT , scheduled to land from 10 : 30 on Dog Red and Easy Green , came in together and on top of the 18th RCT landings at Easy Red . The confusion prevented the remaining two battalions of the 18th RCT from landing until 13 : 00 , and delayed the move off the beach of all but 2 / 18 , which had exited the beach further east before noon , until 14 : 00 . Even then , this movement was hampered by mines and enemy positions still in action further up the draw .
By early afternoon , the strong @-@ point guarding the D @-@ 1 draw at Vierville was silenced by the navy . But without enough force on the ground to mop up the remaining defenders , the exit could not be opened . Traffic was eventually able to use this route by nightfall , and the surviving tanks of the 743rd tank battalion spent the night near Vierville .
The advance of the 18th RCT cleared away the last remnants of the force defending the E @-@ 1 draw . When engineers cut a road up the western side of this draw , it became the main route inland off the beaches . With the congestion on the beaches thus relieved , they were re @-@ opened for the landing of vehicles by 14 : 00 . Further congestion on this route , caused by continued resistance just inland at St. Laurent , was bypassed with a new route , and at 17 : 00 , the surviving tanks of the 741st tank battalion were ordered inland via the E @-@ 1 draw .
The F @-@ 1 draw , initially considered too steep for use , was also eventually opened when engineers laid down a new road . In the absence of any real progress opening the D @-@ 3 and E @-@ 3 draws , landing schedules were revised to take advantage of this route , and a company of tanks from the 745th tank battalion were able to reach the high ground by 20 : 00 .
Approaches to the exits were also cleared , with minefields lifted and holes blown in the embankment to permit the passage of vehicles . As the tide receded , engineers were also able to resume their work of clearing the beach obstacles , and by the end of the evening , 13 gaps were opened and marked .
= = = German reactions = = =
Observing the build @-@ up of shipping off the beach , and in an attempt to contain what were regarded as minor penetrations at Omaha , a battalion was detached from the 915th Regiment being deployed against the British to the east . Along with an anti @-@ tank company , this force was attached to the 916th Regiment and committed to a counterattack in the Colleville area in the early afternoon . It was stopped by " firm American resistance " and reported heavy losses . The strategic situation in Normandy precluded the reinforcement of the weakened 352nd Division . The main threat was felt by the Germans to be the British beachheads to the east of Omaha , and these received the most attention from the German mobile reserves in the immediate area of Normandy . Preparations were made to bring up units stationed for the defense of Brittany , southwest of Normandy , but these would not arrive quickly and would be subject to losses inflicted in transit by overwhelming Allied air superiority . The last reserve of the 352nd Division , an engineer battalion , was attached to the 916th Regiment in the evening . It was deployed to defend against the expected attempt to break out of the Colleville @-@ St. Laurent beachhead established on the 16th RCT front . At midnight General Dietrich Kraiss , commander of the 352nd Division , reporting the total loss of men and equipment in the coastal positions , advised that he had sufficient forces to contain the Americans on D + 1 but that he would need reinforcements thereafter , to be told that there were no more reserves available .
= = End of the day = =
Following the penetrations inland , confused hard @-@ fought individual actions pushed the foothold out barely a mile and a half ( 2 @.@ 5 km ) deep in the Colleville area to the east , less than that west of St. Laurent , and an isolated penetration in the Vierville area . Pockets of enemy resistance still fought on behind the American front line , and the whole beachhead remained under artillery fire . At 21 : 00 the landing of the 26th RCT completed the planned landing of infantry , but losses in equipment were high , including 26 artillery pieces , over 50 tanks , about 50 landing craft and 10 larger vessels .
Only 100 of the 2 @,@ 400 tons of supplies scheduled to be landed on D @-@ Day were landed . Casualties for V Corps were estimated at 3 @,@ 000 killed , wounded and missing . The heaviest casualties were taken by the infantry , tanks and engineers in the first landings . The 16th and 116th RCT 's lost about 1 @,@ 000 men each . Only five tanks of the 741st tank battalion were ready for action the next day . The German 352nd division suffered 1 @,@ 200 killed , wounded and missing ; about 20 % of its strength . Its deployment at the beach caused such problems that Lieutenant General Omar Bradley , commander of the U.S. First Army , at one stage considered evacuating Omaha , while Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery considered the possibility of diverting V Corps forces through Gold .
= = Aftermath = =
The foothold gained on D @-@ Day at Omaha , itself two isolated pockets , was the most tenuous across all the D @-@ Day beaches . With the original objective yet to be achieved , the priority for the Allies was to link up all the Normandy beachheads . During the course of June 7 , while still under sporadic shellfire , the beach was prepared as a supply area . Surplus cargo ships were deliberately sunk to form an artificial breakwater and , while still less than planned , 1 @,@ 429 tons of stores were landed that day .
With the beach assault phase completed the RCTs reorganized into infantry regiments and battalions and over the course of the next two days achieved the original D @-@ Day objectives . On the 1st divisional front the 18th Infantry Regiment blocked an attempt by two companies from the 916th and 726th Grenadiers to break out of WN @-@ 63 and Colleville , both of which were subsequently taken by the 16th Infantry Regiment which also moved on Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin . The main advance was made by the 18th Infantry Regiment , with the 3rd battalion of the 26th Infantry Regiment attached , south and south @-@ eastwards . The heaviest opposition was encountered at Formigny where troops of the 2nd battalion 915th Grenadiers had reinforced the headquarters troops of 2nd battalion 916th Grenadiers . Attempts by 3 / 26 and B / 18 with support from the tanks of B / 745 were held off and the town did not fall until the morning of June 8 . The threat of an armored counterattack kept the 18th Infantry Regiment on the defensive for the rest of June 8 . The 26th Infantry Regiment 's three battalions , having been attached to the 16th , 18th and 115th Regiments the previous day , spent June 8 reassembling before pushing eastwards , forcing the 1st battalion of the German 726th Grenadiers to spend the night extricating itself from the pocket thus forming between Bayeux and Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin . By the morning of June 9 the 1st Division had established contact with the British XXX Corps , thus linking Omaha with Gold .
On the 29th divisional front two battalions of the 116th Infantry Regiment cleared the last defenders from the bluffs while the remaining 116th battalion joined the Rangers in their move west along the coast . This force relieved the 2nd Ranger companies who were holding Pointe du Hoc on June 8 and subsequently forced the German 914th Grenadiers and the 439th Ost @-@ Battalion to withdraw from the Grandcamp area which lay further to the west . Early on June 7 WN @-@ 69 defending St. Laurent was abandoned and the 115th Infantry Regiment was therefore able to push inland to the south @-@ west , reaching the Formigny area on June 7 and the original D @-@ Day phase line the following day . The third regiment of 29th Division ; the 175th , started landing on June 7 . By the morning of June 9 this regiment had taken Isigny and on the evening of the following day forward patrols established contact with the 101st Airborne Division , thus linking Omaha with Utah .
In the meantime , the original defender at Omaha , the 352nd Division , was being steadily reduced . By the morning of June 9 the division was reported as having been " ... reduced to ' small groups ' ... " while the 726th Grenadier Regiment had " ... practically disappeared . " By June 11 the effectiveness of the 352nd was regarded as " very slight " , and by June 14 the German corps command was reporting the 352nd as completely used up and needing to be removed from the line .
Once the beachhead had been secured , Omaha became the location of one of the two Mulberry harbours , prefabricated artificial harbors towed in pieces across the English Channel and assembled just off shore . Construction of ' Mulberry A ' at Omaha began the day after D @-@ Day with the scuttling of ships to form a breakwater . By D + 10 the harbor became operational when the first pier was completed ; LST 342 docking and unloading 78 vehicles in 38 minutes . Three days later the worst storm to hit Normandy in 40 years began to blow , raging for three days and not abating until the night of June 22 . The harbor was so badly damaged that the decision was taken not to repair it ; supplies being subsequently landed directly on the beach until fixed port facilities were captured . In the few days that the harbor was operational , 11 @,@ 000 troops , 2 @,@ 000 vehicles and 9 @,@ 000 tons of equipment and supplies were brought ashore . Over the 100 days following D @-@ Day more than 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 tons of supplies , 100 @,@ 000 vehicles and 600 @,@ 000 men were landed , and 93 @,@ 000 casualties were evacuated , via Omaha .
Today at Omaha jagged remains of the harbor can be seen at low tide . The shingle bank is no longer there , cleared by engineers in the days following D @-@ Day to facilitate the landing of supplies . The beachfront is more built @-@ up and the beach road extended , villages have grown and merged , but the geography of the beach remains as it was and the remains of the coastal defenses can still be visited . At the top of the bluff overlooking Omaha near Colleville is the American cemetery . As late as 1988 , particles of shrapnel , as well as glass and iron beads resulting from munitions explosions , have been found in the sand of the beach .
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= Merry Christmas II You =
Merry Christmas II You is the second Christmas album and thirteenth studio album by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey . It was released by Island Records on November 2 , 2010 . Recording began in April 2010 and continued while Carey became pregnant . She was the executive producer of Merry Christmas II You and worked with various record producers , including Bryan @-@ Michael Cox , Jermaine Dupri , Randy Jackson , James Poyser , Marc Shaiman , James " Big Jim " Wright and Johnny " Sev " Severin of RedOne . The album features Carey 's mother Patricia Carey as a guest vocalist on " O Come All Ye Faithful " / " Hallelujah Chorus " . The album is composed of original songs and covers , ballads and uptempo tracks . It incorporates R & B , soul and house music in its composition .
The album received mixed reviews from music critics , who complimented its relaxed yet lively and contemporary feel , while others felt it was predictable and too overproduced in places . It debuted at number four on the United States Billboard 200 album chart , and reached number one on both the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums and Holiday Albums chart . It was later certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments exceeding 500 @,@ 000 copies . Elsewhere , however , the album failed to make an impact , reaching the top thirty in Australia and Hungary , and the top fifty in Austria and Italy . It missed out on the top one @-@ hundred in the United Kingdom by one position , peaking at one @-@ hundred and one on the albums chart .
The album produced four singles , including the US Adult Contemporary record @-@ breaking song " Oh Santa ! " . It reached number @-@ one in its second week , the quickest ascent in the history of the chart and the only song to do so . Other singles included " Auld Lang Syne ( The New Year 's Anthem ) " , a single release version of " When Christmas Comes " in 2011 with John Legend and " Christmas Time Is in the Air Again " in 2012 . To support the album , Carey made promotional appearances on The Ellen DeGeneres Show and Lopez Tonight , and hosted her own television special called Mariah Carey : Merry Christmas to You .
= = Background and production = =
Mariah Carey 's twelfth studio album , Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel , was released in 2009 . It produced the US Billboard Hot 100 top ten and platinum certified track " Obsessed " . However , subsequent single releases failed to replicate its success , with " I Want to Know What Love Is " peaking at number 60 on the Hot 100 , and " H.A.T.E.U. " reaching number 72 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . Carey revealed that she intended to re @-@ release Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel as a remix album in early 2010 , titled Angels Advocate , which would consist of remixes of the standard songs with new featured artists , including Mary J. Blige , Snoop Dogg , Trey Songz , R. Kelly , T @-@ Pain , Gucci Mane and OJ da Juiceman . A release date of February 23 , 2010 , was slated , and then pushed back to March 9 . It was then further pushed back to March 30 . " Angels Cry " and " Up Out My Face " from Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel were released as remixes with Ne @-@ Yo featuring on the former and Nicki Minaj on the latter . However , it was confirmed in March 2010 that production of Angels Advocate had halted and the project was shelved indefinitely . Carey 's record label Island Def Jam stated that the singer was instead working on a new project and " new surprises " . Metro revealed that Carey was either recording a new studio album or possibly a Christmas album .
In an interview for Rap @-@ Up in April 2010 , Jermaine Dupri said that he and Carey had already begun working on new songs , stating " The song of the decade crew is back in the lab . This [ is ] the first day of the new shit . " On April 24 , David LaChapelle said that he had shot the album artwork with fake snow and wooden cutout reindeers , thus confirming that the project was a Christmas album . On May 5 , Dupri confirmed that he and Carey were in the early stages of production for the album , that Bryan @-@ Michael Cox and Johntá Austin were involved in the project and that they hoped to release a single by the end of the year . Roger Friedman of Showbiz411 revealed some information about the album on June 3 , 2010 , saying " Mariah ’ s Christmas album is said to be very lush , with lots of strings and no hip hop . A lot of it is said to be ' live ' and there ’ s an ochestra " and would feature a new version of her 1994 Christmas single , " All I Want for Christmas Is You " . It was reported by Showbiz411 in August 2010 that Carey had enlisted Broadway composer Marc Shaiman to work on the then untitled album ; the magazine described the pairing as " unusual " but noted that the outcome could be " colossal " . On September 1 , 2010 , Rap @-@ Up exclusively revealed the title of the album , Merry Christmas II You , and that it would be released on November 2 with original songs as well as covers . The II represents being a sequel to Carey 's first Christmas album , Merry Christmas ( 1994 ) .
= = Composition = =
The opening track " Santa Claus Is Coming to Town " is a twenty @-@ two second introduction produced by Carey and Shaiman . " Oh Santa ! " is an up @-@ tempo R & B song and is one of four new original compositions . It was written and produced by Carey , Dupri and Cox , and its instrumentation consists of sleigh bells , jingle bells , hand claps and a piano melody , backed by a " school @-@ yard chant beat " . Lyrically , Carey makes a plea to Santa Claus asking him to bring back her " baby " in time for Christmas , singing " Santa 's gon ' come and make him mine this Christmas . " Joey Guerra of the Houston Chronicle noted that it has a 1960s girl @-@ group swing feel to it . The third track on the album is a medley titled " O Little Town of Bethlehem " / " Little Drummer Boy " . Cary Ganz of Rolling Stone described it as a " straightforward and sweet " performance . " Christmas Time Is in the Air Again " is softly sung ballad backed by a string section and embellished with bells and chimes . The Village Voice writer Rich Juzwiak felt that " Christmas Time Is in the Air Again " was the only song on Merry Christmas II You that matched " the magic " of " All I Want for Christmas Is You " , describing it as " exquisite " .
Track five is an interlude which is another medley titled " The First Noel " / " Born Is the King " . " The First Noel " section is a soulful down @-@ tempo song which consists of Carey delivering a piano @-@ and @-@ voice epilogue backed by an 808 drum machine , while " Born Is the King " is a piece of " pure baby @-@ making magic " , according to Juzwiak . " When Christmas Comes " is a soul song with elements of R & B ; the instrumental consists of horns , including the trumpet performed by Rick Baptist and Greg Adams , and the trombone by Nick Lane . Other brass instruments include Dan Higgins on the sax and flute . Lyrically , the song is about " giving the gift of love " , as Carey sings " And me and you gon ' have ourselves a holiday / And we don 't need nobody else to celebrate / And we 're gon ' kiss our worries and our cares away / I can 't wait / Because this Christmas time , get together / It 's gonna be so nice , better than ever / And baby you ’ re the one , special treasure . "
The seventh track on the album comes in the form of another medley , this time called " Here Comes Santa Claus ( Right Down Santa Claus Lane ) " / " Housetop Celebration " . Guerra noted that Carey adds some " club bounce " to " Here Comes Santa Claus ( Right Down Santa Claus Lane ) " , while Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine thought that the " Housetop Celebration " part of the medley " recycles the monolithic beat from Kurtis Blow ’ s instructive " Christmas Rappin ' . " " Charlie Brown Christmas " is a variation of the A Charlie Brown Christmas animated musical television special . A piece of nostalgia , as described by Guerra , it also makes use of traditional religious carols . A fourth medley titled " O Come All Ye Faithful " / " Hallelujah Chorus " features Carey 's mother , Patricia , who performs opera during the " Hallelujah Chorus " section . According to Bill Lamb of About.com , " Here Mariah Carey is at her best as she threatens to take everything too far sonically with operatic tones , impossibly high notes , and melisma in full force , but somehow it all holds together in exhilarating fashion . "
Track ten is a live recording of " O Holy Night " by Carey at the WPC in South Central Los Angeles . It makes use of the singer 's " deeper , throatier tones " and " octave @-@ scaling high notes " . It is followed by " One Child " , written by Carey and James Poyser , a retelling of the birth of Jesus . It encompasses a range of genres , including Christmas , adult contemporary , urban contemporary and religious music . " All I Want for Christmas Is You – Extra Festive " is re @-@ recording of the original , which makes use of extra chimes , " beefier " production with softened bell rings and an added kick drum and new vocals . The final track is a rewrite of " Auld Lang Syne " by Scottish poet and lyricist Robert Burns , which was written in 1788 and published in James Johnson 's Scots Musical Museum in 1796 . Produced by Carey , Randy Jackson and Johnny " Sev " Severin of RedOne , they re @-@ titled it " Auld Lang Syne ( The New Year 's Anthem ) " . It is a house track with a " thumping " instrumental .
= = Singles = =
" Oh Santa ! " was released as the lead single and premiered on October 1 , 2010 . It received a positive response from music critics , with many praising its composition and style . It became a record @-@ breaking entry on the Billboard Adult Contemporary songs chart . It debuted at number twelve and rose to number one the following week , becoming the first song to reach the peak in two weeks on the chart . It finished at number forty @-@ two on the 2011 Adult Contemporary year @-@ end chart . It also reached number one on the Holiday Digital Songs chart , and number one @-@ hundred on the Hot 100 . " Auld Lang Syne ( The New Year 's Anthem ) " was released as the second single in the form of a nine @-@ piece remix EP on December 14 , 2010 . It garnered a negative response from critics , all of whom disapproved of how Carey had re @-@ composed the traditional poem by Burns into a house music song . It peaked at number nine of the US Holiday Songs chart .
" When Christmas Comes " was released as the third single as a newly recorded duet with John Legend . The song was sent to Urban contemporary radio and made available for digital download on November 21 , 2011 . It was released in the United Kingdom on November 28 . Scott Shelter of PopCrush thought that the duet was " superior " to the original , and award it four stars our of five . An accompanying music video directed by Sanaa Hamri for " When Christmas Comes " was filmed at Carey 's Los Angeles home and features Carey and Legend throwing a celebratory Christmas house party , which includes a cameo by Nick Cannon . It features footage from the film A Charlie Brown Christmas . The duet reached number seventy on US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart and number fifteen on the Adult R & B Songs chart . It debuted at number 1 on South Korea International Download Singles chart on November 27 , 2011 , with sales of 81 @,@ 624 . " Christmas Time Is in the Air Again " was released as the fourth single on December 2 , 2012 . It was positively received by critics , some of whom compared its high quality to the caliber of " All I Want for Christmas is You " . It reached number six on the South Korea International Download Singles chart .
= = Release and promotion = =
On October 20 , 2010 , Carey appeared on the Home Shopping Network ( HSN ) where she was interviewed about the album and previewed six tracks , including " The First Noel " / " Born Is the King " , " O Little Town of Bethlehem " / " Little Drummer Boy " and " O Come All Ye Faithful " / " Hallelujah Chorus " , the last featuring her mother Patricia Carey . Of recording a Christmas album , Carey said “ A lot of people look at making a Christmas album like , ' Oh , it 's just a throwaway thing and then I 'll do my real album ' . For me , these are timeless pieces of work that can last year after year after year and so I want to be able to listen to it . ” On November 2 , appeared for an interview on the The Ellen DeGeneres Show to discuss the album . Merry Christmas II You was released in Canada and the United States for digital download and as a CD on November 2 . A special edition containing a Die Cut Ornament and five holiday cards was released exclusively through Walmart the same day . A collector 's edition containing a golden gift box , a forty @-@ page hardcover photo album , a sticker tag sheet and a collectible butterfly ornament was released on November 16 via Amazon.com for $ 60 @.@ 31 .
The following day , Carey appeared on Lopez Tonight . On November 19 , Carey taped a performance of " Oh Santa ! " at the NBC Rockefeller Center Christmas Tree Lighting which aired later in the month . On December 3 , 2010 , Carey performed " Oh Santa ! " as well as " All I Want For Christmas Is You " at the Walt Disney World Christmas Day Parade special , which featured Carey surrounded by dancers , including ballerinas and cheerleaders , and ended with fireworks at the end of the performance . A pre @-@ recorded ABC television special called Mariah Carey : Merry Christmas to You aired on December 13 . The show included performances of " Oh Santa ! " and " O Come All Ye Faithful " accompanied by her mother Patricia , and " All I Want for Christmas Is You " . It was filmed at the Orpheum Theatre in Los Angeles on November 6 , and executively produced by Carey and Joel Gallen . Accompanied by a gospel choir , Carey performed " One Child " and " O Come All Ye Faithful " at the Christmas in Washington event at the National Building Museum in Washington , D.C .. The performance aired on December 17 , 2010 , on TNT .
= = Critical reception = =
At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , Merry Christmas II You received an average score of 60 , based on eight reviews , which indicates " mixed or average " reviews . About.com writer Bill Lamb praised the album , writing that it has a " relaxed , comfortable " which is " engaging " . He wrote that the original compositions were " solid " , placing emphasis on " Oh Santa ! " , " One Child " and " When Christmas Comes " , but felt that " Christmas Time Is Here Again " was overshadowed by its heavy orchestration . He concluded by writing " Mariah Carey does know her way around Christmas albums . " Joey Guerra of the Houston Chronicle echoed Lamb 's sentiments , adding that the album ought to boost Carey 's career . He was complimentary of its overall feel , writing that manages to capture the " same magic " as her previous Christmas album , Merry Christmas , and that the original songs fit " snugly " with the Christmas classics . He finished his review with " There 's enough sweet spirit here to keep the holidays merry , musical and bright . "
Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic noted that the four new original compositions gave it " a lively modern feel , " and highlighted " Oh Santa ! " and " When Christmas Comes " as examples . He continued to write that although some covers , such as " Auld Lang Syne " and " Charlie Brown Christmas " sound " stiff " , the album as a complete body of work is " cheerful and engaging " and is a worthy successor to Carey 's previous Christmas album . BBC Music 's Mike Diver thought that although the album is not necessarily " clever " , it is " expectedly big " , and that while " Oh Santa ! " is not in the " same league " as " All I Want for Christmas Is You " , it 's a perfect stocking filler .
Rolling Stone writer Caryn Ganz disliked the two original ballads , " Christmas Time Is Here Again " and " One Child " , describing them " both thick with gooey orchestration " , but praised " Oh Santa ! " and " When Christmas Comes " for their uptempo melodies . However , she was confused by the re @-@ recording of " All I Want for Christmas Is You " , saying that " It 's hard to figure out what 's ' extra festive ' " , and quipped that it is " far easier to determine what 's wrong with ' Auld Lang Syne ' ( an awkward dance beat ) " . Ganz concluded with " the LP 's warm heart is in the right place . " Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine gave the album two and a half stars our of five , writing " Everything about Carey ’ s sequel to 1994 ’ s buoyant , if , in retrospect , safe , Merry Christmas is as desperate and habitual as it is reassuringly predictable . " While he continued to label it as an " incredibly adventureless album , " he also wrote that it is a " remarkably comforting listen " . He felt that Merry Christmas II You was not a sequel , or a remake , but rather an attempt at rewinding time on Carey 's part . Rich Juzwiak of The Village Voice was critical of Merry Christmas II You . He described " One Child " as a " needless retelling " , " Oh Santa ! " as trying too hard and too difficult to sing along to and " All I Want for Christmas Is You ( Extra Festive ) " as a desperate attempt at Carey canonising herself for re @-@ recording her own song . " The near @-@ crazed desperation to please listeners for her own sake is all over Merry Christmas II You : A " gift " to her fans ( or so she claims ) that they , of course , must pay for , it 's her fascinating , career @-@ long saga of self @-@ obsession in a nutshell . "
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , Merry Christmas II You debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 album chart , with first week sales of 55 @,@ 000 copies . It became her sixteenth top ten album , and placed her third amongst women for the most top ten entries , after Madonna with nineteen and Barbra Streisand with thirty . It also peaked at number one on both the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart and the Holiday Albums chart ( her second to do so on the latter , following Merry Christmas in 1994 ) . The album also peaked at number seven on the Digital Albums chart . It was certified Gold denoting shipments exceeding 500 @,@ 000 copies by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on January 11 , 2011 . As of March 2013 , it has sold 523 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . In Canada , the album peaked at number fourteen . Outside of the United States , the album failed to achieve similar success . It reached the top thirty in Australia and Hungary , peaking at number twenty @-@ seven and number thirty , respectively . It peaked at number forty @-@ one in Italy , and number forty @-@ five in Austria . It peaked at number one @-@ hundred and one on the UK Albums Chart on November 27 , 2010 .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications and sales = =
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= Percy Grainger =
Percy Aldridge Grainger ( 8 July 1882 – 20 February 1961 ) was an Australian @-@ born composer , arranger and pianist . In the course of a long and innovative career he played a prominent role in the revival of interest in British folk music in the early years of the 20th century . He also made many adaptations of other composers ' works . Although much of his work was experimental and unusual , the piece with which he is most generally associated is his piano arrangement of the folk @-@ dance tune " Country Gardens " .
Grainger left Australia at the age of 13 to attend the Hoch Conservatory in Frankfurt . Between 1901 and 1914 he was based in London , where he established himself first as a society pianist and later as a concert performer , composer and collector of original folk melodies . As his reputation grew he met many of the significant figures in European music , forming important friendships with Frederick Delius and Edvard Grieg . He became a champion of Nordic music and culture , his enthusiasm for which he often expressed in private letters .
In 1914 , Grainger moved to the United States , where he lived for the rest of his life , though he travelled widely in Europe and in Australia . He served briefly as a bandsman in the United States Army during 1917 – 18 , and took American citizenship in 1918 . After his mother 's suicide in 1922 he became increasingly involved in educational work . He also experimented with music machines that he hoped would supersede human interpretation . In the 1930s he set up the Grainger Museum in Melbourne , his birthplace , as a monument to his life and works and as a future research archive . As he grew older he continued to give concerts and to revise and rearrange his own compositions , while writing little new music . After the Second World War , ill health reduced his levels of activity , and he considered his career a failure . He gave his last concert in 1960 , less than a year before his death .
= = Early life = =
= = = Family background = = =
Percy Grainger 's father , John Grainger ( 1854 – 1917 ) , was an English @-@ born architect who emigrated to Australia in 1877 . He won professional recognition for his design of the Princes Bridge across the Yarra River in Melbourne . In October 1880 he married Rose Annie Aldridge , daughter of Adelaide hotelier George Aldridge . The couple settled in Brighton , a suburb of Melbourne where their only son , christened George Percy Grainger , was born on 8 July 1882 .
John Grainger was an accomplished artist , with broad cultural interests and a wide circle of friends . These included David Mitchell , whose daughter Helen later gained worldwide fame as an operatic soprano under the name Nellie Melba . John 's claims to have " discovered " her are unfounded , although he may have offered her encouragement . John was a heavy drinker and a womaniser who , Rose learned after the marriage , had fathered a child in England before coming to Australia . His promiscuity placed heavy strains upon the relationship , particularly when Rose discovered shortly after Percy 's birth that she had contracted a form of syphilis from her husband . Despite this , the Graingers stayed together until 1890 , when John went to England for medical treatment . After his return to Australia they lived apart ; the burden of raising Percy fell to Rose , while John pursued his career as chief architect to the Western Australian Department of Public Works . He also designed Nellie Melba 's home , Coombe Cottage , at Coldstream .
= = = Childhood = = =
Except for three months ' formal schooling as a 12 @-@ year @-@ old , during which he was bullied and ridiculed by his classmates , Percy was educated at home . Rose , an autodidact with a dominating presence , supervised his music and literature studies and engaged other tutors for languages , art and drama . From his earliest lessons Percy developed a lifelong fascination with Nordic culture ; writing late in life he maintained that the Icelandic " Saga of Grettir the Strong " was " the strongest single artistic influence on my life " . As well as showing precocious musical talents , he displayed considerable early gifts as an artist , to the extent that his tutors thought his future might lie in art rather than music . At the age of 10 he began studying piano under Louis Pabst , a German emigré then considered to be Melbourne 's leading piano teacher . Grainger 's first known composition , " A Birthday Gift to Mother " , is dated 1893 . Pabst arranged Grainger 's first public concert appearances , at Melbourne 's Masonic Hall in July and September 1894 . The boy played works by Bach , Beethoven , Schumann and Scarlatti , and was warmly complimented in the Melbourne press .
After Pabst returned to Europe in the autumn of 1894 , Grainger 's new piano tutor , Adelaide Burkitt , arranged for his appearances at a series of concerts in October 1894 , at Melbourne 's Royal Exhibition Building . The size of this enormous venue horrified the young pianist ; nevertheless , his performance delighted the Melbourne critics who dubbed him " the flaxen @-@ haired phenomenon who plays like a master " . This public acclaim helped Rose to decide that her son should continue his studies at the Hoch Conservatory in Frankfurt , Germany , an institution recommended by William Laver , head of piano studies at Melbourne 's Conservatorium of music . Financial assistance was secured through a fund @-@ raising benefit concert in Melbourne and a final recital in Adelaide , after which mother and son left Australia for Europe on 29 May 1895 . Although he never returned permanently to Australia , Grainger maintained considerable patriotic feelings for his native land , and was proud of his Australian heritage .
= = = Frankfurt = = =
In Frankfurt , Rose established herself as a teacher of English ; her earnings were supplemented by contributions from John Grainger , who had settled in Perth . The Hoch Conservatory 's reputation for piano teaching had been enhanced by the tenure , until 1892 , of Clara Schumann as head of piano studies . Grainger 's piano tutor was James Kwast , who developed his young pupil 's skills to the extent that , within a year , Grainger was being lauded as a prodigy . Grainger had difficult relations with his original composition teacher , Iwan Knorr ; he withdrew from Knorr 's classes to study composition privately with an amateur composer and folk @-@ music enthusiast , Karl Klimsch , whom he would later honour as " my only composition teacher " .
Together with a group of slightly older British students – Roger Quilter , Balfour Gardiner , Cyril Scott and Norman O 'Neill , all of whom became his friends – Grainger helped form the " Frankfurt Group " , whose long @-@ term objective was to rescue British and Scandinavian music from what they considered the negative influences of central European music . Encouraged by Klimsch , Grainger turned away from composing classical pastiches reminiscent of Handel , Haydn and Mozart , and developed a personal compositional style the originality and maturity of which quickly impressed and astonished his friends . At this time Grainger discovered the poetry of Rudyard Kipling and began setting it to music ; according to Scott , " No poet and composer have been so suitably wedded since Heine & Schumann " .
After accompanying her son on an extended European tour in the summer of 1900 Rose , whose health had been poor for some time , suffered a nervous collapse and could no longer work . To replace lost income Grainger began giving piano lessons and public performances ; his first solo recital was in Frankfurt on 6 December 1900 . Meanwhile he continued his studies with Kwast , and increased his repertoire until he was confident he could maintain himself and his mother as a concert pianist . Having chosen London as his future base , in May 1901 Grainger abandoned his studies and , with Rose , left Frankfurt for England .
Before leaving Frankfurt , Grainger had fallen in love with Kwast 's daughter Mimi ; in an autobiographical essay dated 1947 he admits to being " already sex @-@ crazy " at this time . John Bird , Grainger 's biographer , also records that during his Frankfurt years Grainger began to develop sexual appetites that were " distinctly abnormal " ; by the age of 16 he had started to experiment in flagellation and other sado @-@ masochistic practices , which he continued to pursue through most of his adult life . Bird surmises that Grainger 's fascination with themes of punishment and pain derived from the harsh discipline to which Rose had subjected him as a child .
= = London years = =
= = = Concert pianist = = =
In London , Grainger 's charm , good looks and talent ( with some assistance from the local Australian community ) ensured that he was quickly taken up as a pianist by wealthy patrons , and was soon performing in concerts in private homes . The Times critic recorded after one such appearance that Grainger 's playing " revealed rare intelligence and a good deal of artistic insight " . In 1902 he was presented by the socialite Lillith Lowrey to Queen Alexandra , who thereafter frequently attended his London recitals . Lowrey , 20 years Grainger 's senior , traded patronage and contacts for sexual favours – he termed the relationship a " love @-@ serve job " . She was the first woman with whom he had sex ; he later wrote of this initial encounter that he had experienced " an overpowering landslide " of feeling , and that " I thought I was about to die . If I remember correctly , I only experienced fear of death . I don 't think that any joy entered into it " .
In February 1902 Grainger made his first appearance as a piano soloist with an orchestra , playing Tchaikovsky 's first piano concerto with the Bath Pump Room Orchestra . In October of that year he toured Britain in a concert party with Adelina Patti , the Italian @-@ born opera singer . Patti was greatly taken by the young pianist and prophesied a glorious career for him . The following year he met the German @-@ Italian composer and pianist Ferruccio Busoni . Initially the two men were on cordial terms ( Busoni offered to give Grainger lessons free of charge ) and as a result , Grainger spent part of the 1903 summer in Berlin as Busoni 's pupil . However , the visit was not a success ; as Bird notes , Busoni had expected " a willing slave and adoring disciple " , a role Grainger was not willing to fulfil . Grainger returned to London in July 1903 ; almost immediately he departed with Rose on a 10 @-@ month tour of Australia , New Zealand and South Africa , as a member of a party organised by the Australian contralto Ada Crossley .
= = = Emergent composer = = =
Before going to London Grainger had composed numerous Kipling settings , and his first mature orchestral pieces . In London , when he found time he continued to compose ; a letter to Balfour Gardiner dated 21 July 1901 indicates that he was working on his Marching Song of Democracy ( a Walt Whitman setting ) , and had made good progress with the experimental works Train Music and Charging Irishrey . In his early London years he also composed Hill Song Number 1 ( 1902 ) , an instrumental piece much admired by Busoni .
In 1905 , inspired by a lecture given by the pioneer folksong historian Lucy Broadwood , Grainger began to collect original folksongs . Starting at Brigg in Lincolnshire , over the next five years he gathered and transcribed more than 300 songs from all over the country , including much material that had never been written down before . From 1906 Grainger used a phonograph , one of the first collectors to do so , and by this means he assembled more than 200 Edison cylinder recordings of native folk singers . These activities coincided with what Bird calls " the halcyon days of the ' First English Folksong Revival ' " .
As his stature in the music world increased , Grainger became acquainted with many of its leading figures , including Vaughan Williams , Elgar , Richard Strauss and Debussy . In 1907 he met Frederick Delius , with whom he achieved an immediate rapport – the two musicians had similar ideas about composition and harmony , and shared a dislike for the classical German masters . Both were inspired by folk music ; Grainger gave Delius his setting of the folksong Brigg Fair , which the older composer developed into his famous orchestral rhapsody , dedicated to Grainger . The two remained close friends until Delius 's death in 1934 .
Grainger first met Grieg at the home of the London financier Sir Edgar Speyer , in May 1906 . As a student Grainger had learned to appreciate the Norwegian 's harmonic originality , and by 1906 had several Grieg pieces in his concert repertoire , including the piano concerto . Grieg was greatly impressed with Grainger 's playing , and wrote that the Australian was " a genius that we Scandinavians cannot do other than love . " During 1906 – 07 the two maintained a mutually complimentary correspondence , which culminated in Grainger 's ten @-@ day visit in July 1907 to the composer 's Norwegian home , " Troldhaugen " near Bergen . Here the two spent much time revising and rehearsing the piano concerto in preparation for that year 's Leeds Festival . Their plans for a long @-@ term working relationship were thwarted by Grieg 's sudden death in September 1907 ; nevertheless , this relatively brief acquaintance had a considerable impact on Grainger , and he championed Grieg 's music for the rest of his life .
After fulfilling a hectic schedule of concert engagements in Britain and continental Europe , in August 1908 Grainger accompanied Ada Crossley on a second Australasian tour , during which he added several cylinders of Maori and Polynesian music to his collection of recordings . He had resolved to establish himself as a top @-@ ranking pianist before promoting himself as a composer , though he continued to compose both original works and folksong settings . Some of his most successful and most characteristic pieces , such as " Mock Morris " , " Handel in the Strand " , " Shepherd 's Hey " and " Molly on the Shore " date from this period . In 1908 he obtained the tune of " Country Gardens " from the folk music specialist Cecil Sharp , though he did not fashion it into a performable piece for another ten years .
In 1911 Grainger finally felt confident enough of his standing as a pianist to begin large @-@ scale publishing of his compositions . At the same time , he adopted the professional name of " Percy Aldridge Grainger " for his published compositions and concert appearances . In a series of concerts arranged by Balfour Gardiner at London 's Queen 's Hall in March 1912 , five of Grainger 's works were performed to great public acclaim ; the band of thirty guitars and mandolins for the performance of " Fathers and Daughters " created a particular impression . On 21 May 1912 Grainger presented the first concert devoted entirely to his own compositions , at the Aeolian Hall , London ; the concert was , he reported , " a sensational success " . A similarly enthusiastic reception was given to Grainger 's music at a second series of Gardiner concerts the following year .
In 1905 Grainger began a close friendship with Karen Holten , a Danish music student who had been recommended to him as a piano pupil . She became an important confidante ; the relationship persisted for eight years , largely through correspondence . After her marriage in 1916 she and Grainger continued to correspond and occasionally meet until her death in 1953 . Grainger was briefly engaged in 1913 to another pupil , Margot Harrison , but the relationship foundered through a mixture of Rose 's over @-@ possessiveness and Grainger 's indecision .
= = Career maturity = =
= = = Departure for America = = =
In April 1914 Grainger gave his first performance of Delius 's piano concerto , at a music festival in Torquay . Thomas Beecham , who was one of the festival 's guest conductors , reported to Delius that " Percy was good in the forte passages , but made far too much noise in the quieter bits " . Grainger was receiving increasing recognition as a composer ; leading musicians and orchestras were adding his works to their repertoires . His decision to leave England for America in early September 1914 , after the outbreak of the First World War , damaged his reputation among his patriotically minded British friends . Grainger wrote that the reason for this abrupt departure was " to give mother a change " – she had been unwell for years . However , according to Bird , Grainger often explained that his reason for leaving London was that " he wanted to emerge as Australia 's first composer of worth , and to have laid himself open to the possibility of being killed would have rendered his goal unattainable " . The Daily Telegraph music critic Robin Legge accused him of cowardice , and told him not to expect a welcome in England after the war , words that hurt Grainger deeply .
Grainger 's first American tour began on 11 February 1915 with a recital at New York 's Aeolian Hall . He played works by Bach , Brahms , Handel and Chopin alongside two of his own compositions : " Colonial Song " and " Mock Morris " . In July 1915 Grainger formally registered his intention to apply for US citizenship . Over the next two years his engagements included concerts with Nellie Melba in Boston and Pittsburgh and a command performance before President Woodrow Wilson . In addition to his concert performances , Grainger secured a contract with the Duo @-@ Art Company for making pianola rolls , and signed a recording contract with Columbia Records .
In April 1917 Grainger received news of his father 's death in Perth . On 9 June 1917 , after America 's entry into the war , he enlisted as a bandsman in the U.S. Army with the 15th Coastal Artillery Corps Band in New York City . He had joined as a saxophonist , though he records learning the oboe : " I long for the time when I can blow my oboe well enough to play in the band " . In his 18 months ' service , Grainger made frequent appearances as a pianist at Red Cross and Liberty bond concerts . As a regular encore he began to play a piano setting of the tune " Country Gardens " . The piece became instantly popular ; sheet music sales quickly broke many publishing records . The work was to become synonymous with Grainger 's name through the rest of his life , though he came in time to detest it . On 3 June 1918 he became a naturalised American citizen .
= = = Career zenith = = =
After leaving the army in January 1919 , Grainger refused an offer to become conductor of the Saint Louis Symphony Orchestra and resumed his career as a concert pianist . He was soon performing around 120 concerts a year , generally to great critical acclaim , and in April 1921 reached a wider audience by performing in a cinema , New York 's Capitol Theatre . Grainger commented that the huge audiences at these cinema concerts often showed greater appreciation for his playing than those at established concert venues such as Carnegie Hall and the Aeolian . In the summer of 1919 he led a course in piano technique at Chicago Musical College , the first of many such educational duties he would undertake in later years .
Amid his concert and teaching duties , Grainger found time to rescore many of his works ( a habit he continued throughout his life ) and also to compose new pieces : his Children 's March : Over the Hills and Far Away , and the orchestral version of The Power of Rome and the Christian Heart both originated in this period . He also began to develop the technique of elastic scoring , a form of flexible orchestration which enabled works to be performed by different numbers of players and instrument types , from small chamber groups up to full orchestral strength .
In April 1921 Grainger moved with his mother to a large house in White Plains , New York . This was his home for the remainder of his life . From the beginning of 1922 Rose 's health deteriorated sharply ; she was suffering from delusions and nightmares , and became fearful that her illness would harm her son 's career . Because of the closeness of the bond between the two , there had long been rumours that their relationship was incestuous ; in April 1922 Rose was directly challenged over this issue by her friend Lotta Hough . From her last letter to Grainger , dated 29 April , it seems that this confrontation unbalanced Rose ; on 30 April , while Grainger was touring on the West Coast , she jumped to her death from an office window on the 18th floor of the Aeolian Building in New York City . The letter , which began " I am out of my mind and cannot think properly " , asked Grainger if he had ever spoken to Lotta of " improper love " . She signed the letter : " Your poor insane mother " .
= = = Inter @-@ war years = = =
= = = = Traveller = = = =
After Rose 's funeral , Grainger sought solace in a return to work . In autumn 1922 he left for a year @-@ long trip to Europe , where he collected and recorded Danish folksongs before a concert tour that took him to Norway , the Netherlands , Germany and England . In Norway he stayed with Delius at the latter 's summer home . Delius was by now almost blind ; Grainger helped fulfil his friend 's wish to see a Norwegian sunset by carrying him ( with some assistance ) to the top of a nearby mountain peak . He returned to White Plains in August 1923 .
Although now less committed to a year @-@ round schedule of concerts , Grainger remained a very popular performer . His eccentricities , often exaggerated for publicity reasons , reportedly included running into auditoriums in gym kit and leaping over the piano to create a grand entrance . While he continued to revise and rescore his compositions , he increasingly worked on arrangements of music by other composers , in particular works by Bach , Brahms , Fauré and Delius . Away from music , Grainger 's preoccupation with Nordic culture led him to develop a form of English which , he maintained , reflected the character of the language before the Norman conquest . Words of Norman or Latin origin were replaced by supposedly Nordic word @-@ forms , such as " blend @-@ band " ( orchestra ) , " forthspeaker " ( lecturer ) and " writ @-@ piece " ( article ) . He called this " blue @-@ eyed " English . His convictions of Nordic superiority eventually led Grainger , in letters to friends , to express his views in crudely racial and anti @-@ Semitic terms ; the music historian David Pear describes Grainger as , " at root , a racial bigot of no small order " .
Grainger made further trips to Europe in 1925 and 1927 , collecting more Danish folk music with the aid of the octogenarian ethnologist Evald Tang Kristensen ; this work formed the basis of the Suite on Danish Folksongs of 1928 – 30 . He also visited Australia and New Zealand , in 1924 and again in 1926 . In November 1926 , while returning to America , he met Ella Ström , a Swedish @-@ born artist with whom he developed a close friendship . On arrival in America the pair separated , but were reunited in England the following autumn after Grainger 's final folksong expedition to Denmark . In October 1927 the couple agreed to marry . Ella had a daughter , Elsie , who had been born out of wedlock in 1909 . Grainger always acknowledged her as a family member , and developed a warm personal relationship with her .
Although Bird asserts that before her marriage , Ella knew nothing of Grainger 's sado @-@ masochistic interests , in a letter dated 23 April 1928 ( four months before the wedding ) Grainger writes to her : " As far as my taste goes , blows [ with the whip ] are most thrilling on breasts , bottom , inner thighs , sexparts " . He later adds , " I shall thoroly thoroly [ sic ] understand if you cannot in any way see yr way to follow up this hot wish of mine " . The couple were married on 9 August 1928 at the Hollywood Bowl , at the end of a concert which , in honour of the bride , had included the first performance of Grainger 's bridal song " To a Nordic Princess " .
= = = = Educator = = = =
From the late 1920s and early 1930s Grainger became involved increasingly with educational work in schools and colleges , and in late 1931 accepted a year 's appointment for 1932 – 33 as professor of music at New York University ( NYU ) . In this role he delivered a series of lectures under the heading " A General Study of the Manifold Nature of Music " , which introduced his students to a wide range of ancient and modern works . On 25 October 1932 his lecture was illustrated by Duke Ellington and his band , who appeared in person ; Grainger admired Ellington 's music , seeing harmonic similarities with Delius . On the whole , however , Grainger did not enjoy his tenure at NYU ; he disliked the institutional formality , and found the university generally unreceptive to his ideas . Despite many offers he never accepted another formal academic appointment , and refused all offers of honorary degrees . His New York lectures became the basis for a series of radio talks which he gave for the Australian Broadcasting Commission in 1934 – 35 ; these were later summarised and published as Music : A Commonsense View of All Types . In 1937 Grainger began an association with the Interlochen International Music Camp , and taught regularly at its summer schools until 1944 .
= = = = Innovator = = = =
The idea of establishing a Grainger Museum in Australia had first occurred to Grainger in 1932 . He began collecting and recovering from friends letters and artifacts , even those demonstrating the most private aspects of his life , such as whips , bloodstained shirts and revealing photographs . In September 1933 he and Ella went to Australia to begin supervising the building work . To finance the project , Grainger embarked on a series of concerts and broadcasts , in which he subjected his audiences to a vast range of the world 's music in accordance with his " universalist " view . Controversially , he argued for the superior achievements of Nordic composers over traditionally recognised masters such as Mozart and Beethoven .
Among various new ideas , Grainger introduced his so @-@ called " free @-@ music " theories . He believed that conformity with the traditional rules of set scales , rhythms and harmonic procedures amounted to " absurd goose @-@ stepping " , from which music should be set free . He demonstrated two experimental compositions of free music , performed initially by a string quartet and later by the use of electronic theremins . He believed that ideally , free music required non @-@ human performance , and spent much of his later life developing machines to fulfil this vision .
While the building of the museum proceeded , the Graingers visited England for several months in 1936 , during which Grainger made his first BBC broadcast . In this , he conducted " Love Verses from The Song of Solomon " in which the tenor soloist was the then unknown Peter Pears . After spending 1937 in America , Grainger returned to Melbourne in 1938 for the official opening of the Museum ; among those present at the ceremony was his old piano teacher Adelaide Burkitt . The museum did not open to the general public during Grainger 's lifetime , but was available to scholars for research .
In the late 1930s Grainger spent much time arranging his works in settings for wind bands . He wrote A Lincolnshire Posy for the March 1937 convention of the American Band Masters ' Association in Milwaukee , and in 1939 , on his last visit to England before the Second World War , he composed " The Duke of Marlborough 's Fanfare " , giving it the subtitle " British War Mood Grows " .
= = Later career = =
= = = Second World War = = =
The outbreak of war in Europe in September 1939 curtailed Grainger 's overseas travelling . In the autumn of 1940 , alarmed that the war might precipitate an invasion of the United States eastern seaboard , he and Ella moved to Springfield , Missouri , in the centre of the continent . From 1940 Grainger played regularly in charity concerts , especially after the attack on Pearl Harbor brought the United States into the war in December 1941 ; the historian Robert Simon calculates that Grainger made a total of 274 charity appearances during the war years , many of them at Army and Air force camps . In 1942 a collection of his Kipling settings , the Jungle Book cycle , was performed in eight cities by the choir of the Gustavus Adolphus College from St. Peter , Minnesota .
= = = Postwar decline = = =
Exhausted from his wartime concerts routine , Grainger spent much of 1946 on holiday in Europe . He was experiencing a sense of career failure ; in 1947 , when refusing the Chair of Music at Adelaide University , he wrote : " If I were 40 years younger , and not so crushed by defeat in every branch of music I have essayed , I am sure I would have welcomed such a chance " . In January 1948 he conducted the premiere of his wind band setting of " The Power of Rome and the Christian Heart " , written for the Goldman Band to celebrate the 70th birthday of its founder . Afterwards , Grainger denigrated his own music as " commonplace " while praising Darius Milhaud 's Suite Française , with which it had shared the programme .
On 10 August 1948 , Grainger appeared at the London Proms , playing the piano part in his Suite on Danish Folksongs with the London Symphony Orchestra under Basil Cameron . On 18 September he attended the Last Night of the Proms , standing in the promenade section for Delius 's Brigg Fair . Over the next few years several friends died : Gardiner in 1950 , Quilter and Karen Holten in 1953 . In October 1953 Grainger was operated on for abdominal cancer ; his fight against this disease would last for the rest of his life . He continued to appear at concerts , often in church halls and educational establishments rather than major concert venues . In 1954 , after his last Carnegie Hall appearance , Grainger 's long promotion of Grieg 's music was recognised when he was awarded the St. Olav Medal by King Haakon of Norway . However , a growing bitterness was becoming evident in his writings and correspondence ; in a letter to his lifelong friend , the Danish composer Herman Sandby , he bemoaned the continuing ascendency in music of the " German form " , and asserted that " all my compositional life I have been a leader without followers " .
After 1950 Grainger virtually ceased to compose . His principal creative activity in the last decade of his life was his work with Burnett Cross , a young physics teacher , on free music machines . The first of these was a relatively simple device controlled by an adapted pianola . Next was the " Estey @-@ reed tone @-@ tool " , a form of giant harmonica which , Grainger expectantly informed his stepdaughter Elsie in April 1951 , would be ready to play free music " in a few weeks " . A third machine , the " Cross @-@ Grainger Kangaroo @-@ pouch " , was completed by 1952 . Developments in transistor technology encouraged Grainger and Cross to begin work on a fourth , entirely electronic machine , which was incomplete when Grainger died .
In September 1955 Grainger made his final visit to Australia , where he spent nine months organising and arranging exhibits for the Grainger Museum . He refused to consider a " Grainger Festival " , as suggested by the Australian Broadcasting Commission , because he felt that his homeland had rejected him and his music . Before leaving Melbourne , he deposited in a bank a parcel that contained an essay and photographs related to his sex life , not to be opened until 10 years after his death .
= = = Last years = = =
By 1957 Grainger 's physical health had markedly declined , as had his powers of concentration . Nevertheless , he continued to visit Britain regularly ; in May of that year he made his only television appearance , in a BBC " Concert Hour " programme when he played " Handel in the Strand " on the piano . Back home , after further surgery he recovered sufficiently to undertake a modest winter concerts season . On his 1958 visit to England he met Benjamin Britten , the two having previously maintained a mutually complimentary correspondence . He agreed to visit Britten 's Aldeburgh Festival in 1959 , but was prevented by illness . Sensing that death was drawing near , he made a new will , bequeathing his skeleton " for preservation and possible display in the Grainger Museum " . This wish was not carried out .
Through the winter of 1959 – 60 Grainger continued to perform his own music , often covering long distances by bus or train ; he would not travel by air . On 29 April 1960 he gave his last public concert , at Dartmouth College in Hanover , New Hampshire , although by now his illness was affecting his concentration . On this occasion his morning recital went well , but his conducting in the afternoon was , in his own words , " a fiasco " . Subsequently confined to his home , he continued to revise his music and arrange that of others ; in August he informed Elsie that he was working on an adaptation of one of Cyril Scott 's early songs . His last letters , written from hospital in December 1960 and January 1961 , record attempts to work , despite failing eyesight and hallucinations : " I have been trying to write score for several days . But I have not succeeded yet . "
Grainger died in the White Plains hospital on 20 February 1961 , at the age of 78 . His body was flown to Adelaide where , on 2 March , he was buried in the Aldridge family vault in the West Terrace Cemetery , alongside Rose 's ashes . Ella survived him by 18 years ; in 1972 , aged 83 , she married a young archivist , Stewart Manville . She died at White Plains on 17 July 1979 .
= = Music = =
Grainger 's own works fall into two categories : original compositions and folk music arrangements . Besides these , he wrote many settings of other composers ' works . Despite his conservatory training he rebelled against the disciplines of the central European tradition , largely rejecting conventional forms such as symphony , sonata , concerto and opera . With few exceptions his original compositions are miniatures , lasting between two and eight minutes . Only a few of his works originated as piano pieces , though in due course almost all of them were , in his phrase , " dished up " in piano versions .
The conductor John Eliot Gardiner describes Grainger as " a true original in terms of orchestration and imaginative instrumentation " , whose terseness of expression is reminiscent in style both of the 20th century Second Viennese School and the Italian madrigalists of the 16th and 17th centuries . Malcolm Gillies , a Grainger scholar , writes of Grainger 's style that " you know it is ' Grainger ' when you have heard about one second of a piece " . The music 's most individual characteristic , Gillies argues , is its texture – " the weft of the fabric " , according to Grainger . Different textures are defined by Grainger as " smooth " , " grained " and " prickly " .
Grainger was a musical democrat ; he believed that in a performance each player 's role should be of equal importance . His elastic scoring technique was developed to enable groups of all sizes and combinations of instruments to give effective performances of his music . Experimentation is evident in Grainger 's earliest works ; irregular rhythms based on rapid changes of time signature were employed in Love Verses from " The Song of Solomon " ( 1899 ) , and Train Music ( 1901 ) , long before Stravinsky adopted this practice . In search of specific sounds Grainger employed unconventional instruments and techniques : solovoxes , theremins , marimbas , musical glasses , harmoniums , banjos , and ukuleles . In one early concert of folk music , Quilter and Scott were conscripted as performers , to whistle various parts . In " Random Round " ( 1912 – 14 ) , inspired by the communal music @-@ making he had heard in the Pacific Islands on his second Australasian tour , Grainger introduced an element of chance into performances ; individual vocalists and instrumentalists could make random choices from a menu of variations . This experiment in " aleatory " composition presaged by many decades the use of similar procedures by avant @-@ garde composers such as Berio and Stockhausen .
The brief " Sea Song " of 1907 was an early attempt by Grainger to write " beatless " music . This work , initially set over 14 irregular bars and occupying about 15 seconds of performing time , was a forerunner of Grainger 's free music experiments of the 1930s . Grainger wrote : " It seems to me absurd to live in an age of flying , and yet not be able to execute tonal glides and curves " . The idea of tonal freedom , he said , had been in his head since as a boy of eleven or twelve he had observed the wave @-@ movements in the sea . " Out in nature we hear all kinds of lovely and touching " free " ( non @-@ harmonic ) combinations of tones ; yet we are unable to take up these beauties ... into the art of music because of our archaic notions of harmony " . In a 1941 letter to Scott , Grainger acknowledged that he had failed to produce any large @-@ scale works in the manner of a Bach oratorio , a Wagner opera or a Brahms symphony , but excused this failure on the grounds that all his works prior to the mid @-@ 1930s had been mere preparations for his free music .
As a student , Grainger had learned to appreciate the music of Grieg , and came to regard the Norwegian as a paragon of Nordic beauty and greatness . Grieg in turn described Grainger as a new way forward for English composition , " quite different from Elgar , very original " . After a lifetime interpreting Grieg 's works , in 1944 Grainger began adapting the Norwegian 's E minor Piano Sonata , Op. 7 as a " Grieg @-@ Grainger Symphony " , but abandoned the project after writing 16 bars of music . By this time , Grainger acknowledged that he had not fulfilled Grieg 's high expectations of him , either as a composer or as a pianist . He also reflected on whether it would have been better , from the point of view of his development as a composer , had he never met the Griegs , " sweet and dear though they were to me " .
Grainger was known for his musical experimentation and did not hesitate to exploit the capabilities of the orchestra . One early ambitious work was The Warriors ( 1913 ) , an 18 @-@ minute suite which he dedicated to Delius . The music , which mixes elements of other Grainger works with references to Arnold Bax , Arnold Schönberg and Richard Strauss , requires a huge orchestral ensemble alongside at least three pianos – in one performance , Grainger used nineteen pianos with thirty pianists – to be played by " exceptionally strong vigorous players " . Critics were undecided as to whether the work was " magnificent " , or merely " a magnificent failure " .
= = Legacy = =
Grainger considered himself an Australian composer who , he said , wrote music " in the hopes of bringing honor and fame to my native land " . However , much of Grainger 's working life was spent elsewhere , and the extent to which he influenced Australian music , within his lifetime and thereafter , is debatable . His efforts to educate the Australian musical public in the mid @-@ 1930s were indifferently received , and did not attract disciples ; writing in 2010 , the academic and critic Roger Covell identifies only one significant contemporary Australian musician – the English @-@ born horn player , pianist and conductor David Stanhope – working in the Grainger idiom . In 1956 , the suggestion by the composer Keith Humble that Grainger be invited to write music for the opening of the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne was rejected by the organisers of the Games .
Grainger was a life @-@ long atheist and believed he would only endure in the body of work he left behind . To assist that survival he established the Grainger Museum , which was given little attention before the mid @-@ 1970s ; it was initially regarded as evidence either of an over @-@ large ego or of extreme eccentricity . Since then the University of Melbourne 's commitment to the museum has , Covell asserts , " rescued [ it ] permanently from academic denigration and belittlement " . Its vast quantities of materials have been used to investigate not only Grainger 's life and works , but those of contemporaries whom Grainger had known : Grieg , Delius , Scott and others . The Grainger home at 7 Cromwell Place , White Plains , New York , is now the Percy Grainger Library and is a further repository of memorabilia and historic performance material , open to researchers and visitors .
In Britain , Grainger 's main legacy is the revival of interest in folk music . His pioneering work in the recording and setting of folksongs greatly influenced the following generation of English composers ; Benjamin Britten acknowledged the Australian as his master in this respect . After hearing a broadcast of some Grainger settings , Britten declared that these " [ knocked ] all the Vaughan Williams and R. O. Morris arrangements into a cocked hat " . In the United States , Grainger left a strong educational legacy through his involvement , over 40 years , with high school , summer school and college students . Likewise , his innovative approaches to instrumentation and scoring have left their mark on modern American band music ; Timothy Reynish , a conductor and teacher of band music in Europe and America , has described him as " the only composer of stature to consider military bands the equal , if not the superior , in expressive potential to symphony orchestras . " Grainger 's attempts to produce " free music " by mechanical and later electronic means , which he considered his most important work , produced no follow @-@ up ; they were quickly overtaken and nullified by new technological advances . Covell nevertheless remarks that in this endeavour , Grainger 's dogged resourcefulness and ingenious use of available materials demonstrate a particularly Australian aspect of the composer 's character – one of which Grainger would have been proud .
= = Assessment = =
In 1945 Grainger devised an informal ratings system for composers and musical styles , based on criteria that included originality , complexity and beauty . Of forty composers and styles , he ranked himself equal ninth – behind Wagner and Delius , but well ahead of Grieg and Tchaikovsky . Nevertheless , in his later years he frequently denigrated his career , for example writing to Scott : " I have never been a true musician or true artist " . His failure to be recognised as a composer for anything beyond his popular folk @-@ song arrangements was a source of frustration and disappointment ; for years after his death the bulk of his output remained largely unperformed . From the 1990s an increase in the number of Grainger recordings has brought a revival of interest in his works , and has enhanced his reputation as a composer . An unsigned tribute published on the Gramophone website in February 2011 to commemorate the 50th anniversary of Grainger 's death opined that " though he would never be put on a pedestal to join the pantheon of immortals , he is unorthodox , original and deserves better than to be dismissed by the more snooty arbiters of musical taste " .
Of Grainger the pianist , The New York Times critic Harold Schonberg wrote that his unique style was expressed with " amazing skill , personality and vigor " . The early enthusiasm which had greeted his concert appearances became muted in later years , and reviews of his performances during the final ten years of his life were often harsh . However , Britten regarded Grainger 's late recording of the Grieg concerto , from a live performance at Aarhus in 1957 , as " one of the noblest ever committed to record " – despite the suppression of the disc for many years , because of the proliferation of wrong notes and other faults . Brian Allison from the Grainger Museum , referring to Grainger 's early displays of artistic skills , has speculated that had John Grainger 's influence not been removed , " Percy Aldridge Grainger may today be remembered as one of Australia 's leading painters and designers , who just happened to have a latent talent as a pianist and composer " . The ethnomusicologist John Blacking , while acknowledging Grainger 's contribution to social and cultural aspects of music , nevertheless writes that if the continental foundation of Grainger 's musical education had not been " undermined by dilettantism and the disastrous influence of his mother , I am sure that his ultimate contribution to the world of music would have been much greater " .
= = Recordings = =
Between 1908 and 1957 Grainger made numerous recordings , usually as pianist or conductor , of his own and other composers ' music . His first recordings , for The Gramophone Company Ltd ( later HMV ) , included the cadenza to Grieg 's piano concerto ; he did not record a complete version of this work on disc until 1945 . Much of his recording work was done between 1917 and 1931 , under contract with Columbia . At other times he recorded for Decca ( 1944 – 45 and 1957 ) , and Vanguard ( 1957 ) . Of his own compositions and arrangements , " Country Gardens " , " Shepherd 's Hey " and " Molly on the Shore " and " Lincolnshire Posy " were recorded most frequently ; in recordings of other composers , piano works by Bach , Brahms , Chopin , Grieg , Liszt and Schumann figure most often . Grainger 's complete 78 rpm solo piano recordings are now available on compact disc as a CD box set .
During his association with the Duo @-@ Art company between 1915 and 1932 , Grainger made around 80 piano rolls of his own and others ' music using a wooden robot designed to play a concert grand piano via an array of precision mechanical fingers and feet ; replayings of many of these rolls have subsequently been recorded on to compact disc . This reproduction system allowed Grainger to make a posthumous appearance in the Albert Hall , London , during the 1988 last night of the Proms as soloist with the BBC Symphony Orchestra in Grieg 's Piano Concerto .
Since Grainger 's death , recordings of his works have been undertaken by many artists and issued under many different labels . In 1995 Chandos Records began to compile a complete recorded edition of Grainger 's original compositions and folk settings . Of 25 anticipated volumes , 19 had been completed as of 2010 ; these were issued as a CD boxed set in 2011 , to mark the 50th anniversary of the composer 's death .
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= Spider @-@ Man : One More Day =
" One More Day " is a four @-@ part , 2007 comic book crossover storyline , connecting the three main Spider @-@ Man series concurrently published by Marvel Comics at the time . Written by J. Michael Straczynski and Joe Quesada , with art by Quesada , this story arc concludes the fallout of Spider @-@ Man 's actions during the 2007 Civil War crossover . " One More Day " starts in The Amazing Spider @-@ Man # 544 , continues in Friendly Neighborhood Spider @-@ Man # 24 and The Sensational Spider @-@ Man ( vol . 2 ) # 41 , and concludes in Amazing Spider @-@ Man # 545 .
After his Aunt May has been shot , Spider @-@ Man seeks help to save her life . He encounters the demon Mephisto , who offers to save her life if Spider @-@ Man gives him his marriage . Spider @-@ Man and his wife Mary Jane Watson agree , and this part of their history is erased so that , effectively , they have never been married . Additionally , the demon erases the world 's collective memory of Spider @-@ Man 's secret identity , which had been exposed in Civil War # 2 . The storyline set the stage for a restructuring of the Spider @-@ Man titles , resulting in the cancellation of Friendly Neighborhood Spider @-@ Man and The Sensational Spider @-@ Man , with Amazing Spider @-@ Man revamped as a thrice @-@ monthly publication .
The decision to abruptly end Peter Parker and Mary Jane 's marriage and the events of " One More Day " were heavily criticized upon the series ' conclusion , although the artwork received praise .
= = Publication history = =
Marvel Comics editor @-@ in @-@ chief Joe Quesada felt dissolving the Peter Parker and Mary Jane marriage and returning Spider @-@ Man to his roots was necessary to preserve the longevity of the character for the next 20 or 30 years . Quesada said he and other previous editors @-@ in @-@ chief had long been seeking an opportunity to begin a new methodology in which to tell Spider @-@ Man stories , but had not found a reasonable way to do so . Quesada said , " It 's very easy to un @-@ marry a character , or fix something like that : you just do a huge universal retcon , and say a few events in history didn 't happen . But that 's really not the way we do it here at Marvel . " Quesada found an opportunity to address this in the events of the 2007 Civil War mini @-@ series , which resulted in the unmasking of Spider @-@ Man 's identity to the public . Quesada knew J. Michael Straczynski was planning to end his run as a Marvel writer , so he personally approached Straczynski to propose " One More Day " as his final project .
The ideas for " One More Day " began to develop almost two years before its release , at one of Marvel 's creative summits for creators and editors . Quesada , Straczynski , Brian Michael Bendis , Mark Millar , Jeph Loeb , Tom Brevoort and Axel Alonso developed the concept between them , and Ed Brubaker and Dan Slott added more at the next summit . " One More Day " was announced as the concluding storyline of Straczynski 's run on Amazing Spider @-@ Man in early 2007 , and Quesada was named as the artist for the storyline . Although Quesada had become more selective in choosing projects to do as an artist since becoming editor @-@ in @-@ chief , he felt compelled to do the art for One More Day because he felt very close to the story , and because since he had been talking about the project for so long , he felt he " needed to put my money where my mouth is . "
While no plot details were given , Marvel issued a promotional image in February that consisted solely of the line " What would you do ... with one more day ? " against a background of spider webbing . At a panel at the San Diego Comic Con in June 2007 , Joe Quesada gave few details about the story , but described it as " a Peter @-@ MJ story . " At the same panel , Marvel editor Tom Brevoort announced that Amazing Spider @-@ Man would become the sole main Spider @-@ Man title , and would be published three times a month .
Due to Quesada 's known dislike of Mary Jane and Peter Parker 's marriage , fans began to speculate he intended to dissolve their marriage in one form or another . Quesada felt that 1987 's " The Wedding ! " story happened due to an editorial decision , and that Jim Shooter mirrored events Stan Lee had planned for the Spider @-@ Man comic strip in order to maximize any publicity generated .
Straczynski surprised many when he publicly revealed : " There 's a lot that I don 't agree with , and I made this very clear to everybody within shouting distance at Marvel , especially Joe Quesada ... there was a point where I made the decision , and told Joe , that I was going to take my name off the last two issues of the OMD arc . Eventually , Joe talked me out of that decision because at the end of the day , I don 't want to sabotage Joe or Marvel , and I have a lot of respect for both of those . " Quesada explained this disagreement with Straczynski , stating that their rift was primarily over the " methodology " of how to erase Peter and Mary Jane 's marriage , but Straczynski was on board with the editorial mandate of undoing the Parkers ' marriage .
Various Marvel writers , including Brian Michael Bendis , Mark Millar , Ed Brubaker and incoming Amazing Spider @-@ Man writer Dan Slott had a hand in developing the story . During the course of the story 's development , Quesada claims that he and Straczynski made plans to resurrect Gwen Stacy alongside Harry Osborn in the final chapter . This plot twist was discarded after numerous Marvel editors and writers lobbied for the character to remain dead . According to Quesada , Straczynski 's original script for the storyline 's fourth issue involved changes to continuity going as far back as 1971 . Peter would have helped Harry Osborn get into rehab for his drug addiction immediately , which would have allowed a number of rewrites . Mary Jane would have remained in a relationship with Harry , Gwen would not have been killed and ultimately Peter 's marriage to Mary Jane would not have taken place . Quesada realized that these changes would have far @-@ reaching consequences for both historical and forthcoming storylines , so he made the decision to change Straczynski 's story . While Peter and Mary Jane were to have remained a couple for the purposes of back @-@ story , they were simply not a married couple . Quesada also described " One More Day " as an emotional climax of sorts and resolution for the relationship between Peter Parker and Tony Stark , who had developed a father @-@ son @-@ like bond during the " Civil War " storyline . However , Quesada hinted the paths of the two characters could cross again in the future due to planned storylines for Iron Man .
Quesada , answering questions for Comic Book Resources , said every story that happened in the Spider @-@ Man canon still " counted " , with the only change being that , due to the world 's newly revised memories , Peter and Mary Jane did not marry due to some unknown incident and the official unmasking of his identity to the public during the 2007 Civil War mini @-@ series has been forgotten . A " back and forth " developed between Quesada and J. Michael Straczynski in separate interviews and messages , with Straczynski outlining some of his original plans for the " retcon " , and conversations he had with Quesada about the storyline . Quesada said , " We 're committed to preserving as much of these stories as is humanly possible , " but he added the changing of certain elements is inevitable . For example , he sees the storyline in which Mary Jane was pregnant as never having happened . Also , Spider @-@ Man lost the organic webshooters that he gained in the " Avengers Disassembled " storyline , and the other spider @-@ like powers that he gained in the 2005 @-@ 2006 storyline , " The Other . " Quesada commented that in removing those powers and bringing back Spider @-@ Man 's mechanical webshooters , he was returning " an element that [ he ] felt needed to be brought back into Peter 's world , " and that the " mechanical webshooters demonstrate Peter 's ingenuity and overall smarts . "
Quesada sees Peter 's making a " deal with the Devil " as a villain ( Mephisto ) taking advantage of someone at his weakest moment . This , he feels , is a better resolution than Peter and Mary Jane getting divorced , which would indicate " they gave up on their love , that their life in love together was so awful , so stressful , so unfulfilling that they had to raise a red flag and walk away from it . They quit on their marriage and even more tragic , ( they ) quit on each other . Instead , we had them make a deal with the devil . ' Cause that isn 't as bad . " Quesada went on to say , " Peter and MJ didn 't quit on their love , they sacrificed it to save a life , that to me is a pretty heroic story . "
= = = Release and delays = = =
The four issues that comprised " One More Day " were originally scheduled to ship weekly in August 2007 . The story encountered delays due to Quesada 's art duties conflicting with his job as editor @-@ in @-@ chief . Sensational Spider @-@ Man ( vol . 2 ) # 41 was rescheduled for release in late October , and the concluding chapter of the story , Amazing Spider @-@ Man # 545 , was rescheduled for November . The issues were again delayed in late October , with Sensational Spider @-@ Man ( vol . 2 ) # 41 and Amazing Spider @-@ Man # 545 resolicited for release on November 28 and December 27 , respectively .
= = Plot = =
The events of " One More Day " began in Amazing Spider @-@ Man # 544 , where Peter Parker 's Aunt May is shown slowly dying from a gunshot wound sustained during the events of Civil War and " Spider @-@ Man : Back in Black " . Peter is forced to ask Tony Stark for financial assistance , and then seeks counsel with Doctor Strange . The latter informs Peter that he can do nothing to grant Aunt May her life back . However , he helps Peter seek the aid of several others including Doctor Doom , the High Evolutionary , Reed Richards , and Doctor Octopus . Peter attempts to go back in time using a magic spell without Strange 's approval , harming himself in the process . Strange heals his wounds and sends him on his way , encouraging him to be by his Aunt 's side at her death .
On his way to the hospital , Peter is confronted by a little girl , who says she holds the answer to his problem . He talks to the little girl , who runs off . While pursuing her , Peter encounters a group of men ; a woman in red informs him these are alternate versions of himself , from alternate timelines where he never became Spider @-@ Man . The woman in red transforms into the demon Mephisto , who tells Peter he can save Aunt May . As payment , Mephisto wants not Peter 's soul , but his marriage to Mary Jane . Peter and Mary Jane are given until midnight the following night to decide their answer and , after several hours agonizing over the choice , they agree to the deal , as long as knowledge of Peter 's secret identity is erased from the world . Mary Jane also whispers to Mephisto another , unspecified offer in return for Mephisto putting Peter 's life back exactly how it was and " [ giving ] him a chance at happiness . " Finally , Mephisto reveals to the couple that his disguise as the little girl was in fact their future daughter , but she will never exist because of their decision . This future daughter is not to be confused with May " Mayday " Parker ( Spider @-@ Girl ) . May " Mayday " Parker is the baby that Peter Parker and Mary Jane had at the end of the Clone Saga from the 1990s and would grow up to be Spider @-@ Girl if Norman Osborn never killed her .
Mephisto then changes history so that Peter and Mary Jane never married , and no one remembers whose face is underneath Spider @-@ Man 's mask . Peter wakes up alone in bed , once again living with Aunt May . He attends a party being held for his best friend Harry Osborn ( previously thought to have died in Spectacular Spider @-@ Man # 200 ) , who introduces Lilly Hollister and Carlie Cooper . Peter glimpses Mary Jane sadly leaving the party . The guests all toast to a " Brand New Day . "
= = Reception = =
One More Day was panned by fans and critics . IGN reviewer Jesse Schedeen described Amazing Spider @-@ Man # 545 as " undoubtedly the worst comic Marvel published in 2007 " and a " deus ex machina of the highest order . " He did admit that writer Straczynski " had a great handle on the Peter / Mary Jane dynamic , " making their potentially final moments mean something , and that Quesada 's artistic style made sense given the dark tone . However , he also dismissed the story as " infuriating and downright disrespectful to anyone who has come to love Spider @-@ Man comics over the years . " IGN published two " Additional Take " reviews for Amazing Spider @-@ Man # 545 . Bryan Joel said that he 'd been a " vocal supporter " of " Brand New Day " , but summarized the OMD story as " flip , weightless , and painfully brief . " Richard George stated that " One More Day " " could prove to be the best example of editorial influence gone horribly , horribly wrong " and " in trying to preserve the appeal of Peter Parker , Joe Quesada has actually managed to fundamentally undermine the character . " Both Joel and George agreed with their colleague in complimenting Quesada 's artwork . Tim Marchman of The Wall Street Journal stated that having Spider @-@ Man makes a deal with the devil @-@ like Mephisto is " the rough equivalent of having Z @-@ movie director Uwe Boll film a studio @-@ funded prequel to Martin Scorsese 's Taxi Driver .
Spider @-@ Man creator Stan Lee praised the storyline and what he perceived as the courage its writers and creators showed in so drastically changing a popular and well @-@ established character . Lee said changes are needed to keep a series fresh and compared the criticism from fans to the backlash Marvel Comics received when Peter Parker and Mary Jane Watson married in the first place . However , in the newspaper strip he pens , he wrote a deliberate parody of the " One More Day " retcon , revealing that it was in fact a bad dream . Peter remains married to Mary Jane in the newspaper strip .
In a roundtable review at Newsarama , J. Caleb Mozzocco agreed that Spider @-@ Man was easier to relate to while young and single , but that retconning the marriage of Spider @-@ Man was unnecessary due to the existence of titles such as Ultimate Spider @-@ Man and Marvel Adventures Spider @-@ Man . He found the story confusing , wondering how this retcon made sense in the larger Marvel Universe as Spider @-@ Man played important roles in New Avengers and " Civil War " . Kevin Huxford claimed , " you can feel editorial mandate dripping from this " and called the story " utterly ridiculous , " while Lucas Siegel criticized Quesada 's decision to have heroic Peter Parker make a " deal with the Devil " for selfish reasons . Richard Renteria felt that the story 's conclusion was a missed opportunity " to add a new layer of guilt to Peter ’ s already rocky life by allowing May to finally have the send off she deserves , " while Troy Brownfield felt that the storyline damaged Marvel continuity and Spider @-@ Man 's decision was " selfish and childish , " not to mention " a big middle finger to the idea of marriage in comics . " He speculated preferable endings to the story before concluding , " As it stands , Peter , MJ , May . . . and the readers . . . all got a raw deal . " A more positive view came from Brandon Thomas , who felt that " One More Day " was " an incredibly well @-@ told story . " He praised the writing , in particular the morally ambiguous decision Peter has to make and the way he and Mary Jane deal with it together , as well as Quesada 's art , which he felt set the tone of " guilt , regret , and despair . " In regards to the change made in Spider @-@ Man canon , he said , " Peter Parker being married really isn ’ t a vital component of the mythos " and that it allowed Marvel to make " big , sweeping changes to bring things slightly more into focus and back on message . "
Wizard praised the artwork , specifically the way Quesada differentiated visually between the dark and light tones before and after the retcon . However , they felt " the entire set up and execution just doesn ’ t make sense " and failed to empathize with the characters and their decisions . They criticized the use of magic in a largely science @-@ based book , calling it " the biggest cheat since Dallas . " They also felt that the concept of making Spider @-@ Man more accessible was undermined by the new and unfamiliar characters .
In their coverage of the storyline , UK Television 's Channel 4 News also compared the reaction to " One More Day " to that of Dallas , claiming , " This controversial issue of the comic has been flying off the shelves but reaction from readers has been venomous . " Channel 4 speculated that the reason for the storyline was to make the comics more similar to the financially successful films and merchandise .
Comic book historian Peter Sanderson criticized the story for using a supernatural element to retcon the marriage and not maturely dealing with the issue of divorce , arguing the writers had forgotten stories where Spider @-@ Man dealt with his causing the death of Uncle Ben , drugs and child abuse . He wrote , " I expect there are people who are professional comics writers and editors , and people who will someday become professional comics writers and editors , who are outraged that Marvel had Spider @-@ Man make a deal with the devil . And these present and future writers and editors will be determined to undo it . We shall see whether it takes twenty years this time , or much less . " He found the story better than the Clone Saga in the respect that it altered an aspect of canon , instead of erasing it entirely . He also criticized the idea of a hero making a deal with one as evil as Mephisto , effectively the devil .
The direct sales estimates for the initial month of publication for the first issue of the storyline , Amazing Spider @-@ Man # 544 , was 146 @,@ 215 , putting it in second place after " World War Hulk " . This dropped to 110 @,@ 405 with Friendly Neighborhood Spider @-@ Man # 24 , 100 @,@ 300 ( and seventh position in number of sales ) for The Sensational Spider @-@ Man # 41 and the conclusion to the storyline , The Amazing Spider @-@ Man # 545 , was ranked second with estimated sales of 124 @,@ 481 .
= = Future direction = =
Marvel posted a sneak peek at the final pages of the first post- " One More Day " issue , Amazing Spider @-@ Man # 546 , and a two @-@ page spread penciled by John Romita , Jr. entitled " Spider @-@ Man : The New Status Quo ! " , which established the new continuity of Spider @-@ Man . The retcon brings back Harry Osborn from the dead ( in this new continuity , instead of having been dead he had been living in Europe for many years ) , and explains that although Spider @-@ Man unmasked himself during the events of the " Civil War " storyline , no one remembers who was behind the mask . Although Quesada would initially take the position that the changes to the timeline did not have to be explained since they were the result of magic , subsequent writers would , in short order , provide detailed , in @-@ continuity explanations for the changes .
In 2010 , Quesada wrote a sequel storyline , " One Moment in Time " . This story established that the only actual change Mephisto wrought upon the timeline was allowing a criminal to escape custody , causing a butterfly effect that prevented Peter and Mary @-@ Jane 's marriage as Peter was delayed in reaching the wedding , prompting Peter and MJ to reconsider marriage . The storyline also established that May was saved by Doctor Strange , despite Strange saying during " One More Day " that it was beyond his power to save her , who also worked with Iron Man and Mister Fantastic to create a mass mind @-@ wipe across the globe to protect Peter 's identity , using the Extremis as a dispersal system to simultaneously erase Spider @-@ Man 's identity and establish a ' psychic blindspot ' that prevents anyone from realising that Peter Parker is Spider @-@ Man , regardless of the evidence they might discover , unless Peter is unmasked in front of them .
= = Collected editions = =
The story has been collected into a single volume , One More Day , with an afterword by Stan Lee . The 112 @-@ page volume collects Amazing Spider @-@ Man # 544 @-@ 545 , Sensational Spider @-@ Man # 41 , Friendly Neighborhood Spider @-@ Man # 24 and Marvel Spotlight : " Spider @-@ Man - One More Day / Brand New Day " . The hardcover was published April 2008 ( ISBN 0 @-@ 7851 @-@ 2633 @-@ 3 ) , and the softcover in August 2008 . ( ISBN 0 @-@ 7851 @-@ 2634 @-@ 1 )
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= Valley , West Virginia =
Valley was a populated place and post office on the South Branch line of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in the U.S. state of West Virginia . It was centered near the intersection of West Sioux Lane and Depot Valley Road , now located within the present @-@ day corporate boundaries of Romney . Valley developed in 1884 following the completion of the South Branch line when the rail line 's original southern terminus and corresponding Romney Depot were built there . The United States Post Office Department established a post office at Valley on May 19 , 1928 , remaining in operation until its disestablishment on June 15 , 1937 . Following the closure of Valley 's post office , its mail was routed through the post office in Romney .
= = History = =
The land upon which Valley later developed was originally part of the South Branch Survey of Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron 's Northern Neck Proprietary . The South Branch Survey extended from the north end of The Trough to the confluence of the north and south branches of the Potomac River . Lord Fairfax originally planned to maintain the South Branch Survey as his personal manor , but later commissioned James Genn to survey the South Branch Potomac River lowlands for sale and lease in 1748 , with land lots ranging in size from 300 acres ( 120 ha ) to 400 acres ( 160 ha ) . Valley was located within the northern section of Lot Number 17 of the South Branch Survey , which Lord Fairfax granted to Samuel Earle in 1749 . Earle was a gentleman from Frederick County , Virginia .
By 1778 , Isaac Parsons ( 1752 – 96 ) was in ownership of Lot Number 17 . The parcel was later resurveyed for David Hunter by surveyor John Mitchel on April 17 , 1788 . Lot Number 17 was bound to the west by the Yellow Banks and the South Branch Potomac River below , to the north by Lot Number 20 , and to the south by Lot Number 16 . Most of the western area of the present @-@ day corporate boundaries of Romney were located within Lot Number 17 . Lot Number 17 's eastern boundary stretched between the present @-@ day Savilla @-@ Vale and Wirgman Hill neighborhoods of Romney . The location of Valley was not included in surveyor John Mitchel 's plan for Romney dated June 30 , 1790 , and the forested lands of Depot Valley remained undeveloped into the 19th century .
In 1883 the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad agreed to complete the South Branch Railway Company 's planned rail line between Green Spring on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad 's main line and Romney . Construction of the rail line began immediately . Completed in 1884 , it spanned a length of 16 @.@ 29 miles ( 26 @.@ 22 km ) . The original southern terminus of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad 's South Branch line and the Romney Depot were built at the southern end of Depot Valley , around which Valley developed . The South Branch line formally opened for traffic on September 1 , 1884 . It was at this time that Depot Valley received its name from the Romney Depot . The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad continued to operate the South Branch line and later acquired the property outright by deed on November 20 , 1912 .
The arrival of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad and Romney Depot to Depot Valley brought residential development on the hilltops to the west and east of Valley . On September 27 , 1911 , George Edward Harmison ( 1863 – 1916 ) conducted a public auction of Valley View farm 's fields atop Yellow Banks overlooking the South Branch Potomac River . The land was located atop the hill to the west of Valley . Harmison subdivided the fields into lots , and the planned development was known as the Valley View Addition to Romney . Harmison sold 21 of the land lots at the auction , and several lots were sold privately . A free lot was given to J. H. Newhouse , and Harmison set aside two lots on a bluff for the site of a future hospital , which he planned to deed to any entity willing to build one .
As Romney Depot 's passenger and freight services expanded and a populated place continued to develop around the depot , the need for a post office began to grow . On February 6 , 1928 , a " location form " was submitted to the United States Post Office Department suggesting that the Valley post office be located at Romney Depot in Depot Valley . The form noted the post office at Valley would be located a mere 1 @.@ 75 miles ( 2 @.@ 82 km ) northeast of the Vanderlip post office along the South Branch line . The United States Post Office Department established the post office at Valley on May 19 , 1928 . The post office at Valley was disestablished on June 15 , 1937 , and its mail was afterward routed to the post office at Romney .
Valley was included in a transportation map of Hampshire County compiled by John R. Ice in his New Descriptive Atlas of West Virginia published by Clarksburg Publishing Company in 1933 .
Beginning with the arrival of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad 's South Branch line to Romney in the 1880s , a passenger train conducted three trips daily ( morning , noon , and evening ) from the Romney Depot at Valley to Green Spring on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad 's main line . During the 1930s , passenger ridership on the South Branch line began to decline , and passenger service was finally discontinued shortly thereafter . A special passenger train carried students of the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind , arriving at Romney Depot in Valley in the fall , and departing in the spring to take the students home . The last special train to transport the students of the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind departed Romney Depot in the spring of 1941 . Freight operations from Romney Depot later ceased , and the station was closed and demolished soon after .
In 1972 , the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was merged into the Chessie System , which planned to close and abandon the South Branch line . The Romney spur through Depot Valley remained in service and was illustrated by the United States Geological Survey on its 1973 Romney Quadrangle topographic map . On October 11 , 1978 , the Chessie System transferred ownership of the South Branch line to the South Branch Valley Railroad , which in turn was owned and operated by the West Virginia State Rail Authority . During this transition , the Romney spur of the South Branch Valley Railroad was abandoned , after which all rail and commercial activity at Valley ceased .
= = Geography = =
Valley was located in Depot Valley approximately 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) northwest of downtown Romney . Depot Valley stretches 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) north from West Sioux Lane to Valley View farm , through which a small unnamed tributary stream of Big Run flows , paralleling Depot Valley Road and the former Romney spur of the South Branch rail line for the entirety of its course through the valley . Valley was connected to Romney to the southeast via West Sioux Lane . As of 2014 , the former location of Valley and the surrounding Depot Valley are covered by secondary forest . The residential areas on the hill to the west and on Depot Hill to the east remain .
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= HMS Agamemnon ( 1906 ) =
HMS Agamemnon was one of two Lord Nelson @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships launched in 1906 and completed in 1908 . She was the Royal Navy 's second @-@ to @-@ last pre @-@ dreadnought battleship to be built , followed by her sister ship , Lord Nelson . She was assigned to the Channel Fleet when World War I began in 1914 . The ship was transferred to the Mediterranean Sea with Lord Nelson in early 1915 to participate in the Dardanelles Campaign . She made a number of bombardments against Turkish fortifications and in support of British troops . Agamemnon remained in the Mediterranean after the conclusion of that campaign to prevent the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben and light cruiser Breslau from breaking out into the Mediterranean . Agamemnon shot down the German Zeppelin LZ85 during a bombing mission over Salonica in 1916 . On 30 October 1918 , the Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice of Mudros on board the ship while she was anchored at Lemnos in the northern Aegean Sea . She was converted to a radio @-@ controlled target ship following her return to the United Kingdom in March 1919 and began service in 1921 . Agamemnon was replaced by Centurion at the end of 1926 and sold for scrap in January 1927 , the last pre @-@ dreadnought in service with the Royal Navy .
= = Construction and description = =
HMS Agamemnon was ordered in 1904 and was the first warship built by the William Beardmore and Company 's Dalmuir Naval Construction Works . She was laid down on 15 May 1905 and launched on 23 June 1906 before the dockyards themselves were finished . Her completion was greatly delayed by labour troubles and by the diversion of the 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns intended for her to expedite completion of HMS Dreadnought , and she was not finally completed until June 1908 , six months before her sister Lord Nelson .
Agamemnon displaced 17 @,@ 683 long tons ( 17 @,@ 967 t ) at deep load as built , with a length of 443 feet 6 inches ( 135 @.@ 2 m ) , a beam of 79 feet 6 inches ( 24 @.@ 2 m ) and a draft of 26 feet 9 inches ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) . She was powered by two inverted vertical triple expansion four @-@ cylinder steam engines , which developed a total of 16 @,@ 750 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 490 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
The ship was armed with four BL 12 @-@ inch Mk X guns arranged in two twin gun turrets , one each fore and aft . Her secondary armament consisted of ten BL 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch Mk XI guns , in twin gun turrets on each corner of the superstructure , and a single gun turret between them , plus 24 QF 12 @-@ pounder 18 cwt guns . She also mounted five submerged 17 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) torpedo tubes for which 23 torpedoes were stowed aboard .
Agamemnon had an armour belt at her waterline that was 12 inches ( 305 mm ) thick , as were the faces and sides of her gun turrets .
= = Service = =
HMS Agamemnon commissioned on 25 June 1908 at Chatham Dockyard for service in the Nore Division of the Home Fleet . On 11 February 1911 , she grazed an uncharted rock in the harbour at Ferrol , Spain , and damaged her bottom . She was temporarily attached in September 1913 to the 4th Battle Squadron .
After the First World War began in August 1914 , Agamemnon was assigned to the 5th Battle Squadron in the Channel Fleet and was based at Portland . With other ships , she covered the safe transport of the British Expeditionary Force , under the command of Sir John French , to France . On 14 November 1914 she transferred to Sheerness to guard the English coast against the possibility of a German invasion . She returned to Portland on 30 December 1914 and was employed in the defence of the southern ports of England and patrols of the English Channel until February 1915 .
= = = Dardanelles campaign , 1915 – 16 = = =
In February 1915 , Agamemnon was ordered to participate in the Dardanelles Campaign . She departed Portland on 9 February , and joined the British Dardanelles Squadron at Mudros 10 days later . That was the second day of the opening bombardment of the Ottoman Turkish forts guarding the entrance to the Dardanelles and the ship immediately joined the attack . She also took part in the subsequent bombardment of the inner forts later in February . Agamemnon was hit by seven 240 @-@ millimetre ( 9 @.@ 4 @-@ inch ) shells in ten minutes on 25 February and was holed above the waterline , suffering three dead .
She supported the small amphibious landings of 4 March and participated in another bombardment on 6 March 1915 . She came under heavy fire from Fort Hamidieh on 7 March , taking eight hits from large @-@ calibre shells ; one of them , allegedly a 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) round , blew a large hole in her quarterdeck and wrecked the wardroom and the gunroom . She also took several hits by light shells that day , and , although she suffered damage to her superstructure , her fighting and steaming capabilities were not seriously impaired .
The ship also participated in the main attack on the Dardanelles forts on 18 March . This time a 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) howitzer battery opened fire on Agamemnon and hit her 12 times in 25 minutes ; five of the howitzer shells hit her armour and did no damage , but the seven that hit outside her armour protection did considerable structural damage and temporarily put one of her 12 @-@ inch ( 305 @-@ mm ) guns out of action .
On 25 April , Agamemnon supported the main landings as part of the 5th Squadron , and after that she patrolled to protect Allied minesweeping and netlaying vessels operating in the Dardanelles . In action against Ottoman field batteries , she took two hits between 28 April and 30 April , and she provided fire support for Allied troops during a Turkish counterattack on 1 May . Agamemnon bombarded Ottoman artillery batteries on 6 May prior to the Second Battle of Krithia .
Agamemnon was withdrawn to Malta later in May to undergo a refit and returned to the Dardanelles in June . On 2 December , the ship joined the protected cruiser Endymion and monitor M33 in bombarding the Kavak bridge , destroying several spans of it and interdicting Ottoman communications to the Gallipoli Peninsula .
= = = Mediterranean operations , 1916 – 18 = = =
With the end of the Dardanelles Campaign in January 1916 , British naval forces in the area were reorganized , and Agamemnon became part of the Eastern Mediterranean Squadron , which was re @-@ designated the Aegean Squadron in August 1917 . Under both names , the squadron was dispersed throughout the area to protect Allied @-@ held islands , support the British Army at Salonika , and guard against any attempted breakout from the Dardanelles by the German battlecruiser Goeben and light cruiser Breslau . Agamemnon spent the remainder of the war based at Salonika and Mudros , alternating between the two bases with her sister Lord Nelson ; Agamemnon was based mostly at Mudros , Lord Nelson mostly at Salonika . While carrying out these duties , Agamemnon damaged the German Zeppelin LZ85 on 5 May at Salonika with a shell from a 12 @-@ pounder and forced it to crash @-@ land .
Of all the responsibilities given the two ships , the most important was to guard the Eastern Mediterranean against a breakout by Goeben , but when Goeben and Breslau finally made their breakout attempt on 20 January 1918 , Lord Nelson was away at Salonika and Agamemnon could not get steam up to depart Mudros in time to participate in the resulting Battle of Imbros . After both German ships struck mines , Breslau sank and Goeben returned to the Dardanelles before Agamemnon could arrive on the scene .
Agamemnon underwent a refit at Malta in 1918 . On 30 October the Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice of Mudros on board Agamemnon while she was anchored at Lemnos in the northern Aegean Sea .
= = = Post @-@ World War I = = =
Agamemnon was part of the British squadron that went to Constantinople in November 1918 following the armistice . She returned to the United Kingdom in March 1919 , where she paid off at Chatham Dockyard and went into reserve on 20 March .
In September 1918 , the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Grand Fleet , Admiral David Beatty , had called for a large target to be provided which would allow realistic gunnery practice for the battleships of the Grand Fleet , which had seen little action since the Battle of Jutland in 1916 . Tests against armour plate in 1919 demonstrated that firing 15 @-@ inch ( 381 @-@ mm ) guns at any pre @-@ dreadnought would sink her quickly , but the use of a pre @-@ dreadnought for target practice and tests by guns of 6 @-@ inch calibre ( 152 @-@ mm ) or smaller seemed practical . At first the pre @-@ dreadnought Hibernia was suggested for target duties , but ultimately Agamemnon became available and was selected instead .
She was modified at Chatham Dockyard for use as a target ship between 6 December 1920 and 8 April 1921 . The ship was rewired for radio control and stripped ; the 12 @-@ inch turrets remained aboard , but all of her guns and their equipment were removed , as were her torpedo equipment , flying deck , sea cabins , main derrick and boat equipment , lower conning tower , masts and yards , most of her crew amenities , and other unnecessary equipment . Unnecessary hatches , coamings , scuttles , and lifts were removed and plated over , and she was ballasted differently than she had been as a battleship . It was not intended to sink her , so she was assigned a crew of 153 to maintain and operate her when she was not under fire .
Agamemnon 's first target service took place before her modifications were completed . On 19 March 1921 , she was exposed to a cloud of poisonous gas to determine the effect of gas on a battleship . It was found that gas could penetrate the ship via her various openings , but the ship had not been sealed against gas before the trial and no accurate results applicable to a commissioned battleship could be obtained . On 21 September , she was subjected to machine @-@ gun fire by strafing aircraft . These trials showed that such strafing could harass a battleship , but could not impair her fighting or steaming capabilities , and helped to determine protection for bridge personnel .
Agamemnon also was used to test the vulnerability of battleships to 6 @-@ inch ( 152 @-@ mm ) , 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 140 @-@ mm ) , and 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 @-@ mm ) rounds fired at her by ships such as the battlecruisers Renown and Repulse while she maneuvered under radio control . These tests showed that ships protected as well as Agamemnon , such as the later dreadnoughts , would suffer damage to their upper works if struck by such shells , but would not have their steaming or fighting capability seriously impaired even by numerous smaller @-@ caliber hits .
= = Disposal = =
Agamemnon was relieved as target ship by the dreadnought Centurion in December 1926 . By then the last British pre @-@ dreadnought battleship in existence , she was sold to J Cashmore of Newport , South Wales on 24 January 1927 for scrap , and departed Portsmouth Dockyard on 1 March to be broken up at Newport .
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= Ted Kennedy ( ice hockey ) =
Theodore Samuel " Teeder " Kennedy ( December 12 , 1925 – August 14 , 2009 ) was a professional ice hockey centre who played his entire career with the Toronto Maple Leafs from 1942 to 1957 and was captain for eight seasons . He was the first player in NHL history to win five Stanley Cups and is the last Maple Leaf to win the Hart Trophy for most valuable player . He was an essential contributor to the Maple Leafs becoming what many consider as the National Hockey League 's first dynasty . He was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1966 . He has been called the quintessential Maple Leaf and by some the greatest player in the team 's history .
Kennedy was raised in the small Ontario town of Humberstone , now Port Colborne . Kennedy was born just eleven days after his father was killed in a hunting accident . His mother , left alone to raise four children , took a job at the local hockey arena which became Kennedy 's second home . After a stellar junior hockey career , Kennedy first came to the attention of the Montreal Canadiens and attended their training camp while still in high school . However , after some disappointing experiences with Montreal management he signed shortly afterward with the Maple Leafs .
Although young , Kennedy was successful with Toronto from the start . In his first season , the 18 @-@ year @-@ old finished second on the team in scoring and then in his sophomore year was considered the star of Toronto 's upset of the record @-@ breaking Montreal Canadiens of 1944 – 45 . He would establish himself as the leader of the team and became captain in 1948 . Although not the best skater in the league , Kennedy was a fierce fore @-@ checker and skilled playmaker . Kennedy would be a perfect fit into coach Hap Day 's emphasis on defense and positional play . He gained a reputation for scoring the important goal and excelling in the playoffs . Kennedy holds the Toronto Maple Leafs ' all @-@ time record for career points in Stanley Cup finals and is the youngest player in the history of the NHL to have scored a Stanley Cup winning goal . A Sports Illustrated poll of hockey experts in 1998 rated Kennedy as having the best face @-@ off skills in the history of the NHL .
= = Youth = =
Ted " Teeder " Kennedy was born December 12 , 1925 , in the small village of Humberstone , Ontario , which in 1970 was amalgamated into the city of Port Colborne . Ted 's father , Gordon Kennedy , was killed in a hunting accident eleven days before he was born and his mother , Margaret , was left to raise a family of four children . To supplement her income she took a job selling confectioneries at a local hockey arena which became young Ted 's second home . When Ted was seven years old a family friend took him to Toronto to see the first two games of the 1932 Stanley Cup finals and from watching those games Maple Leaf right winger Charlie Conacher became his childhood hero . He wore Conacher 's No.9 throughout his minor hockey career . In Port Colborne , Kennedy was childhood friends with Elmer Iseler , who would find fame as a choir conductor and Don Gallinger who would find infamy when he was banned for life by the NHL for gambling while playing with the Boston Bruins in 1948 .
Kennedy played with the Port Colborne Lions in the Ontario Minor Hockey Association as a bantam , midget and juvenile . His nickname " Teeder " is a short form of his real name which was used by other neighbourhood boys because they could not pronounce " Theodore " and was overheard by a local reporter with the Welland Tribune . During Kennedy 's NHL years , newspapers often used the spelling " Teeter " . Kennedy was captain of the midget Port Colborne Lions when they won the O.M.H.A. Championship in 1941 . The Toronto Star described the 15 @-@ year @-@ old Kennedy as a " shifty rightwinger " who had " paced the Lions to victory , scoring five goals , two of which were solo efforts . " On May 7 , 1941 , at a banquet in Port Colborne honouring the championship team , one of the speakers was Hap Day , coach of the Toronto Maple Leafs . He spoke to the players , advising them that " keen desire " and " hard work " was required to get to the top in hockey as in any job in life and that hockey salaries were " equal to other leading professions " . Day then presented members of the team with jackets bearing the championship crest . In only two years , Kennedy would be playing for Hap Day 's Toronto Maple Leafs .
The next season Kennedy 's juvenile team made it to the finals . During the season , Kennedy had scored seven goals in one game and six in another and it was efforts such as those which were attracting the attention of professional hockey people . The first team to approach Kennedy was the NHL 's Montreal Canadiens , although for Kennedy " It was a boyhood dream to play for Toronto . " Dinty Moore , also of Port Colborne , brought Kennedy to the attention Montreal General Manager Tommy Gorman and Kennedy was put on their negotiation list . In the fall of 1942 , Montreal contacted the sixteen @-@ year @-@ old about joining the Canadiens . Kennedy 's mother was wary of a career in hockey for her son as he was also headed towards studying business at the University of Western Ontario . She agreed to let her son attend the training camp when Montreal scout Dinty Moore assured her Ted would receive a good education at Montreal 's prestigious Lower Canada College for which they would cover the cost . Upon arriving in Montreal , foreshadowing future troubles , Kennedy discovered there was no one from the Canadiens to greet him at the train . The teenager was left to his own devices to check into a hotel and make his way around the new city . Then later , as he tried to combine hockey and school , he became concerned his studies were suffering and approached Canadien management to ask if they could find him accommodation closer to the school . He felt they were unresponsive and he soon became disillusioned with the experience in Montreal . After three weeks in Montreal he was feeling homesick and upon completing spring training with the Montreal Royals , he returned to Port Colborne in mid @-@ November .
Back home , Kennedy played with the Port Colborne Sailors of the OHA Sr. league for the 1942 – 43 hockey season . The Port Colborne coach was former NHL star and Hall of Fame inductee Nels Stewart who had been hired in November . Stewart became a mentor to Kennedy , working on his playmaking skills . Kennedy credits Stewart with teaching him how to " operate in front of the net " . Kennedy finished the season second in the league , only one point behind scoring champion , Dillon Brady of Hamilton . It was during this time that Kennedy would have debuted as a player at Maple Leaf Gardens . OHA senior teams played at the Gardens on Friday evenings and this included Kennedy and the Port Colborne Sailors . At the end of the season , in early February 1943 , in spite of his having abandoned the Royals , Montreal scout Gus Ogilvie was sent to induce Kennedy to sign a contract with the promise that if he signed he would finish the season with the Canadiens in the NHL . Concerned about his treatment in Montreal , he declined , despite being warned by Ogilvie , " Well , you know , Ted , if you turn pro , it will have to be with the Canadiens . " Kennedy now thought his dreams of playing in the NHL were over . However , Nels Stewart believed in Kennedy , considering him " a coming great " , and recommended him to the Toronto Maple Leafs . Shortly thereafter , Kennedy was called out of his grade 11 Latin class to the Principal 's office . Kennedy , the high school student , was at first worried about what he may have done wrong , but it turned out to be a phone call from Nels Stewart . Stewart had arranged a meeting with General Manager of the Leafs Frank Selke and Kennedy would have to travel immediately to Toronto . Unlike Montreal , the Maple Leafs had someone there to meet Kennedy when he got off the train . Kennedy signed a contract that evening .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Style of play = = =
Although Kennedy was not a gifted skater , he compensated with a fierce determination and tireless hard work . Among modern era players his style of play has been compared to Bobby Clarke and Jarome Iginla . Line @-@ mate Howie Meeker said that while he was a much better skater than Kennedy , " He went from A to B just as fast I could because he went through people " [ sic ] . Kennedy would prove to be a perfect fit into coach Hap Day 's coaching style of emphasizing defense , positional hockey and physical play . He brought to the Leafs a classy , humble leadership and the knack for scoring goals when they were most needed . He would fight for every inch of ice and was difficult to separate from the puck . He was also known for his agility , stick @-@ handling , playmaking , passing skills and physical toughness .
Dick Irvin once compared the styles of Syl Apps , previous captain of the Leafs , to Kennedy in how the two centres used their wingers . " Apps used to hit the defense at top speed and Gordie Drillon would come along and pick up the garbage " , said Irvin . Whereas Kennedy would " go into the corners and get the puck out to their wings . " Hap Day had said he could see Nels Stewart 's influence on Kennedy . Like Stewart , Kennedy had a more upright lie on his hockey stick which kept the puck closer to his feet . Kennedy was also widely believed to be the best faceoff man in hockey and would seldom lose an important faceoff . Along with his regular shift , he would also play a role on the penalty kill .
= = = Making the team = = =
On March 3 , 1943 , Kennedy signed a professional contract with the Toronto Maple Leafs , but management of the Leafs still wished to see Kennedy playing in an NHL game . Late in the 1942 – 43 season , they received permission from Kennedy 's mother to take him out of school so he could accompany them on a road trip . He played in two of the final three games of the regular season , but did not continue with them into the playoffs . Making his NHL debut March 7 , 1943 , against the New York Rangers at Madison Square Garden , he was put on the Leafs ' third line on rightwing , instead of his customary centre position , on a line with Bud Poile and Gaye Stewart . He was told by coach Hap Day to simply " stay with your check and keep him from scoring . " Kennedy 's line scored three goals and he picked up one assist in a 5 – 5 tie . He then picked another assist in the next game in Boston . Kennedy had impressed the Leaf coaches , but his rights were still " officially " owned by the Montreal Canadiens .
Toronto first tried to buy his rights from Montreal , but a trade was arranged exchanging Kennedy for Frank Eddolls . Toronto newspapers of the day in reporting the trade described the 17 @-@ year @-@ old Kennedy as " a rangy youngster whose record in the OHA is exceptionally good " , that he was " highly recommended by other hockey men " and was a " high @-@ scoring right @-@ winger " . Nevertheless , interim manager Frank Selke had made the trade while Conn Smythe , owner of the Leafs , was away in service in World War II and Eddolls was one of his prized prospects . Smythe was furious when he discovered the trade , creating a rift between the two which ultimately led Selke to leave Toronto to manage the Canadiens . Ironically , Kennedy would eventually prove to be Smythe 's favourite player and he would come to call Kennedy " the greatest competitor in hockey " . Looking back , some hockey pundits have called the trade the best the Toronto Maple Leafs have ever made . In 2001 , Sports Illustrated writer and Montreal native , Michael Farber , included the Kennedy trade for Eddolls as one of " the five darkest days " in Montreal Canadiens ' history .
Kennedy played full @-@ time with the Leafs for the first time in the 1943 – 44 season . Although the Leafs had won the Stanley Cup in 1942 , at the time of Kennedy 's arrival the Leafs were a team decimated by the loss of some of its best players to the war effort . Andy Lytle , Sports Editor of The Toronto Star , wrote of the Leaf team eliminated from the previous season 's playoffs , " I do not suppose that Toronto was so weakly represented in the N.H.L. playoffs since the club originated . " During training camp , Kennedy read in a newspaper interview of Coach Hap Day speaking about the best new prospects on the Leafs , but he had failed to mention Kennedy . This served to fire up Kennedy to give an even greater effort towards making the team . Toronto 's first pre @-@ season exhibition game was against the St. Catharine Saints , a senior team now being coached by Kennedy 's former junior coach Nels Stewart . After the game , Kennedy approached Stewart for advice , because he was disappointed he had not scored in the game . Stewart , who was the all @-@ time NHL goal scoring leader until Maurice Richard overtook him in the 1952 – 53 season , advised when facing the goaltender to " either draw him out , or pick the corner . "
Kennedy began the season playing rightwing . Then , in mid @-@ December , Leaf centre Mel Hill fractured his ankle and was lost from the team . This gave Kennedy his first opportunity to play regularly at the centre position where he would remain for most of his career . In a January 8 game at Maple Leaf Gardens against the Boston Bruins , the mayor of Port Colborne presented Kennedy and Don Gallinger with gold watches on behalf of his town 's citizens . Kennedy would finish the season as the team 's second best goal @-@ scorer with 26 and was fourth in points . He was just 18 years old . In the playoffs , Toronto faced the powerful Montreal Canadiens . Although Toronto won the first game 3 – 1 , they were then swept in the next four and eliminated from the playoffs . The Toronto Daily Star said of Kennedy 's rookie season , " For our money the best rookie of the year though playing with one of the weakest lines in N.H.L. history . " Kennedy was ineligible for the rookie @-@ of @-@ the @-@ year award because of the two games he played with the Leafs at the end of the 1942 – 43 season .
= = = The first Stanley Cup and the great upset = = =
In only his second NHL season , Kennedy finished the 1944 – 45 regular season leading the team in goals and points with 29 goals and 25 assists . In the last game of the season against the New York Rangers , Kennedy 's line @-@ mates fed him pass after pass attempting to get him to 30 goals . The Maple Leafs finished in third place and would face the Montreal Canadiens in the opening round of the playoffs . The Montreal Canadiens of 1944 – 45 were a record @-@ breaking , powerhouse hockey team . Going into the playoffs the coach of Montreal , Dick Irvin , declared them as the greatest team to have ever played in the NHL . The Montreal club had the top three point leaders in the league , placed 5 of the 6 positions on the First All @-@ Star team , Maurice Richard had scored his famous 50 goals in 50 games , Montreal had finished 28 points ahead of Toronto and scored almost a goal @-@ per @-@ game more . As of 2009 , Montreal 's regular season winning percentage for 1944 – 45 is the fifth highest in NHL history and the year previously they had achieved the second highest in history and won the Stanley Cup . The Leafs were given little chance of winning the series .
As with all NHL playoff series of the era , the winner would be the first team to win four games of a best @-@ of @-@ seven . Going into the series , Hap Day made a critical decision to predominantly play only two lines of his best players to compensate for the Canadiens ' depth in talent . The first game was in Montreal and no goals were scored for the first two periods . In the third period , with just twenty @-@ two seconds remaining and everyone anticipating overtime , Ted Kennedy banked a backhand shot off the goalpost which then rebounded off goaltender Bill Durnan 's pads and into the net to win the game 1 – 0 . The goal shocked the Montreal team , especially as the famed " Punch Line " had been held scoreless . In the second game , also in Montreal , Kennedy struck again only four minutes into the first period scoring the all @-@ important first goal to put the Toronto ahead by 1 – 0 . Toronto went on to win the game 3 – 2 and were able to leave Montreal with an unexpected 2 – 0 series lead . Montreal won the next game in Toronto 4 – 1 . In the fourth game in Toronto , Montreal got off to a quick start and led 2 – 0 on goals by Elmer Lach and Richard , his first of the series , before the game was three minutes old . In the second period , Kennedy set up Mel Hill to get Toronto back in the game and the Leafs went on to win in overtime . As Toronto needed only one more victory to win the series , Montreal was facing elimination in game five in Montreal . Maurice Richard finally overcame Leaf checking and scored four goals in an 11 – 3 victory . However , Toronto won the sixth game in Maple Leaf Gardens 3 – 2 to win the series and complete the shocking upset . In the game , Toronto 's Elwyn Morris , a defenceman who had scored only one goal all season , sparked the Leafs when he stole the puck from Montreal defenceman Frank Eddolls to score the first goal of the game . Eddolls was the player traded to Montreal to bring Kennedy to Toronto . This series is considered one of the greatest upsets in NHL history .
On completion of the Montreal series , the Globe and Mail said of the 19 @-@ year @-@ old Kennedy , " Ted Kennedy 's all @-@ round display was the best individual performance of the six @-@ game set . " The Toronto Star was even more laudatory " There are a few great hockey players in the N.H.L. today . Kennedy is assuredly and emphatically one . " Kennedy said that the 1945 upset of the Canadiens was the peak event of his career .
Toronto faced Detroit in the Stanley Cup final . Toronto won the first three games of the series without giving up a goal , as rookie goaltender Frank McCool recorded consecutive shutouts . Toronto then had to ward off a determined Detroit comeback bid , before winning the Stanley Cup in the seventh game . Kennedy had continued with a strong performance against Detroit , scoring the game @-@ winning goal in game 2 , was chosen the first star ( best player ) of game 3 and scored all three goals in a 5 – 3 loss in game 5 .
Conn Smythe realized the importance of finding the right line @-@ mates for Kennedy , telling coach Hap Day in September 1945 , " we must get something really rapid to team up with this guy and we 'll be set for a decade with a first rate front line . " Smythe 's first attempt was to acquire future Hockey Hall of Famer Edgar Laprade , at the time a star in senior hockey whose rights were owned by the New York Rangers . A deal could not be made as New York General Manager Lester Patrick was asking for several players in return .
After the triumph of the previous season , the 1945 – 46 season was a complete loss for Kennedy . He got off to a slow start , beginning the season at right wing before being returned to his center position and he also fell ill . By January Kennedy had only 5 points in 21 games and was then lost for the rest of the season due to an injury to his foot , when a Boston Bruin player 's skate dug into his boot . With the Leafs also losing Captain Syl Apps to injury Toronto missed the playoffs .
= = = The NHL 's " first dynasty " = = =
On September 19 , 1946 , an informal ceremony was held in which former Leaf great Charlie Conacher presented Ted Kennedy with his No. 9 sweater he had worn during his career . Conacher had been Kennedy 's boyhood hero , but when Kennedy arrived Lorne Carr already wore No.9. Kennedy was initially given No.12 , then switched to No. 10 . When Kennedy heard Carr was retiring , he immediately wrote a letter to Leaf management requesting No.9. His Leaf team @-@ mates had always teased Kennedy about his compulsion , so they contacted Conacher and arranged for the ceremony . Conacher , now working as a broker , explaining why he was willing to take time off work said " He 's a good kid and a great player . You just can 't disappoint a guy like that . "
Conn Smythe instituted a major rebuilding campaign for the 1946 – 47 . Gone from the team was Sweeney Schriner , Lorne Carr , Bob Davidson , Mel Hill , Elwin Morris , Babe Pratt , Billy Taylor and new additions were Harry Watson , Jimmy Thomson , Gus Mortson , Garth Boesch , Joe Klukay , Don Metz , Vic Lynn and Howie Meeker . The team was very young , with six rookies in the lineup , and was felt to be two years away from challenging for the championship . However , some of those rookies , such as Boesch and Meeker , had just returned from the war and were more mature than most . As Hap Day observed , " They 'd been through real battles . "
Kennedy said that during this period , with all the changes on the team and with players returning from the war he had to " re @-@ establish myself as an NHLer . " Due to Kennedy 's poor start to the previous season , there was some talk around this time whether Kennedy was going to turn out to be just a " wartime flash in the pan " . Many of the players in the NHL during this period failed to stick with their teams once the war ended and the stars returned . However , Kennedy was one of the exceptions and he would quickly become one of the team 's greatest stars and a favourite of the fans . " Come on , Teeder ! " was to become a familiar rallying cry in Maple Leaf Gardens . The cheer , a howl that could be heard throughout the building , was performed by , the otherwise quiet , season ticket @-@ holder John Arnott whenever the Leafs needed a goal .
Kennedy became famous across Canada from the radio broadcasts of Foster Hewitt . It was not until the 1952 – 53 season that hockey games were broadcast on television in Canada .
Kennedy now centered a line between Howie Meeker and Vic Lynn and they clicked " immediately " . These were the line @-@ mates Smythe had been trying to find for Kennedy since 1945 . Kennedy served as the playmaker between the fast skating and goal scoring of Meeker and Lynn . Meeker had just returned from the war and Lynn had come up from the American league and both were hungry to stay in the NHL . " We were very eager people " , Kennedy recalled . The line soon acquired the nickname the " KLM " line .
At the end of the season Kennedy led the Leafs in points and they finished in second place to Montreal . In the first round of the playoffs Toronto faced Detroit . Except for a one @-@ sided 9 – 1 loss in the second game in Detroit , Toronto dominated the series and won in five games . Toronto now faced Montreal for the Stanley Cup . The match up was between the very young Maple Leafs and the veteran Montreal Canadiens who had dominated the NHL for the past four years . After Toronto lost the opening game by a one @-@ sided 6 – 0 , Canadien goaltender Bill Durnan was quoted in a Montreal newspaper as saying , " How did the Maple Leafs manage to get into the playoffs ? " Hap Day used the quote to inspire his team . In the second game , Kennedy opened the scoring at 1 : 12 of the game then assisted on line @-@ mate Lynn 's goal on the next face @-@ off putting the Leafs up 2 – 0 at less than 2 minutes into the game . Toronto went on to win the game 4 – 0 . In game 3 Toronto had built a 3 – 0 lead by halfway through the second , but Montreal battled back to close the gap to 3 – 2 . With Montreal pressing in the dying seconds of the game , Kennedy dug the puck out of a desperate scramble in front of the Toronto goalmouth , carried the puck up ice , then forcing goaltender Durnan to go down , he put the puck behind him to clinch the game . Toronto won game 4 in overtime 2 – 1 while the Canadiens won game 5 in Montreal 3 – 1 . Kennedy 's line came up with their best game of the series in game 6 . Montreal had taken an early two @-@ goal lead and appeared to be heading for a seventh game in Montreal . In the second period , Lynn tied the game with assists from Kennedy and Meeker . Then in the third with less than six minutes to go in the game Kennedy scored and Toronto held on to win the Stanley Cup .
Kennedy was voted the star in two of Toronto 's wins in Montreal , scoring the winning goal in both , and was described as the most determined player in the playoffs . He still holds the NHL all @-@ time record as the youngest player to score a Stanley Cup winning goal . Kennedy finished the playoffs leading the Leafs in points and was second overall . However , despite winning the Stanley Cup the Toronto Maple Leafs did not place a single player on either the first or second All @-@ Star teams .
= = = = " Strongest team ever " = = = =
The 1947 – 48 season brought Max Bentley to Toronto from Chicago in what has been called the biggest trade in NHL history as the Leafs gave up five regular players for the league 's scoring leader . Evincing the depth of the team at centre , Bentley played on the team 's third line , behind Apps and Kennedy . Decades later , Hap Day argued that this team was the strongest NHL team ever and Globe and Mail reporter Dick Beddoes also stirred up controversy by saying Wayne Gretzky would have been relegated to the fourth line on this Leaf team .
The Leafs finished in first place at the end of the regular season . Kennedy had finished the regular season third in points on the team behind the other two star centers Apps and Bentley , but it was Kennedy who was to dominate the playoffs . In the first round Toronto played Boston and eliminated the Bruins in five games . Kennedy set up the tying goal which led to an overtime win in game 1 and scored four times in the second game . But it was in the fifth and deciding for which he received greatest praise for his fore @-@ checking tenacity and clutch goalscoring . First , with Toronto down 2 – 1 and the Bruins having the better of the play , he out @-@ fought two Boston players for possession to get the puck to Bentley who in turn set up Lynn for the tying goal . Then later , Kennedy was carrying the puck into the Boston end . He passed to Meeker , who returned the pass , Kennedy faked once , moved in front of the net , forced goaltender Brimseck to go down , then lifted the puck over him . In the finals , Toronto swept Montreal in four straight games to win the Stanley Cup . Kennedy scored twice in the Cup @-@ winning game and finished leading all players in the playoffs in points with eight goals and five assists and he was also not given a single penalty in the entire playoffs . His checking and work in the corners has been credited as critical to the victory .
On the afternoon of Thursday , April 16 , 1948 , the Leaf players were greeted by thousands of Toronto fans as they got off the train from Detroit . They then rode open cars through a cascade of multi @-@ coloured paper and ticket tape through Toronto 's business district to arrive at a civic reception at City Hall . Speaking to the huge crowd , Conn Smythe announced that Kennedy would be succeeding Syl Apps as captain who was retiring .
In the off @-@ season , on Saturday , June 12 , 1948 , Kennedy married Doreen Dent of Toronto in Knox College Chapel in Toronto .
The Leafs struggled early in the 1948 – 49 season having lost Apps and Nick Metz to retirement , and then Kennedy for a month and Cal Gardner for two months due to injuries . By the end of January , Toronto was only one point ahead of the last place New York Rangers who had even played two fewer games than Toronto . Kennedy 's return to the team in mid @-@ January provided the needed spark to pull the Leafs out of their prolonged slump . Although finishing the regular season with a losing record of 23 wins 25 losses and 12 ties , they were able to place fourth , which was the last position qualifying for the playoffs . However , in the first round of the playoffs they defeated Boston in five games . Kennedy had scored the game @-@ winning goal which put Toronto up 3 – 0 in games . Toronto then faced the first @-@ place Detroit Red Wings . During the season , Detroit General Manager Jack Adams said of the Red Wings , " This is the greatest team in my 22 seasons here . " However , Toronto swept the Red Wings in four straight games to win their third consecutive Stanley Cup . Kennedy finished the playoffs with two goals and six assists to lead the Leafs in points and was second only to Detroit 's Gordie Howe overall .
This was the first time a National Hockey League team had won three Cups in a row and had not been accomplished since the Ottawa Silver Seven in the pre @-@ NHL era , 44 years before . The Leafs had also won 9 consecutive Stanley Cup final games dating back to April 19 , 1947 ( initial cup won on this date , with the following two wins being finals sweeps ) . This Toronto Maple Leafs team is distinguished as the first dynasty in the history of the NHL .
= = = = The Gordie Howe incident = = = =
At the beginning of the 1949 – 50 , Conn Smythe liked the Leafs ' chances for continued success , saying , " We 'll be hard to keep away from a fourth Stanley Cup , " but as the season progressed many hockey people felt Detroit would end the Leafs ' Stanley Cup streak . By the end of the season , Toronto had finished in third and Kennedy finished second on the Leafs in points .
The 1950 playoffs were overshadowed by an on @-@ ice mishap in the opening game between Toronto and Detroit , in which the Red Wings ' young star player , Gordie Howe , was seriously injured . Late in the game with Toronto leading 4 – 0 , Kennedy stole the puck from Detroit defenseman Jack Stewart and was carrying it down the left wing about six feet from the boards into the Detroit end of the rink . Stewart was pursuing him from behind and Howe was coming in fast from the side to try to cut him off . Kennedy saw Howe coming at the last moment , and was able to dodge Howe 's check while passing the puck to Sid Smith , but Howe could not stop and crashed head @-@ first into the boards , with Stewart falling on top of him . Howe sustained a concussion , facial fractures , and a lacerated right eyeball , and doctors had to perform emergency procedures on him at the hospital to save his life . Detroit coach Tommy Ivan and general manager Jack Adams accused Kennedy of deliberately butt @-@ ending Howe . Kennedy had not been assessed a penalty on the play . After the game Kennedy said , " I don 't know how he got it . I avoided his check along the boards and didn 't feel anything hit me , although he may have struck my stick . "
NHL President Clarence Campbell was at the game and was seated near where the incident occurred . After receiving a report from the game 's officials , Campbell called a news conference and said the injury was not Kennedy 's fault . Campbell also publicly rebuked Ivan for his accusation , saying , " That is a pretty serious business and a very vicious charge . " It was also argued that since Kennedy was a right @-@ handed shot , the butt @-@ end of his stick would have been towards the boards and away from Howe . Sportswriter Ted Reeve of the Toronto Telegram quipped , " How would a right handed stickhandler going down the left boards give anyone a butt end ? Unless he wanted to lift the snappers out of someone in the rail seats . " Howe was lost from the playoffs , but the incident influenced the momentum of the series . Detroit won the second game of the series 3 – 1 , a violent and fight @-@ filled affair which included a stick @-@ swinging incident between the Leafs ' Jimmy Thomson and Detroit 's Leo Reise and a fight between Kennedy and Ted Lindsay . After the game , Campbell threatened the players with fines if the violent play continued , and both teams continued to play hockey for the remainder of the series . However , Detroit was now determined to " win the series for Gordie " and defeated the Leafs in seven strongly @-@ contested games to eliminate them from the playoffs , going on to win the Stanley Cup .
In recovery from his hospital bed , Howe said , " Ted is too good a player to deliberately injure another player . " Then , years later , while still believing that he had been hit by Kennedy 's stick , Howe reiterated that there was no intent to injure on Kennedy 's part and considered his injuries self @-@ inflicted . However , the incident still continues at times to be described as a deliberate act by Kennedy . In 2001 , the The Sporting News ran an article on the 30 toughest players in the NHL . In referring to Howe 's injury , the incident was described " he was knocked heavily into the boards by Toronto 's Teeder Kennedy " .
= = = The Final Cup = = =
Except for being left with a lifelong facial tick , Howe made a full recovery and for the 1950 – 51 season as he finished the season leading the league in points . The Maple Leafs finished in second place behind Detroit . Kennedy finished second on the team in points behind Bentley and tied with Howe for the league lead in assists with 43 . In the first round of the playoffs Montreal upset Detroit and Toronto defeated Boston .
The Stanley Cup final between Montreal and Toronto went five games , but is remarkable as each game required overtime to be decided . In the third game , with the series tied at one game a piece , Kennedy both saved the game for the Leafs and won it . First , he prevented a goal by clearing a puck that was heading into the Toronto net , then , just fifty seconds later at the other end of the rink , he intercepted a clear @-@ out pass from Montreal 's Calum MacKay and scored to win the game . The fourth game was won by Toronto to lead the series 3 – 1 .
It was in the next game of the series which Leaf defenceman Bill Barilko scored one of the most famous goals in NHL history with a goal in overtime to win the Stanley Cup . However , without Kennedy 's face @-@ off skills Barilko 's goal would never have occurred . Montreal had been leading late in the game 2 – 1 and it appeared that the teams would be playing a sixth game in Montreal . With just 39 seconds remaining in the game , Toronto was able to get a faceoff in the Montreal end . Toronto coach Joe Primeau had pulled the goaltender so they could have six skaters . Primeau had the option of changing his players , but decided to leave Kennedy out to take the faceoff against Canadien Billy Reay . Kennedy 's plan on the faceoff was to get the puck to Max Bentley , who was stationed at the point . Then Montreal coach Dick Irvin decided to switch and have his best forwards , the Punch Line , out for this critical faceoff . Kennedy would be facing Lach instead . Kennedy later recalled he was relieved at the switch as he had trouble with Reay on faceoffs , but when Lach came out he felt " I had a chance , " Kennedy won the faceoff from Lach , got the puck to Bentley and from the ensuing scramble around the net Tod Sloan tied the game . The goal dispirited the Montreal team and led to Barilko 's famed overtime goal which won another Stanley Cup for the Leafs .
Following the 1951 cup , Kennedy said that without the Howe incident of the previous season , " we probably would have been the first team to win 5 in a row . "
= = = Latter years = = =
1950 – 51 season would be Kennedy 's last Stanley Cup . In the years following until Kennedy 's retirement in 1957 the Leafs would either finish out of the playoffs or lose in the first round . However , Kennedy continued to play productive hockey . The Leafs never missed the playoffs in the years Kennedy played a full season .
On October 13 , 1951 , the Leafs and the Chicago Black Hawks played an afternoon exhibition of hockey , prior to their regularly scheduled evening game , for Princess Elizabeth , the future Queen Elizabeth II , during her visit to Canada . It was captain Teeder Kennedy , representing the players , who greeted the Princess at the game . Kennedy said it was a thrilling moment and recalled thinking at the time , " Here 's a kid from the little village of Humberstone , Ontario being presented to the Queen . " The 1951 – 52 season was dominated by Gordie Howe and the Red Wings as they finished the regular season in first and then swept third place Toronto in the first round of the playoffs and Montreal in second round without losing a single game .
In a game in Boston in January of the 1952 – 53 season Kennedy suffered a separated shoulder in a scuffle with Milt Schmidt of the Bruins and underwent surgery . Originally thought lost for the season , Kennedy trained hard and was able to return to the Leafs in mid @-@ March . However , Toronto still finished out of a playoff position . Despite missing more than two months of the schedule Kennedy still finished second in points on the team . For his efforts Kennedy received the J. P. Bickell Memorial Trophy which is awarded by the Maple Leaf Gardens board of directors as the player most valuable to the Leafs .
For the 1953 – 54 season , Kennedy finished tied for second on the team in points and was elected to the NHL 's 2nd All @-@ Star team . The Leafs finished in 3rd place and were eliminated in the first round of the playoffs by Detroit in five games . At the end of the season , Kennedy announced his intentions to retire . Conn Smythe told reporters he had tendered Kennedy " the highest offer ever made a hockey player " . This was a raise above his $ 25 @,@ 000 yearly salary ( approximately $ 200 @,@ 000 in today 's dollars ) according to a contemporary newspaper report . However , Smythe said that Kennedy had told him that lately he felt " he hadn 't produced in proportion to what he 's been paid . " Smythe insisted the Leafs needed Kennedy as Toronto was a young team .
Smythe was able to talk Kennedy into playing the 1954 – 55 season . At the conclusion of the season , he would win the Hart Memorial Trophy , for most valuable player , and is the last Toronto Maple Leaf to have won the trophy . To this point Kennedy had had an impressive career . He had played on five Stanley Cup teams , something no other NHL player had achieved at the time . Toronto had only missed the playoffs twice during his eleven years , one of which Kennedy was injured . By age 22 he had won three Stanley Cups and was the youngest player to have scored 100 goals . Yet , Kennedy had never won an award , nor been elected to a first All @-@ Star team . Although he did finish third in the league in assists , awarding Kennedy the Hart was considered as much as an acknowledgement of his career as his performance in the season . Kennedy along with first ever Hart recipient Frank Nighbor , are the only forwards to have won the award without finishing in the top ten in league scoring . After the Leafs were swept in four straight games in the playoffs by the Detroit Red Wings , Kennedy announced his retirement . For the second time , Kennedy was awarded with the J. P. Bickell Memorial Trophy as most valuable Toronto Maple Leaf .
Although missing the entire 1955 – 56 season , he came out of retirement to play half of the 1956 – 57 season to help the Leafs who were short on players due to injuries and were struggling to make the playoffs . Kennedy returned November 27 to train himself back into shape after the Leafs had won only one game in their last 11 . He scored 22 points in 30 games , but the Leafs finished out of the playoffs . He shared the captaincy with Jim Thomson . A highlight of the season was March 16 , 1957 , when the Maple Leafs scored 14 goals against the New York Rangers and Kennedy got four assists in what is still the Leafs ' all @-@ time record for goals in a single game . When it became clear the team would miss the playoffs he sat out the last two games so the management could have a look at a young Frank Mahovlich . Kennedy said , " It was time for a new generation to lead the team . " Mahovlich had practiced with Kennedy the previous day and , in expressing regret at never having played in a game with Kennedy said , " Teeder Kennedy 's last practice was my first . "
During Detroit Red Wing Ted Lindsay 's attempts to form a players ' union in the 1950s , he was approaching selected leaders among the other five NHL teams . Although Kennedy was the lone holdout , which greatly disappointed Lindsay , he still respected Kennedy for not informing Conn Smythe about being approached . " I won 't squeal " , Kennedy told him . According to Glenn Hall , Conn Smythe " ostracized " his captain when he discovered Kennedy had not told him about Lindsay 's endeavors . There was speculation that this led to Kennedy failing to land a job with the Leafs after retirement .
= = Retirement = =
Kennedy continued for a short time after retirement as a salesman with Canadian Building Materials , with whom he had worked for during his hockey career in the off @-@ season , but soon left the company . In 1957 – 58 , he was the second coach of the Peterborough Petes OHA " Junior A " team before being succeeded by Scotty Bowman . After a successful season coaching Peterborough , Kennedy reportedly turned down an offer to coach the Toronto Maple Leafs prior to their signing of Punch Imlach .
He returned to Port Colborne to raise thoroughbred horses , which was an occupation he had been involved during his hockey career . Kennedy owned the Faraway Hills Farm and the St. Marys Thoroughbred Training Centre in Ontario which included a quarter @-@ mile indoor track . His horse , On Board , won the grand championship for stallions three times at the Canadian National Exhibition and at the Royal Winter Fair .
In 1966 Ted Kennedy was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame . In 1975 , an arena in Port Colborne , the Teeder Kennedy Youth Arena , was named in his honour .
Kennedy was a steward with the Ontario Racing Commission from 1977 to 1985 . In June 1979 , Kennedy was one of three stewards who scratched Come Lucky Chance from the $ 100 @,@ 000 Canadian Oaks after the horse had thrown its rider prior to the race . Infuriated by the ruling was the horse 's owner , 84 @-@ year @-@ old Conn Smythe . Although , Smythe was quoted as saying , " I 'll raise hell with only two of the stewards . " In July 1984 , Kennedy was one of the stewards for the Queen 's Plate , who ruled against an appeal by Larry Attard riding Let 's Go Blue that he was interfered with by the winning horse Key To The Moon . Kennedy was then head of security at Fort Erie Racetrack .
In 1987 , Kennedy appeared along with Leaf defenseman of the 1970s , Jim McKenny , in an educational video for the Ontario Government on the dangers to athletes of drug and alcohol abuse . Kennedy , an abstainer , said he was always considered " one of the boys " on the team even through he did not drink . Kennedy 's stellar career contrasted with McKenny , considered along with Bobby Orr as the best prospects in junior , had his career negatively impacted by alcoholism .
During his retirement , Kennedy also participated in Old @-@ Timers hockey for charity benefits . He was also an avid golfer , scoring a 215 @-@ yard hole in one in 1981 at Scarboro Golf and Country Club .
On October 3 , 1993 , Kennedy , along with Syl Apps , were honoured in a pre @-@ game ceremony by having banners raised at Maple Leaf Gardens .
In 1995 , it was reported Kennedy had again returned to live in the hometown of his youth Port Colborne . In 1999 , Kennedy underwent hip replacement surgery .
Ted Kennedy was inducted into the Ontario Sports Hall of Fame in 1999 .
Ted Kennedy died on August 14 , 2009 , in a Port Colborne nursing home , at the age of 83 , of congestive heart failure . He is survived by his wife Doreen , son Mark , two grandchildren and two great @-@ grandchildren .
Following the announcement of Kennedy 's passing , many fans and papers published tributes , while former NHL players paid their respects . Jean Béliveau , a former member of the rival Montreal Canadiens , expressed sadness upon the news , stating " I was certainly happy to play against him , and I 'm so sorry to hear ( of his death ) " . He would add " He was a complete centreman , a good playmaker , a good passer , good on faceoffs . " Brian Burke , the Leafs ' general manager at the time of Kennedy 's passing , issued a statement , reading " He truly was a man of great class and he was one of the most accomplished leaders in our team 's long history . " NHL commissioner Gary Bettman also issued a statement mourning Kennedy 's loss .
= = Legacy = =
= = = The quintessential Leaf = = =
Ted Kennedy never played for another team , never wanted to , and captained the Toronto Maple Leafs during its greatest era . He has been called the quintessential Maple Leaf . However , Kennedy was never voted to the First All @-@ Star Team . Frank Selke explained Kennedy " never made the First All @-@ Star team because he lacked one thing – colour . He 's been unlucky that way . " On another occasion Selke had said , " Many times men were named who were not his equal in all @-@ round effectiveness . " Despite Kennedy 's sparse acquisition of individual awards , many sportswriters consider Kennedy as possibly the greatest player to have played for the Toronto Maple Leafs . In the book The Maple Leafs Top 100 Kennedy is ranked second only to Dave Keon as the best Toronto Maple Leaf of all time . While The Hockey News ranked Kennedy at only # 57 on their list of the 100 Greatest Hockey Players , in 2009 The Edmonton Journal published a list of top 50 NHL players of All @-@ Time and Ted Kennedy finished at # 10 , ahead of all other Maple Leafs and such players as Howie Morenz and Patrick Roy . The list , with the intention of minimizing subjectivity , was compiled using voting for the Hart and Smythe trophies for most valuable player during the regular season and playoffs respectively . When the list was adjusted to account for the fact that goalies and defensemen are traditionally overlooked for the Hart , Kennedy 's ranking even improved to # 8 .
= = = Playoff performer = = =
Kennedy had the reputation for excelling in the playoffs . He was the first player in NHL history to win five Stanley Cups and by just age 22 he had already won three Stanley Cups . Kennedy holds the Toronto Maple Leafs ' all @-@ time record for career points in Stanley Cup finals with 23 . He is the youngest player in the history of the NHL to have scored a Stanley Cup winning goal when he scored the winning goal of game 6 in 1947 at 21 @.@ 4 years of age . Until the Pittsburgh Penguins won the Stanley Cup in 2009 , with 22 @-@ year @-@ old Sidney Crosby as captain , Kennedy shared the honours with Wayne Gretzky as the youngest captains to have won the Cup . In 2001 The Hockey News assembled a panel of five hockey experts to choose the winners of a " would @-@ be " Conn Smythe Trophy , for best playoff performance , had the trophy been awarded prior to the 1964 – 65 season . Using microfilms of newspapers of the day and studying statistics and quotes from writers and coaches they chose winners from 1917 – 18 to 1963 – 64 . Of the players chosen more than once , only Kennedy was chosen as many as three times for his playoff performances in 1945 , 1947 and 1948 . He is fourth all @-@ time in playoff goals and sixth all @-@ time in points for the Maple Leafs
= = = Face @-@ off skills = = =
His face @-@ off skills were highly regarded and it was considered invaluable . The April 27 , 1998 , issue of Sport Illustrated published " The Best Ever on the Draw " , a poll of NHL experts of the top ten players of all time for skills on the faceoff , and Kennedy was ranked at # 1 . Lloyd Percival once called Kennedy the " Billy the Kid " of hockey . Derek Sanderson , considered the best at faceoffs in the late 60s and 70s , related how his father had him watch Kennedy on the TV to learn the skill . In a 1987 interview Kennedy told a reporter , " I went all @-@ out at face @-@ offs . Your centre is your quarterback and our other guys knew exactly what I was trying to do . " In the 1970s , GM of the Leafs , Jim Gregory asked Kennedy if he would help the team to improve their face @-@ off performance . Kennedy agreed but with one stipulation . " This can 't involve ( just ) the centermen . It has to involve all five guys , " Kennedy told Gregory and coach Roger Neilson . " Everyone has to be in tune . Everybody has a job to do . This is a team . "
= = = Denouement = = =
In order to retain a consistent shape of the Stanley Cup , as there is only sufficient space for thirteen teams on each of the five lower bands , team names can only remain on the cup for 64 years . In 2005 the band for teams from 1941 to 1953 were removed and placed on display , thus Teeder Kennedy 's name no longer appears on the Stanley Cup .
= = Career statistics = =
GP |
= Games played ; G =
Goals ; A |
= Assists ; Pts =
Points ; PIM = Penalty minutes
* Stanley Cup champion
Sources : Total Hockey hockey @-@ reference.com
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= Brodir and Ospak of Man =
Bróðir and Óspak of Man were two Danish brothers who were active in the Isle of Man and Ireland in the 11th century . They are mentioned in the 12th century Irish Cogadh Gaedhil re Gallaibh and the 13th century Icelandic Njal 's Saga as key leaders who fought on opposite sides in the Battle of Clontarf in 1014 . The latter account names Bróðir as the killer of Brian Boru , the High King of Ireland . Both Boru and Bróðir died in the battle , although accounts differ as to who killed whom . Óspak fought on the side of Boru , was injured , and lost his two sons in the battle .
= = Life = =
Bróðir ( also Brodir or Brodar or anglicised as Broderick ) and Óspak ( also Óspakur , Ospakr or Ospak ) were two Danish brothers who lived on the west coast of the Isle of Man . According to Njál 's saga , Óspak was a heathen , described as " the wisest of all men . " Bróðir had been " a Christian man and a mass @-@ deacon by consecration " , but he had apostatised and become " of all men most skilled in sorcery . " Bróðir was tall and strong , with long black hair that he wore tucked in under his belt , and he was clad in a coat of mail " which no steel could bite . " Between them , they had thirty ships , and were described by Gormflaith as " men of such hardihood that nothing can withstand them " .
= = = From the Isle of Man to Ireland = = =
Some time in the 1010s , Brian Boru divorced his second wife , the thrice married Hiberno @-@ Norse Queen Gormflaith , and she began engineering opposition to the High King . Around 1012 , relations between Brian and Leinster had become so strained that revolt broke out among the Leinstermen . Gormflaith sent her son , the King of Dublin , Sigtrygg Silkbeard , to win first the support of Earl Sigurd of Orkney , and then of Bróðir and Óspak , at any price . Sigtrygg went to Man , where he persuaded Bróðir to come to Dublin by Palm Sunday . Sigtrygg promised both Sigurd and Bróðir separately that , if successful , they would be allowed marry Gormflaith and become High King of Ireland ; the terms of this agreement , however , were to be kept secret . Óspak was dissatisfied with the arrangement , and refused to " fight against so good a king " .
The events leading up to the Battle of Clontarf became part of a heroic tale in subsequent tradition , both Irish and Norse , and evil portents were recorded throughout the Norse world . According to Njál 's Saga , one night a great din passed over Bróðir and his men on the Isle of Man , so that they all sprang up from sleep and dressed themselves . Until dawn , this din was accompanied by a shower of boiling blood , which scalded many of them even though they covered themselves with their shields . As a result , " a man had died on board every ship . " On the second night , they awoke to a ghostly assault on their ships by flying swords , axes and spears . Again , this lasted till dawn , and a man died on every ship . On the third night , they were attacked by ravens with iron beaks and claws , once again causing a death in every ship .
Bróðir consulted his brother Óspak , who believed that the signs indicated that much blood would be shed on both sides , that Bróðir 's would all die speedily , that there would be a battle , and all his men would be dragged " down to the pains of hell . " Bróðir was so angered by this that he planned to slay Óspak 's men the next day . Seeing this plan , Óspak deserted his brother during the night with ten ships . He sailed around Ireland to Connaught , and up the River Shannon , to join Brian Boru as an ally . He told King Brian all that he had learned , took baptism , and gathered his men to come to Dublin with Brian 's forces a week before Palm Sunday .
= = = Battle of Clontarf = = =
According to Njal 's saga , Bróðir tried by sorcery to predict the outcome of the battle against Brian . He augured that if the battle were on Good Friday , King Brian would fall but win the battle ; but if they fought on any day before , all who opposed Brian would be killed . Brian was unwilling to fight on Good Friday , as he would not fight on a fast day , but the Danes forced the battle to the Friday , which fell that year on 23 April .
Thus , the two brothers , Bróðir and Óspak , met again at the Battle of Clontarf , on diagonally opposite wings . Bróðir had brought with him 1000 mail @-@ clad Norsemen , and led the " murderous foreign Danes " alongside Earl Sigurd of Orkney . On the wing directly opposite Bróðir was Wolf the Quarrelsome , one of Brian 's followers . Bróðir drove deep into the opposite wing , " and felled all the foremost that stood there " , as his mail protected him from swordblows . When Wolf turned to meet him , however , he " thrust at him thrice so hard that Bróðir fell before him at each thrust " , and Bróðir " fled away into the wood at once . " The two sides were very evenly matched , and the battle raged all day , from high tide at sunrise to sunset . However , Bróðir 's absence reduced the morale of his men , and the Manx Vikings began to flee back to their ships after they were broken by the personal bodyguard of Murchad , the son of Brian , ending in an eventual victory for Brian 's allies .
Meanwhile , Brian , now in his seventies , had been advised to await the outcome of the battle in a tent not far from the field , and it is said that a traitor in the Irish camp , possibly Tadhg O Ceallaigh , King of Uí Maine , had pointed out Brian 's position to Bróðir at some point during the battle . Accounts differ over whether Bróðir was the killer of Brian Boru . According to one Irish account , Bróðir overcame Brian 's guard , only to be killed by the High King who then killed himself . Njal 's saga records that Bróðir killed Brian and cried out : " Now let man tell man that Brodir felled Brian . " Two of Brian 's followers , Wolf and Kerthialfad , returned to the king , and captured Bróðir and the remainder of his men . According to the saga , " Wolf the Quarrelsome cut open his belly , and led him round and round the trunk of a tree , and so wound all his entrails out of him , " while Bróðir 's men were " slain to a man " . The modern Irish medievalist historian Donnchadh Ó Corráin , however , merely states that Bróðir was killed on the day of the battle and that Brian was killed in his tent " by Norsemen fleeing from the scene " .
According to Njal 's Saga , Óspak was on the wing opposite King Sigtrygg Silkbeard . Óspak went through the entire battle on this wing , and was sorely wounded and lost both his sons before Sigtrygg fled . However , that Óspak engaged Sigtrygg contradicts the historical opinion that Sigtrygg did not actually take part in the battle but was instead holding the garrison in reserve in Dublin .
= = Historicity and legacy = =
The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography notes that the Irish surname Ó Bruadair — frequently anglicised as " Broder " or " Broderick " — may be an amalgamation of the Irish element " Ó " ( " grandson of " ) and the Norse name Brodir . However , although Norse origins are often claimed for the surname , it has been on record in Ireland for centuries before the Anglo – Norman invasion . The name occurs most commonly in Munster and south @-@ east Leinster .
An article on the historicity of the Icelandic sagas notes that " Brodir " is not a Norse proper name at all , and is itself derived from the Irish name variously written as Bruattar , Bruadar or Brodur . According to the article , the name first appears in the Annals of Ulster in the year 853 , when a princeling of south @-@ east Ireland named Bruattar mac Aeda was involved in the murder of a rival before being slain himself . The name only appears in Norse context twice — at the Battle of Clontarf , and in 1160 for the King of Dublin , Brodur son of Porkel — and had a longer circulation in Irish literature . The same article also suggests that while there is no doubt about the historical truth of the Battle of Clontarf , the name " Ospakr " , along with other names in the Njál 's saga account of the Clontarf episode , may have been borrowed from the Landnámabók .
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= God of War ( series ) =
God of War is an action @-@ adventure video game series loosely based on Greek mythology , originally created by David Jaffe at Sony 's Santa Monica Studio . Debuting in 2005 , the series has become a flagship title for the PlayStation brand , consisting of seven games across multiple platforms . An eighth installment is currently in development ; it will be a soft reboot for the series and will be loosely based on Norse mythology . The series ' story centers around its playable character , Kratos , a Spartan warrior tricked into killing his wife and daughter by his former master , the God of War Ares . Kratos kills Ares at the behest of the goddess Athena and takes his place as the new God of War , but is still haunted by the nightmares of his past . Revealed to be a demigod and the son of Zeus , the King of the Olympian Gods who betrays Kratos , the Spartan then seeks revenge against the gods for their machinations . What follows is a series of attempts to free himself from the influence of the gods and the Titans and exact revenge .
Santa Monica has developed all main entries , while Ready at Dawn and Javaground / Sony Online Entertainment @-@ Los Angeles ( SOE @-@ LA ) developed the three side games . Sony Interactive Entertainment ( SIE ; formerly Sony Computer Entertainment ) has published all games except the mobile phone installment ; it was published by Sony Pictures Digital . There are two eras of games in the God of War series . The first era are the first seven games , which are based on Greek mythology with vengeance as a central motif . Its main trilogy — God of War ( 2005 ) , God of War II ( 2007 ) , and God of War III ( 2010 ) — was released for the PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) and PlayStation 3 ( PS3 ) video game consoles . The fourth main installment , Ascension ( 2013 ) , a prequel to the entire series , was also released for the PS3 and features multiplayer . The three side games include Chains of Olympus ( 2008 ) and Ghost of Sparta ( 2010 ) for the PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) , and Betrayal ( 2007 ) for mobile phones that support the Java Platform , Micro Edition ( Java ME ) . Santa Monica is currently working on the eighth installment , also titled God of War , for the PlayStation 4 ( PS4 ) . It will begin the second era , which will be based on Norse mythology .
In addition to the individual games , two collections featuring remastered versions of both PS2 installments , God of War Collection ( 2009 ) , and both PSP installments , Origins Collection ( 2011 ) , were released on the PS3 by Bluepoint Games and Ready at Dawn , respectively . Another collection , God of War Saga ( 2012 ) , was released for the PS3 and features God of War Collection , Origins Collection , and God of War III . Sanzaru Games ported God of War Collection to the PlayStation Vita in 2014 . In celebration of the franchise 's tenth anniversary , God of War III Remastered was released on PS4 in 2015 and was ported by Wholesale Algorithms .
Games in the series have been praised for being the best action games for the PlayStation brand , and some of the best action games of all time . In June 2012 , Sony reported that the series had sold more than 21 million copies worldwide . Strong sales and support of the series led to the franchise 's expansion into other media , such as a comic book series — God of War ( 2010 – 11 ) — two novels — God of War ( 2010 ) and God of War II ( 2013 ) — and a web @-@ based graphic novel — Rise of the Warrior ( 2012 – 13 ) . A film adaptation of the original installment has been in development since 2005 . Merchandise promoting the series has also been produced , including artwork , clothing , toys , and prop replicas .
= = Games = =
= = = First era ( Greek mythology ) = = =
God of War was first released in North America on March 22 , 2005 , for the PlayStation 2 . After ten years in the service of the Olympian gods , Spartan soldier Kratos is tasked by Athena to find Pandora 's Box ; the key to defeating Ares , the God of War , who is running amok through Athens . A series of flashbacks reveals that Kratos was once the servant of Ares , who saved the Spartan and his army from annihilation in battle , but tricked him into killing his family which forced his metamorphosis into the " Ghost of Sparta " . Kratos eventually finds Pandora 's Box , and after finally killing Ares , he ascends to Mount Olympus to become the new God of War .
God of War II was first released in North America on March 13 , 2007 , for the PlayStation 2 . Angered at his fellow gods , Kratos runs amok across the city of Rhodes . Zeus intervenes and betrays Kratos , who is saved by the Titan Gaia . She tells him he must now find the Sisters of Fate , who can change his fate and prevent his death at the hands of Zeus . Kratos is ultimately successful and as he is about to kill the god , Athena sacrifices herself to save Zeus and preserve Olympus , and tells Kratos that he is the son of Zeus . Kratos then joins forces with Gaia and the Titans to attack Olympus .
God of War : Betrayal was released on June 20 , 2007 , for mobile phones supporting Java ME . It is the only game in the series to be released as a two @-@ dimensional ( 2D ) side @-@ scroller and released on a non @-@ PlayStation platform . The game 's narrative takes place between the events of Ghost of Sparta and God of War II . Kratos is framed for murder , and rampages across Greece seeking the true assassin . Kratos succumbs to bloodlust and kills Ceryx , the son of the god Hermes — an act that alienates him from his fellow gods .
God of War : Chains of Olympus was first released in North America on March 4 , 2008 , for the PlayStation Portable . Its narrative takes place during Kratos ' ten years of service to the gods . Kratos halts a Persian invasion of the Greek city of Attica , and learns that the world has been plunged into darkness by the god Morpheus . Kratos investigates the abduction of the sun god Helios , and prevents the Machiavellian plan of the goddess Persephone to use the Titan Atlas to destroy the world .
God of War III was first released in North America on March 16 , 2010 , for the PlayStation 3 . Reigniting the Great War , Kratos is soon abandoned by the Titans , who were only using him to exact their own revenge . Helped by the spirit of Athena who was elevated to a new level of understanding , she instructs him to seek the Flame of Olympus in order to defeat Zeus . Kratos engages the gods and the Titans in an epic series of battles across the Underworld and Olympus and learns that Pandora 's Box is within the Flame . He discovers that Pandora herself is the key to pacifying the Flame and allowing him to open the Box . After finally killing Zeus , he refuses to help Athena assume the role of new patron of mankind and disappears .
God of War : Ghost of Sparta was first released in North America on November 2 , 2010 , for the PlayStation Portable . Set between the events of God of War and Betrayal , Kratos , the God of War , is still haunted by visions of his mortal past and embarks on a quest to discover his origins by finding his mother , Callisto . He learns that his brother Deimos was taken by the gods and imprisoned by the God of Death , Thanatos , and decides to find and save his sibling . Although successful , Thanatos engages the brothers in combat , and kills Deimos . Kratos then kills Thanatos and returns to Olympus , further enraged at the gods .
God of War : Ascension was first released in North America on March 12 , 2013 , for the PlayStation 3 . It is the only game in the series to feature multiplayer for both competitive and cooperative play . Set six months after Kratos killed his wife and child , he has been imprisoned by the three Furies for breaking his blood oath to Ares . With the help of the oath keeper Orkos , Kratos learns that Ares and the Furies plan to overthrow Mount Olympus . The Spartan escapes his imprisonment , subsequently killing the Furies , and Orkos , who begs for release . Although free of Ares ' bond , Kratos begins to suffer the nightmares that plague him for years .
= = = Second era ( Norse mythology ) = = =
The next installment , also titled God of War , was officially announced at Sony 's 2016 Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) press conference with a gameplay trailer . The trailer showed a fully bearded Kratos , who now has a son , and Kratos is teaching the boy how to hunt . The end of the trailer showed the title God of War and confirmed it is in development for the PlayStation 4 . Gameplay in the trailer showed elements similar to role playing games ( RPG ) , such as archery knowledge points , as well as a Spartan Rage timed @-@ ability during battle . The game will take place many years after the events of God of War III and will be set in the world of Norse mythology ; a concept originally considered by David Jaffe after Kratos eliminated the Greek gods . Although further games have not been officially announced , Cory Barlog confirmed that this new installment would not be Kratos ' last game .
= = = Collections and remasters = = =
God of War Collection was first released in North America on November 17 , 2009 , for the PlayStation 3 — the franchise 's first appearance on the platform . It is a remastered port of God of War and God of War II . The games were ported by Bluepoint Games and feature high @-@ definition 1080p anti @-@ aliased graphics at 60 frames per second and trophies . Sanzaru Games later ported the collection to the PlayStation Vita and it was released in May 2014 — the franchise 's only appearance on this platform .
God of War : Origins Collection was first released in North America on September 13 , 2011 , for the PlayStation 3 . It is a remastered port of the two PlayStation Portable installments in the series — Chains of Olympus and Ghost of Sparta . God of War Origins was ported by Ready at Dawn and features 1080p high @-@ definition video , anti @-@ aliased graphics at 60 frames per second , DualShock 3 rumble features , trophies , and it is the only God of War release to feature Stereoscopic 3D .
God of War Saga was released in North America on August 28 , 2012 . It is a collection of five of the God of War games for the PlayStation 3 , released as part of Sony 's PlayStation Collections line . The collection includes God of War , God of War II , God of War III , Chains of Olympus , and Ghost of Sparta . It features two Blu @-@ ray Discs — God of War I and II on the first and III on the second — and a voucher to download Chains of Olympus and Ghost of Sparta . The games retain the same features as their first PS3 releases .
God of War III Remastered was first released in North America on July 14 , 2015 , for the PlayStation 4 — the franchise 's first appearance on the platform . It is a remastered version of God of War III , and it features full 1080p support targeted at 60 frames per second and a photo mode . The game 's announcement and release was in celebration of the franchise 's tenth anniversary . It was ported by Wholesale Algorithms .
= = Gameplay = =
The series consists of six single @-@ player only games , and a seventh that includes multiplayer . Each game typically features a third @-@ person , fixed cinematic camera . The player controls the character Kratos in a combination of combat , platforming , and puzzle game elements to achieve goals and complete the story . A first @-@ person camera is featured in God of War III and Ascension . Betrayal is the only installment to feature a 2D side @-@ scrolling view .
Kratos ' main weapon is a pair of double @-@ chained blades that appear in three iterations throughout the series : the Blades of Chaos , the Blades of Athena ( or Athena 's Blades ) , and the Blades of Exile . They each perform similarly , but differ in the types of combos and amount of damage each yields , as well as cosmetic differences . Other weapons ( such as the Blade of Artemis in God of War ) are also obtained during the games . Magic is also used , and four abilities ( such as Poseidon 's Rage , Medusa 's Gaze , Zeus ' Fury , and Army of Hades in God of War ) are typically acquired . God of War III differs in that instead of separate abilities , there are four primary weapons that possess their own respective magic offensive . The game also featured " Items " — additional secondary weapons with limited usage , such as the Bow of Apollo . With each new game , most weapons and magic are lost via a plot device , and a new arsenal of weapons and abilities are acquired during gameplay . God of War : Ascension differed from previous games in that instead of acquiring new weapons that are kept throughout the entire game , the player collects up to five World Weapons ( such as a sword or a javelin ) that have limited usage . When there is not a World Weapon equipped , the player can punch or kick foes as part of a new mechanic added to the game .
The series offers combo @-@ based combat , and includes a quick time event ( QTE ) feature , also called context sensitive attacks , which is initiated when the player has weakened a foe . It allows limited control of Kratos during the QTE cinematic sequence ; success ends the battle , while failure usually results in damage to the player . As well as the QTE system , Ascension features a prompt @-@ less free @-@ form system , allowing players the choice of when to attack or dodge based on the enemy 's actions . A grab maneuver can be used on minor foes .
Relics , which the player can use in successive games ( such as Poseidon 's Trident obtained in God of War allowing Kratos to swim underwater for extended periods ) are also found and necessary for game progression . Kratos often has a special ability , which provides temporary invulnerability and increased attack damage . This ability has become an ongoing feature of gameplay throughout the series — Rage of the Gods in God of War and Ascension , Rage of the Titans in God of War II , Rage of Sparta in God of War III , and Thera 's Bane in Ghost of Sparta . This ability can be recharged by building hits on foes in combat , and gaining game @-@ specific orbs . Thera 's Bane , however , is recharged automatically .
Gorgon Eyes and Phoenix Feathers , found throughout the game in unmarked chests ( white chests in Ascension ) , increase the maximum amount of health and magic , respectively . Minotaur Horns , which increase the Items and Fire meter 's maximum length , are available in God of War III and Ghost of Sparta , respectively . The Items meter allows the use of secondary weapons , called Items , and the Fire meter allows the use of Thera 's Bane . The meters are increased in increments and reach their maximum once a certain number of Eyes , Feathers , and Horns are found . Other chests contain green , blue , or red orbs . Green orbs replenish the player 's health , blue orbs replenish magic allowing further usage , and red orbs provide experience for upgrading weapons and magic for new , more powerful attacks , and replenish the Rage meter in God of War . Gold orbs are found in God of War II and Ascension and replenish the rage meter instead of red orbs ( white orbs replaced the gold orbs in God of War III ) . Chests with changing colors , which allow players to choose which meter to replenish , have also been available . Red orbs can also be collected by killing foes and destroying certain inanimate objects . Bosses and more powerful opponents release a combination of colored orbs when killed via the quick @-@ time feature .
With the exception of Ascension , each installment offers a challenge mode , which yields extra red orbs , secret costumes , and behind @-@ the @-@ scenes videos . Bonus content can also be unlocked by defeating the game 's difficulty levels . Battle arenas , which allow players to set difficulty levels and choose their own opponents , are included in God of War II , Betrayal , God of War III , and Ghost of Sparta . A quick @-@ time sex mini @-@ game is also included in each installment except Betrayal and Ascension .
Ascension introduced online multiplayer to the series for both competitive and cooperative play . Up to eight players on two teams of two to four players ( or a four to eight player deathmatch ) battle for control of a map in order to earn rewards from the gods . Players can also fight each other in one @-@ on @-@ one matches . Players must sell their champion 's soul to either Zeus , Hades , Ares , or Poseidon , which allows players to try different weapons , armor sets , and powers inspired by the god of their choice , and extras can be unlocked .
= = Development = =
= = = Main series = = =
After the success of their first game Kinetica ( 2001 ) , SIE Santa Monica Studio began development of God of War in 2002 , and unveiled it two years later at SCEA Santa Monica Gamers ' Day 2004 . Game director and creator David Jaffe said that although the idea for God of War was his own , the concept owed a debt to Capcom because he had played Onimusha and said " let 's do that with Greek Mythology " . He was inspired in part by the 1981 feature film , Clash of the Titans , saying , " the real high concept for me was ... merging it with Heavy Metal magazine " . He said he liked both " the kids stuff ... with Greek Mythology " and the idea of adding more adult themes such as sex and violence . He was also inspired by the 1981 film Raiders of the Lost Ark . Although the game is based on Greek mythology , the development team gave themselves " lots of freedom " to modify the myths , and Jaffe said they took the " coolest aspects of the subject " and created art and story using those elements . Director of visual development and lead concept artist , Charlie Wen , drew inspiration from these films as well as more contemporary films such as Gladiator ( 2000 ) for tonal inspiration to lead the visual design of Kratos , other characters , and the world of God of War . GameSpot said the developers described the gameplay " as merging the action of Devil May Cry with the puzzle @-@ solving of Ico " and noted that players would be able to " sunder enemies with a single move , such as by ripping them in half " . The game uses Santa Monica 's Kinetica engine , which they developed for Kinetica .
A sequel to God of War was first teased at the end of its credits , which stated , " Kratos Will Return " . God of War II was officially announced at the 2006 Game Developers Conference ( GDC ) . David Jaffe stepped down and became the creative director of its sequel and God of War 's lead animator Cory Barlog assumed the role of game director . Barlog said that in the game , players would see " a larger view of Kratos ' role within the mythological world . " Like God of War , the game uses Santa Monica 's Kinetica engine . Magic attacks became an integral part of the combat system and it was more refined . New creatures and heroes from the mythology , and more boss battles were added . Both Jaffe and Barlog said that they did not view God of War II as a sequel , but rather a continuation of the previous game . Jaffe said that they did not want to include the Roman numeral number two ( II ) in the title for this reason , but they did not want the title to convey the impression it was an expansion pack . Both Jaffe and Barlog said that the reason God of War II appeared on the PlayStation 2 instead of the PlayStation 3 — which was released four months prior to God of War II — was because " there 's a 100 million people out there that will be able to play God of War II as soon as it launches . " Barlog assured that the game would be playable on the newer platform , which had PlayStation 2 backwards compatibility .
God of War III was first mentioned by Cory Barlog at a God of War II launch event , and it was officially announced at the 2008 Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) . After the first eight months of development , Barlog left Santa Monica for unexplained reasons and Stig Asmussen ( lead environment artist and art director on God of War and God of War II , respectively ) became director . Asmussen said that one of the greatest challenges in developing God of War III for the PlayStation 3 was the " complexity of everything " ; individual tasks , such as designing Helios ' decapitation , could take a year because the " level of detail [ that was ] expected [ was ] so high and intricate , it [ crossed ] multiple departments . " He said that the PlayStation 3 's hardware capabilities allowed more flexibility in character creation and interaction with the environment . The engine for God of War III was ported from the first two installments to the PlayStation 3 . As the game was being developed , the code department swapped out PlayStation 2 components with PlayStation 3 components . They replaced the renderer , the particle system , and the collision system . Although they were re @-@ using the engine from God of War II , the core engine for God of War III was brand new . Between E3 2009 and the time the game shipped , morphological anti @-@ aliasing ( MLAA ) was added , which graphics engineer Ben Diamand said " improved edges dramatically and saved substantial amounts of frame @-@ rate . " Diamand also said that " depth @-@ of @-@ field , motion blur , crepuscular ' god ' rays and refraction were either added or improved in quality and speed " during that same time period .
On April 12 , 2012 , Sony released a teaser image for Ascension on its official PlayStation Facebook page , which was followed by the game 's announcement on April 19 on PlayStation.Blog. Todd Papy , who had previously worked as a designer on God of War and God of War II and as design director on God of War III , assumed the role of game director ; God of War III director Stig Asmussen was busy with another project at Santa Monica and did not work on Ascension . The announcement officially confirmed the game 's title and Papy said it was not titled God of War IV to avoid confusion because it is a prequel , rather than a sequel , to the trilogy . The game features a retooled God of War III engine , enabling online multiplayer battles for up to eight players . The decision to add multiplayer came about from curiosity , according to lead combat designer Jason McDonald . The multiplayer was first tested using Kratos , and McDonald said the testers had " a lot of fun " . Seeing their reaction made the team feel that the multiplayer had value and they then began to put the " God of War spin on it " . In the developmental transition from God of War III to Ascension , one of the graphics engineers , Cedric Perthuis , noted that the limits of the God of War III engine restricted artist creativity , so they " tried to remove or push those limits as far as possible without losing any performance . " Ascension did not have a graphical leap over its predecessor like God of War III did . Dynamic lighting was added , which allowed for development of the Life Cycle gameplay mechanic . Particle effects were also greatly improved upon from God of War III .
= = = PSP games = = =
Game developer Ready at Dawn pitched the idea of a God of War game for the PlayStation Portable to Santa Monica Studio soon after the original God of War launched . Cory Barlog officially confirmed the development of Chains of Olympus at a God of War II launch event , stating " It is its own story that connects to the overall story . " Chains of Olympus uses a proprietary , in @-@ house engine referred to as the Ready at Dawn engine , which expanded on the engine created for their previous game , Daxter ( 2006 ) . Originally designed for the PlayStation Portable 's restricted 222 megahertz ( MHz ) processor , Ready at Dawn convinced Sony to increase the clock speed of the PSP to 333 MHz , which they did in a firmware upgrade . The faster processor allowed for more realistic blood effects , lighting effects , and shadows as well as improved enemy intelligence , but noticeably decreased battery life . After the game 's completion , game director Ru Weerasuriya stated multiplayer options and other puzzles , characters , and dialogue had to be removed due to time constraints .
Ghost of Sparta was announced on May 4 , 2010 , on PlayStation.Blog. According to Sony , Ready at Dawn utilized " state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art visual technologies " that allowed " higher quality environments and characters . " Ghost of Sparta offers " over 25 % more gameplay " than Chains of Olympus , while adding more enemies on screen and more boss encounters . Development of Ghost of Sparta took 23 months to complete . Due to Weerasuriya 's schedule at Ready at Dawn , he could not return to direct ; Dana Jan , the lead level designer for Chains of Olympus , became director for Ghost of Sparta . At Comic @-@ Con 2010 , Jan noted that when development began in 2008 , the goal was to make the game bigger than Chains of Olympus , which had apparently pushed the PSP to its functional limits . Jan stated that Ghost of Sparta has taken the PSP to its " absolute capacity " , with another feature being more on @-@ screen foes . The game concept was originally used as a teaser for players who obtained the platinum trophy from God of War III . The trophy revealed a site called spartansstandtall.com , which became the official site for Ghost of Sparta on May 4 . Jan stated the reason they chose to have the game take place between God of War and God of War II was because " It seemed to make a lot of sense to fill in that void . "
= = = Mobile game = = =
Betrayal was announced by Sony Online Entertainment at a press conference in Los Angeles in May 2007 . The game utilizes a total of 110 different animations and features a 2D rendition of the series ' three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) graphics . Game director Phil Cohen said that although the game was enjoyable to develop , the greatest challenge was creating a single tileset and palette swapping scheme that was diverse enough to portray multiple environments with only several hundred kilobytes , and that met Santa Monica Studio 's high standards . Cohen wrote the initial design document between September and October 2005 , and revisited it in August 2006 , the month development started . The versions for high @-@ end handsets were completed in April 2007 , with final versions for low @-@ end handsets completed by June 2007 . The porting team adapted the game to over 200 handsets in a matter of weeks . Both David Jaffe and Cory Barlog ensured that the Betrayal development team captured the feel of the combat and visual style , and were " helpful with feedback and positive support " .
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Film and documentaries = = =
A film adaptation of the first game was announced in 2005 . Creator David Jaffe confirmed that a completed script had been written by David Self and would be sent to an unspecified director . He said that Universal Studios is behind the making of the God of War movie , but was unaware of its current status , and eventually said , " it 's doubtful that the film will even be made " . In September 2010 , Jaffe said that the " script went out a year and a half ago to Daniel Craig who plays [ James ] Bond , but he turned it down " . He also said that another actor had since been cast as Kratos ; he said , " this new person is pretty good , if that ends up true . " In July 2012 , The Hollywood Reporter said that writers Patrick Melton and Marcus Dunstan had been hired to adapt the God of War film . On August 30 , 2012 , the writers told IGN that they intend to " humanize " Kratos and explore his past . Melton said that they are emotionally invested and it could become a series of films , and that Ares " will become a more proactive villain " . As of 2016 , the movie is without a director , no actors have been confirmed , and a release date has not been set , but the script has been " turned in " . It has a budget of $ 150 million USD .
God of War : Unearthing the Legend ( 75 minutes , 2010 ) is a documentary about the God of War franchise and is hosted by Peter Weller . The production discusses the relationship between the God of War games and Greek mythology , and features members of the God of War III development team and professional historians . It was included as part of the God of War III Ultimate Edition ( North America ) and Ultimate Trilogy Edition ( Europe , Australia , and New Zealand ) . On March 25 , 2010 , it was released on the PlayStation Store in North America to purchase .
God of War – Game Directors Live ( 80 minutes , 2010 ) is a documentary featuring five game directors of the God of War series : David Jaffe ( God of War ) , Cory Barlog ( God of War II ) , Ru Weerasuriya ( Chains of Olympus ) , Stig Asmussen ( God of War III ) , and Dana Jan ( Ghost of Sparta ) . The documentary takes the form of an interview panel hosted by G4 's Alison Haislip , with the five game directors , 150 members of PlayStation.Blog and members of GodofWar.com and SpartansStandTall.com. It was filmed at the El Portal theater in Los Angeles on September 1 , 2010 , and was released as a pre @-@ order bonus for Ghost of Sparta in North America on November 2 , 2010 , and was included with the Origins Collection and later released on the PlayStation Store .
= = = Comic series and novels = = =
A six @-@ issue comic book series titled God of War , written by Marv Wolfman with art by Andrea Sorrentino , was published by WildStorm and DC Comics between March 2010 and January 2011 . The narrative switches between Kratos ' past and present ; it occurs while he is a soldier of Sparta and involves his search for the Ambrosia of Asclepius , which has legendary healing properties and eventually saved his plague @-@ ridden daughter , Calliope . Kratos also embarks upon a quest to destroy the same elixir to deny it to the worshippers of the slain god Ares , who wish to resurrect him .
The God of War novels recount the events of the games and offer deeper insights into their stories . God of War , the official novelization of the first game of the series , was written by Matthew Stover and Robert E. Vardeman . It was published on May 25 , 2010 , by Del Rey Books . God of War II , the second novelization of the series , was written by Vardeman alone and was published by Del Rey Books on February 12 , 2013 .
In the lead up to Ascension 's release , Santa Monica released a graphic novel titled Rise of the Warrior on the God of War website that featured a social experience from October 2012 until March 2013 . The graphic novel is a prequel story that ties into the single @-@ player of Ascension , and is the backstory of the player 's multiplayer character .
= = Music = =
Five God of War soundtracks have been commercially released and have featured several composers , including Gerard K. Marino , Ron Fish , Winifred Phillips , Mike Reagan , Cris Velasco , Winnie Waldron , Marcello De Francisci , Jeff Rona , Tyler Bates , and Bear McCreary . On March 1 , 2005 , God of War : Original Soundtrack from the Video Game was released on CD by SIE as an exclusive product for the Sony Connect Music Store . It has been praised for its well @-@ developed orchestral themes , and the creative use of ancient and ethnic instrumentation . The composers were also praised for avoiding the production of never @-@ ending action themes . God of War II : Original Soundtrack from the Video Game was released on CD by SIE on April 10 , 2007 . Praised as strong , the album features ominous orchestral pieces , and each composer 's contributions are slightly more distinctive than the previous soundtrack . God of War III : Original Soundtrack from the Video Game was released on CD by SIE and Sumthing Else on March 30 , 2010 . It was also included as downloadable content in the God of War III Ultimate Edition and Ultimate Trilogy Edition collections . The soundtrack was praised as an orchestral success and the best score in the series .
The original scores for God of War , God of War II , and God of War III were nominated for Best Original Score at the 2005 , 2007 , and 2010 Spike Video Game Awards , respectively . The God of War Trilogy Soundtrack was included with the God of War III Ultimate Edition and Ultimate Trilogy Edition collections as downloadable content . The Trilogy Soundtrack consists of the original scores for God of War , God of War II , and God of War III . It was praised by critics as the best way to experience the series ' musical development , and allows the listener to note the development of the composers during the series .
On October 18 , 2010 , God of War : Ghost of Sparta – Original Soundtrack from the Video Game was released on the iTunes Store by SIE . It was also included as downloadable content as part of the Ghost of Sparta pre @-@ order package and includes three bonus tracks from Chains of Olympus . Several tracks were cited as being intended for purely contextual purposes , and the remaining tracks rated well in comparison to the soundtracks of the main installments in the series . God of War : Ascension ( Original Soundtrack ) differed from the previously released soundtracks as it was composed by Tyler Bates alone , and is the only God of War score that he has worked on . It was released on March 5 , 2013 , on iTunes by SIE and La @-@ La Land Records . It was included as downloadable content in the God of War : Ascension – Collector 's Edition and Special Edition . Reviewers praised it for being powerful , rich , and pulsing , though felt it was repetitive at times . Bear McCreary will join this group of composers as he will be composing the music for the upcoming God of War on PlayStation 4 .
= = = God of War : Blood & Metal = = =
God of War : Blood & Metal is a heavy metal homage by various bands on the Roadrunner Records label , and features original music inspired by the God of War video game series . The EP was released for purchase on March 2 , 2010 , and is available from ShockHound and the iTunes Store . It was also included as downloadable content in the God of War III Ultimate Edition and Ultimate Trilogy Edition collections , which included a bonus track . The second track , " Shattering the Skies Above " by Trivium , and the bonus track , " Even Gods Cry " by The Turtlenecks , were made into music videos . 1UP.com ( 2 @.@ 5 / 5 ) said , " it 's not offensive to [ the ] ears " and " mainstream listeners may enjoy [ the album ] " . Square Enix Music Online ( 8 / 10 ) stated the album is a " good selection of metal music " and listeners will be " surprised with the variety of music " .
Track listing
= = Critical reception = =
In June 2012 , Sony reported that the series had sold more than 21 @.@ 65 million copies worldwide ( as of April 2016 , Sony has not released updated sales data ) . God of War , God of War II , Chains of Olympus , God of War Collection , and God of War III have each received critical acclaim from several reviewers as compiled by review aggregate Metacritic . Betrayal and Ghost of Sparta only received generally favorable reception . Ascension also only had a generally favorable reception and , not including the PlayStation Vita port of God of War Collection , it has the lowest score in the series from Metacritic ( 80 / 100 ) .
At the time of its release , Raymond Padilla of GameSpy wrote that God of War is the " best action game ever to grace the PS2 " . Other critics have similarly said that it is one of the best action games of all time ; it received over a dozen " Game of the Year " awards . In 2009 , it was named the " seventh best " PlayStation 2 game of all time on IGN 's " Top 25 PS2 Games of All Time " list . God of War II was also on IGN 's list , and was named the " second best " PlayStation 2 game of all time . God of War II has similarly been called one of the best action games of all time and is considered the swan song of the PlayStation 2 era . In November 2012 , Complex.com named God of War II the best PlayStation 2 game of all time — where God of War was named the 11th best — and consider it better than its successor , God of War III . Betrayal was acclaimed for its fidelity to the series in terms of gameplay , art style , and graphics .
Chains of Olympus has been praised for " fantastic " graphics and " tight and responsive " controls . In 2008 , IGN awarded Chains of Olympus the " Best PSP Action Game " , and in September 2010 , it was listed as the best PSP game by GamePro . God of War III received praise for its graphics , in particular of Kratos ; IGN stated that Kratos is " perhaps the single most impressive @-@ looking character ever in videogames . " IGN also said that God of War III " redefines what the word ' scale ' means with regards to videogames , as it throws you into scenes with Titans that are larger than entire levels in some other games . " God of War III received awards for " Most Anticipated Game of 2010 " and " Best PS3 Game " at the 2009 and 2010 Spike Video Game Awards , respectively . The game also won the " Artistic Achievement " award at the 2011 BAFTA awards . Ghost of Sparta was praised for its graphics and story , with Chris Pereira of 1UP saying that it was " a more personal story than the other GOW games . " It received several awards at E3 2010 including " Best Handheld Game " , " Best PSP Game " , and " PSP Game of Show " , and won " Best Handheld Game " at the 2010 Spike Video Game Awards .
The series has also received criticism because of problems with puzzles , weapons , and technical issues . Chains of Olympus was criticized by G4 , who stated that the game " occasionally suffers from screen tearing and framerate drops " , and that some of the puzzles " are so maddeningly difficult to solve " . The game was also criticized for its lack of variety in enemies , its continued use of puzzles that require players to move boxes , and its relatively short story . God of War III also received some criticism . GameFront 's Phil Hornshaw said it had an overly cruel antagonist , and the game assumed that the players reveled in the misery and violence as much as Kratos did . IGN complained about the game 's weapons , and said " that two of the three additional weapons that you 'll earn are extremely similar to your blades . They have unique powers and slightly different moves , but by and large , they 're more of the same . " Ghost of Sparta received criticism from Eurogamer , which said that the " game 's primary problem ... is in its in @-@ built focus " and that " there is a sense that Ghost of Sparta is a step back for the series if you 've played [ God of War III ] . " Some reviewers stated that Ascensions 's story was not as compelling as previous installments , with IGN stating that in comparison to Zeus and Ares , " the Furies don ’ t quite cut it " . The multiplayer received a mixed response . Although reviewers claimed gameplay translated well into the multiplayer , they were critical of the balance and depth of combat . Edge magazine approved of the multiplayer , stating it is an " evolutionary step " with " some fine ideas ... that will form part of this genre 's future template . "
The collections have also received praise . IGN ( 9 @.@ 4 / 10 ) awarded God of War Collection ( PS3 ) the " Editor 's Choice " Award and praised the enhanced resolutions , lower price point and smoother frame rates , and stated it was the " definitive way to play the game [ s ] " . Due to the success of God of War Collection , Sony announced that further titles would receive similar treatment for release under its new " Classics HD " brand . The Origins Collection was similarly well received . IGN ( 9 / 10 ) stated " Sony succeeded at making good games better " , although GamePro criticized it for its lack of new bonus content . God of War Saga also received praise . Ryan Fleming of Digital Trends wrote that the collection " is perhaps the best value buy for any console available , " although the collection is not likely for fans of the series , but rather inexperienced players or newcomers . God of War III Remastered was met with generally favorable reception . Praise was given to the smoother textures and improved frame rate , though because the original already had remarkable graphics , the changes were not major , and reviewers said these changes were not a strong enough argument to rebuy the game for $ 40 USD .
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= Anamnesis ( Millennium ) =
" ' Anamnesis " is the nineteenth episode of the second season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on April 17 , 1998 . The episode was written by Kay Reindl and Erin Maher , and directed by John Peter Kousakis . " Anamnesis " featured guest appearances by Kristen Cloke and Gwynyth Walsh .
In this episode , Millennium Group member Lara Means ( Cloke ) teams up with Catherine Black ( Megan Gallagher ) , the wife of a fellow Group member , to investigate the possibility that a schoolgirl experiencing visions may be biologically descended from Jesus Christ .
Reindl and Maher based their script on their research into the role of women in the Bible , and compared the pairing of Lara Means and Catherine Black to that of the lead roles in The X @-@ Files , Millennium 's sister show . " Anamnesis " earned an audience of approximately 5 @.@ 2 million households in its initial broadcast , and received mixed responses from television critics .
= = Plot = =
Social worker Catherine Black ( Megan Gallagher ) arrives moments too late to prevent a shooting in a school prayer group .
Several days earlier , Black meets Emma Shetterly ( Gwynyth Walsh ) , the school 's vice @-@ principal . Shetterly explains that five students have claimed to be experiencing visions of Saint Mary ; she believes the girls involved are unlikely candidates for divine visions , particularly the trouble @-@ making Clare McKenna ( Genele Templeton ) . Black speaks to the girls , who claim to have had visions during a sermon by Reverend Hanes ; Hanes ' son Alex refutes this . Black returns to Shetterly 's office , and is met by Lara Means ( Kristen Cloke ) , who works with her husband in the Millennium Group . Means explains that the Group has explored many such reported visions .
Later , Means and Black listen to McKenna reading a passage from the Bible . Afterwards , McKenna reveals that she knows a great deal about the Polaroid Man who kidnapped Black weeks earlier . Means receives a vision herself during the conversation , and becomes convinced that McKenna is a prophet of some sort . Black thinks the girl is acting out , but Means reveals that she is reciting passages from the non @-@ canonical Gnostic Gospels , which supposed that Mary Magdalene was the only disciple to fully understand the teachings of Jesus Christ . Means believes the girls are not seeing visions of Saint Mary , but of Mary Magdalene .
Later , Black is informed that the girls are missing . She and Means search the woods , finding the girls in a grotto . They are with a teacher from the school , Ben Fisher ( John Pyper @-@ Ferguson ) who attacks Means ; she subdues him and he is arrested . She later confronts him , and it is revealed he is a former Group member charged with protecting the girls due to their powers . When Black later learns that Fisher has been released , she fears for McKenna 's life . She rushes to the school , knowing the girls will be at a prayer meeting . She arrives just too late to prevent Alex from firing upon the meeting ; Fisher is killed while shielding McKenna . Later , Means shows Black two sets of DNA test results — one from McKenna , the other from the Shroud of Turin . The profiles seem to prove that McKenna is related to Jesus Christ ; Means entrusts them , and the decision as to whether to proliferate them , to Black .
= = Production = =
" Anamnesis " is the third episode of Millennium to have been written by Kay Reindl and Erin Maher ; the pair had penned two earlier instalments of the second season , and would return for another in the third season . The episode marks the only directorial contribution to the series by producer John Peter Kousakis .
Reindl and Maher researched early Christianity while writing the episode , learning that the traditional depiction of Mary Magdalene as a prostitute was probably an incorrect interpretation added later . Maher felt that Magdalene and early Christian priestesses were " pretty much weeded out of the Bible " over time , and wanted to explore the reasons why female religious figures may have been seen as threatening . The writers faced difficulty from the network 's standards and practices office , who had taken exception to the depiction of Jesus Christ as having had a family . The pair also compared the writing of the episode to Millennium 's sister show The X @-@ Files , believing that the dynamic between Means and Black echoed that of Fox Mulder and Dana Scully on the latter programme , with one character a believer in the supernatural and the other a sceptic . The episode 's opening scene makes use of the song " Dancing Barefoot " by Patti Smith .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Anamnesis " was first broadcast on the Fox network on April 17 , 1998 . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 5 @.@ 3 during its original broadcast , meaning that 5 @.@ 3 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode . This represented approximately 5 @.@ 2 million households , and left the episode the eightieth most @-@ viewed broadcast that week .
The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff rated the episode a " B " , finding the character of Catherine Black to have been one of its downfalls . VanDerWerff also criticised the holy blood plot line , comparing it to other contemporary takes on the idea such as the computer game Gabriel Knight 3 : Blood of the Sacred , Blood of the Damned . However , VanDerWerff felt that Cloke and Gallagher worked well on screen together , but ultimately did not believe that Millennium had room for a character like Catherine Black . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 3 out of 5 , finding it to be " out of step , both with the series and the times " . Gibron also felt that the characters of Black and Means were not strong enough to hold an episode together as lead roles . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated " Anamnesis " one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . Shearman felt the episode suffered from having set up an interesting and emotive cold open , which he saw as a red herring to the episode 's mystical , theological focus . He was also critical of using Means and Black as the episode 's lead roles , finding that the lack of Henriksen 's character detracted from the episode .
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= Wisbech Grammar School =
Wisbech Grammar School is a co @-@ educational independent school in Wisbech , Cambridgeshire for students aged 11 to 18 . Founded by the Wisbech Guild of the Holy Trinity in 1379 , it is one of the oldest schools in the country . The present headmaster is Chris Staley , a member of the Headmasters ' and Headmistresses ' Conference . Entry to the senior school at age 11 is based on a competitive examination . Pupils are also admitted at later stages , including sixth form .
Chartered by Edward VI in 1549 as a grammar school for boys , for much of its history it offered a largely classical curriculum of Greek , Latin and arithmetic under the governance of the Wisbech Corporation . The school has moved premises several times since its foundation , being based in St Peter 's Church , the old guildhall in Hill Street and on South Brink before merging with the Wisbech High School for Girls in 1970 at their present site on North Brink .
For much of the 20th century , it was a non @-@ fee paying voluntary @-@ aided school , but following local council plans to remove this status and merge the Grammar School with a nearby secondary modern school , the governors took the decision to become fully independent in 1983 . Now a fee @-@ paying day school , 650 pupils aged 4 to 18 attend from the three counties of Cambridgeshire , Norfolk and Lincolnshire . Following the closure of the nearby St Audrey 's Convent , a significant feeder for the senior school , a new junior and infant preparatory school was opened in 1997 , now known as Magdalene House .
Pupils generally take nine General Certificate of Secondary Education ( GCSE ) examinations in Year Eleven ( aged 15 – 16 ) , and they have a choice of three , four or five A @-@ levels in the sixth form . The majority of students go on to higher education following the completion of their A @-@ levels at the end of Year Thirteen ( aged 17 – 18 ) . The Wisbech Grammar School Foundation , which assists with bursaries , is a registered charity , number 1087799 . Roughly a third of pupils receive support in this way . Former pupils are known as " Old Grammarians " , and the school has produced a number of famous alumni .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Although the school has moved location on several occasions , each of its former buildings is still in existence . The school was founded by the Guild of the Holy Trinity in 1379 above the south porch of St Peter 's Church . The Guild was a powerful force in the later Middle Ages . The historical name " Schola Sanctae Trinitatis De Wysbech " is still used on the school 's crest , which is derived from the seal of the Wisbech Corporation ( itself based on the former Guild seal ) and features the seated figures of St Peter and St Paul . The first record of a schoolmaster dates from 1407 when one Maurice Plank was given leave to study at Cambridge University for two terms on the understanding that he would appoint an usher to teach in his absence .
Soon after foundation , the school moved to the Guildhall in Hill Street . A record from 1446 details how master Jacob Creffen was granted leave by the Bishop of Ely to collect an " adequate salary " from each scholar according to the " praiseworthy , ancient and approved custom " .
Following the English reformation , the Guild of the Holy Trinity was dissolved and replaced by the Wisbech Corporation . The school was renamed and re @-@ established by King Edward VI in 1549 , who gave the school a charter " for the instruction of youth in grammatical knowledge and polite literature " . The charter is still in existence , and is currently held by the Wisbech Museum . The same year , land was given for the construction of a school house next to the Guildhall building . After the Restoration of Charles II , the school 's charter was renewed with the stipulation that the Capital Burgesses be given the choice of schoolmaster and that the Bishop of Ely " forever shall have the right of visitation , reformation , and correction of the schoolmaster , as of the school aforesaid " .
In 1638 a benefactor , William Holmes , gave £ 400 to the burgesses of Wisbech to be invested in land , and the rest applied for the maintenance of two scholars at Magdalene College , Cambridge . In his will of 1656 Holmes directed that the whole yearly income of his 46 @-@ acre estate in Holbeach , Lincolnshire be paid yearly towards the maintenance of the scholars and the endowment of the school . Other land and property had been donated to the school in the wills of Thomas Parkes in 1628 and John Crane in 1651 . Crane 's estate included land in Fleet , Lincolnshire and an inn on Market Hill called the Black Bull .
In 1792 , local businessman Joseph Medworth purchased the site of Wisbech Castle , including John Thurloe 's 1660 mansion and the land surrounding it from the See of Ely , building the Georgian Crescent along the bailey walls . As part of his scheme , in 1811 he tried to persuade the Corporation to purchase the mansion and demolish the Old Grammar School building in Ship Street with the intention of building a new street through to the market place . The Corporation refused ( it is usually assumed that the burgesses intended to purchase the mansion for the same purpose after Medworth 's death at a reduced price ) . As a result , in a " fit of pique " , Medworth demolished Thurloe 's mansion and erected the present Wisbech Castle building in 1816 .
An 1868 inspection by Henry Richmond of the Schools Inquiry Commission notes that the school was in a poor state of repair ; the school once had many boarders , but this was no longer possible because the largest dormitory needed extensive repairs . As a result , attendance had fallen from 60 to 22 scholars . Richmond records that the upper boys were reading Cicero , and their knowledge of Latin grammar was " satisfactory " . He also records the teaching of Greek , algebra , and English language , noting that French was taught as an extra . The inspector suggests that the reason for its decline may have been a nearby commercial school , and hints that the feeling in the town was that the largely Classical curriculum was " irrelevant " . He also implies that the state of the building may have been the result of differences between the headmaster and the Corporation .
The school continued to use the former guildhall site in Hill Street until 1898 , by which stage the medieval building was much altered and in a dilapidated condition . At this point , the school moved to an 18th @-@ century house on South Brink . A fundraising campaign was launched to pay for the house , but after insufficient funds were donated , the cost of purchase was met by Alexander , Baron Peckover . The house and its grounds was originally intended to be the headmaster 's residence and provide lodgings for a few boarders , but soon expanded to accommodate the entire school with the construction of classrooms and a hall . The central block of the 18th @-@ century town house was used as a panelled library . An unusual feature of the old town house is the cupola on the roof , evidence of the town 's sea @-@ based prosperity .
In his 1939 history of the school , headmaster H. Lawrence White opines that the purchase of this 18th @-@ century house was a " grave mistake " , as it was " constantly needing repairs " and was " difficult to warm " . He suggests that for the eventual price of conversion , a purpose @-@ built school would have been a more satisfactory decision . Initial plans to build a dormitory for boarding pupils were scrapped , with a physics laboratory being constructed instead , effectively ending the tradition of boarding scholars . The Education Act 1902 brought the school under the control of the Cambridgeshire local education authority as a voluntary aided school . By 1917 , the boys ' Grammar School had 64 pupils attending . Numbers had been swelled by an influx of boys from the Barton House School , a small private school which had closed in 1913 .
= = = Modern history = = =
The 1902 Education Act also made it a legal requirement for the County Council to provide an equal educational opportunity for girls . A conference was held in October 1903 to discuss the founding of a girls ' school , and by January 1905 Wisbech High School for Girls was established in Harecroft House on the North Brink . The house had been donated on a long @-@ term lease for the purpose by the Peckover family . Harecroft House had been built in 1844 by Algernon Peckover , and his descendants lived in the house until the death of Susannah Peckover in 1903 , after which it was left vacant . The first headmistress was Beatrice Sparks , who was the first woman to complete the Oxford Tripos in mathematics . New schoolrooms were added to the High School in 1906 , 1913 , 1922 and 1936 , when a mixed @-@ use gymnasium and hall was constructed . This hall is now used as the school dining room . Originally , the High School was also able to take boarders , which continued until after World War II .
The boys ' school continued to grow throughout the 20th century . 160 former pupils fought in World War I , of whom 11 were decorated and 9 " mentioned in dispatches " . 19 former pupils were killed in action . During World War II , 272 boys and 26 staff from the Stationers ' Company 's School in London were evacuated to Wisbech , where they were billeted with local families and shared premises with the Grammar School for teaching .
Both the Grammar School and High School co @-@ existed as voluntary aided schools until 1970 when they merged to become co @-@ educational , with the Grammar School moving into the North Brink High School site under headmaster Dr. D.S. Anderson . Relations between the schools had always been close ; the amalgamation had been planned for some time , and a number of new laboratories and classrooms had already been under construction on the North Brink site before the two schools merged . The school magazine Riverline was first published in 1971 .
In the late 1970s , Cambridgeshire County Council LEA and the local Member of Parliament , Clement Freud , were critical of the education system in Wisbech . At the time , entry to the co @-@ educational Grammar School was at age 13 , meaning that at age 11 , all pupils attended the comprehensive single sex Queen 's Girls ' and Queen 's Boys ' Schools until an eleven @-@ plus @-@ style examination was taken by all pupils . At this point , academically able pupils were moved to the selective mixed @-@ sex grammar school , with other children staying within the two secondary modern schools .
Plans to merge the grammar school with the two secondary modern establishments to form a comprehensive school were resisted by the Grammar School 's governors ; in a voluntary @-@ aided school , the local education authority was responsible for its finances , but the governors and headmaster had autonomy over all other school policy . As a result of the governors ' refusal , the LEA ceased to maintain the school , which became legally independent on 1 September 1983 . The separate Queen 's Schools , meanwhile , were merged to become a co @-@ educational comprehensive school , now named Thomas Clarkson Academy .
Soon after it became independent , the Grammar School lowered its entry age to 11 and joined the Assisted Places Scheme , a governmental scheme instigated in 1980 which allowed pupils who could not afford to go to fee @-@ paying independent schools a free or subsidised place if they were within the top 10 – 15 % of applicants in the school 's entrance examination . By 1994 , 53 % of the Grammar School 's pupils held assisted places , the highest proportion of all schools in the scheme .
In 1991 , a major extension to the school site added 19 classrooms , four laboratories , two computer rooms , a sports hall and library . The former gymnasium was rebuilt and extended to become the Russell Hall , the senior school assembly hall and theatrical stage . Following the abolition of the Assisted Places Scheme in 1997 , the school instituted a system of means tested bursaries known as governors ' assisted places .
A performing arts centre , the Dwight Centre , was completed in April 2003 with facilities for English and music teaching , drama and music technology . The most recent additions to the school are a new sixth form centre ( the Hazel Centre ) and the construction of a new astroturf pitch .
= = Admission and fees = =
The main senior school entry is at age 11 by a competitive examination . Pupils can also enter at second , third and fourth form levels . Offers of sixth form places are made on the basis of interview and a report . In 2008 , the senior school had 507 pupils , of whom 125 were in the sixth form , with roughly equal numbers of boys and girls .
Senior school fees are currently £ 3 @,@ 760 per term , with means tested bursaries available at Key Stages 3 , 4 and 5 known as governors ' assisted places . These are awarded following a review of parental household finances ; family income , assets and expenditure , and are reviewed on an annual basis by the school .
The school has a wide catchment area encompassing King 's Lynn , Peterborough , Whittlesey , March , Chatteris , Hunstanton and Long Sutton . School buses run from a number of these places , visiting villages en route , and there are late buses to most destinations for pupils involved in after @-@ school activities .
= = Curriculum = =
The school year is divided into three terms , with a five @-@ day week ( Monday to Friday ) . The school day is divided into eight periods of 40 minutes , with morning and lunch breaks .
Pupils generally take nine General Certificate of Secondary Education ( GCSE ) subjects in Year Eleven ( aged 15 – 16 ) , with compulsory maths , English , a language , humanity and science subject . Other subjects offered include art , music , resistant materials technology , food and nutrition , textiles , physics , chemistry , biology , French , German , Spanish , history and geography . Sixth form students have a choice of three , four or five A @-@ levels from a choice of 24 subjects . A 2009 Independent Schools Inspectorate report noted that GCSE and A @-@ level results were " well above the national average " . In 2010 , the number of pupils achieving the Level 2 threshold ( equivalent to five GCSEs at grades A * to C including English and maths GCSEs ) was listed as the second highest in the Cambridgeshire LEA with a 99 % pass rate . At AS and A2 levels , the school was listed as sixth in Cambridgeshire , with an average of 860 @.@ 9 points . The 2014 ISI report listed four ' Recommendations for further improvement ' http : / / www.isi.net / schools / 7255 / . The majority of students go on to higher education following the completion of their A @-@ levels at the end of Year Thirteen ( aged 17 – 18 ) .
= = = Extra @-@ curricular activities = = =
After school and during lunch breaks , the school runs a large number of staff @-@ led activities , clubs and societies including archery , gardening , philosophy , electronics and photography . The Music Department also has rehearsals for the school orchestra , chamber choir , wind band and brass ensemble amongst other ensembles . Two thirds of the student body enter the Maths Challenge competition , and the mathematics department also runs a regular maths help club .
The school stages theatrical productions regularly , either in the Russell Hall or the Dwight Centre drama studio . Recent productions include She Stoops to Conquer , The Recruiting Officer , My Fair Lady , Amadeus The Duchess of Malfi , Pride and Prejudice , Oh , What a Lovely War ! and Twelfth Night . Drama and Theatre Studies is now an A @-@ Level option . The school publishes two periodicals : Riverline , a yearly school review magazine which is largely written by students , and The Wisbechian , a shorter newsletter which is issued at the school Speech Day in October .
Pupils participate in various stages of The Duke of Edinburgh 's Award , and the school runs expeditions to a variety of locations in the Lake District , Snowdonia and the Yorkshire Dales . The school has a long @-@ running exchange scheme with the Willibrord Gymnasium in Emmerich in North Germany , as well as a château trip for second formers and a study visit to France . Lower sixth formers can participate in the Young Enterprise scheme , and in 2010 the school companies were awarded 1st and 2nd " Best Company " in the Peterborough region and second in the regional finals . The school 's design department has reached the national finals of the Greenpower competition to design and build an electric racing car for the last three years in a row with their car " Twin Cambs " .
Sport is also played at the school , and this rotates on a termly basis with rugby , hockey and cricket for boys , hockey , netball , cricket and rounders for girls . The sports teams compete against similar schools from Cambridgeshire , Lincolnshire and Norfolk . Athletics and indoor sports are usually played jointly .
= = Uniform = =
The school has a strict uniform policy of blazers , shirts and ties for boys , and blazers , blouses and skirts for girls in the first five years . Sixth form students wear a different uniform more akin to a business suit .
= = Houses = =
= = = Current Houses = = =
The school has four houses , named after significant figures in the history of the school .
The school houses compete in a variety of academic , musical and sporting settings . House colours are awarded for service to the house , half @-@ colours for small contributions ( a badge ) and full @-@ colours for large contributions ( a tie for boys , badge for girls ) . School colours can also be awarded for service to the school as a whole .
= = = House History = = =
The present school houses are an amalgamation of houses from the boys ' Grammar and girls ' High schools ; in 1971 , the houses were named Parke @-@ Southwell , Peckover @-@ Crane , Clarkson @-@ Dennis and Holmes @-@ Sparks . Thomas Parke and John Crane were 17th @-@ century benefactors of the Grammar school , John Dennis was a Wisbech solicitor who was a governor of the Girls ' High School between 1904 – 1932 and Alfred Southwell was mayor of Wisbech in 1903 , who chaired the committee formed to set up the school and was subsequently the first chairman of the governors . The Southwell family , incidentally , once owned Bevis Hall , the manor in Wisbech St Mary which once held jurisdiction over the land on North Brink on which Harecroft House is sited .
= = Notable Old Grammarians = =
Former pupils are known as " Old Grammarians " . The school has a number of notable alumni . The earliest recorded alumnus is Thomas Herring ( 1693 – 1757 ) , who was Archbishop of Canterbury between 1747 and 1757 . Perhaps the most famous alumnus is the abolitionist , Thomas Clarkson ( 1760 – 1846 ) , whose father , John , was headmaster at the school . His essay on slavery and subsequent campaigning led to the foundation of the Committee for the Abolition of the Slave Trade and the passage of the Slave Trade Act of 1807 , which ended British trade in slaves . Thomas Clarkson 's younger brother John Clarkson ( 1764 – 1828 ) also attended the school . He subscribed to his brother 's abolitionist cause , and became the first governor of the free Sierra Leone colony , founding the country 's capital city , Freetown .
Other figures from this era include General Sir Charles Wale ( 1765 – 1845 ) , the last British governor of Martinique , and The Hon. Charles Lindsay ( 1760 – 1846 ) , the last Bishop of Kildare .
Victorian composer and organist W. H. Jude ( 1851 – 1922 ) was a prolific lecturer and hymnodist , and opened over 1000 organs across the UK and Australasia during his career . Another composer associated with the school was Peter Fenn ( 1931 – 2011 ) , director of music for Anglia Television , who attended the school as an evacuee during World War II . Philip Vassar Hunter ( 1883 – 1956 ) was awarded the CBE for his anti @-@ submarine research in World War I , and in World War II invented the buoyant cable which contributed to the defeat of the magnetic mine . He was later President of the Institution of Electrical Engineers and manager of the British Ice Hockey Association .
Sir Frank Stockdale ( 1883 – 1949 ) was a Holmes Scholar , and during his career as an agriculturalist played a leading part in establishing rubber , tea , and coconut research institutions . He was appointed the first comptroller for development and welfare in the West Indies in 1940 , and was co @-@ chairman of the Anglo Caribbean Commission . Brian Hitch ( 1934 – 2004 ) , diplomat , was also a Holmes Scholar and was High Commissioner to Malta between 1988 and 1991 .
The school has recently produced a number of actresses including Zara Dawson and Claire Goose . Other alumni include author John Gordon , known for his children 's novel The Giant Under The Snow ; economist Professor Stephen Littlechild , who developed the price @-@ cap system of electricity regulation ; Denys Bullard ( 1912 – 1994 ) , MP for South West Norfolk , Fred Hoyles ( 1923 – 2004 ) , Wimbledon tennis referee @-@ in @-@ chief from 1976 to 1982 ; Ray DaSilva , founder of the Norwich Puppet Theatre ; Richard Blakesley , joint inventor of the Kymera wand , which won £ 200 @,@ 000 backing on Dragons ' Den Mike Stevens , musical director and record producer , and Will Millard , writer , explorer and presenter of BBC2 's Hunters of the South Seas .
= = Magdalene House = =
A junior and infant department opened in September 1997 after the closure of St Audrey 's Convent school . St Audrey 's was a feeder school , and its closure allowed the then headmaster , Robert Repper , to transfer most of the teaching staff to the new junior school . The junior and infant school has now become a preparatory school for the senior school . It was retitled as Magdalene House in 2005 , a reference to a 17th @-@ century scholarship which allowed two Wisbech Grammar School pupils to study at Magdalene College , Cambridge . There were 177 pupils registered in 2008 , of whom 23 were in reception and the rest in years 1 to 6 .
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= SM UB @-@ 7 =
SM UB @-@ 7 was a German Type UB I submarine or U @-@ boat in the German Imperial Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) during World War I. She disappeared in the Black Sea in September 1916 .
UB @-@ 7 was ordered in October 1914 and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in November . UB @-@ 7 was a little over 28 metres ( 92 ft ) in length and displaced between 127 and 141 tonnes ( 125 and 139 long tons ) , depending on whether surfaced or submerged . She carried two torpedoes for her two bow torpedo tubes and was also armed with a deck @-@ mounted machine gun . UB @-@ 7 was originally one of a pair of UB I boats sent to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy to replace an Austrian pair to be sent to the Dardanelles , and was broken into sections and shipped by rail to Pola in March 1915 for reassembly . She was launched in April and commissioned as SM UB @-@ 7 in the German Imperial Navy in May when the Austrians opted out of the agreement .
Although briefly a part of the Pola Flotilla at commissioning , UB @-@ 7 spent the majority of her career patrolling the Black Sea as part of the Constantinople Flotilla . The U @-@ boat sank one ship of 6 @,@ 011 GRT in September 1915 . In October , she helped repel a Russian bombardment of Bulgaria . She was considered for transfer to the Bulgarian Navy , but disappeared in late September 1916 before a transfer could take place . Her fate is officially unknown , but sources report that may have struck a mine or been sunk by a Russian airplane .
= = Design and construction = =
After the German Army 's rapid advance along the North Sea coast in the earliest stages of World War I , the German Imperial Navy found itself without suitable submarines that could be operated in the narrow and shallow seas off Flanders . Project 34 , a design effort begun in mid @-@ August 1914 , produced the Type UB I design : a small submarine that could be shipped by rail to a port of operations and quickly assembled . Constrained by railroad size limitations , the UB I design called for a boat about 28 metres ( 92 ft ) long and displacing about 125 tonnes ( 123 long tons ) with two torpedo tubes . UB @-@ 7 was part of the initial allotment of eight submarines — numbered UB @-@ 1 to UB @-@ 8 — ordered on 15 October from Germaniawerft of Kiel , just shy of two months after planning for the class began .
UB @-@ 7 was laid down by Germaniawerft in Kiel on 30 November . As built , UB @-@ 7 was 28 @.@ 10 metres ( 92 ft 2 in ) long , 3 @.@ 15 metres ( 10 ft 4 in ) abeam , and had a draft of 3 @.@ 03 metres ( 9 ft 11 in ) . She had a single 59 @-@ brake @-@ horsepower ( 44 kW ) Daimler 4 @-@ cylinder diesel engine for surface travel , and a single 119 @-@ shaft @-@ horsepower ( 89 kW ) Siemens @-@ Schuckert electric motor for underwater travel , both attached to a single propeller shaft . Her top speeds were 6 @.@ 47 knots ( 11 @.@ 98 km / h ; 7 @.@ 45 mph ) , surfaced , and 5 @.@ 51 knots ( 10 @.@ 20 km / h ; 6 @.@ 34 mph ) , submerged . At more moderate speeds , she could sail up to 1 @,@ 650 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 060 km ; 1 @,@ 900 mi ) on the surface before refueling , and up to 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ; 52 mi ) submerged before recharging her batteries . Like all boats of the class , UB @-@ 7 was rated to a diving depth of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) , and could completely submerge in 33 seconds .
UB @-@ 7 was armed with two 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedoes in two bow torpedo tubes . She was also outfitted for a single 8 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun on deck . UB @-@ 7 's standard complement consisted of one officer and thirteen enlisted men .
While UB @-@ 7 's construction neared completion in early March 1915 , Enver Pasha and other Turkish leaders were pleading with their German and Austro @-@ Hungarian allies to send submarines to the Dardanelles to help attack the British and French fleet pounding Turkish positions . The Germans induced the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( German : Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) to send two boats — its own Germaniawerft @-@ built boats U @-@ 3 and U @-@ 4 — with the promise of UB @-@ 7 and UB @-@ 8 as replacements .
When work on UB @-@ 7 and UB @-@ 8 was complete at the Germaniwerft yard , they were both readied for rail shipment . The process of shipping a UB I boat involved breaking the submarine down into what was essentially a knock down kit . Each boat was broken into approximately fifteen pieces and loaded on to eight railway flatcars . The boats were ready for shipment to the main Austrian naval base at Pola on 15 March , despite the fact that the Austrian pair was still not ready . German engineers and technicians that accompanied the German boats to Pola worked under the supervision of Kapitänleutnant Hans Adam , head of the newly created U @-@ boat special command ( German : Sonderkommando ) . Typically , the UB I assembly process took about two to three weeks , and , accordingly , UB @-@ 7 was launched at Pola sometime in April .
= = Career = =
During her trials , UB @-@ 7 developed a leak which took some time to repair . In the meantime , she was assigned the Austrian number of U @-@ 7 and an Austrian commander . Her German crew at Pola — since it was still the intent for UB @-@ 7 to be transferred to the K.u.K. Kriegsmarine — wore either civilian clothes or Austrian uniforms . As time dragged on , the Austrian U @-@ 3 and U @-@ 4 were still not ready , and eventually Admiral Anton Haus , the head of the Austrian Navy , reneged on his commitment because of the overt hostility from neighbor and former ally Italy .
With the change of heart from the Austrians , Germany resolved to retain UB @-@ 7 and send her to the aid of the Turks . So , upon completion of her leak repairs , the boat was commissioned into the German Imperial Navy as SM UB @-@ 7 on 6 May under the command of Oberleutnant zur See Wilhelm Werner , a 26 @-@ year @-@ old native of Apola . At commissioning , the boat temporarily joined the Pola Flotilla ( German : Deutsche U @-@ Halbflotille Pola ) .
Because of her limited range , UB @-@ 7 would not have been able to make the entire journey to Turkey , so on the night on 15 / 16 May , she was towed by the Austrian destroyer SMS Triglav through the Straits of Otranto and into the Ionian Sea . By June , UB @-@ 7 had reached Smyrna — not having any success on her journey there — and joined U @-@ 21 and UB @-@ 8 in the Constantinople Flotilla ( German : U @-@ boote der Mittelmeer division in Konstantinopel ) . Once there , UB @-@ 7 was ineffective because she was hampered by her limited torpedo supply and her weak engines , which made negotiating the strong Dardanelles currents nearly impossible . Because of this , UB @-@ 7 was sent to patrol in the Black Sea in July , cruising without success from the 5th to the 22nd .
In September 1915 , UB @-@ 7 and UB @-@ 8 were sent to Varna , Bulgaria , and from there , to patrol off the Russian Black Sea coast . On 18 September , UB @-@ 7 torpedoed and sank the British steamer Patagonia about 10 @.@ 5 nautical miles ( 19 @.@ 4 km ; 12 @.@ 1 mi ) from Odessa . The cargo ship , of 6 @,@ 011 gross register tons ( GRT ) , was the only ship credited to UB @-@ 7 , and the only one sunk by any of the Constantinople Flotilla in the month .
Because Bulgaria had joined the Central Powers , battleships of the Russian Black Sea Fleet , and aircraft from the seaplane carriers Almaz and Imperator Nikolai I began attacks on Varna and the Bulgarian coast on 25 October . UB @-@ 7 and UB @-@ 8 , both based out of Varna by this time , sortied to disrupt the bombardment . Off Varna on the 27th , UB @-@ 7 got in position to fire a torpedo at the Russian battleship Panteleimon ( most well @-@ known under her former name of Potemkin ) . Although UB @-@ 7 's crew heard what they thought was the torpedo explode , it did not hit Panteleimon . Despite the lack of success , the attempt did cause the Russians to break off their attacks and withdraw .
In early 1916 , UB @-@ 7 and UB @-@ 8 were still cruising in the Black Sea out of Varna . The Germans did not have good luck in the Black Sea , which was not a priority for them . The Bulgarians , who saw the value of the submarines in repelling Russian attacks , began negotiations to purchase UB @-@ 7 and UB @-@ 8 . Bulgarian sailors practiced in the pair of boats and technicians were sent to Kiel for training at the German submarine school there . The transfer of UB @-@ 8 to the Bulgarian Navy took place on 25 May 1916 , but for reasons unreported in sources , UB @-@ 7 remained under the German flag .
In July 1916 , the Germans sent SMS Breslau to mine off Novorossisk . To attempt to neutralize any Russian response , UB @-@ 7 — under the command of Hans Lütjohann , who had taken over for Werner when he returned to Germany to command the new U @-@ 55 — was stationed off Sevastopol to attack any ships that sailed in response to the mission . Unfortunately , Russian seaplanes spotted UB @-@ 7 and bombed the U @-@ boat , preventing her from accomplishing her goal . With the submarine out of the way , Rear Admiral Aleksandr Kolchak sortied with dreadnought Imperatritsa Mariya , cruiser Kagul , and five destroyers . The Russian fleet engaged Breslau , which was forced to abort her mission and retire . Sources are quiet on damage , if any , suffered by UB @-@ 7 .
= = Summary of raiding history = =
= = Fate = =
On 27 September 1916 , UB @-@ 7 departed Varna for operations off Sevastopol and was never heard from again . According to some sources , UB @-@ 7 was mined somewhere in the Black Sea . In June 1917 , a Russian pilot captured by the Germans reported that a Russian airplane bombed and sank UB @-@ 7 on 1 October at position 44 ° 30 ′ N 33 ° 15 ′ E , near the Chersones Lighthouse . Authors Dwight Messimer and Robert Grant are each dubious of this claim , and the fate of UB @-@ 7 is still officially unknown . Among the fifteen men lost on UB @-@ 7 were the Constantinople Flotilla 's senior radio officer , and the first Bulgarian submariner lost during the war , a trainee from Vidin .
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= USS Kickapoo ( 1864 ) =
USS Kickapoo was a double @-@ turreted Milwaukee @-@ class river monitor , the lead ship of her class , built for the Union Navy during the American Civil War . The ship supported Union forces during the Mobile Campaign as they attacked Confederate fortifications defending the city of Mobile , Alabama in early 1865 . She was placed in reserve after the end of the war and sold in 1874 .
= = Description = =
Kickapoo was 229 feet ( 69 @.@ 8 m ) long overall and had a beam of 56 feet ( 17 @.@ 1 m ) . The ship had a depth of hold of 8 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 6 m ) and a draft of 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) . She had a tonnage of 970 tons burthen and displaced 1 @,@ 300 long tons ( 1 @,@ 300 t ) . Her crew numbered 138 officers and enlisted men .
The ship was powered by two 2 @-@ cylinder horizontal non @-@ condensing steam engines , each driving two propellers , using steam generated by seven tubular boilers . The engines were designed to reach a top speed of 9 knots ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) . Kickapoo carried 156 long tons ( 159 t ) of coal .
The ship 's main armament consisted of four smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading 11 @-@ inch Dahlgren guns mounted in two twin @-@ gun turrets . Her forward turret was designed by James Eads and her rear turret by John Ericsson . Each gun weighed approximately 16 @,@ 000 pounds ( 7 @,@ 300 kg ) and could fire a 136 @-@ pound ( 61 @.@ 7 kg ) shell up to a range of 3 @,@ 650 yards ( 3 @,@ 340 m ) at an elevation of + 15 ° .
The cylindrical turrets were protected by eight layers of wrought iron 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) plates . The sides of the hull consisted of three layers of one @-@ inch plates , backed by 15 inches ( 380 mm ) of pine . The deck was heavily cambered to allow headroom for the crew on such a shallow draft and it consisted of a single iron plate .75 inches ( 19 mm ) thick . The pilothouse , positioned behind and above the fore turret , was protected by 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of armor .
= = Construction and service = =
James Eads was awarded the contracts for all four of the Milwaukee @-@ class ships . He subcontracted Kickapoo to G. B. Allen & Co. of St. Louis , Missouri who laid down the ship in 1862 . She was the first U.S. Navy ship to be named after the Indian tribe , and was launched on 12 March 1864 . Kickapoo was brought to Mound City , Illinois , on the Ohio River , for fitting out and commissioned on 8 July 1864 with Lieutenant David C. Woods in command .
The ship was initially assigned to the Mississippi River Squadron and spent the summer off the mouth of the Red River . She was transferred to the West Gulf Blockading Squadron on 1 October . Although the victory at the Battle of Mobile Bay on 5 August had closed the port of Mobile to blockade runners , the city itself had not been taken . The Confederates fortified the approaches to the city and heavily mined the shallow waters surrounding it . Lieutenant Commander Meriweather P. Jones relieved Woods on 23 December .
On 28 March 1865 , Kickapoo was at anchor in the Blakely River when her sister ship Milwaukee struck a mine in an area already swept some 200 yards ( 180 m ) away . Milwaukee remained afloat forward long enough to allow her crew to escape without loss and they were rescued by Kickapoo . She rescued the crew of the river monitor Osage the following day after that ship also struck a mine and sank . In late June , the ship sailed to New Orleans to be placed in ordinary ; she was decommissioned on 29 July . Kickapoo was renamed to Cyclops on 15 June 1869 and then Kewaydin on 10 August . The ship was sold on 12 September 1874 .
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= Money in the Bank ( 2011 ) =
The 2011 Money in the Bank event was the seventh of thirteen professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view events held by WWE that year , and the second installment in the annual Money in the Bank series of events . It took place on July 17 , 2011 , at the Allstate Arena in Rosemont , Illinois .
The event featured six matches , including two Money in the Bank ladder matches . Alberto Del Rio won the match for wrestlers from the Raw brand to earn a WWE Championship match at a time of his choosing within the next year , while Daniel Bryan won the match for wrestlers from the SmackDown brand for the same opportunity for the World Heavyweight Championship . In the World Heavyweight Championship match also held at the event , Christian defeated Randy Orton by disqualification and became the new champion as per the match stipulation . The main event featured CM Punk defeating John Cena to become the new WWE Champion .
Money in the Bank was broadcast globally and received acclaim from fans and critics alike , with the main event receiving the most praise . For pay @-@ per @-@ view buys , 195 @,@ 000 customers paid to watch the event compared with 165 @,@ 000 for the previous year .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
WWE 's Money in the Bank pay @-@ per @-@ view events feature their own variant of ladder matches , where multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring . Two briefcases were contested at the 2011 event , one each for members of the Raw and SmackDown brands . The respective winners were guaranteed a match for the WWE and World Heavyweight Championships at a time of their choosing within the next year . The 2010 , 2011 , 2012 , and 2014 Money in the Bank events featured a main event involving John Cena , albeit in different storylines .
By November 2010 , WWE had announced that the 2011 Money in the Bank event would take place on July 17 , 2011 , at the Allstate Arena in Rosemont , Illinois . Tickets went on sale in May 2011 through Ticketmaster with prices ranging from $ 25 to $ 300 . The event , sponsored by confectionery brand Skittles , was the second annual Money in the Bank pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event and the seventh of thirteen in the 2011 WWE PPV schedule . The theme song , " Money in the Bank " , was composed by Jim Johnston .
= = = Storylines = = =
The professional wrestling matches at Money in the Bank featured professional wrestlers performing as characters in scripted events pre @-@ determined by the hosting promotion , WWE . Storylines between the characters were produced on WWE 's weekly television shows Raw and SmackDown with the Raw and SmackDown brands — storyline divisions in which WWE assigned its employees to different programs . These storylines provided the background to the 2011 event , which continued the storylines from the previous event in WWE 's 2011 pay @-@ per @-@ view schedule , Capitol Punishment .
The main event featured John Cena defending the WWE Championship against CM Punk . Punk pinned Cena in a non @-@ title match on the June 13 , 2011 episode of Raw , and then became the number one contender by winning a Triple Threat Falls Count Anywhere match against Alberto Del Rio and Rey Mysterio on the June 20 episode of Raw . After the match , Punk said his WWE contract would expire at midnight on July 17 , immediately after the Money in the Bank PPV ended ; Punk vowed to win the championship and leave the company with it . On the next episode of Raw , Punk delivered a worked shoot promo and said that he , rather than Cena , was " the best in the world " ; he also berated WWE for not promoting him properly . Punk called Cena an " ass @-@ kisser " and insulted WWE management — including chairman Vince McMahon and executive John Laurinaitis . In addition to saying that he was breaking the fourth wall by talking to the camera , Punk proposed that he could defend the WWE Championship by wrestling in other companies such as Ring of Honor and New Japan Pro Wrestling after leaving the company with the title . As a result , Punk was given a storyline suspension and stripped of his championship match . Cena confronted McMahon and threatened to walk out on him and return the WWE Championship if Punk were not reinstated . McMahon relented on the condition that if Cena lost the title , he would be fired . On the following episode of Raw , McMahon tried to sign Punk to a new contract to ensure the WWE Championship would stay in WWE ; McMahon agreed to Punk 's demands and apologized to Punk before Cena interrupted the proceedings . The segment resulted in Cena punching Punk , so Punk tore up the agreed contract .
At Money in the Bank 2011 , Randy Orton defended the World Heavyweight Championship against Christian . The storyline started on the May 6 episode of SmackDown when Orton defeated Christian to become the champion less than a week after Christian had won the title . At Capitol Punishment on June 19 , Orton defeated Christian to retain the title despite illegally pinning Christian . On the June 24 episode of SmackDown , Christian demanded another attempt at the title from SmackDown General Manager Theodore Long ; his demand was granted with the proviso that he could defeat Kane . Christian lost the match against Kane by disqualification after interference from Mark Henry . Long then made a tag team match for later that same episode , pitting the team of Christian and Henry against Kane and Orton with a similar stipulation ; Henry pinned Orton in the bout . Afterward , Long offered Henry an attempt at the title if Henry could defeat Orton again . Henry lost the match after Christian engineered a distraction . This set up a match between Orton and Christian for the title at Money in the Bank . On the July 8 episode of SmackDown , Christian 's lawyers in the storyline added a stipulation to the match that if Orton was disqualified or there were poor officiating , he would lose the title to Christian .
The Raw Money in the Bank competitors were announced on the June 27 episode of Raw with no qualifying matches ; these were Alberto Del Rio , Alex Riley , Evan Bourne , Jack Swagger , Kofi Kingston , Rey Mysterio , R @-@ Truth , and The Miz . The SmackDown Money in the Bank competitors were announced on the July 1 SmackDown as Cody Rhodes , Daniel Bryan , Heath Slater , Justin Gabriel , Kane , Sheamus , Sin Cara , and Wade Barrett .
The feud between Big Show and Mark Henry started on the June 17 episode of SmackDown , when Big Show was forced to face Henry in a match . Big Show knocked out Henry before the bout began , creating a rivalry between the two . Henry interfered in Big Show 's match with Alberto Del Rio at Capitol Punishment and on the June 27 episode of Raw in a cage match . Henry versus Big Show was later announced for Money in the Bank . When Brie Bella lost her Divas Championship to Kelly Kelly on the June 20 Raw , a title rematch was announced for Money in the Bank . Kelly had been feuding with the Bella Twins since May 2011 .
= = Event = =
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The event , featuring commentary by Michael Cole , Jerry Lawler and Booker T , began with the SmackDown Money in the Bank ladder match . During the bout , Sheamus slammed Sin Cara through a ladder propped between the ring apron and the announcers ' table with a powerbomb throw . The ladder was bent in half and Cara was stretchered away from ringside . Near the end of the match , Barrett , Rhodes and Bryan were the only three in the ring . Bryan put Rhodes in a guillotine choke submission hold on top of the ladder in the middle of the ring while Barrett sneaked up the other side of the ladder . After Bryan knocked Rhodes off the ladder , Barrett got Bryan onto his shoulders and tried to throw him off . Bryan countered with repeated elbow strikes to Barrett 's head . Bryan then kicked Barrett in the head and unhooked the briefcase to win the contest .
In the show 's second match , Kelly Kelly defeated Brie Bella to retain the Divas Championship . Kelly won the bout after slamming Brie 's face into the mat with her K2 maneuver .
In the show 's third match , Mark Henry defeated Big Show . Henry gained a two @-@ count after slamming Big Show back against the mat with his World 's Strongest Slam move . Henry then performed the move again and two running splashes for the pinfall victory . After the match , Henry jumped on a chair wrapped around Big Show 's ankle , causing an injury to Big Show .
The next match was the Raw Money in the Bank match , where all the wrestlers brought ladders . During the match , Evan Bourne performed his signature Air Bourne aerial maneuver , diving from a ladder and landing on the other wrestlers at ringside . Bourne and Miz went for the briefcase but Del Rio toppled their ladder , and Miz was taken backstage with a knee injury . The seven remaining wrestlers simultaneously climbed four ladders in the ring , but fell off one by one . With nobody left in the ring , Miz hopped down to the ring and climbed the ladder with one leg , but Mysterio stopped him by slamming him off the ladder with a sunset flip powerbomb . As Mysterio and Del Rio battled on top of the ladders for the briefcase , Del Rio distracted Mysterio by unmasking him and then pushing him onto another ladder , which tipped over and sent both wrestlers to the mat . Del Rio regrouped and unhooked the briefcase to win the match .
In the show 's fifth match , Randy Orton defended his World Heavyweight Championship against Christian , with the condition that Christian would win the title if Orton were disqualified or if there were poor officiating . Christian opened the bout by bringing a steel chair into the ring and trying to goad Orton into getting disqualified . Orton balked and threw the chair to the floor . Christian performed his signature Killswitch , forcing Orton 's face to the mat , but Orton kicked out of the pin at the two count . As Orton was prepared to perform his signature RKO move , Christian spat in his face . An enraged Orton kicked Christian in the groin and was disqualified , so Christian became the new champion . Afterwards , Orton twice slammed Christian 's face into the announcers ' table with his RKO maneuver .
= = = Main event match = = =
The final match was for the WWE Championship between Champion John Cena and CM Punk . WWE Chairman Vince McMahon had threatened to have Cena fired if Punk won . During the match , two separate signature Attitude Adjustment moves by Cena failed to score the victory . More than 30 minutes into the match , Punk performed his Go to Sleep maneuver , hitting Cena 's ribs and causing Cena to fall out of the ring . As Punk rolled Cena back into the ring , McMahon and John Laurinaitis emerged from backstage and distracted Punk , resulting in Cena placing Punk in the STF submission hold . Punk did not submit , but McMahon signaled the referee to award Cena the match and sent Laurinaitis to ring the bell . This was reminiscent of the Montreal Screwjob in 1997 , where a conspiracy orchestrated by McMahon led to Bret Hart losing his WWF Championship to Shawn Michaels by submission despite Hart never submitting .
Not wanting a tainted victory , Cena broke the hold and attacked Laurinaitis . As Cena returned to the ring , Punk hit him in the face with the Go to Sleep maneuver and pinned him to win the WWE Championship . McMahon ordered the winner of the Raw Money in the Bank match , Alberto Del Rio , to cash in his contract on Punk . When Del Rio ran out and tried to cash in his contract for an immediate WWE Championship match , Punk kicked him in the head before he could do so . After blowing a kiss to a distraught McMahon , Punk fled the arena and left as WWE Champion .
= = Reception = =
During the event , WWE announced that its attendance was 14 @,@ 815 . It was later reported that 12 @,@ 000 attendees had paid , earning WWE $ 750 @,@ 000 . The event drew 195 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view purchases , which was an increase of 18 @.@ 2 % from the 165 @,@ 000 of the previous year 's event . This contributed to WWE 's PPV revenue of $ 15 @.@ 8 million for the third quarter of 2011 compared with $ 13 @.@ 6 million for the third quarter of 2010 . The 2012 Money in the Bank event received 188 @,@ 000 purchases , a drop of 3 @.@ 6 % .
Money in the Bank has received critical acclaim . Dave Meltzer of the Wrestling Observer Newsletter awarded the Cena – Punk main event five stars out of five , the first WWE match since 1997 to receive such a rating . The Wrestling Observer Newsletter later awarded the event the Best Major Show of 2011 , over other professional wrestling events by companies including Pro Wrestling Guerrilla and New Japan Pro Wrestling , as well as over a kickboxing event by K @-@ 1 and mixed martial arts events by Ultimate Fighting Championship . The main event won the Observer award for Match of the Year .
Alex Roberts of the Professional Wrestling Torch Newsletter attended the event . He criticized the ladder matches as " dangerous spectacles " where many wrestlers " took plenty of painful @-@ looking bumps " but often failed to score " a corresponding crowd reaction " . He also stated that the apparent injuries suffered by Sin Cara and the Miz in those matches had unnerved the audience . In contrast , Roberts felt that the two world title matches , which focused on " in @-@ ring psychology and storytelling " , were much more " memorable " or even " legendary " . Regarding the main event , Roberts said , " even a match @-@ ending run @-@ in bypassed the expected convoluted machinations and played perfectly to the narrative at hand " . At the end of 2011 , Nathan Kyght of the Professional Wrestling Torch Newsletter ranked Money in the Bank the best of 34 pay @-@ per @-@ views in 2011 , including those from WWE , Total Nonstop Action Wrestling , Ring of Honor , and Dragon Gate USA .
Wade Keller , also from the Professional Wrestling Torch Newsletter , awarded the Cena – Punk bout five stars out of five , and said the " athleticism wasn 't at the A + level , but everything else that equals magic in pro wrestling happened in the last 40 minutes " . Keller awarded the SmackDown Money in the Bank ladder match four stars and said there were " lots of good workers taking a lot of big bumps , but also selling them , during the course of the match " . For the Orton – Christian match , Keller said that it was " paced well , executed well , and the finish played into the personalities and storyline of this feud " . Regarding the outcome of the Henry – Big Show match , Keller commented that it was " interesting to see WWE really truly get behind Henry for the first time after all of this time " .
Dave Hillhouse at the Canadian Online Explorer 's said Money in the Bank featured " exactly what a main event is supposed to be . A match that overshadows every other bout on the card , that has you , no matter how good each other contest is , looking forward to an ending just to be one step closer to the final contest . " Hillhouse rated the main event eight out of ten and the overall event six out of ten . When the Canadian Online Explorer polled its readers on the event , 26 % did not watch the event , 5 % thought it was disappointing , 6 % thought it was okay and 63 % thought it was great .
Rob McNichol at the United Kingdom 's The Sun rated the event nine and a half out of ten , describing it as a " flawless exercise in the booking , promotion and performance of a wrestling show ... full of excitement , emotion and great wrestling " . McNichol described Bryan 's win in the " very good " opener as memorable and " a great way to inspire the crowd , who would become so important during the night " . He said of the Orton – Christian match , " Christian ’ s character development was excellent " and that while the audience were initially " pro @-@ Christian , who was supposed to be playing the heel " ( a villainous character ) , they eventually cheered Orton 's post @-@ match beatdown of Christian . McNichol described the main event as " professional wrestling at [ its ] finest " and " probably the most gripping angle in wrestling this century " . He said the audience 's " astonishing " reception to the main event was as good as " any major match you have ever seen or cared about in history " , and the match itself " was methodical , played to both wrestlers ' strengths , and was beautifully paced " .
In 2013 , WWE released a list of their " 15 best pay @-@ per @-@ views ever " , with 2011 's Money in the Bank ranked the second best . WWE also released " the 50 greatest WWE Championship Matches ever " in 2013 , with the Cena – Punk match from the event ranked fourth .
Money in the Bank 2011 was released on DVD by WWE Home Video on August 16 , 2011 ; it included Matt Striker interviewing Daniel Bryan as extra content . Eric Cohen of About.com awarded the DVD five stars out of five , and said the event was one of the greatest PPV events of all time and warranted his highest possible recommendation . DVD Talk gave a " Highly Recommended " rating to the DVD , despite " an average technical presentation ( no Blu @-@ ray option , either ) and no real bonus features " .
= = Aftermath = =
After CM Punk left the Allstate Arena with the WWE Championship belt , celebrity website TMZ pictured him showing off his newly won title belt on the streets of Chicago with Colt Cabana and Ace Steel .
To crown a new WWE Champion , WWE Chairman Vince McMahon started an eight @-@ man tournament on the July 18 episode of Raw , which included all the participants of the Raw Money in the Bank ladder match except Evan Bourne , whose place was filled by Dolph Ziggler . The Miz and Rey Mysterio made it to the tournament finals , which McMahon postponed so he could fire John Cena as a result of the conditions imposed on the Money in the Bank match . Triple H interrupted and announced that the WWE Board of Directors had removed McMahon from power in a vote of no confidence , and that Triple H was to take over the day @-@ to @-@ day operations of WWE . Triple H refused to fire Cena .
On July 21 , Punk gatecrashed the joint WWE – Mattel panel at the San Diego Comic @-@ Con International with title belt in hand . He confronted Triple H and took exception to WWE attempting to crown a new WWE Champion . Two days later , Punk made a surprise appearance at a show hosted by the All American Wrestling company without his title belt to endorse Gregory Iron , a wrestler with cerebral palsy , as an inspiration for overcoming his impediment .
On the July 25 episode of Raw , Mysterio won the tournament to become the new WWE Champion , and immediately had to fend off Alberto Del Rio to prevent him from cashing in his Money in the Bank . Triple H , now Chief Operating Officer , decreed that Mysterio was to face ex @-@ champion Cena later that night for the title ; Cena won and again became WWE Champion . After the match , Punk made an unannounced return to WWE with the old WWE Championship belt to confront Cena . Cena and Punk later fought in a match at SummerSlam on August 14 to crown the undisputed WWE Champion , which Punk won . As Punk celebrated , Kevin Nash made his WWE return and assaulted him . Del Rio then cashed in his Money in the Bank contract and pinned Punk to become the new champion after kicking Punk in the head . Punk regained the WWE Championship from Del Rio at Survivor Series in November 2011 ; starting a 434 @-@ day reign until The Rock beat him at the 2013 Royal Rumble event .
After losing the World Heavyweight Championship to Christian , Randy Orton was granted a rematch at SummerSlam , where he won a No Holds Barred match to win the title . Meanwhile , in the storyline , Mark Henry went on to crush Kane and Vladimir Kozlov 's ankles with steel chairs . He defeated Orton at Night of Champions in September to become World Heavyweight Champion for the first time . Big Show returned from injury in October 2011 to feud with Henry over his title . Daniel Bryan initially declared that he would only cash in his Money in the Bank contract for a World Heavyweight Championship match at WrestleMania XXVIII . However , on the November 25 episode of SmackDown , Bryan cashed in the briefcase after Henry had been knocked out by Big Show to become the World Heavyweight Champion . The match was voided by General Manager Theodore Long as Henry was not medically cleared to compete , and the briefcase was returned to Bryan . At WWE 's TLC : Tables , Ladders , and Chairs PPV in December 2011 , Henry lost the World Heavyweight Championship to Big Show . After the match , Henry assaulted Big Show which allowed Bryan to cash in his contract and pin Big Show to win the title . Bryan held on to his title long enough to have a World Heavyweight Championship match at WrestleMania XXVIII in April 2012 , where he lost his championship to Sheamus .
Kelly Kelly 's next contender for the Divas Championship was Beth Phoenix ; Kelly defeated Phoenix to retain her title at SummerSlam , but Phoenix ultimately beat Kelly for the title at Hell in a Cell in October 2011 .
John Laurinaitis continued to appear on television after Money in the Bank . In October 2011 , he was appointed Raw General Manager , replacing Triple H as the on @-@ screen authority figure . During Laurinaitis ' rule , he feuded with CM Punk and later with John Cena , until he was fired in the storyline at No Way Out in June 2012 .
In later Money in the Bank events , John Cena , Randy Orton and Sheamus won Money in the Bank ladder matches in 2012 , 2013 and 2015 respectively . Cena cashed in on CM Punk and won via disqualification ; thus Punk retained the WWE Championship . Orton cashed in on Daniel Bryan and captured the WWE Championship . Sheamus cashed in on Roman Reigns and captured the WWE World Heavyweight Championship .
In WWE 's documentary CM Punk : Best in the World released in 2012 , it was documented from the out @-@ of @-@ universe perspective that a disenchanted Punk rejected signing a new contract with WWE for more than a year leading up to Money in the Bank . After being persuaded by Joey Mercury and Lars Frederiksen that he could only help wrestlers underappreciated by WWE ( like himself ) if he stayed , Punk signed a new contract with WWE about an hour before capturing the WWE Championship from Cena , while the pay @-@ per @-@ view event was ongoing .
= = Results = =
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= Maryland and Virginia Rifle Regiment =
The Maryland and Virginia Rifle Regiment , most commonly known as Rawlings ' Regiment in period documents , was organized in June 1776 as a specialized light infantry unit of riflemen in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War . The American rifle units complemented the predominant , musket @-@ equipped , line infantry forces of the war with their long @-@ range marksmanship capability and were typically deployed with the line infantry as forward skirmishers and flanking elements . Scouting , escort , and outpost duties were also routine . The rifle units ' battle formation was not nearly as structured as that of the line infantry units , which employed short @-@ range massed firing in ordered linear formations . The riflemen could therefore respond with more adaptability to changing battle conditions .
The Maryland and Virginia Rifle Regiment consisted of nine companies — four from Maryland and five from Virginia . The two @-@ state composition of the new unit precluded it from being managed through a single state government , and it was therefore directly responsible to national authority as an Extra Continental regiment .
Because most of the newly formed regiment surrendered to British and German forces at the Battle of Fort Washington on November 16 , 1776 , the service history of the unit 's surviving element is complex . Although modern and contemporaneous accounts of the battle convey the impression that it marked the end of the regiment as a combat entity , a significant portion of the unit continued to serve actively in the Continental Army throughout most of the remainder of the war . Elements of the regiment served with George Washington 's Main Army and participated in the army 's major engagements of late 1776 through 1778 . Select members of the regiment were also attached to Col. Daniel Morgan 's elite Provisional Rifle Corps at its inception in mid @-@ 1777 . The Maryland and Virginia Rifle Regiment was reorganized in January 1779 and was stationed at Fort Pitt , headquarters of the Continental Army 's Western Department , in present @-@ day western Pennsylvania primarily to help in the defense of frontier settlements from raids by British @-@ allied Indian tribes . The unit was disbanded with all other Additional and Extra Continental regiments during the reorganization of the Continental Army in January 1781 . It was the longest serving Continental Army rifle unit of the war .
= = Organization = =
During the American Revolutionary War , the Continental Congress directed the organization of the Maryland and Virginia Rifle Regiment in resolves dated June 17 and 27 , 1776 . The unit comprised three of the four independent Continental rifle companies that had formed in Maryland and Virginia by decree of Congress in mid @-@ 1775 , and six new companies — two from Maryland and four from Virginia . The three 1775 companies , among the first of the colonial units to join the newly constituted Continental Army , were raised and initially commanded by Capts . Michael Cresap , Thomas Price , and Hugh Stephenson . The nine @-@ company force became a regiment on the same tables of organization as the 1st Continental Regiment , which was originally the Pennsylvania Rifle Regiment . Unlike this Pennsylvania unit , however , the Maryland and Virginia Rifle Regiment was an Extra Continental regiment because of its two @-@ state composition . It was not part of a state line organization but was instead directly accountable to national authority ( Congress and the Continental Army ) . The Maryland and Virginia Rifle Regiment 's field officers were drawn from the original three 1775 companies based on their seniority . Hugh Stephenson from Virginia became the colonel , and Marylanders Moses Rawlings of Cresap 's company and Otho Holland Williams of Price 's company were designated the lieutenant colonel and major , respectively . All company officers were appointed in the summer of 1776 , and subsequent recruiting for the unit in the two states extended to the end of the year . Recruiting occurred in Frederick and Harford Counties , Maryland , and Berkeley , Frederick , Loudoun , Fauquier , Prince William , and Culpeper Counties , Virginia . The enlisted men of the regiment served for three years or the duration of the war .
= = Battle of Fort Washington and surviving elements = =
By early November 1776 , the majority of the regiment 's officers and enlisted men had joined Washington 's Main Army while it was engaged in the battle for New York City during the New York and New Jersey campaign . They were initially stationed at Fort Washington on Manhattan Island and nearby Fort Lee on the opposite side of the Hudson River . On November 16 , most of the regiment was captured or killed during the Battle of Fort Washington . The riflemen were defending the northern end of the American position from a much larger force of several thousand Hessian troops . After heavy fighting that lasted most of the day and during which the Hessians suffered many casualties , the riflemen were eventually driven from the outer works into the fort where they and the rest of the outnumbered American garrison surrendered to the combined British and German attack force . Lieutenant Colonel Rawlings was commanding the regiment during the battle because Colonel Stephenson had died of illness in August or September and had not been replaced . About 140 of the regiment 's officers and enlisted men — one @-@ third of the unit 's total complement of about 420 men — were not present at the battle , however , because they were still completing organization and recruiting . A few enlisted men of the regiment who escaped from their captors within the short chaotic period following the battle augmented this remaining active force , which continued to serve with the Main Army . On December 1 , the first day of the army 's next regular reporting period following the fall of Fort Washington , Washington provisionally grouped these remnants of the diminished regiment into two composite rifle companies commanded by the unit 's highest ranking officers still free — Capts . Alexander Lawson Smith and Gabriel Long . Smith 's company comprised all the remaining Marylanders in the regiment , whereas the Virginians of the unit were placed under Long 's command .
The regiment 's two composite companies served with the Main Army during its retreat across New Jersey in late 1776 , in the ensuing Battles of Trenton and Princeton in Brig. Gen. Hugh Mercer 's Brigade , and in the early 1777 skirmishing in northern New Jersey , a period termed the Forage War . While in winter quarters at Morristown during the winter and spring of 1777 , the two @-@ company force and other riflemen from Pennsylvania and Virginia Line regiments supported detached elements of line infantry units in front @-@ line positions and conducted patrols in northern New Jersey , primarily to keep the enemy 's aggressive foraging activities in check . Because the two units under Captains Smith and Long provided an experienced , if small , force , Washington also used them to bolster the new 11th Virginia Regiment commanded by Col. Daniel Morgan after its arrival at Morristown in early April by formally attaching them to this Virginia regiment . Washington 's decision to join the two composite companies with the 11th Virginia Regiment was based on Morgan 's earlier direct association with the original three independent Continental rifle companies of 1775 that formed the core element of Rawlings ' regiment . Inasmuch as the attachment of one military unit to another was technically a temporary arrangement , however , the permanent unit of Smith 's and Long 's composite companies remained the Maryland and Virginia Rifle Regiment . The first muster rolls of the two companies taken after the Battle of Fort Washington , both dated May 16 , 1777 , were compiled by the army staff as a result of the attachment process and show that the units comprised about 110 officers and enlisted men on active duty in the spring of 1777 . The rolls also document that the units had lost a number of men over the winter months following the battle , primarily through desertion and a few deaths due to illness or wounds .
= = Attachment to Morgan 's Provisional Rifle Corps = =
The success of these rifle units during the skirmishing period , coupled with the arrival of large numbers of new army recruits , led Washington to create additional provisional rifle companies . He placed them under the command of Daniel Morgan in early June 1777 , calling the unit the Provisional Rifle Corps , although it was most commonly known as Morgan 's Rifle Corps in period documents . Morgan then simultaneously led the 11th Virginia Regiment , his permanent unit , and this provisional unit . Thirty @-@ five officers and enlisted men in Smith 's and Long 's composite companies , as well as others selected from their regular musket regiments , were detached from their permanent units to form this elite regiment @-@ sized force . The men from the Maryland and Virginia Rifle Regiment all served in one of the Rifle Corps ' eight companies , Capt. Gabriel Long 's Provisional Rifle Company ; with the exception of a single man , all other members of the company came from the 11th Virginia Regiment . Like Morgan , Long was now technically in command of two Continental Army units , one permanent and one provisional . Long served in the Rifle Corps until his resignation in May 1779 , at which time command of his company passed to Marylander Lt. Elijah Evans , also one of the original officers of the Maryland and Virginia Rifle Regiment . Evans returned to Rawlings ' regiment , his permanent unit , when his detached duty in the Rifle Corps ended with its formal disbanding in early November 1779 . The Rifle Corps is most notable for the major role it played in the Battles of Saratoga .
Most members of the Maryland and Virginia Rifle Regiment , however , were not chosen for the Rifle Corps and remained with the Main Army . The Marylanders in Smith 's composite company served with the 11th Virginia Regiment in the 3rd Virginia Brigade at the Battles of Brandywine and Germantown , as well as at the Battle of Monmouth after they were administratively attached to the 4th Maryland Regiment of the 2nd Maryland Brigade at the end of the 1777 campaign season . The Virginians in Long 's composite company remained attached to the 11th Virginia Regiment and fought at the same engagements in 1777 and 1778 . Lt. ( later Capt. ) Philip Slaughter was the acting commander of the company during Long 's nearly two @-@ year attachment to the Rifle Corps and its permanent commander after Long 's resignation .
= = Fort Frederick and reorganization = =
Soon after Lt. Col. Moses Rawlings , a Marylander , was exchanged from British captivity in late December 1777 or January 1778 , the Board of War , at the request of the Maryland state government , assigned him command of the prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp at Fort Frederick , Maryland , and its state militia guard . The elements of the Maryland and Virginia Rifle Regiment in the field continued to be led by the company commanders until recruiting could bring the regiment up to greater strength . Maj. Otho Holland Williams , exchanged on January 16 , 1778 ( likely with Rawlings ) , had been promoted to colonel of the 6th Maryland Regiment in December 1776 while a prisoner of war ; he took command of this unit upon his release . The position of major in the reduced Maryland and Virginia Rifle Regiment was never refilled .
In the late spring of 1778 , Rawlings began marshaling his regiment , including returning prisoners of war and new recruits , to reestablish its full complement . His efforts met with only limited success , however , despite Washington 's request to Maryland governor Thomas Johnson in late December 1777 in anticipation of Rawlings ' imminent exchange " that the most early and vigorous measures will be adopted , not only to make [ Rawlings ' ] Regiment more respectable , but compleat [ sic ] . " Moreover , in early October 1778 Congress permitted Rawlings and his officers to recruit outside Maryland , with each new enlistee being officially entitled to the enlistment bonus and clothing allowance of his own state 's line organization . Implementation of this unusual ruling , however , added few men to the unit , reflecting the Continental Army 's increasing difficulty in recruiting by this time of the war . The few recruiting records for the unit that exist indicate that by the end of 1778 , Rawlings ' force of Continental regulars at Fort Frederick probably included no more than 30 to 40 new enlistees .
Washington initiated more definitive measures to strengthen the regiment in early 1779 . At his request , Congress authorized on January 23 the Maryland and Virginia Rifle Regiment to be reorganized into three companies , recruited to full strength , and reassigned from Fort Frederick to Fort Pitt , headquarters of the Continental Army 's Western Department . The reorganization , which was implemented on March 21 , served to supplement forces engaged in the defense of frontier settlements of present @-@ day western Pennsylvania and vicinity from Indian raids that had started in early 1777 . In mid @-@ 1778 , after more than a year of these attacks , largely by warriors of British @-@ allied Iroquois tribes and Loyalist forces , Washington commenced a concerted effort to neutralize the threat to the backcountry settlements of New York , Pennsylvania , and Virginia — the war 's western front . In support of the reorganization process , on February 16 , 1779 , Washington ordered that all the regiment 's detached members in the Main Army be reincorporated into the unit . Pursuant to Washington 's order , the enlisted men in Smith 's composite company who were attached to the 4th Maryland Regiment rejoined Rawlings ' command . In contrast , the Virginians of Long 's composite company already had been all but formally incorporated into the 11th Virginia Regiment by order of the Virginia state government in February 1777 . ( Because Long 's unit was a component of an Extra Continental regiment and therefore had no administrative connection to an individual state , the Virginia state government had exceeded its authority in this action , which was technically only within the purview of Congress . Washington tacitly accepted the arrangement , but the process was probably not formalized until the reorganization and redesignation of the 11th Virginia Regiment as the 7th Virginia Regiment on May 12 , 1779 . ) Moreover , the enlisted men of Smith 's and Long 's companies who were still attached to the Provisional Rifle Corps , which was not part of the Main Army at this time , remained in that unit until mid @-@ 1779 , at which time they left the service because their three @-@ year enlistment periods had expired . Rawlings ' force therefore now consisted of almost all Marylanders and was variously identified as the " Maryland Corps , " " Maryland Rifle Corps , " and " Maryland Independent Corps " during its service on the western frontier . The unit , however , remained outside the state line organization , a source of great frustration for its officers . Because no unit @-@ redesignation orders accompanied the reorganization orders , the unit 's formal name remained the Maryland and Virginia Rifle Regiment despite significant variations from the unit 's original 1776 configuration .
= = Fort Pitt and the Western Department = =
After recruitment of the three companies had been no more than partially completed , Rawlings ' regiment set off for Fort Pitt , arriving there in late May 1779 . The three companies consisted of about 100 enlisted men , well below the prescribed total of about 60 enlisted men per company in a Continental Army line infantry regiment in 1779 . Moreover , a month after its arrival , the unit lost almost half of its troop strength because the three @-@ year enlistment periods of those men who had joined the regiment during its organization in mid @-@ 1776 had terminated . To further complicate matters , Rawlings resigned his command of the regiment on June 2 , primarily because of his frustration over not being able to fully rebuild the unit , and did not accompany his men . He remained the commandant of Fort Frederick and subsequently served as Deputy Commissary of Prisoners for Maryland . Capt. Alexander Lawson Smith also did not proceed to Fort Pitt with the riflemen . He likely stayed with the 4th Maryland Regiment of the Main Army in a continued attached capacity until Congress approved his resignation from " the regiment formerly Rawlins [ sic ] " in September 1780 . The regiment was now commanded by senior captain Thomas Beall and later Capt. Adamson Tannehill , both of whom had been with the unit since its inception .
The Maryland and Virginia Rifle Regiment complemented the existing garrison at Fort Pitt : the 8th Pennsylvania and 9th ( formerly 13th ) Virginia Regiments . The men of these Pennsylvania and Virginia line infantry units had been recruited from the central and western frontier counties of the two states and were assigned to the army 's Western Department while at Valley Forge , reflecting a clear logic on Washington 's part . With the arrival of Rawlings ' regiment , Western Department commander Col. Daniel Brodhead now led a force of largely frontier raised men experienced in Indian @-@ style woodlands warfare . In his most notable tactical achievement , Brodhead headed a campaign of about 600 of his Continental regulars , which included the Maryland and Virginia Rifle Regiment , local militia , and volunteers to the upper waters of the Allegheny River in August and September 1779 , where they destroyed the villages and crops of hostile Mingo and Munsee Indians . Brodhead 's expedition was part of Washington 's wide @-@ ranging , coordinated offensive of the summer of 1779 that also included the larger , concurrent Sullivan Campaign led by Maj. Gen. John Sullivan and Brig. Gen. James Clinton against enemy Iroquois and Loyalist units in southern and western New York State . From mid @-@ 1779 until late 1780 , however , the Maryland and Virginia Rifle Regiment was primarily deployed in detachments to support line infantry contingents at several of the frontier outposts in the general vicinity of Fort Pitt , including Fort Laurens , Fort McIntosh , and Fort Henry ( Wheeling ) in what is now eastern Ohio , western Pennsylvania , and northernmost West Virginia , respectively .
Change in command of the regiment occurred for the third time in late 1780 . Under continual pressure to maintain sufficient troop strength in the unit , regimental commander Capt. Thomas Beall ran afoul of army regulations and Western Department commander Brodhead by approving the enlistment of a British prisoner of war in February 1780 . Beall tried to rectify his lapse in judgment by discharging the recruit , although after he had already been given his recruitment bounty and service clothes . On August 14 , 1780 , at Fort Pitt , Captain Beall was tried by court @-@ martial , found guilty of " discharging a Soldier after having been duly inlisted [ sic ] and receiving his regimental cloathing [ sic ] through private and interested views thereby defrauding the United States , " and on October 13 , was dismissed from the service . Capt. Adamson Tannehill succeeded Beall as commander of the regiment for the remaining few months of the unit 's existence .
= = Disbanding = =
On November 1 , 1780 , Washington issued orders approved by Congress that specified plans for the comprehensive reorganization of the Continental Army effective January 1 , 1781 . All Additional and Extra Continental regiments , such as the Maryland and Virginia Rifle Regiment , that had not been annexed to a state line organization were disbanded by that date . The much @-@ diminished unit comprised only 2 officers and 50 enlisted men in late December 1780 . The officers received discharges on January 1 , 1781 , and the enlisted men of the unit were transferred to the Maryland Line . Relocation of the men from their remote post at Fort Pitt to their new assignments , however , was not completed until November 1781 , at least in part because their officers were not present to supervise the process .
The lineage of the regiment 's Virginia elements is carried on by the 201st Field Artillery Regiment ( United States ) .
= = = Primary references ( books ) = = =
Balch , Thomas , ed . ( 1857 ) . Papers relating chiefly to the Maryland Line during the Revolution . Philadelphia : T. K. and P. G. Collins , pp. 4 – 5 ( Proceedings of the Frederick County Committee of Observation , June 21 , 1775 ) .
Browne , William H. , ed . ( 1897 ) . Archives of Maryland : journal and correspondence of the Council of Safety , January 1 – March 20 , 1777 ; Journal and correspondence of the State Council , March 20 , 1777 – March 28 , 1778 . Baltimore : The Friedenwald Co . , v. 16 , pp. 448 – 450 ( Washington to Johnson , December 29 , 1777 ) , 555 – 556 ( Council of Maryland to Gates , March 27 , 1778 ) .
Browne , William H. , ed . ( 1901 ) . Archives of Maryland : journal and correspondence of the Council of Maryland , April 1 , 1778 – October 26 , 1779 . Baltimore : The Lord Baltimore Press , v. 21 , pp. 147 – 148 ( Council of Maryland correspondence , June 24 , 1778 ) , 148 ( Council of Maryland to Hughes , June 24 , 1778 ) , 339 – 340 ( Washington to Johnson , April 8 , 1779 ) , 546 ( Council of Maryland to Wiley , October 4 , 1779 ) .
Dandridge , Danske ( 1911 ) . American prisoners of the Revolution . Charlottesville : The Michie Co . , pp. 11 – 19 ( undated letter from Maj. Henry Bedinger to son of Gen. Samuel Finley ) . ISBN 1 @-@ 4069 @-@ 3807 @-@ 6 .
Force , Peter ( 1853 ) . American archives . Washington : M. St. Clair Clarke and Peter Force , Fifth Series , v. 3 , pp. 663 – 664 ( " Return of the Forces encamped on the Jersey Shore , commanded by Major @-@ General Greene , November 13 , 1776 " ) , 1035 – 1036 ( " General Return of the Army . Trenton , December 1st , 1776 " ) , 1401 – 1402 ( " Return of the Forces in the service of the States of America , encamped and in quarters on the banks of Delaware , in the State of Pennsylvania ... December 22d , 1776 " ) .
Ford , Worthington C. , ed . ( 1905 , 1906 , 1908 , 1909 ) . Journals of the Continental Congress , 1774 @-@ 1789 . Washington , D.C. : Library of Congress , v. 2 , pp. 89 – 90 , v. 5 , pp. 452 , 486 , 762 – 763 ; v. 11 , pp. 538 – 539 ; v. 12 , p . 993 ; v. 13 , p . 104 .
Graham , James ( 1859 ) . The life of General Daniel Morgan of the Virginia Line of the army of the United States . New York : Derby & Jackson , pp. 53 – 54 ( Proceedings of the Frederick County , Virginia , Committee , June 22 , 1775 ; and Morgan 's commission , June 22 , 1775 ) , 118 ( Morgan 's commission , November 12 , 1776 ) . ISBN 1 @-@ 880484 @-@ 06 @-@ 4 .
Hazard , Samuel , ed . ( 1856 ) . Pennsylvania Archives . Philadelphia : Joseph Severns & Co . , series 1 , v. 12 , pp. 155 – 158 ( Brodhead to Washington , September 16 , 1779 ) , 194 – 195 ( Finley to Taylor , November 28 , 1779 ) .
Hunt , Gaillard , ed . ( 1910 ) . Journals of the Continental Congress , 1774 – 1789 . Washington , D.C. : Library of Congress , v. 17 , p . 807 .
Kellogg , Louise P. ( 1916 ) . Frontier advance on the upper Ohio , 1778 – 1779 . Madison : State Historical Society of Wisconsin , p . 364 ( Brodhead 's orders , June 14 , 1779 ) . ISBN 0 @-@ 7884 @-@ 0048 @-@ 7 .
Kellogg , Louise P. ( 1917 ) . Frontier retreat on the upper Ohio , 1779 – 1781 . Madison : State Historical Society of Wisconsin , pp. 309 ( Brodhead to Clark , December 16 , 1780 ) , 400 ( Brodhead to Huntington , May 30 , 1781 ) , 454 ( Order for a court of inquiry , Fort Pitt , September 3 , 1780 ) . ISBN 0 @-@ 8063 @-@ 5191 @-@ 8 .
Linn , John B. , and Egle , William H. , eds . ( 1880 ) . Pennsylvania Archives . Harrisburg : Lane S. Hart , series 2 , v. 10 , p . 106 ( " Return of the Troops on York Island in the Service of the United States , Commanded by Col. Magaw , November 7 , 1776 " ) . The digital link is to a later edition of this citation and shows a different page number .
McIlwaine , Henry R. , ed . ( 1931 ) . Journals of the Council of the State of Virginia . Richmond : The Virginia State Library , v. 1 , pp. 320 – 324 ( Council meeting , February 3 , 1777 ) .
Maryland Historical Society ( 1900 ) . Archives of Maryland : muster rolls and other records of service of Maryland troops in the American Revolution ( 1775 – 1783 ) . Baltimore : The Lord Baltimore Press , v. 18 , pp. 350 – 351 ( " Muster Roll of the Maryland Corps in the Service of the U. States , Commanded by Captain Thomas Beall for the Months of Jan. , Feb. , March , April , May , June , July , Aug. , Sept. and Oct. 1780 " ) , 365 ( " Officers in the Maryland part of the Rifle Regiment Supernumerary Jany . , 1st , 1781 " ) , 616 ( " Return of Maryland Officers exchanged from the 24th March , 1777 " ) .
Pleasants , J. Hall , ed . ( 1930 ) . Archives of Maryland : journal and correspondence of the State Council of Maryland , 1781 . Baltimore : The Lord Baltimore Press , v. 47 , pp. 129 – 130 ( Swearingen to Lee , March 16 , 1781 ) , 547 ( Gibson to Lee , November 12 , 1781 ) .
Showman , Richard K. , Cobb , Margaret , and McCarthy , Robert E. , eds . ( 1976 ) . The papers of General Nathanael Greene . Chapel Hill : The University of North Carolina Press , v. 1 , pp. 328 – 329 ( Greene to Washington , October 31 , 1776 ) . ISBN 0 @-@ 8078 @-@ 1285 @-@ 4 .
Steiner , Bernard C. , ed . ( 1924 ) . Archives of Maryland : journal and correspondence of the State Council of Maryland , 1779 – 1780 . Baltimore : The Lord Baltimore Press , v. 43 , p . 424 ( Beall to Council of Maryland , February 10 , 1780 ) .
Steiner , Bernard C. , ed . ( 1927 ) . Archives of Maryland : journal and correspondence of the State Council of Maryland , 1780 – 1781 . Baltimore : The Lord Baltimore Press , v. 45 , pp. 69 – 70 ( Beall to Lee and Council of Maryland , August 30 , 1780 ) .
= = = Primary references ( periodicals ) = = =
The Historical Society of Pennsylvania ( 1901 ) . " Letter of Lambert Cadwalader to Timothy Pickering on the capture of Fort Washington [ May 1822 ] . " The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 25 , 259 – 262 . ISSN 0031 @-@ 4587 .
Hoenstine , Floyd G. , ed . ( 1976 ) . " Expenditures and receipts at Fort Pitt , PA . , October 27 , 1779 to December 31 , 1781 , as copied from the ledger used by John Boreman , [ Deputy ] Paymaster General [ of the Western Department ] , Continental Army . " Your Family Tree : Pennsylvania Genealogy and History West of the Susquehanna 22 ( 3 ) , 62 – 65 . OCLC 41385183 .
Maryland Historical Society ( 1910 ) . " Alex . Lawson Smith to Lieut . Michael Gilbert [ February 17 , 1777 ] . " Maryland Historical Magazine 5 , 131 – 134 . ISSN 0025 @-@ 4258 .
Maryland Historical Society ( 1927 ) . " A muster roll of Captain Thomas Price 's Company of Rifle @-@ Men in the service of the United Colonies . " Maryland Historical Magazine 22 , 275 – 283 . ISSN 0025 @-@ 4258 .
= = = Primary references ( archive documents ) = = =
Beall to Washington ( May 7 , 1779 ) : U.S. National Archives and Records Administration , Record Group 93 , microcopy M246 , roll 34 , frames 375 @-@ 376 .
Brodhead to Washington — Return of troops in the Western Department ( April 17 , 1779 ) : Library of Congress , George Washington Papers , Series 4 .
Brodhead to Washington ( May 29 , 1779 ) : Library of Congress , George Washington Papers , Series 4 .
Callender and Debruler war @-@ pension testimonies : U.S. National Archives and Records Administration , Record Group 15 , microcopy M804 : roll 452 , frames 006 – 015 , claim no . S 40792 ( Pvt. John Callender ) ; roll 782 , frames 729 – 744 , claim no . S 35890 ( Pvt. John Debruler ) .
Davenport , Callender , and Debruler war @-@ pension testimonies : U.S. National Archives and Records Administration , Record Group 15 , microcopy M804 : roll 744 , frames 038 – 059 , claim no . S 35874 ( Pvt. Adrian Davenport ) ; roll 452 , frames 006 – 015 , claim no . S 40792 ( Pvt. John Callender ) ; roll 782 , frames 729 – 744 , claim no . S 35890 ( Pvt. John Debruler ) .
Dowden war @-@ pension testimony : U.S. National Archives and Records Administration , Record Group 15 , microcopy M804 , roll 844 , frames 145 – 161 , claim no . S 30996 ( Pvt. James Dowden ) .
Fritts war @-@ pension testimony : U.S. National Archives and Records Administration , Record Group 15 , microcopy M804 , roll 1029 , frames 580 – 596 , claim no . S 42732 ( Pvt. Valentine Fritts ) .
Harris and Smith war @-@ pension testimonies : U.S. National Archives and Records Administration , Record Group 15 , microcopy M804 : roll 1199 , frames 493 – 499 , claim no . S 31726 ( Pvt. James Harris , Long 's Co . ) ; roll 2216 , frames 514 – 531 , claim no . W 19052 ( Pvt. Jacob Smith , Long 's Co . ) .
Hendricks to Washington ( April 12 , 1777 ) : Library of Congress , George Washington Papers , Series 4 .
Johnson to Washington ( April 23 , 1779 ) : Library of Congress , George Washington Papers , Series 4 .
Lingan and Davenport war @-@ pension testimonies : U.S. National Archives and Records Administration , Record Group 15 , microcopy M804 : roll 1567 , frames 879 – 891 , claim no . S 34962 ( Lt. Thomas Lingan , Smith 's Co . ) ; roll 744 , frames 038 – 059 , claim no . S 35874 ( Pvt. Adrian Davenport , Smith 's Co . ) .
Lineage and honors certificate , 201st Field Artillery Regiment ( March 12 , 2003 ) : United States Army Center of Military History , Fort Lesley J. McNair , Washington , D.C.
Long 's Co. muster roll ( May 16 , 1777 ) : U.S. National Archives and Records Administration , Record Group 93 , microcopy M246 , roll 109 , frames 492 – 494 ( " A Muster Roll of Capt. Gabriel Long 's Company of the Eleventh Virginia Regiment of Foot Commanded by Col. Daniel Morgan ... May 16th 1777 — Together with part of Capts . Shepherd , West 's & Brady 's Compys " ) .
Long 's Co. muster rolls ( July 1777 – May 1778 ) : U.S. National Archives and Records Administration , Record Group 93 , microcopy M246 , roll 109 , frames 495 – 527 .
Long 's Provisional Rifle Co. pay roll ( July 1777 ) : U.S. National Archives and Records Administration , Record Group 93 , microcopy M246 , roll 133 , frames 414 – 415 ( " Pay Roll of Capt. Gabl . Long 's Detach 'd Comy. of Rifle men Commdd. by Colo . Danl . Morgan for the month of July 1777 " ) .
Long 's Provisional Rifle Co. pay rolls ( July 1777 – May 1778 ) : U.S. National Archives and Records Administration , Record Group 93 , microcopy M246 , roll 133 , frames 414 – 450 .
Long 's Provisional Rifle Co. pay rolls ( April – September 1779 ) : U.S. National Archives and Records Administration , Record Group 93 , Microcopy M246 , roll 133 , frames 433 – 448 .
Rawlings to Congress ( November 28 , 1785 ) : U.S. National Archives and Records Administration , Record Group 360 , microcopy M247 , roll 51 , item 41 , v. 8 , pp. 361 – 363 .
Rawlings to Washington ( August 1778 ) : U.S. National Archives and Records Administration , Record Group 360 , microcopy M247 , roll 51 , item 41 , v. 8 , p . 365 .
Returns of the Maryland Corps ( December 25 , 1780 ) : Maryland State Archives , Maryland State Papers ( Series A ) , Box 21 , Items 119A and 119B , MSA No . S 1004 @-@ 27 ( " A Return of the Commissioned Officers of the Maryland Corps [ Late Rawlings 's ] Specifying their Names , Rank , Claims to Promotion & c . " and " Return of the Non @-@ Commission 'd officers & Rank and File of the Maryland Corps [ formerly Commanded by Lieut . Colo . Moses Rawlings ] of Foot in the Army of the United States , under the Command of His Excellency Genl . Washington , Specifying the expiration of Inlistments , Monthly from the 10th. of October 1780 to July next inclusively , together with the number engaged to Serve during the War " ) .
Rider and Dych war @-@ pension testimonies : U.S. National Archives and Records Administration , Record Group 15 , microcopy M804 : roll 2045 , frames 001 @-@ 010 , claim no . S 40341 ( Pvt. Adam Rider ) ; roll 879 , frames 446 – 452 , claim no . S 42689 ( Pvt. Peter Dych ) .
Smith 's Co. pay roll ( May 1 , 1777 ) : U.S. National Archives and Records Administration , Record Group 93 , microcopy M246 , roll 126 , frames 190 – 200 ( at end of roll 126 ) ( " Pay Roll of Capt. Alex . Lawson Smith 's Comy. with part of Capts . Griffith 's , Davis ' & Beall 's Comys. of Lieut . Colo . Moses Rawlings Batn . Riflemen , now under Command of Colo . Danl . Morgan of the 11th Virginia Regiment ... 1st Day of May 1777 " ) .
Smith 's Co. muster roll ( May 16 , 1777 ) : U.S. National Archives and Records Administration , Record Group 93 , microcopy M246 , roll 126 , frames 175 – 176 ( at end of roll 126 ) ( " A Muster Roll of Capt. Alexr . Lawson Smith 's Company Including part of other Company 's belonging to the same Regiment of Lieut . Colo . Rawling 's Batn. of Foot now under Commnd . [ sic ] of Colo . Daniel Morgan of 11th Virga . Regmt . " ) .
Smith 's Co. muster rolls ( 1778 ) : Maryland Historical Society , Revolutionary War Collection , MS 1814 .
Tannehill to Roberts ( April 24 , 1818 ) , in Callender war @-@ pension testimony : U.S. National Archives and Records Administration , Record Group 15 , microcopy M804 , roll 452 , frame 13 , claim no . S 40792 ( Pvt. John Callender ) .
Tannehill to Smallwood ( December 25 , 1780 ) : Maryland State Archives , Maryland State Papers ( Series A ) , Box 21 , Item 120 , MSA No . S 1004 @-@ 27 .
Washington to Brodhead ( January 10 , 1781 ) : Library of Congress , George Washington Papers , Series 4 .
Washington to Congress ( July 4 , 1776 ) : U.S. National Archives and Records Administration , Record Group 360 , microcopy M247 , roll 166 , item 152 , v. 2 , pp. 152 – 157 .
Washington to Congress ( September 28 , 1776 ) : Library of Congress , George Washington Papers , Series 3 , Subseries A , Letterbook 2 .
Washington to Congress ( December 24 , 1776 ) : Library of Congress , George Washington Papers , Series 3 , Subseries A , Letterbook 2 .
Washington to Congress ( January 21 , 1779 ) : Library of Congress , George Washington Papers , Series 4 .
Washington General Orders ( February 16 , 1779 ) : Library of Congress , George Washington Papers , Series 3 , Subseries G , Letterbook 4 .
Washington General Orders ( November 7 , 1779 ) : Library of Congress , George Washington Papers , Series 3 , Subseries G , Letterbook 4 .
Washington General Orders ( October 13 , 1780 ) : Library of Congress , George Washington Papers , Series 3 , Subseries G , Letterbook 5 .
Washington General Orders ( November 1 , 1780 ) : Library of Congress , George Washington Papers , Series 3 , Subseries G , Letterbook 5 .
Washington to Morgan ( June 13 , 1777 ) : Library of Congress , George Washington Papers , Series 4 .
Washington to Rawlings ( March 21 , 1779 ) : Library of Congress , George Washington Papers , Series 4 .
Washington to Shippen ( January 6 , 1777 ) : Library of Congress , George Washington Papers , Series 3 , Subseries B , Letterbook 2 .
= = = Secondary references = = =
Fischer , David H. ( 2004 ) . Washington 's crossing . New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 517034 @-@ 2 .
Heitman , Francis B. ( 1914 ) . Historical register of officers of the Continental Army during the War of the Revolution , April , 1775 , to December , 1783 . Washington , D.C. : The Rare Book Shop Publishing Co . , pp. 285 , 356 , 459 , 499 , 596 . ISBN 0 @-@ 548 @-@ 21649 @-@ 5 .
Hentz , Tucker F. ( 2006 ) . " Unit history of the Maryland and Virginia Rifle Regiment ( 1776 – 1781 ) : Insights from the service record of Capt. Adamson Tannehill . " Military Collector & Historian 58 ( 3 ) , 129 – 144 . ISSN 0026 @-@ 3966 .
Higginbotham , Don ( 1961 ) . Daniel Morgan , revolutionary rifleman . Chapel Hill : The University of North Carolina Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 8078 @-@ 1386 @-@ 9 .
Russell , T. Triplett , and Gott , John K. ( 1977 ) . Fauquier County in the Revolution . Warrenton : Warrenton Printing & Publishing Company . ISBN 1 @-@ 888265 @-@ 60 @-@ 4 .
Steuart , Rieman ( 1969 ) . A history of the Maryland Line in the Revolutionary War , 1775 – 1783 . Towson : Society of the Cincinnati of Maryland .
Williams , Glenn F. ( 2005 ) . Year of the hangman : George Washington 's campaign against the Iroquois . Yardley , Pennsylvania : Westholme Publishing , LLC . ISBN 1 @-@ 59416 @-@ 013 @-@ 9 .
Wright , Robert K. , Jr . ( 1983 ) . The Continental Army . Washington , D.C. : United States Army Center of Military History Publication 60 @-@ 4 @-@ 1 , U.S. Government Printing Office . ISBN 0 @-@ 16 @-@ 001931 @-@ 1 .
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= Sydney Roosters =
The Eastern Suburbs District Rugby League Football Club is an Australian professional rugby league football club based in the Eastern Suburbs of Sydney . The club competes in the National Rugby League ( NRL ) competition and is one of the oldest and most successful clubs in Australian rugby league history , having won thirteen New South Wales Rugby League ( NSWRL ) and National Rugby League titles , and several other competitions . Only the South Sydney Rabbitohs and the St. George Dragons have won more premierships . The club holds the record for having the most wins and the second greatest margin of victory in a match in Australian rugby league history . The Eastern Suburbs DRLFC is the only club to have played in each and every season at the elite level , and since the 1970s has often been dubbed the " glamour club " of the league . Coached by Trent Robinson along with captain Jake Friend , the Roosters play their home games at the Sydney Football Stadium .
The club was founded in 1908 in Paddington , Sydney , under the name Eastern Suburbs ; in 1995 the club 's marketing brand name was changed to the Sydney City Roosters and , in 2000 , to simply the Sydney Roosters . The Bondi Junction and Moore Park @-@ based Roosters have a long @-@ standing and fierce rivalry with other Sydney @-@ based clubs , especially the South Sydney Rabbitohs , a fellow foundation club based in neighbouring Redfern . Notwithstanding its branding as the Sydney Roosters , the official name of the club , holder of the NRL licence , remains the Eastern Suburbs District Rugby League Football Club , the same name it has had since 1908 . As such , much of the club 's merchandise and paraphernalia , especially those marketed directly to long @-@ serving and dedicated members , includes the insignia ESDRLFC .
= = History = =
The Eastern Suburbs District Rugby League Football Club ( ESDRLFC ) was formed on 24 January 1908 at a meeting at the Paddington Town Hall in Sydney after it was decided that the district should enter a team in the newly formed New South Wales Rugby Football League . The ESDRLFC was formed , under its articles of association with the NSWRL , to represent the geographic areas in Sydney covering the Waverley , Randwick , Woollahra , Paddington , Darlinghurst and Vaucluse local government municipalities , as well as the eastern parts of the Sydney CBD . Indeed , the ' suburb ' of Sydney , postcode 2000 , falls entirely within the official boundaries of the ESDRLFC .
Unofficially nicknamed the " Tricolours " due to their red , white and blue playing strip , Eastern Suburbs won its first match , defeating Newtown 32 – 16 at Wentworth Oval on 20 April 1908 . In 1913 , they became the first club to win three consecutive premierships ; the line @-@ ups during this period included the likes of Dally Messenger , Harry " Jersey " Flegg and Sandy Pearce , all regarded as all @-@ time rugby league greats . However , the club rapidly declined and failed to win the premiership for the next nine seasons .
Eastern Suburbs missed the finals once from 1926 to 1942 , and in that time won four titles and the minor premiership on seven occasions . During this period , Dave Brown set several point @-@ scoring records that still stand . In 1935 , the team lost just one game , and recorded the highest winning margin in their history , an 87 – 7 ( 106 – 8 in modern scoring ) victory over Canterbury . In 1936 , Eastern Suburbs became one of five teams in premiership history to remain undefeated for an entire season , a feat they repeated the following year . They are the only club to remain unbeaten for two consecutive seasons .
Despite claiming the premiership in 1945 , Eastern Suburbs failed to make the finals for the following seven seasons . A runners @-@ up finish in 1960 was the closest the club came to claiming the premiership during this era . Eastern Suburbs were soundly defeated 31 – 6 in the grand final that year , by the famous record @-@ beating St George outfit . In 1966 , the club fell to new depths and was winless for the first time in its history . It was also the last occasion in which the Roosters won the wooden spoon until claiming it again in the 2009 season . It ended a poor run for Eastern Suburbs ; from 1963 to 1966 , they won 8 of 72 matches , finishing second to last in 1964 and last in the other three years . The club underwent a renaissance in 1967 after appointing Jack Gibson as coach ( 1967 – 68 ) , and introducing a new emblem on the playing jerseys , the rooster .
From 1972 to 1982 , the Roosters won four minor premierships and played in four grand finals , winning two consecutively . Gibson , now dubbed as " Super Coach " , returned to lead the team from 1974 to 1976 . In 1974 and 1975 , the team won 39 of 44 matches , both minor premierships , and both grand finals and set a premiership record of 19 consecutive wins . The 38 – 0 grand final victory in 1975 against St George was the largest margin in a first grade grand final , and the record stood for 33 years until superseded by Manly 's 40 – nil win over the Melbourne Storm in 2008 . With line @-@ ups including Mark Harris , Elwyn Walters , John Brass , Bill Mullins , Russell Fairfax , Johnny Mayes , John Peard , Ron Coote , Ian Schubert and captain Arthur Beetson , the Centenary of Rugby League panel considered the Roosters of 1974 and 1975 to be among the greatest club teams of all time .
Between 1984 and 1995 , the Roosters reached the semi @-@ finals once , and became known to critics as the " transit lounge " , due to the high frequency of player purchases and releases . The club came close to reaching the premiership in 1987 under coach and favourite son Arthur Beetson , being defeated by eventual premiers Manly in a " bruising " major semi @-@ final , 10 – 6 .
As the Super League war built up in the mid @-@ 1990s , the Roosters recruited high profile coach Phil Gould and star five @-@ eighth Brad Fittler , both from the Penrith Panthers . This helped to quickly send the Roosters back to the upper end of the ladder . Fittler 's presence proved invaluable ; during his reign , the Roosters competed in four grand finals in five years . In 2002 , the club captured its 12th premiership — the first in 27 years — defeating minor premiers the New Zealand Warriors 30 – 8 in the 2002 NRL grand final .
In the 2003 NRL grand final against the Penrith Panthers , the Roosters lost 18 – 6 in what was their heaviest defeat for the year . A decisive moment occurred midway through the second half : with the scores tied at 6 @-@ all , Roosters winger Todd Byrne made a clear break down the sideline and looked set to score a try before being chased down and tackled into touch by Penrith lock forward , Scott Sattler . From then on , the momentum of the game was with Penrith . The Roosters ' made the Grand Final in 2004 , when they ceded a 13 – 6 half @-@ time lead to be defeated by the Bulldogs 16 – 13 . The match was captain Fittler 's last for the team .
In 2007 , the Roosters became the first club to play 100 seasons of first grade rugby league ; they were the only outfit to play in each season since the competition 's inception in 1908 . They appointed Chris Anderson as coach for 2007 and 2008 following two relatively unsuccessful years under Ricky Stuart . On 9 July 2007 , Anderson resigned after a 56 – 0 loss to the Manly @-@ Warringah Sea Eagles . Assistant Coach Fittler acted as the caretaker for the remainder of the 2007 season , before being appointed in August to the top job for two years . With eight rounds remaining in a disappointing 2009 season in which the Roosters finished with the wooden spoon for the first time in 43 years , Fittler was informed he would not be the coach in 2010 , his position to be taken by veteran coach Brian Smith . The Roosters wound up winning only five games for the entire season ; twice against Cronulla and once against each of Canberra in Canberra , eventual grand finalists Parramatta and Newcastle in Newcastle .
A year after finishing last , under the coaching of Brian Smith they reached the 2010 NRL Grand Final where the St. George Illawarra Dragons defeated them 32 – 8 . The Roosters led 8 – 6 at half time but were overrun in the second half .
What followed was another relatively disappointing season at Bondi Junction , with the Roosters finishing 11th in a 2011 season plagued by off @-@ field issues involving 2010 Dally M Medallist Todd Carney ( who was later sacked by the Roosters at season 's end ) . However , a four @-@ game winning streak to end the season should bring hope for the 2012 season . Other high @-@ profile players including Nate Myles , Mark Riddell , Jason Ryles , Kane Linnett and Phil Graham all left the club at season 's end .
The Roosters endured a disappointing 2012 season , finishing 13th . Brian Smith resigned from the coaching role shortly after the Roosters ' season concluded with a loss to the minor premiers Canterbury , and also at season 's end captain Braith Anasta left to join the Wests Tigers for 2013 .
The 2013 season saw new staff , a new coach , Trent Robinson , and several new players , including big signings Michael Jennings , James Maloney , Luke O 'Donnell and Sonny Bill Williams , arrive at the club . This culminated in the Roosters finishing the 2013 season with a 24 – 12 win over the South Sydney Rabbitohs , securing the minor premiership for the 2013 season and were the NRL 's best attacking and defensive team . The Roosters defeated the Manly @-@ Warringah Sea Eagles 4 – 0 , in week one of the finals , earning a week 's rest . The Roosters defeated the Newcastle Knights 40 – 14 in week three of the NRL finals , progressing to the 2013 NRL grand final , facing the Manly @-@ Warringah Sea Eagles , winning 26 – 18 . It was a great comeback by the Roosters , down by 10 points in the second half they went on to score three consecutive tries to seal the win and their 13th premiership . They then went on to win the 2014 World Club Challenge against Wigan 36 – 14 to claim the treble of club titles . No team in premiership history had come from a lower ladder position to win the following season ’ s title .
In 2015 , the Roosters claimed a third successive minor premiership , defeating the South Sydney Rabbitohs 30 – 0 .
= = Emblem = =
Eastern Suburbs did not traditionally sport a crest on their jerseys in the first half of the 20th century . Other clubs occasionally sported simple designs on their strip ; however , this was not seen consistently on all jerseys until the 1950s and 1960s . In 1967 , the club introduced the first logo , displaying the motto " Easts to Win " , following a winless season . The crest also incorporated a rooster or cockerel in the design ; one source suggested that this choice of mascot followed after the Roosters ' jersey design was inspired by the French national team 's jersey . Given that the French team 's mascot was affectionately known to supporters as le coq , " the rooster " , connections have been made as to the choosing of a rooster for Eastern Suburbs ' mascot .
In 1978 , the motto was replaced with the team 's name , " Eastern Suburbs " . This name was kept until 1994 , when the club changed its playing name to the " Sydney City Roosters " for the start of the 1995 season to expand the club 's widening fan base . In 2000 , the club changed its name to the " Sydney Roosters " .
Although marketing names have changed , the Roosters are still registered with the National Rugby League competition as the Eastern Suburbs District Rugby League Football Club .
= = Colours = =
Red , white and blue have been the colours of every jersey design in the club 's history ; however , the jersey design has undergone several alterations . The red , white and blue colour scheme has traditionally been the colour combination for sporting teams representing Sydney 's Eastern Suburbs . Eastern Suburbs Rugby League club adopted these colours in 1908 , with its predecessor Rugby Union club , also known as Eastern Suburbs in the Sydney club Rugby Union , having played in the tri @-@ colours . The jersey worn in the first premiership season consisted of several hoops ; red stripes dominated over consecutive smaller white and blue stripes . Although the width and the order of these stripes have changed , the basic design has always been maintained .
During World War II , the design of the jersey was modified because the dye used to colour jerseys was needed for the war effort . This saw Eastern Suburbs playing in different colours and an altered design . Instead of using the traditional hoops , the side used a sky @-@ blue based jersey and a red and white V @-@ strip around the collar . This is the only noted time in the club 's history where the traditional deep blue , red and white combination was absent from the jersey . After the war , the V @-@ strip design reverted to the original blue that had been present in the original jerseys , and the single red and white stripes around the shirt 's chest were incorporated with a single white stripe surrounded by a red stripe on either side . This jersey appeared in the 1950s and remains the team 's base design .
Facing design clashes with other teams in the 1990s , the club adopted a jersey with a similar design to what became known as the " away jersey " , replacing the blue backing with white , and the outer red stripe with blue . As the club entered the new century , the team began to wear a " foundation jersey " . Although the design differs slightly from the jersey worn in the inaugural 1908 season , it did feature the traditional horizontal striped @-@ design . This jersey is normally worn when the Sydney Roosters face traditional rivals , such as the South Sydney Rabbitohs , or on special occasions such as Anzac Day when the team meets the St George Illawarra Dragons , the product of a team partly formed by the St. George Dragons .
= = Geographic area = =
The Sydney Roosters , namely the Eastern Suburbs District Rugby League Football Club was formed , under its articles of association with the NSWRL , to represent the geographic areas in Sydney covering the Waverley , Randwick , Woollahra , Paddington , Darlinghurst and Vaucluse local government municipalities , as well as the eastern parts of the Sydney CBD . Despite some junior Rugby League boundaries being redrawn over the 107 @-@ year history of the code in Australia , these articles of association remain unchanged . As such , the Roosters represent a small area of Sydney . The Roosters home turf is also home to a large number of supporters of rival codes and thus is the most competitive sporting market in Australia , with the Roosters flying the flag for Rugby League in Sydney 's east .
= = Stadium = =
Most sources suggest that the Royal Agricultural Ground was often used as a home venue between 1908 and 1910 , before the club hosted matches at the Sydney Sports Ground from 1911 onwards . It was here that the team played all of their homes games up until 1986 , when the ground was demolished with the Sydney Cricket Ground No. 2 to make way for Sydney 's main rectangular field , the Sydney Football Stadium . In 1987 , games were moved away to the Newtown Jets ' home ground , Henson Park , temporarily to await the completion of the Sydney Football Stadium . The team capitalised on this move , finishing second in the regular season . It was the only time between 1983 and 1995 that the side reached the finals .
In 1988 , the club moved to the newly built Sydney Football Stadium on the site of the old Sydney Sports Ground , opening the season with a 24 – 14 defeat at the hands of the St George Dragons in front of 19 @,@ 295 spectators on a wet night on 4 March 1988 . At the Sydney Football Stadium , the Roosters have a 59 % win record from 256 games with a 58 % and 55 % win record at their old grounds the Sydney Sports Ground and the Sydney Cricket Ground respectively .
In 2022 Allianz stadium will be upgraded at at cost of $ 450 million and is expected to take 4 years to complete . The Roosters are expected to play their Home games during this period at ANZ or Central Coast Stadium . Once competed the club is expected to call Allianz home again .
= = Supporters = =
The Sydney Roosters have a strong supporter group base across Australia . Aside from its traditional fan base in Sydney , which is most concentrated in its homeland in the affluent eastern suburbs . The club has an internet message board for supporters , " The Wall " , which has been the official forum since 1999 . The club has announced that " The Wall " will be closing as of late January 2012 . " The Chookpen " is an unofficial site .
In 2013 the club tallied the fourth @-@ highest home attendance of all National Rugby League clubs ( behind the Brisbane Broncos ) with an average of 19 @,@ 368 spectators at the Sydney Football Stadium .
At the club 's home ground , the Sydney Football Stadium , the supporters congregate in distinct sections . The " Chook Pen " , a designated area in Bay 35 , is the preferred location for the most animated fans . Members of the Sydney Cricket and Sports Ground Trust are seated in the Members ' Stand on the western side of the ground , and season ticket holders are located just beneath the Members ' area , in Bays 12 – 14 .
In 2014 , the Roosters had nearly 17 @,@ 000 paying members , in addition to the 45 @,@ 550 members of the Roosters ' Leagues Club , which is the major benefactor of the football club . The Easts Leagues Club and the Sydney Roosters " operate as one entity " known as the Easts Group . Under this arrangement , the Eastern Suburbs District Rugby League Football Club is the ' parent company ' of the Easts Group . The Football Club delegates , however , overarching responsibility for both football and leagues club operations to a single general manager who oversees the whole group 's performance . The leagues club group provides financial support to the football club , only where necessary , as in recent years the football club 's sponsorships and TV revenues are generally covering most Rugby League expenditures .
= = = Notable supporters = = =
Scott Cam
Malcolm Turnbull , Prime Minister of Australia
General Sir Peter Cosgrove , Governor @-@ General of Australia
Luke Foley , New South Wales Opposition Leader
Mark Bouris , businessman
Steve Smith , captain of the Australia cricket team
David Warner , vice captain of the Australia cricket team
Alan McGilvray , cricket commentator
Guillaume Brahimi , chef
Harold Larwood , cricketer
Sir James Darcy Freeman , Catholic Cardinal
Paul Kelly , former Australian rules football player
Paul Sheehan , journalist
Peter O 'Malley , professional golfer
Brett Ogle , professional golfer
Simon Burke , actor
Amanda Keller , radio host
Erin McNaught , model
Kate Waterhouse , fashion writer and columnist
= = Statistics and records = =
Anthony Minichiello holds the record for the most first grade games ( 302 ) , having surpassed Luke Ricketson 's tally of 301 matches in round 3 of the finals in 2014 . Former team captain Craig Fitzgibbon holds the club record for scoring the most points , tallying 1 @,@ 376 over his 210 matches . Fitzgibbon also broke the all @-@ time point scoring record for a forward in the later rounds of 2006 . Dave Brown 's tally of 45 points ( five tries and 15 goals ) in a single match against Canterbury in 1935 remains a competition record after more than seven decades . Ivan Cleary scored 284 points in 1998 , which at the time was an all @-@ time points scoring record in a season .
Bill Mullins , father of 2002 premiership player Brett , scored 104 tries in his 11 @-@ year , 190 @-@ game career with Eastern Suburbs between 1968 and 1978 , meaning that on average , he scored at least one try every two games . Anthony Minichiello became the highest try scorer in the Roosters history when he scored his 105th try against the Newcastle at Ausgrid Stadium in June 2011 . ' Mini ' finally retired after the 2014 season , and ended his career with 139 tries . He is also the first fullback in 70 years to win the Grand Final ( 2013 ) , whilst captaining the Club . Rod O 'Loan scored seven tries in a single match against Sydney University in 1935 , and Dave Brown 's 38 tries in 15 games in the same year remains a competition record .
In 1975 , the Eastern Suburbs Roosters set an unparalleled 19 @-@ match winning streak on their way to their 11th premiership . In a 1935 match against Canterbury , Dave Brown scored 45 points , the highest score and victory margin for the club ( the 87 – 7 scoreline is equivalent to 106 – 8 under the contemporary scoring system ) . The winning margin is the second largest overall , behind St. George 's 91 – 6 win over Canterbury a week earlier .
The club 's record attendance for a regular season game at its home ground — the Sydney Football Stadium — stands at 40 @,@ 752 , achieved in a match on ANZAC Day against the St George Illawarra Dragons in 2013 . The 2000 grand final between the Sydney Roosters and the Brisbane Broncos attracted 94 @,@ 277 spectators to the Olympic Stadium .
= = 2016 squad = =
= = Notable past players = =
In 2000 , the Sydney Roosters named their " Team of the Century " , which included players from 1908 to 2000 . The official team is listed below along with their Sydney Roosters cap number .
In 2007 , the Sydney Roosters announced " The Centurions " , a team consisting of those regarded as the greatest players to have played 100 or more games for the club between 1908 and 2007 . The team was selected by Ray Chesterton , Ian Heads , David Middleton and Alan Clarkson and was unveiled at the centenary season launch at the Michael Algeri Pavilion on 10 March 2007 .
= = Honours = =
= = = Major Titles = = =
Premierships – 13 1911 , 1912 , 1913 , 1923 , 1935 , 1936 , 1937 , 1940 , 1945 , 1974 , 1975 , 2002 , 2013
Runners @-@ up – 15 1908 , 1919 , 1921 , 1928 , 1931 , 1934 , 1938 , 1941 , 1960 , 1972 , 1980 , 2000 , 2003 , 2004 , 2010
Minor Premierships – 19 1912 , 1913 , 1923 , 1931 , 1934 , 1935 , 1936 , 1937 , 1940 , 1941 , 1945 , 1974 , 1975 , 1980 , 1981 , 2004 , 2013 , 2014 , 2015
World Club Challenge – 3 1976 , 2003 , 2014
= = = Minor Titles = = =
Club Championship – 14 1930 , 1931 , 1934 , 1935 , 1936 , 1937 , 1945 , 1970 , 1974 , 1975 , 2004 , 2013 , 2014
Second Grade – 9 1908 , 1909 , 1910 , 1911 , 1935 , 1937 , 1949 , 1986 , 2004
Jersey Flegg Cup – 14 1914 , 1917 , 1924 , 1929 , 1930 , 1931 , 1932 , 1941 , 1947 , 1970 , 1976 , 1993 , 2002 , 2004
Presidents Cup – 15 1910 , 1911 , 1913 , 1920 , 1922 , 1923 , 1924 , 1927 , 1938 , 1948 , 1949 , 1955 , 1978 , 1987 , 1993
S. G. Ball Cup – 4 1997 , 2008 , 2010 , 2014
Amco Cup – 2 1975 , 1978
City Cup – 3 1914 , 1915 , 1916
Pre @-@ Season Cup – 4 1974 , 1977 , 1979 , 1981
World Sevens – 1 1993
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= George Bethune Adams =
George Bethune Adams ( April 3 , 1845 – October 9 , 1911 ) was a United States lawyer and United States District Judge specializing in admiralty law . He served in private practice , litigated before the Supreme Court of the United States , and served as a judge on the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York .
= = Early life and career = =
Adams was born in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . Though under the minimum age , he enlisted in a Pennsylvania regiment in the United States Army in 1861 , and served for three months before returning to school . He reenlisted in 1863 when Robert E. Lee 's forces invaded Pennsylvania , and afterwards entered the Quartermaster 's Department of the Army , where he served until 1871 . He then worked as a merchant for several years . He read law and became a lawyer in Philadelphia in 1878 . He was thereafter in private practice in New York City from 1883 to 1901 , specializing in admiralty law at the firm of Beebe & Wilcox ; after the death of Judge Beebe in 1884 , he became a name partner and the firm was renamed Wilcox , Adams & Green . There , he litigated before the Supreme Court of the United States in admiralty cases such as The Kate . Adams was Secretary of the Union League Club of New York in 1894 and 1895 .
= = Appointment and judgeship = =
When Judge Addison Brown resigned his seat on the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York , the members of the Admiralty Bar adopted a resolution in July 1901 asking the president to appoint Adams . He received a recess appointment to that seat from President William McKinley on August 30 , 1901 , and , following McKinley 's assassination on September 14 , was formally nominated to the seat by President Theodore Roosevelt on December 5 . The Senate confirmed Adams on December 17 , 1901 , and he received his commission the same day .
When appointed , Adams was the only judge in the district . The workload resulting from new federal bankruptcy laws caused his health to break down two years later ; though three other judges were appointed to the district , Adams 's health never fully recovered , but he served until his death , focusing on the maritime cases that were his specialty .
= = Family and death = =
In 1904 , Adams married the former Helen Jean Balfour . Adams died in Hague , New York on October 9 , 1911 , after two years ' illness . His will was fifteen words long : " I give and bequeath all my estate to my wife and appoint her my executrix . " There were no children .
Mrs. Adams served the cause of the New York Women 's League for Animals for decades after her husband 's death — despite being bitten by animals 71 times over the course of her service . She died in 1950 at the age of 101 .
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= Valkyrie =
In Norse mythology , a valkyrie ( from Old Norse valkyrja " chooser of the slain " ) is one of a host of female figures who choose those who may die in battle and those who may live . Selecting half of those who die in battle , the valkyries bring their chosen to the afterlife hall of the slain , Valhalla , ruled over by the god Odin ( the other half go to the goddess Freyja 's afterlife field Fólkvangr ) . There , the deceased warriors become einherjar ( Old Norse " single ( or once ) fighters " ) . When the einherjar are not preparing for the events of Ragnarök , the valkyries bear them mead . Valkyries also appear as lovers of heroes and other mortals , where they are sometimes described as the daughters of royalty , sometimes accompanied by ravens and sometimes connected to swans or horses .
Valkyries are attested in the Poetic Edda , a book of poems compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources ; the Prose Edda and Heimskringla ( by Snorri Sturluson ) , and Njáls saga , a Saga of Icelanders , all written in the 13th century . They appear throughout the poetry of skalds , in a 14th @-@ century charm , and in various runic inscriptions .
The Old English cognate terms wælcyrge and wælcyrie appear in several Old English manuscripts , and scholars have explored whether the terms appear in Old English by way of Norse influence , or reflect a tradition also native among the Anglo @-@ Saxon pagans . Scholarly theories have been proposed about the relation between the valkyries , the norns , and the dísir , all of which are supernatural figures associated with fate . Archaeological excavations throughout Scandinavia have uncovered amulets theorized as depicting valkyries . In modern culture , valkyries have been the subject of works of art , musical works , video games and poetry .
= = Etymology = =
The word valkyrie derives from Old Norse valkyrja ( plural valkyrjur ) , which is composed of two words ; the noun valr ( referring to the slain on the battlefield ) and the verb kjósa ( meaning " to choose " ) . Together , they mean " chooser of the slain " . The Old Norse valkyrja is cognate to Old English wælcyrge . Other terms for valkyries include óskmey ( Old Norse " wish maid " ) , appearing in the poem Oddrúnargrátr and Óðins meyjar ( Old Norse " Odin 's maids " ) , appearing in the Nafnaþulur . Óskmey may be related to the Odinic name Óski ( Old Norse , roughly meaning " wish fulfiller " ) , referring to the fact that Odin receives slain warriors in Valhalla .
= = Old Norse attestations = =
= = = Poetic Edda = = =
Valkyries are mentioned or appear in the Poetic Edda poems Völuspá , Grímnismál , Völundarkviða , Helgakviða Hjörvarðssonar , Helgakviða Hundingsbana I , Helgakviða Hundingsbana II and Sigrdrífumál .
= = = = Völuspá and Grímnismál = = = =
In stanza 30 of the poem Völuspá , a völva ( a travelling seeress in Germanic society ) tells Odin that " she saw " valkyries coming from far away who are ready to ride to " the realm of the gods " . The völva follows this with a list of six valkyries : Skuld ( Old Norse , possibly " debt " or " future " ) who " bore a shield " , Skögul ( " shaker " ) , Gunnr ( " war " ) , Hildr ( " battle " ) , Göndul ( " wand @-@ wielder " ) and Geirskögul ( " Spear @-@ Skögul " ) . Afterwards , the völva tells him she has listed the " ladies of the War Lord , ready to ride , valkyries , over the earth " .
In the poem Grímnismál , Odin ( disguised as Grímnir ) , tortured , starved and thirsty , tells the young Agnar that he wishes that the valkyries Hrist ( " shaker " ) and Mist ( " cloud " ) would " bear him a [ drinking ] horn " , then provides a list of 11 more valkyries who he says " bear ale to the einherjar " ; Skeggjöld ( " axe @-@ age " ) , Skögul , Hildr , Þrúðr ( " power " ) , Hlökk ( " noise " , or " battle " ) , Herfjötur ( " host @-@ fetter " ) , Göll ( " tumult " ) , Geirahöð ( " spear @-@ fight " ) , Randgríð ( " shield @-@ truce " ) , Ráðgríð ( " council @-@ truce " ) and Reginleif ( " power @-@ truce " ) .
= = = = Völundarkviða = = = =
A prose introduction in the poem Völundarkviða relates that the brothers Slagfiðr , Egil and Völund dwelt in a house sited in a location called Úlfdalir ( " wolf dales " ) . There , early one morning , the brothers find three women spinning linen on the shore of the lake Úlfsjár ( " wolf lake " ) , and " near them were their swan 's garments ; they were valkyries " . Two , daughters of King Hlödvér , are named Hlaðguðr svanhvít ( " swan @-@ white " ) and Hervör alvitr ( possibly meaning " all @-@ wise " or " strange creature " ) ; the third , daughter of Kjárr of Valland , is named Ölrún ( possibly meaning " beer rune " ) . The brothers take the three women back to their hall with them — Egil takes Ölrún , Slagfiðr takes Hlaðguðr svanhvít and Völund takes Hervör alvitr . They live together for seven winters , until the women fly off to go to a battle and do not return . Egil goes off in snow @-@ shoes to look for Ölrún , Slagfiðr goes searching for Hlaðguðr svanhvít and Völund sits in Úlfdalir .
= = = = Helgakviða Hjörvarðssonar = = = =
In the poem Helgakviða Hjörvarðssonar , a prose narrative says that an unnamed and silent young man , the son of the Norwegian King Hjörvarðr and Sigrlinn of Sváfaland , witnesses nine valkyries riding by while sitting atop a burial mound . He finds one particularly striking ; this valkyrie is detailed later in a prose narrative as Sváva , king Eylimi 's daughter , who " often protected him in battles " . The valkyrie speaks to the unnamed man , and gives him the name Helgi ( meaning " the holy one " ) . The previously silent Helgi speaks ; he refers to the valkyrie as " bright @-@ face lady " , and asks her what gift he will receive with the name she has bestowed upon him , but he will not accept it if he cannot have her as well . The valkyrie tells him she knows of a hoard of swords in Sigarsholm , and that one of them is of particular importance , which she describes in detail . Further into the poem , Atli flytes with the female jötunn Hrímgerðr . While flyting with Atli , Hrímgerðr says that she had seen 27 valkyries around Helgi , yet one particularly fair valkyrie led the band :
Three times nine girls , but one girl rode ahead ,
white @-@ skinned under her helmet ;
the horses were trembling , from their manes
dew fell into the deep valleys ,
hail in the high woods ;
good fortune comes to men from there ;
all that I saw was hateful to me .
After Hrímgerðr is turned to stone by the daylight , a prose narrative continues that Helgi , who is now king , goes to Sváva 's father — King Eylimi — and asks for his daughter . Helgi and Sváva are betrothed and love one another dearly . Sváva stays at home with King Eylimi , and Helgi goes raiding , and to this the narrative adds that Sváva " was a valkyrie just as before " . The poem continues , and , among various other events , Helgi dies from a wound received in battle . A narrative at the end of the poem says that Helgi and his valkyrie wife Sváva " are said to be reincarnated " .
= = = = Helgakviða Hundingsbana I = = = =
In the poem Helgakviða Hundingsbana I , the hero Helgi Hundingsbane sits in the corpse @-@ strewn battlefield of Logafjöll . A light shines from the fell , and from that light strike bolts of lightning . Flying through the sky , helmeted valkyries appear . Their waist @-@ length mail armour is drenched in blood ; their spears shine brightly :
Then light shone from Logafell ,
and from that radiance there came bolts of lightning ;
wearing helmets at Himingvani [ came the valkyries ] .
Their byrnies were drenched in blood ;
and rays shone from their spears .
In the stanza that follows , Helgi asks the valkyries ( who he refers to as " southern goddesses " ) if they would like to come home with the warriors when night falls ( all the while arrows were flying ) . The battle over , the valkyrie Sigrún ( " victory @-@ rune " ) , informs him from her horse that her father Högni has betrothed her to Höðbroddr , the son of king Granmar of the Hniflung clan , who Sigrún deems unworthy . Helgi assembles an immense host to ride to wage battle at Frekastein against the Hniflung clan to assist Sigrún in her plight to avoid her betrothment . Later in the poem , the hero Sinfjötli flyts with Guðmundr . Sinfjötli accuses Guðmundr of having once been female , and gibes that Guðmundr was " a witch , horrible , unnatural , among Odin 's valkyries " , adding that all of the einherjar " had to fight , headstrong woman , on your account " . Further in the poem , the phrase " the valkyrie 's airy sea " is used for " mist " .
Towards the end of the poem , valkyries again descend from the sky , this time to protect Helgi amid the battle at Frekastein . After the battle , all the valkyries fly away but Sigrún and wolves ( referred to as " the troll @-@ woman 's mount " ) consume corpses :
Helmeted valkyries came down from the sky
— the noise of spears grew loud — they protected the prince ;
then said Sigrun — the wound @-@ giving valkyries flew ,
the troll @-@ woman 's mount was feasting on the fodder of ravens :
The battle won , Sigrún tells Helgi that he will become a great ruler and pledges herself to him .
= = = = Helgakviða Hundingsbana II = = = =
At the beginning of the poem Helgakviða Hundingsbana II , a prose narrative says that King Sigmund ( son of Völsung ) and his wife Borghild ( of Brálund ) have a son named Helgi , who they named for Helgi Hjörvarðsson ( the antagonist of the earlier Helgakviða Hjörvarðssonar ) . After Helgi has killed King Hunding in stanza 4 , a prose narrative says that Helgi escapes , consumes the raw meat of cattle he has slaughtered on a beach , and encounters Sigrún . Sigrún , daughter of King Högni , is " a valkyrie and rode through air and sea " , and she is the valkyrie Sváva reincarnated . In stanza 7 , Sigrún uses the phrase " fed the gosling of Gunn 's sisters " . Gunnr and her sisters are valkyries , and these goslings are ravens , who feed on the corpses left on the battlefield by warriors .
After stanza 18 , a prose narrative relates that Helgi and his immense fleet of ships are heading to Frekastein , but encounter a great storm . Lightning strikes one of the ships . The fleet sees nine valkyries flying through the air , among whom they recognise Sigrún . The storm abates , and the fleets arrive safely at land . Helgi dies in battle , yet returns to visit Sigrún from Valhalla once in a burial mound , and at the end of the poem , a prose epilogue explains that Sigrún later dies of grief . The epilogue details that " there was a belief in the pagan religion , which we now reckon [ is ] an old wives ' tale , that people could be reincarnated " and that " Helgi and Sigrun were thought to have been reborn " as another Helgi and valkyrie couple ; Helgi as Helgi Haddingjaskaði and Sigrún as the daughter of Halfdan ; the valkyrie Kára . The epilogue details that further information about the two can be found in the ( now lost ) work Káruljóð .
= = = = Sigrdrífumál = = = =
In the prose introduction to the poem Sigrdrífumál , the hero Sigurd rides up to Hindarfell and heads south towards " the land of the Franks " . On the mountain Sigurd sees a great light , " as if fire were burning , which blazed up to the sky " . Sigurd approaches it , and there he sees a skjaldborg with a banner flying overhead . Sigurd enters the skjaldborg , and sees a warrior lying there — asleep and fully armed . Sigurd removes the helmet of the warrior , and sees the face of a woman . The woman 's corslet is so tight that it seems to have grown into the woman 's body . Sigurd uses his sword Gram to cut the corslet , starting from the neck of the corslet downwards , he continues cutting down her sleeves , and takes the corslet off of her .
The woman wakes , sits up , looks at Sigurd , and the two converse in two stanzas of verse . In the second stanza , the woman explains that Odin placed a sleeping spell on her she could not break , and due to that spell she has been asleep a long time . Sigurd asks for her name , and the woman gives Sigurd a horn of mead to help him retain her words in his memory . The woman recites a heathen prayer in two stanzas . A prose narrative explains that the woman is named Sigrdrífa and that she is a valkyrie .
A narrative relates that Sigrdrífa explains to Sigurd that there were two kings fighting one another . Odin had promised one of these — Hjalmgunnar — victory in battle , yet she had " brought down " Hjalmgunnar in battle . Odin pricked her with a sleeping @-@ thorn in consequence , told her she would never again " fight victoriously in battle " , and condemned her to marriage . In response , Sigrdrífa told Odin she had sworn a great oath that she would never wed a man who knew fear . Sigurd asks Sigrdrífa to share with him her wisdom of all worlds . The poem continues in verse , where Sigrdrífa provides Sigurd with knowledge in inscribing runes , mystic wisdom , and prophecy .
= = = Prose Edda = = =
In the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson , valkyries are first mentioned in chapter 36 of the book Gylfaginning , where the enthroned figure of High informs Gangleri ( King Gylfi in disguise ) of the activities of the valkyries and mentions a few goddesses . High says " there are still others whose duty it is to serve in Valhalla . They bring drink and see to the table and the ale cups . " Following this , High gives a stanza from the poem Grímnismál that contains a list of valkyries . High says " these women are called valkyries , and they are sent by Odin to every battle , where they choose which men are to die and they determine who has victory " . High adds that Gunnr ( " war " ) , Róta , and Skuld — the last of the three he refers to as " the youngest norn " — " always ride to choose the slain and decide the outcome of battle " . In chapter 49 , High describes that when Odin and his wife Frigg arrived at the funeral of their slain son Baldr , with them came the valkyries and also Odin 's ravens .
References to valkyries appear throughout the book Skáldskaparmál , which provides information about skaldic poetry . In chapter 2 , a quote is given from the work Húsdrápa by the 10th century skald Úlfr Uggason . In the poem , Úlfr describes mythological scenes depicted in a newly built hall , including valkyries and ravens accompanying Odin at Baldr 's funeral feast :
There I perceive valkyries and ravens ,
accompanying the wise victory @-@ tree [ Odin ]
to the drink of the holy offering [ Baldr 's funeral feast ]
Within have appeared these motifs .
Further in chapter 2 , a quote from the anonymous 10th century poem Eiríksmál is provided ( see the Fagrskinna section below for more detail about the poem and another translation ) :
What sort of dream is that , Odin ?
I dreamed I rose up before dawn
to clear up Val @-@ hall for slain people .
I aroused the Einheriar ,
bade them get up to strew the benches ,
clean the beer @-@ cups ,
the valkyries to serve wine
for the arrival of a prince .
In chapter 31 , poetic terms for referring to a woman are given , including " [ a ] woman is also referred to in terms of all Asyniur or valkyries or norns or dísir " . In chapter 41 , while the hero Sigurd is riding his horse Grani , he encounters a building on a mountain . Within this building Sigurd finds a sleeping woman wearing a helmet and a coat of mail . Sigurd cuts the mail from her , and she awakes . She tells him her name is Hildr , and " she is known as Brynhildr , and was a valkyrie " .
In chapter 48 , poetic terms for " battle " include " weather of weapons or shields , or of Odin or valkyrie or war @-@ kings or their clash or noise " , followed by examples of compositions by various skalds that have used the name of valkyries in said manner ( Þorbjörn Hornklofi uses " Skögul 's din " for " battlefield " , Bersi Skáldtorfuson uses " Gunnr 's fire " for " sword " and " Hlökk 's snow " for " battle " , Einarr Skúlason uses " Hildr 's sail " for " shield " and " Göndul 's crushing wind " for " battle " and Einarr skálaglamm uses " Göndul 's din " ) . Chapter 49 gives similar information when referring to weapons and armor ( though the term " death @-@ maidens " — Old Norse valmeyjar — instead of " valkyries " is used here ) , with further examples . In chapter 57 , within a list of names of ásynjur ( and after alternate names for the goddess Freyja are provided ) , a further section contains a list of " Odin 's maids " ; valkyries : Hildr , Göndul , Hlökk , Mist , Skögul . And then an additional four names ; Hrund , Eir , Hrist and Skuld . The section adds that " they are called norns who shape necessity " .
Some manuscripts of the feature Nafnaþulur section of Skáldskaparmál contain an extended list of 29 valkyrie names ( listed as the " valkyries of Viðrir " — a name of Odin ) . The first stanza lists : Hrist , Mist , Herja , Hlökk , Geiravör , Göll , Hjörþrimul , Guðr , Herfjötra , Skuld , Geirönul , Skögul and Randgníð . The second stanza lists : Ráðgríðr , Göndul , Svipul , Geirskögul , Hildr , Skeggöld , Hrund , Geirdriful , Randgríðr , Þrúðr , Reginleif , Sveið , Þögn , Hjalmþrimul , Þrima and Skalmöld .
= = = Hrafnsmál = = =
The fragmentary skaldic poem Hrafnsmál ( generally accepted as authored by 9th century Norwegian skald Þorbjörn Hornklofi ) features a conversation between a valkyrie and a raven , largely consisting of the life and deeds of Harald I of Norway . The poem begins with a request for silence among noblemen so that the skald may tell the deeds of Harald Fairhair . The narrator states that they once overheard a " high @-@ minded " , " golden @-@ haired " and " white @-@ armed " maiden speaking with a " glossy @-@ beaked raven " . The valkyrie considers herself wise , understands the speech of birds , is further described as having a white @-@ throat and sparkling eyes , and she takes no pleasure in men :
Wise thought her the valkyrie ; were welcome never
men to the bright @-@ eyed one , her who the birds ' speech knew well .
Greeted the light @-@ lashed maiden , the lily @-@ throated woman ,
The hymir 's @-@ skull @-@ cleaver as on cliff he was perching .
The valkyrie , previously described as fair and beautiful , then speaks to the gore @-@ drenched and corpse @-@ reeking raven :
" How is it , ye ravens — whence are ye come now
with beaks all gory , at break of morning ?
Carrion @-@ reek ye carry , and your claws are bloody .
Were ye near , at night @-@ time , where ye knew of corpses ? "
The black raven shakes himself , and he responds that he and the rest of the ravens have followed Harald since hatching from their eggs . The raven expresses surprise that the valkyrie seems unfamiliar with the deeds of Harald , and tells her about his deeds for several stanzas . At stanza 15 , a question and answer format begins where the valkyrie asks the raven a question regarding Harald , and the raven responds in turn . This continues until the poem ends abruptly .
= = = Njáls saga = = =
In chapter 157 of Njáls saga , a man named Dörruð witnesses 12 people riding together to a stone hut on Good Friday in Caithness . The 12 go into the hut and Dörruð can no longer see them . Dörruð goes to the hut , and looks through a chink in the wall . He sees that there are women within , and that they have set up a particular loom ; the heads of men are the weights , the entrails of men are the warp and weft , a sword is the shuttle , and the reels are composed of arrows . The women sing a song called Darraðarljóð , which Dörruð memorizes .
The song consists of 11 stanzas , and within it the valkyries weave and choose who is to be slain at the Battle of Clontarf ( fought outside Dublin in 1014 CE ) . Of the 12 valkyries weaving , six have their names given in the song : Hildr , Hjörþrimul , Sanngriðr , Svipul , Guðr and Göndul . Stanza 9 of the song reads :
Now awful it is to be without ,
as blood @-@ red rack races overhead ;
is the welkin gory with warriors ' blood
as we valkyries war @-@ songs chanted .
At the end of the poem , the valkyries sing " start we swiftly with steeds unsaddled — hence to battle with brandished swords ! " The prose narrative picks up again , and says that the valkyries tear their loom down and into pieces . Each valkyrie holds on to what she has in her hands . Dörruð leaves the chink in the wall and heads home , and the women mount their horses and ride away ; six to the south and six to the north .
= = = Heimskringla = = =
At the end of the Heimskringla saga Hákonar saga góða , the poem Hákonarmál by the 10th century skald Eyvindr skáldaspillir is presented . The saga relates that king Haakon I of Norway died in battle , and although he is Christian , he requests that since he has died " among heathens , then give me such burial place as seems most fitting to you " . The saga relates that shortly after Haakon died on the same slab of rock that he was born upon , he was greatly mourned by friend and foe alike , and that his friends moved his body northward to Sæheim in North Hordaland . Haakon was buried there in a large burial mound in full armour and his finest clothing , yet with no other valuables . Further , " words were spoken over his grave according to the custom of heathen men , and they put him on the way to Valhalla " . The poem Hákonarmál is then provided .
In Hákonarmál , Odin sends forth the two valkyries Göndul and Skögul to " choose among the kings ' kinsmen " and who in battle should dwell with Odin in Valhalla . A battle rages with great slaughter , and part of the description employs the kenning " Skögul 's @-@ stormblast " for " battle " . Haakon and his men die in battle , and they see the valkyrie Göndul leaning on a spear shaft . Göndul comments that " groweth now the gods ' following , since Hákon has been with host so goodly bidden home with holy godheads " . Haakon hears " what the valkyries said " , and the valkyries are described as sitting " high @-@ hearted on horseback " , wearing helmets , carrying shields and that the horses wisely bore them . A brief exchange follows between Haakon and the valkyrie Skögul :
Hákon said :
" Why didst Geirskogul grudge us victory ?
though worthy we were for the gods to grant it ? "
Skogul said :
" ' Tis owing to us that the issue was won
and your foemen fled . "
Skögul says that they shall now ride forth to the " green homes of the godheads " to tell Odin the king will come to Valhalla . The poem continues , and Haakon becomes a part of the einherjar in Valhalla , awaiting to do battle with the monstrous wolf Fenrir .
= = = Fagrskinna = = =
In chapter 8 of Fagrskinna , a prose narrative states that , after the death of her husband Eric Bloodaxe , Gunnhild Mother of Kings had a poem composed about him . The composition is by an anonymous author from the 10th century and is referred to as Eiríksmál . It describes Eric Bloodaxe and five other kings arriving in Valhalla after their death . The poem begins with comments by Odin ( as Old Norse Óðinn ) :
'What kind of a dream is it , ' said Óðinn ,
in which just before daybreak ,
I thought I cleared Valhǫll ,
for coming of slain men ?
I waked the Einherjar ,
bade valkyries rise up ,
to strew the bench ,
and scour the beakers ,
wine to carry ,
as for a king 's coming ,
here to me I expect
heroes ' coming from the world ,
certain great ones ,
so glad is my heart .
The god Bragi asks where a thundering sound is coming from , and says that the benches of Valhalla are creaking — as if the god Baldr had returned to Valhalla — and that it sounds like the movement of a thousand . Odin responds that Bragi knows well that the sounds are for Eric Bloodaxe , who will soon arrive in Valhalla . Odin tells the heroes Sigmund and Sinfjötli to rise to greet Eric and invite him into the hall , if it is indeed he .
= = = Ragnhild Tregagás charm = = =
A witchcraft trial held in 1324 in Bergen , Norway , records a spell used by the accused Ragnhild Tregagás to end the marriage of her former lover , a man named Bárd . The charm contains a mention of the valkyrie Göndul being " sent out " :
I send out from me the spirits of ( the valkyrie ) Gondul .
May the first bite you in the back .
May the second bite you in the breast .
May the third turn hate and envy upon you .
= = Old English attestations = =
The Old English wælcyrge and wælcyrie appear several times in Old English manuscripts , generally to translate foreign concepts into Old English . In the sermon Sermo Lupi ad Anglos , written by Wulfstan II , wælcyrie is used , and considered to appear as word for a human " sorceress " . An early 11th @-@ century manuscript of Aldhelm 's De laudis virginitatis ( Oxford , Bodleian library , Digby 146 ) glosses ueneris with wælcyrge ( with gydene meaning " goddess " ) . Wælcyrge is used to translate the names of the classical furies in two manuscripts ( Cotton Cleopatra A. iii , and the older Corpus Glossary ) . In the manuscript Cotton Cleopatra A. iii , wælcyrge is also used to gloss the Roman goddess Bellona . A description of a raven flying over the Egyptian army appears as wonn wælceaseg ( meaning " dark one choosing the slain " ) . Scholarly theories debate whether these attestations point to an indigenous belief among the Anglo @-@ Saxons shared with the Norse , or if they were a result of later Norse influence ( see section below ) .
= = Archaeological record = =
= = = Female figures and cup and horn @-@ bearers = = =
Viking Age stylized silver amulets depicting women with long gowns , their hair pulled back , sometimes bearing forth drinking horns have been discovered throughout Scandinavia . These figures are commonly considered to represent valkyries or dísir . According to Mindy MacLeod and Bernard Mees , the amulets appear in Viking Age graves , and were presumably placed there because " they were thought to have protective powers " .
The Tjängvide image stone from the island of Gotland , Sweden features a rider on an eight @-@ legged horse , which may be Odin 's eight @-@ legged horse Sleipnir , being greeted by a female , which may be a valkyrie at Valhalla . The 11th century runestone U 1163 features a carving of a female bearing a horn that has been interpreted as the valkyrie Sigrdrífa handing the hero Sigurd ( also depicted on the stone ) a drinking horn .
In 2013 , a small figure dated at around 800 AD was discovered in Hårby , Denmark by three amateur archaeologists . The figurine portrays a woman with long hair in a ponytail carrying a sword and a shield . Commenting on the figure , archaeologist Mogens Bo Henriksen said that " there can hardly be any doubt that the figure depicts one of Odin 's valkyries as we know them from the sagas as well as from Swedish picture stones from the time around AD700 " .
= = = Runic inscriptions = = =
Specific valkyries are mentioned on two runestones ; the early 9th century Rök Runestone in Östergötland , Sweden , and the 10th @-@ century Karlevi Runestone on the island of Öland , Sweden , which mentions the valkyrie Þrúðr . On the Rök Runestone , a kenning is employed that involves a valkyrie riding a wolf as her steed :
That we tell the twelfth , where the horse of the Valkyrie [ literally " the horse of Gunn " ] sees food on the battlefield , where twenty kings are lying .
Among the Bryggen inscriptions found in Bergen , Norway , is the " valkyrie stick " from the late 14th century . The stick features a runic inscription intended as a charm . The inscription says that " I cut cure @-@ runes " , and also " help @-@ runes " , once against elves , twice against trolls , thrice against thurs and then a mention of a valkyrie occurs :
Against the harmful skag @-@ valkyrie ,
so that she never shall , though she never would -
evil woman ! - injure ( ? ) your life .
This is followed by " I send you , I look at you , wolfish perversion , and unbearable desire , may distress descend on you and jöluns wrath . Never shall you sit , never shall you sleep ... ( that you ) love me as yourself . " According to Mindy MacLeod and Bernard Mees , the inscription " seems to begin as a benevolent formulation before abruptly switching to the infliction of distress and misery , presumably upon the recipient of the charm rather than the baleful valkyrie " , and they posit the final line appears " to constitute a rather spiteful kind of charm aimed at securing the love of a woman " .
MacLeod and Mees state that the opening lines of the charm correspond to the Poetic Edda poem Sigrdrífumál , where the valkyrie Sigrdrífa provides runic advice , and that the meaning of the term skag is unclear , but a cognate exists in Helgakviða Hundingsbana I where Sinfjötli accuses Guðmundr of having once been a " skass @-@ valkyrie " . MacLeod and Mees believe the word means something like " supernatural sending " , and that this points to a connection to the Ragnhild Tregagás charm , where a valkyrie is also " sent forth " .
= = Valkyrie names = =
The Old Norse poems Völuspá , Grímnismál , Darraðarljóð and the Nafnaþulur section of the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál , provide lists of valkyrie names . In addition , some valkyrie names appear solely outside of these lists , such as Sigrún ( who is attested in the poems Helgakviða Hundingsbana I and Helgakviða Hundingsbana II ) . Many valkyrie names emphasize associations with battle and , in many cases , on the spear — a weapon heavily associated with the god Odin . Some scholars propose that the names of the valkyries themselves contain no individuality , but are rather descriptive of the traits and nature of war @-@ goddesses , and are possibly the descriptive creations of skalds .
Some valkyrie names may be descriptive of the roles and abilities of the valkyries . The valkyrie name Herja has been theorised as pointing to a connection to the name of the goddess Hariasa , who is attested from a stone from 187 CE . The name Herfjötur has been theorised as pointing to the ability of the valkyries to place fetters . The name Svipul may be descriptive of the influence the valkyries have over wyrd or ørlog — a Germanic concept of fate .
= = Theories = =
= = = Old English wælcyrge and Old English charms = = =
Richard North says that the description of a raven flying over the Egyptian army ( glossed as wonn wælceaseg ) may have been directly influenced by the Old Norse concept of Valhalla , the usage of wælcyrge in De laudibus virginitatis may represent a loan or loan @-@ translation of Old Norse valkyrja , but the Cotton Cleopatra A. iii and the Corpus Glossary instances " appear to show an Anglo @-@ Saxon conception of wælcyrge that was independent of contemporary Scandinavian influence " .
Two Old English charms mention figures that are theorised as representing an Anglo @-@ Saxon notion of valkyries or valkyrie @-@ like female beings ; Wið færstice , a charm to cure a sudden pain or stitch , and For a Swarm of Bees , a charm to keep honey bees from swarming . In Wið færstice , a sudden pain is attributed to a small , " shrieking " spear thrown with supernatural strength ( Old English mægen ) by " fierce " loudly flying " mighty women " ( Old English mihtigan wif ) who have ridden over a burial mound :
They were loud , yes , loud ,
when they rode over the ( burial ) mound ;
they were fierce when they rode across the land .
Shield yourself now , you can survive this strife .
Out , little spear , if there is one here within .
It stood under / behind lime @-@ wood ( i.e. a shield ) , under a light @-@ coloured / light @-@ weight shield ,
where those mighty women marshalled their powers , and they send shrieking spears .
Theories have been proposed that these figures are connected to valkyries . Richard North says that " though it is not clear what the poet takes these women to be , their female sex , riding in flight and throwing spears suggest that they were imagined in England as a female being analogous to the later Norse valkyrjur . " Hilda Ellis Davidson theorizes that Wið færstice was originally a battle spell that had , over time , been reduced to evoke " a prosaic stitch in the side " . Towards the end of For a Swarm of Bees , the swarming bees are referred to as " victory @-@ women " ( Old English sigewif ) :
Settle down , victory @-@ women ,
never be wild and fly to the woods .
Be as mindful of my welfare ,
as is each man of eating and of home .
The term " victory women " has been theorised as pointing to an association with valkyries . This theory is not universally accepted , and the reference has also been theorised as a simple metaphor for the " victorious sword " ( the stinging ) of the bees .
= = = Merseburg Incantation , fetters , dísir , idisi and norns = = =
One of the two Old High German Merseburg Incantations call upon female beings — Idisi — to bind and hamper an army . The incantation reads :
Once the Idisi sat , sat here and there ,
some bound fetters , some hampered the army ,
some untied fetters :
Escape from the fetters , flee from the enemies .
The Idisi mentioned in the incantation are generally considered to be valkyries . Rudolf Simek says that " these Idisi are obviously a kind of valkyrie , as these also have the power to hamper enemies in Norse mythology " and points to a connection with the valkyrie name Herfjötur ( Old Norse " army @-@ fetter " ) . Hilda R. Davidson compares the incantation to the Old English Wið færstice charm and theorises a similar role for them both .
Simek says that the West Germanic term Idisi ( Old Saxon idis , Old High German itis , Old English ides ) refers to a " dignified , well respected woman ( married or unmarried ) , possibly a term for any woman , and therefore glosses exactly Latin matrona " and that a link to the North Germanic term dísir is reasonable to assume , yet not undisputed . In addition , the place name Idisiaviso ( meaning " plain of the Idisi " ) where forces commanded by Arminius fought those commanded by Germanicus at the Battle of the Weser River in 16 AD . Simek points to a connection between the name Idisiaviso , the role of the Idisi in one of the two Merseburg Incantations and valkyries .
Regarding the dísir , Simek states that Old Norse dís appears commonly as simply a term for " woman " , just as Old High German itis , Old Saxon idis and Old English ides , and may have also been used to denote a type of goddess . According to Simek , " several of the Eddic sources might lead us to conclude that the dísir were valkyrie @-@ like guardians of the dead , and indeed in Guðrúnarkviða I 19 the valkyries are even called Herjans dísir " Odin 's dísir " . The dísir are explicitly called dead women in Atlamál 28 and a secondary belief that the dísir were the souls of dead women ( see fylgjur ) also underlies the landdísir of Icelandic folklore . Simek says that " as the function of the matrons was also extremely varied — fertility goddess , personal guardians , but also warrior @-@ goddesses — the belief in the dísir , like the belief in the valkyries , norns and matrons , may be considered to be different manifestations of a belief in a number of female ( half- ? ) goddesses . "
Jacob Grimm states that , though the norns and valkyries are similar in nature , there is a fundamental difference between the two . Grimm states that a dís can be both norn and a valkyrie , " but their functions are separate and usually the persons . The norns have to pronounce the fatum [ fate ] , they sit on their chairs , or they roam through the country among mortals , fastening their threads . Nowhere is it said that they ride . The valkyrs ride to war , decide the issues of fighting , and conduct the fallen to heaven ; their riding is like that of heroes and gods [ ... ] . "
= = = Origins and development = = =
Various theories have been proposed about the origins and development of the valkyries from Germanic paganism to later Norse mythology . Rudolf Simek suggests valkyries were probably originally viewed as " demons of the dead to whom warriors slain on the battlefield belonged " , and that a shift in interpretation of the valkyries may have occurred " when the concept of Valhalla changed from a battlefield to a warrior 's paradise " . Simek says that this original concept was " superseded by the shield girls — Irish female warriors who lived on like the einherjar in Valhall . " Simek says that the valkyries were closely associated with Odin , and that this connection existed in an earlier role as " demons of death " . Simek states that due to the shift of concept , the valkyries became popular figures in heroic poetry , and during this transition were stripped of their " demonic characteristics and became more human , and therefore become capable of falling in love with mortals [ ... ] . " Simek says that the majority of the names of the valkyries point to a warlike function , that most of valkyrie names do not appear to be very old , and that the names " mostly come from poetic creativity rather than from real folk @-@ belief . "
MacLeod and Mees theorise that " the role of the corpse @-@ choosing valkyries became increasingly confused in later Norse mythology with that of the Norns , the supernatural females responsible for determining human destiny [ ... ] . "
Hilda Ellis Davidson says that , regarding valkyries , " evidently an elaborate literary picture has been built up by generations of poets and storytellers , in which several conceptions can be discerned . We recognise something akin to Norns , spirits who decide destinies of men ; to the seeresses , who could protect men in battle with their spells ; to the powerful female guardian spirits attached to certain families , bringing luck to youth under their protection ; even to certain women who armed themselves and fought like men , for whom there is some historical evidence from the regions round the Black Sea " . She adds that there may also be a memory in this of a " priestess of the god of war , women who officiated at the sacrificial rites when captives were put to death after battle . "
Davidson places emphasis on the fact that valkyrie literally means " chooser of the slain " . She compares Wulfstan 's mention of a " chooser of the slain " in his Sermo Lupi ad Anglos sermon , which appears among " a blacklist of sinners , witches and evildoers " , to " all the other classes whom he [ Wulfstan ] mentions " , and concludes as those " are human ones , it seems unlikely that he has introduced mythological figures as well . " Davidson points out that Arab traveller Ibn Fadlan 's detailed account of a 10th @-@ century Rus ship funeral on the Volga River features an " old Hunnish woman , massive and grim to look upon " ( who Fadlan refers to as the " Angel of Death " ) who organises the killing of the slave girl , and has two other women with her that Fadlan refers to as her daughters . Davidson says that " it would hardly be surprising if strange legends grew up about such women , who must have been kept apart from their kind due to their gruesome duties . Since it was often decided by lot which prisoners should be killed , the idea that the god " chose " his victims , through the instrument of the priestesses , must have been a familiar one , apart from the obvious assumption that some were chosen to fall in war . " Davidson says that it appears that from " early times " the Germanic peoples " believed in fierce female spirits doing the command of the war god , stirring up disorder , taking part in battle , seizing and perhaps devouring the slain . "
= = = Freyja and Fólkvangr = = =
The goddess Freyja and her afterlife field Fólkvangr , where she receives half of the slain , has been theorized as connected to the valkyries . Britt @-@ Mari Näsström points out the description in Gylfaginning where it is said of Freyja " whenever she rides into battle she takes half of the slain " , and interprets Fólkvangr as " the field of the Warriors " . Näsström notes that , just like Odin , Freyja receives slain heroes who have died on the battlefield , and that her house is Sessrumnir ( which she translates as " filled with many seats " ) , a dwelling that Näsström posits likely fills the same function as Valhalla . Näsström comments that " still , we must ask why there are two heroic paradises in the Old Norse view of afterlife . It might possibly be a consequence of different forms of initiation of warriors , where one part seemed to have belonged to Óðinn and the other to Freyja . These examples indicate that Freyja was a war @-@ goddess , and she even appears as a valkyrie , literally ' the one who chooses the slain ' . "
Siegfried Andres Dobat comments that " in her mythological role as the chooser of half the fallen warriors for her death realm Fólkvangr , the goddess Freyja , however , emerges as the mythological role model for the Valkyrjar [ sic ] and the dísir . "
= = Modern influence = =
Valkyries have been the subjects of various poems , works of art and musical works . In poetry , valkyries appear in " Die Walküren " by H. Heine ( appearing in Romanzero , 1847 ) , " Die Walküren " ( 1864 ) by H. v. Linge , " Sköldmon " ( appearing in Gömda Land , 1904 ) .
Works of art depicting valkyries include " Die Walküren " ( sketch , 1818 ) by J. G. Sandberg , " Reitende Walküre " ( fresco ) , previously located in Munich palace but now destroyed , 1865 @-@ 66 by M. Echter , " Valkyrien " and " Valkyriens død " ( paintings , both from 1860 ) , " Walkürenritt " ( etching , 1871 ) by A. Welti , " Walkürenritt " ( woodcut , 1871 ) by T. Pixis , " Walkürenritt " ( 1872 ) by A. Becker ( reproduced in 1873 with the same title by A. v. Heyde ) , " Die Walkyren " ( charcoal , 1880 ) and " Walkyren wählen und wecken die gefallenen Helden ( Einherier ) , um sie vom Schlachtfield nach Walhall zu geleiten " ( painting , 1882 ) and " Walkyrenschlacht " ( oil painting , 1884 ) by K. Ehrenberg , " Walkürenritt " ( oil painting , 1888 , and etching , 1890 ) by A. Welti , " Walküre " ( statue ) by H. Günther , " Walkürenritt " ( oil painting ) by H. Hendrich , " Walkürenritt " ( painting ) by F. Leeke , " Einherier " ( painting , from around 1900 ) , by K. Dielitz , " The Ride of the Valkyries " ( painting , from around 1900 ) by J. C. Dollman , " Valkyrie " ( statue , 1910 ) and " Walhalla @-@ freeze " ( located in the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek , Copenhagen , 1886 – 87 ) , " Walkyrien " ( print , 1915 ) by A. Kolb , and " Valkyrier " ( drawing , 1925 ) by E. Hansen .
= = = In popular culture = = =
Valkyries have also been depicted in popular culture , including in comic books and video games . Square Enix and Tri @-@ Ace created the popularly and critically acclaimed Valkyrie Profile series of video games , centered around a trio of Valkyries - Lenneth ( VP1 / Lenneth ) , Silmeria ( VP2 ) and Hrist - including exploring their origins as they fight in the divine war leading to Ragnarok . Meanwhile , comic makers Stan Lee and Jack Kirby created the Valkyrior , who serve a similar function to the Valkyries as well as having a similar name , in Marvel Comics as part of the Marvel adaptation of Norse mythology that includes Thor beginning with Thor # 133 in October 1966 .
= = = Illustrations = = =
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= So Appalled =
" So Appalled " is a song by American hip hop recording artist Kanye West from his fifth studio album , My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy ( 2010 ) . The song was produced by West , along with No I.D. and Mike Dean , and features verses by Jay @-@ Z , Pusha T , Cyhi the Prynce , Swizz Beatz , and RZA who all receive writing credits . The song explores topics such as the troubles produced from being famous , social concerns and features numerous pop culture references .
The posse cut received mostly positive reviews from music critics , with West and Jay @-@ Z 's verses being cited as the highlight . Critics generally praised the production of the song , though the verse given by Cyhi received a mixed reception . Originally released in an unmastered form through West 's GOOD Friday initiative , a weekly free music giveaway started by the rapper to promote the album . Following this , " So Appalled " made its way onto My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy with the addition of an extended verse . " So Appalled " charted on the Billboard Bubbling Under R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles singles chart . West performed the song with Jay @-@ Z at their Watch the Throne Tour and by Pusha T on his own tour .
= = Background = =
" So Appalled " was first released on September 24 , 2010 , and was the seventh song to be featured on West 's GOOD Fridays , a music giveaway that provided free MP3 downloads every week . It was originally believed to be a song for West and Jay @-@ Z 's collaborative album Watch the Throne , but it was later confirmed not to be . The song would later find its way onto West 's fifth studio album , My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy along with two other GOOD Friday songs . The version on the album was altered production @-@ wise and was longer , and featured a sample of Manfred Mann Earth Band 's song " You Are – I Am " . The song was released with two covers , one with a famous photo of a model vomiting red nail polish , taken by Guy Bourdin ; and the other containing the same image , with dimmed lighting and obscured by thick red letters . Before its release the song was leaked online and was nearly scrapped .
= = = Recording = = =
The majority of My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy was recorded in Oahu , Hawaii , a trait that " So Appalled " shares . Following several media controversies , West decided to record his next album in a reclusive manner only working with artists he considered himself familiar with . Amongst the various artists invited down to Hawaii to record songs for the album was Pusha T , a rapper known for the hip @-@ hop duo Clipse . While in Hawaii , Pusha @-@ T commented that the very first thing he recorded was his verse for " So Appalled " . He favorably compared recording with West with another producer he was used to working with , Pharrell Williams , commenting that he enjoyed how the process was more of a canvas .
When working with other producers usually a majority of the track was already done by the time he got to the recording studio , but with West , the process was more creative in nature . Pusha described the recording process with West as a " roller coast " and stated that he never knew what to expect while working with the producer . Upon hearing the production of the song , Pusha @-@ T commented that it was so good it persuaded him to write a particularly inspired verse . On the production of " So Appalled " , he said " it 's Kanye , the beat brings the ghost out of you . " The rapper described his verse as " self @-@ explanatory " and stated that it was one of his favorite of his career . Pusha T called his verse " his personal favorite " and that the track was originally supposed to be just him and Kanye . When the song was finished , Pusha @-@ T was so impressed with the track that he argued with West to include it on his album , stating that the song was so good it didn 't matter whether or not it had leaked . He commented ;
" I had already raved over the record because it leaked . I was like listen , there is no way this cant [ sic ] be on your album , you ’ d have to be crazy . He was like ' Really , you think so ? ' I was like c ’ mon man we got to stop treating rap like oh it came out it ’ s dead . When it ’ s good , we have to make people love it and digest it . We can ’ t treat this like mixtape throwaways like everybody else does . Everybody else does half @-@ ass music . So what people don ’ t know is that what Kanye did during that album is literally , I walked into the studio and I had the pick of 17 records and he was like do what you want to do to any of these , do what you like . "
One of the producers and guest appearances on the song is RZA , frontman of the hip @-@ hop group Wu @-@ Tang Clan . RZA spoke positively of West , viewing that he embodied the mentality of the Wu @-@ Tang Clan . RZA sent several beats to West , including some that he cited as being edgy , because he felt that West was the type who could work well on more forceful production , including the brooding " So Appalled " . The song was nearly featured on Last Train to Paris , a studio album by Diddy . According to another producer on the song , No I.D. , it was offered to both Jay @-@ Z and Diddy before it leaked . West freestyled over the track for fun and found that he actually liked it enough to ultimately use it himself , stating that it would make a good group song . Cyhi the Prynce 's verse only appeared on the song because he " tricked " West . Originally he was only supposed to deliver a quick hook , but at the time West was tired and let Cyhi record his verse alone . When West awoke and played back the tape , he was surprised to find that Cyhi had recorded an entire verse . Impressed with it , West decided to include it on the track anyway . The song reportedly offended M.C. Hammer , who Jay @-@ Z references on the line " I spent another 30 / Cause unlike Hammer 30 million can ’ t hurt me " .
= = Composition = =
" So Appalled " has been described as an epic posse cut featuring a large roster of performers . West uses his verse to address his past critics and comment on his status as a celebrity . West 's performance on the song is notably intense , forcefully rapping lines such as " we above the law , we don 't give a fuck ' bout y 'all / I got dogs that 'll chew a fucking hole through the wall . " Swizz Beatz sets the tone of the song using several ad @-@ libs such as " one hand in the air , if you don 't really care " and the line " this shit is fucking ridiculous " which is repeated several times throughout the song , delivered by nearly every rapper . The second verse is delivered by Jay @-@ Z , who spends the majority of his verse deconstructing the hate that surrounds fame and poses the question , " would you rather be underpaid or overrated ? " Jay @-@ Z comments on how a career in the music industry creates many opponents . The third verse is delivered by Pusha T , who muses on cocaine dealing .
The song contains numerous pop culture references , like to the film The Dark Knight , the breakfast cereal Cheerios , the business figure Donald Trump , rapper M.C. Hammer and " We Major " , a song from West 's album Late Registration . On the unconventional structure of the song , Sputnikmusic 's Channing Freeman said that verses were " very lengthy - Kanye appears within the first minute and then drops out for good - but the droning beat is so mesmerizing that it 's barely even noticeable . " Andy Gill of The Independent explained the use of several guest appearances , writing " Kanye has never been short on ambition or ego , so it 's no surprise he should have his guests ( including such hip @-@ hop luminaries as Jay @-@ Z , Swizz Beats and RZA ) queue up on " So Appalled " to confirm in turn how ' this shit is fucking ridiculous ' " .
= = Reception = =
" So Appalled " received mostly favorable reviews from contemporary critics . David Browne of Time wrote that he felt that the track was " built on rumbling tanks of pianos and strings " and that it sounded as if West was " marching into the apocalypse . " David Amidon of PopMatters compared the production to West 's album Late Registration which found West " inviting his friend Jon Brion to impart slices of film scoring to the odds and ends of his tracks " . He commented that much like every song on My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy , the song " contains an underscore as ambitious as the beats upfront " , concluding that tracks " Hell of a Life " and " So Appalled " alone " carry enough auditory sugar to make listening to this album on any regular sort of listening device almost a fool ’ s errand . "
Jayson Rodriguez of MTV praised the song , reporting " this all @-@ star cipher is a backpackers dream as Ye 's GOOD Music soldiers fire away with resolve . But the Brooklyn icon , Jay @-@ Z , steals the show with an edgy verse dismissing his critics with a 16 that 's as pushy as a New Yorker during rush hour . Please , Hammer , stop replying . " Slant Magazine 's Cole Mathews thought that the song returned West to his hard rap origins , commenting " with the posse cuts ' Monster ' and ' So Appalled ' , Kanye kicks out the two hardest rap tracks of his career . " Becky Bain of Idolater described the song as a " dramatic , gloomy epic of a tune that has each artist taking turns at the mic . " He expressed that trying to find Kanye ’ s verse was " virtually a musical Where ’ s Waldo " . It was noted for its impressive roster of features and was described as " another Kanye West @-@ helmed all @-@ star collabo " by MTV 's Hawuse Ziegbe . He noted that Cyhi managed to hold his own against several much more regarded rappers . Embling of Tiny Mix Tapes described the song as a super @-@ sized cypher , stating that the track was packed with plenty of " shitalking " from the group of rappers .
Pitchfork Media 's Tom Breihan criticized Cyhi 's lyrical contributions to the song , stating " On the otherwise amazing Kanye track ' So Appalled ' , CyHi offers a black hole of a verse . His most memorable line ( ' If God had a iPod , I 'd be on his playlist ' ) mostly just raises questions . Like : Why does God 's iPod only have one playlist ? " IGN 's Chad Grischow described the song as a star @-@ studded banger , and cited Jay @-@ Z 's verse as the most notable . In addition , Grischow stated that the song was unfocused . Chris Martins of Spin reported that much like the track " Monster " , the guest appearances on the song had the potential to be toned down . Chicago Sun @-@ Times writer Thomas Conner cited the line " praise due to the most high , Allah / Praise due to the most fly , Prada " as an example of genius songwriting on West 's part . The song charted at 14 on the Bubbling Under R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles chart as reported by Billboard , however it only spent one week on the chart . The song also appeared on the South Korean Gaon Chart at number 95 .
= = = Reaction from M.C. Hammer ( aka King Hammer ) = = =
M.C. Hammer promised to release a track on October 31 , 2010 in response to Jay @-@ Z 's " So Appalled " lyrics which he felt attacked him . Jay @-@ Z raps a verse targeting Hammer about his financial dilemma in the 1990s . Within it Jay says : ' Hammer went broke so you know I 'm more focused / I lost 30 mil ' so I spent another 30 / ' Cause unlike Hammer 30 million can 't hurt me ' . Hammer addressed his displeasure about the diss on Twitter , claiming he would react to Jay @-@ Z on Halloween .
Hammer released a sample of his " beef " with Jay @-@ Z ( aka ' Hell Boy ' according to Hammer ) in a brief teaser trailer called " Better Run Run " by ' King Hammer ' . At one point , it was uncertain if his reaction would be a film video , a music video or a combination of both . Regardless , he claimed he would show evidence that ' Jigga worships the devil ' . It 's possible that Jay @-@ Z was offended by an analogy Hammer was conveying in an earlier interview in response to " D.O.A. ( Death of Auto @-@ Tune ) " on AllHipHop .
On November 1 , Hammer 's song and video titled " Better Run Run ! " hit the web in retaliation to Jay @-@ Z 's September 2010 diss towards him . M.C. accuses Jigga of being in league ( and in the studio ) with Satan — and then Hammer defeats the devil and forces Jay to be baptized . Speaking on the video , Jacob O 'Gara of Ethos Magazine wrote : " What ’ s more likely is that this feud is the last chapter in the tragic cautionary tale of M.C. Hammer , a tale that serves as a warning to all present and future kings of hip @-@ hop . Keep your balance on the pedestal and wear the crown strong or you ’ ll have the Devil to pay . "
In an interview with BBC 's DJ Semtex , Jay said he didn 't mean the verses as a personal attack . " I didn 't know that [ Hammer 's financial status ] wasn 't on the table for discussion ! " he said . " I didn 't know I was the first person ever to say that ... " He continued , " When I say things , I think people believe me so much that they take it a different way — it 's , like , not rap anymore at that point . I say some great things about him in the book I have coming out [ Decoded ] — that 's wasn 't a cheap plug , " he laughed . " He 's gonna be embarrassed , I said some really great things about him and people 's perception of him . But it is what it is , he took it that wrong way , and I didn 't know I said anything wrong ! "
= = Marketing = =
The track was nightly performed by West and Jay @-@ Z during their Watch the Throne Tour . Pusha T performs the song live during his own live sets . The song was one of the few songs on My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy not to be featured on Runaway , a 35 @-@ minute music video directed by West set to music from the album .
= = Chart positions = =
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= Cyclone Haruna =
Tropical Cyclone Haruna was a deadly storm that produced widespread flooding and a disease outbreak in southwestern Madagascar . The ninth system of the season , Haruna developed in the Mozambique channel in the middle of February 2013 between Mozambique and southwestern Madagascar . Initially moving northward over Mozambique , the disturbance later moved slowly southward , gradually strengthening into the eighth named storm of the season and later into an intense tropical cyclone . The Météo @-@ France office in Réunion ( MFR ) – the official Regional Specialized Meteorological Center in the basin – estimated the cyclone attained peak 10 minute sustained winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) . Haruna made landfall near Morombe in southwestern Madagascar on February 22 . It weakened significantly while crossing the country , and MFR discontinued advisories on February 24 after the storm had emerged into the Indian Ocean .
Before Haruna struck Madagascar , a pre @-@ existing system produced deadly flooding , and when the cyclone crossed the country , it added additional rainfall to the region . Flooding was worst in Toliara where a dyke burst , flooding much of the town and leaving residents without water or power . Many villages in southwestern Madagascar lost access to clean water , prompting various international agencies to deploy teams to decontaminate wells . Haruna destroyed 7 @,@ 402 houses , which left 13 @,@ 882 people homeless . Most of the displaced people were able to leave their shelters by early April . The cyclone damaged rice and maize crops along the coast , although there were extended residual effects when a locust outbreak occurred , affecting half of Madagascar 's farmlands by July 2013 . Throughout Madagascar , Haruna killed 26 people and injured 127 directly , and there were outbreaks of various diseases in the storm 's aftermath .
= = Meteorological history = =
In the middle of February , an area of convection , or thunderstorms , persisted in the Mozambique channel . It had an associated circulation and rainbands to the east of the center , and was related to the monsoon trough . The system was located within an area of warm sea surface temperatures of over 29 ° C ( 84 ° F ) and steadily decreasing wind shear . A ridge to the south caused the system to initially track to the north . By February 16 , the system had moved over Mozambique and turned to the east , although by that time it had become better organized with the convection wrapping into the center . Subsequently , the system moved southward due to a weakness in the ridge , with conditions favorable for tropical cyclogenesis such as low wind shear and good divergence . On February 18 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a tropical cyclone formation alert , and at 1200 UTC that day , Météo @-@ France ( MFR ) initiated advisories on Tropical Disturbance 09 .
Upon being classified , the disturbance had a broad circulation that was difficult to locate , with moderate convection in its eastern periphery . The thunderstorms organized further , and MFR upgraded the disturbance to a tropical depression at 0000 UTC on February 19 . Three hours later , the JTWC began issuing advisories on Tropical Cyclone 16S , and at 0600 UTC that day , MFR upgraded the depression to a moderate tropical storm after an advanced scatterometer indicated winds of over 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) ; as a result , the National Weather Service of Madagascar gave it the name Haruna . By that time , the circulation had become better organized with increased rainbands , and with an anticyclone aloft , the storm developed well @-@ defined outflow . The structure of Haruna continued to become more symmetrical with a large radius of maximum winds , developing a ragged eye early on February 20 . Based on the improved appearance , MFR upgraded Haruna to a severe tropical storm at 0000 UTC that day . About 12 hours later , the agency upgraded Haruna further to tropical cyclone status , with 10 minute winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . That day , an approaching trough weakened the ridge to the south , causing the cyclone to slow and move erratically . While Haruna was approaching the southwestern coast of Madagascar , it developed a 120 km ( 75 mi ) wide eye , and the eyewall passed over Europa Island . Initially , MFR estimated that the storm would intensify to intense tropical cyclone status , and the agency assessed that Haruna reached 10 minute winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) on February 20 . The next day , JTWC estimated peak 1 minute winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . In contrast , MFR estimated at that time that the cyclone had peaked when the eyewall thunderstorms warmed , followed by the eye becoming less organized and the winds decreasing .
While moving slowly to the east @-@ southeast , Haruna re @-@ intensified early on February 22 to its previous MFR peak intensity . At around 0230 UTC that day , the cyclone made landfall about 55 km ( 35 mi ) south of Morombe in southwestern Madagascar . Haruna quickly weakened below cyclone status , and while over land it accelerated to the southeast . On February 23 , Haruna weakened to an overland depression with 10 minute winds of around 45 km / h ( 30 mph ) . A few hours later , the system emerged into the Indian Ocean near Fort Dauphin as a tropical disturbance . With generally favorable conditions , convection reorganized slightly and the system redeveloped outflow to the south . Early on February 24 , Haruna re @-@ intensified into a moderate tropical storm , although soon after it weakened again due to cooler waters , increasing shear , and dry air . At 1200 UTC , MFR issued its last advisory after Haruna began losing tropical characteristics , designating it as a subtropical depression . The next day , the JTWC also discontinued advisories on the storm , noting that Haruna was dissipating about 665 km ( 415 mi ) south @-@ southwest of Réunion .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
On Europa Island in the Mozambique Channel , Haruna produced wind gusts of 144 km / h ( 90 mph ) during the passage of the eyewall . Before the cyclone struck Madagascar , the intertropical convergence zone had caused flooding in the country that killed four people and caused widespread road disruption . Officials prepared by collecting supplies in the capital Antananarivo beginning on February 20 , and sending an emergency crew to the expected landfall location . Residents were evacuated using boats and canoes to shelters .
For several days while offshore western Madagascar , Haruna dropped greater than normal rainfall . The storm ultimately made landfall about 15 hours faster than anticipated . Winds and rainfall from Haruna damaged houses and power systems , and also damaged 265 classrooms and 16 health facilities . There was also damage to the rice and maize crops from high winds near the coast , causing food shortages . Rains from the storm caused a dyke along the Fiherenana River to break , which flooded a large region and forced about 6 @,@ 000 people to evacuate their homes . The flooding from the dyke break was worst in Toliara , where most residents lost access to fresh water and power . Flooding in the city caused the temporarily closure of the airport there . The town of Morombe was temporarily isolated after the road was blocked . Power outages affected Morombe , Toliara , Sakaraha , and Betioky Sud . Downed trees had affected roads near Toliara but were quickly removed . About 1 @,@ 050 houses were flooded , another 691 lost their roofs , and 7 @,@ 402 were destroyed , leaving 13 @,@ 882 people homeless . Overall , Haruna killed 26 people and injured another 127 .
There were initial difficulties in distributing aid to areas of southwestern Madagascar due to prevailing unsettled weather , along with fuel shortages . Workers used boats to rescue people in flooded areas . Members of the Madagascar Armed Forces , along with about 200 Red Cross volunteers , assisted in evacuations and aid distribution , and the Red Cross also provided free medical consultations to thousands of people . Following the storm , there were increased levels of malaria , dysentery , and childhood diarrhea in the area around Toliara , and there was a locust outbreak . Increased locust activity persisted into the summer , and had been occurring since late 2012 ; this caused continued food shortages , and by July the locusts were affecting about half of the country 's farmlands . To prevent further spreading of disease , officials provided vaccinations and sprayed insecticide . In isolated villages in southwestern Madagascar , residents faced food shortages , while in some areas , the water supply was contaminated . Within a few weeks of the storms , many residents whose dwellings were not destroyed were able to return to their homes . In Toliara , about 4 @,@ 000 students were initially unable to return to school due to being displaced . In the middle of March , 1 @,@ 948 displaced people stayed in a military camp or two schools , but most returned home by early April . Repairs to the dyke in Toliara began in early April , and were expected to take about a month and a half .
On February 23 , the prime minister of Madagascar issued an appeal to the international community for assistance . In Toliara , United Nations agencies , including the World Food Programme , and non @-@ governmental organizations worked together to provide food for 3 @,@ 000 people in six shelters . The World Food Programme sent a truck with 1 @,@ 050 tons of food to Toliara , including corn and legumes . A few days after Haruna struck , the French Red Cross sent a ship to Toliara with 35 tons of supplies , including for housing and water . The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies authorized funds to help up to 10 @,@ 000 affected residents . Handicap International provided food and shelter to 547 people in Toliara . Action Against Hunger sent a plane with 15 tons of supplies , including water treatment units , to Madagascar after the storm . By March 20 , 1 @,@ 330 wells were disinfected by various crews . On March 1 , the European Commission donated € 200 @,@ 000 for immediate relief . The Red Crescent Society of the United Arab Emirates sent about 80 tonnes of food , medicine , and building supplies to the country .
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= Kenneth Strong =
Major General Sir Kenneth William Dobson Strong KBE , CB ( 9 September 1900 – 11 January 1982 ) was a senior officer of the British Army who served in the Second World War , rising to become Director General of Intelligence . A graduate of the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst , Strong was commissioned into the 1st Battalion , Royal Scots Fusiliers in 1920 . After service as an Intelligence Officer with his battalion in Ireland from 1920 to 1922 during the Irish War of Independence , he volunteered for service as an interpreter and was posted to Germany with the British Army of the Rhine . In 1935 he returned to Germany as a member of the International Force supervising the Saarland plebiscite . Afterwards , he joined the German Intelligence Section at the War Office . In 1937 he became Assistant Military attaché in Berlin .
Strong became Head of the German Section at MI14 in August 1939 , shortly before the outbreak of the Second World War . He commanded the 4th / 5th Battalion , Royal Scots Fusiliers in 1941 , before becoming Brigadier General Staff ( BGS ) for Intelligence at Home Forces in 1942 . In March 1943 , Strong was appointed Assistant Chief of Staff for Intelligence ( G @-@ 2 ) at General Dwight D. Eisenhower 's Allied Force Headquarters ( AFHQ ) . He attended the Italian peace negotiations . In May 1944 he joined Eisenhower 's Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force ( SHAEF ) , and played a leading part in the negotiations for the unconditional surrender of Germany in 1945 .
In August 1945 , Strong became Deputy Director of the Political Warfare Executive , succeeding Sir Bruce Lockhart as its head a month later . He retired from the Army with the rank of major general in 1947 to become a civil servant . He was initially appointed Director General of the Political Intelligence Department of the Foreign Office . He was the first Director of the Joint Intelligence Bureau at the Ministry of Defence from 1948 until 1964 , when he became the first Director General of Intelligence at the Ministry of Defence . He retired from the civil service in 1966 .
= = Early life = =
Kenneth William Dobson Strong was born in Montrose , Angus , Scotland on 9 September 1900 , the only son amongst four children , to John Strong , the rector of Montrose Academy , and his wife Ethel May née Dobson . He was educated at Montrose Academy , Glenalmond College and the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst .
= = Between the wars = =
Strong was commissioned into the 1st Battalion Royal Scots Fusiliers in 1920 . He served as an Intelligence Officer with his battalion in Ireland from 1920 to 1922 during the Irish War of Independence . In 1922 he volunteered for service with the British Army of the Rhine . He was trained as an interpreter and posted to Germany from 1926 until the Occupation of the Rhineland ended in 1929 . He then served as a Defence Security Officer in Malta and Gibraltar .
In 1935 he returned to Germany as a member of the International Force supervising the Saarland plebiscite . Afterwards , he joined the German Intelligence Section at the War Office . In 1937 he became Assistant Military attaché in Berlin to Noel Mason @-@ Macfarlane . As such , Strong got to know many senior German military officers personally , including Wilhelm Keitel . Like Mason @-@ Macfarlane , he became convinced that war with Germany was imminent and inevitable .
= = Second World War = =
= = = Allied Forces Headquarters = = =
Strong was appointed Head of the German Section at MI14 in August 1939 . He liaised with French intelligence until the Fall of France in June 1940 . Thereafter , his section was concerned with the prospect of a German invasion of Britain . In April 1941 , he assumed command of the 4th / 5th Battalion Royal Scots Fusiliers , part of the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division . Then , in March 1942 , he became Brigadier General Staff ( BGS ) for Intelligence at General Alan Brooke 's GHQ Home Forces . For his services , Strong was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire .
In March 1943 , Strong was appointed Assistant Chief of Staff for Intelligence ( G @-@ 2 ) at General Dwight Eisenhower 's Allied Force Headquarters ( AFHQ ) , replacing Brigadier Eric Mockler @-@ Ferryman , whose over @-@ reliance on Ultra sources had led to a misinterpretation of the enemy 's intentions leading up to the disastrous Battle of the Kasserine Pass . Strong got on well with Eisenhower and his chief of staff , Major General Bedell Smith in particular , and Americans in general . Stephen Ambrose wrote :
Strong had an explosive laugh , an appreciation of the wisecrack , and an easy acceptance of the West Pointers ' rough language and casual manner rare in British officers . In his memoirs he endeared himself to all those from the New World side of the Atlantic Ocean who had been put off by British stuffiness and snobbery when he remarked " The best time in a man 's life is when he gets to like Americans . "
In August 1943 , Smith and Strong flew to Lisbon via Gibraltar in civilian clothes , where they met with Generale di Brigata Giuseppe Castellano at the British embassy . While Castellano had hoped to arrange terms for Italy to join the United Nations , Smith was empowered to draw up an armistice between Italy and Allied armed forces , but was unable to negotiate political matters . Smith and Strong subsequently negotiated for the Allies with Castellano in Sicily over the terms over Italian surrender . On 3 September 1943 , Smith and Castellano signed the agreed text on behalf of Eisenhower and Pietro Badoglio respectively at Cassibile , Sicily . For his work at AFHQ , Strong was promoted to major general on 11 January 1944 , and awarded the Legion of Merit by the United States in March 1944 .
= = = Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force = = =
When Eisenhower was appointed Supreme Allied Commander in December 1943 , he naturally wished to take key members of his AFHQ staff , including Strong , with him to his new assignment . On New Year 's Eve , Smith met with Alan Brooke , now Chief of the Imperial General Staff , to discuss the transfer of key British staff from AFHQ to Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force ( SHAEF ) . Brooke made some concessions but refused to transfer Strong , whom he believed could not be spared from the Mediterranean . A heated exchange resulted , with Smith demanding Brooke explain how Operation Overlord could be a success if the British Army withheld its best talent . Later Brooke complained to Eisenhower about Smith 's behaviour . Accordingly , another AFHQ hand , Brigadier John Whiteley , became G @-@ 2 at SHAEF . However Eisenhower and Smith eventually had their way , going over Brooke 's head to Prime Minister Winston Churchill , and Strong assumed the post on 25 May 1944 , with Brigadier General Thomas J. Betts as his deputy .
As it turned out , the relationship between SHAEF and Field Marshal Sir Bernard Montgomery 's 21st Army Group was far from cordial , with the Deputy Supreme Commander , Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Tedder , and the Deputy Chief of Staff , Lieutenant General Frederick Morgan , both frequently critical of Montgomery . In September 1944 an intelligence crisis similar to Kasserine arose , when the cryptanalysts at Bletchley Park did not locate the 9th SS Panzer Division Hohenstaufen and 10th SS Panzer Division Frundsberg in the Arnhem area , but information from the Dutch resistance and a consequent photo reconnaissance ordered by Major Brian Urquhart , the Intelligence Officer at I Airborne Corps , confirmed the German presence . Strong and Smith then flew to Brussels to warn Montgomery . However , Montgomery decided to accept the risk rather than alter the plans for Operation Market Garden .
Heavy opposition from the two SS panzer divisions in the area proved to be a critical factor not only in preventing the British 1st Airborne Division from holding the Rhine Bridge at Arnhem , but also imposed serious delays on the capture of the bridges at Nijmegen by the U.S. 82nd Airborne Division and the advance of the armoured units of the British XXX Corps . For SHAEF , the outcome meant that attention had to turn to the Battle of the Scheldt to open the approaches to Antwerp and to building up resources for an invasion of Germany in 1945 .
In December 1944 , Strong identified a large German reserve . The Germans devised an elaborate deception plan , and because the troops were being assembled inside Germany , they relied on secure phone and teleprinter lines rather than radio . Ultra and signal intelligence therefore dried up . Ultra detected German hoarding of fuel , but this was misinterpreted as a response to a critical shortage rather than building up a reserve . However , the withdrawal of armoured units from the front line was duly noted , and by 20 November , using agents , aircraft and prisoner interrogations , SHAEF had located and enumerated the divisions of the Fifth Panzer Army east of Aachen and the Sixth Panzer Army east of the Roer River . Strong informed Smith that the German armoured reserves might be sent to the Eastern Front , or used for a counterattack against an Allied penetration of the front , but might also be used for a counterattack during a period of bad weather . In early December , SHAEF detected tank movements in the Bitburg area , and Strong became worried about a possible counterattack against the Allied lines in the Ardennes or the Vosges . Smith sent Strong to warn Lieutenant General Omar Bradley , the commander of the 12th Army Group , of the danger . Bradley 's response was succinct : " Let them come . "
The magnitude and ferocity of the German Ardennes Offensive came as a shock and Strong was criticised for failing to predict it . However Smith defended Strong against criticism for failing to sound the alarm , feeling that Strong have given ample warning , which had been discounted or disregarded by himself and others . By 19 December , Strong had become concerned that the Germans were going to split Bradley 's armies , and he and Whiteley – who had already received Monty 's opinion on the matter – went to Smith , recommending that the armies north of the Ardennes be transferred from Bradley to Montgomery 's command . Smith realised the military and political implications of this , and knew that such a recommendation had to come from an American officer . On 20 December , Smith spoke to Eisenhower , who deferred judgement until the morning staff meeting . Eisenhower then phoned Bradley and Montgomery and ordered it . The decision was greatly resented by many Americans , particularly at 12th Army Group .
On 15 April 1945 , Nazi governor ( ' Reichskommissar ' ) of the Netherlands , Arthur Seyss @-@ Inquart , offered to open Amsterdam to food and coal shipments to ease the suffering of the civilian population . Smith and Strong , representing SHAEF , along with Major General Ivan Susloparov , representing the USSR , Prince Bernhard of Lippe @-@ Biesterfeld , representing the Dutch government , and Major General Sir Francis de Guingand , from 21st Army Group , met with Seyss @-@ Inquart in the Dutch village of Achterveld on 30 April . They successfully negotiated for the provision of food to the starving Dutch civilian population in the cities in the west of the country , and opened discussions for the peaceful and complete German capitulation in the Netherlands that would follow on 5 May .
Another set of negotiations , that of the surrender of German armed forces , were conducted in May 1945 . Smith and Strong met with the representatives of the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht , Generaloberst Alfred Jodl and Generaladmiral Hans @-@ Georg von Friedeburg . Once again , Strong acted as translator . Strong was present when , on 7 May , Smith signed the surrender document , along with Suslaparov and the French representative , Major General François Sevez .
For his services at SHAEF , Strong was mentioned in despatches , appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath , and awarded the United States Distinguished Service Medal , and other foreign awards , including the French Croix de Guerre and Légion d 'honneur , and the Order of the Red Banner from the USSR .
= = Post war = =
In August 1945 , Strong became Deputy Director of the Political Warfare Executive , succeeding Sir Bruce Lockhart as its head a month later . With the elevation of Montgomery to Chief of the Imperial General Staff in 1946 , the career prospects of officers who had served at SHAEF , like Morgan , Gale , Whiteley and Strong , became dim , and Strong retired from the Army with the rank of major general on 9 May 1947 to become a civil servant .
He was initially appointed Director General of the Political Intelligence Department of the Foreign Office . He was the first Director of the Joint Intelligence Bureau at the Ministry of Defence from 1948 until 1964 , when he became the first Director General of Intelligence at the Ministry of Defence . He was knighted on 1 January 1952 , and became a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1966 . He retired on 9 May 1966 .
Strong became a director of Eagle Star Insurance and other companies . He wrote two books , his memoir , Intelligence at the Top ( 1970 ) , and Men of Intelligence ( 1970 ) . Unfortunately , both were written before the Ultra secret was revealed in 1974 . In 1979 he married a widow , Brita Charlota Horridge . Their marriage produced no children . Strong died at his home in Eastbourne , East Sussex on 11 January 1982 . His papers are in the Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives .
= = Publications = =
Strong , Kenneth ( 1969 ) . Intelligence at the Top : the Recollections of an Intelligence Officer . Garden City , New York : Doubleday . OCLC 1260 .
Strong , Kenneth ( 1970 ) . Men of Intelligence : a Study of the Roles and Decisions of Chiefs of Intelligence from World War I to the Present Day . Littlehampton Book Services . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 304 @-@ 93652 @-@ 6 .
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= Lady Macbeth =
Lady Macbeth is a character in Shakespeare 's Macbeth ( c.1603 – 1607 ) . She is the wife of the play 's antagonist , Macbeth , a Scottish nobleman . After goading him into committing regicide , she becomes Queen of Scotland , but later suffers pangs of guilt for her part in the crime . She dies off @-@ stage in the last act , an apparent suicide .
According to some genealogists , Lady Macbeth and King Duncan 's wife were siblings or cousins , where Duncan 's wife had a stronger claim to the throne than Lady Macbeth . It was this that incited her jealousy and hatred of Duncan .
The character 's origins lie of the accounts of Kings Duff and Duncan in Holinshed 's Chronicles ( 1587 ) , a history of Britain familiar to Shakespeare . Shakespeare 's Lady Macbeth appears to be a composite of two separate and distinct personages in Holinshed 's work : Donwald 's nagging , murderous wife in the account of King Duff , and Macbeth 's ambitious wife Gruoch of Scotland in the account of King Duncan .
Lady Macbeth is a powerful presence in the play , most notably in the first two acts . Following the murder of King Duncan , however , her role in the plot diminishes . She becomes an uninvolved spectator to Macbeth 's plotting , and a nervous hostess at a banquet dominated by her husband 's hallucinations . Her fifth act sleepwalking scene is a turning point in the play , and her line , " Out , damned spot ! , " has become a phrase familiar to many speakers of the English language . The report of her death late in the fifth act provides the inspiration for Macbeth 's " Tomorrow and tomorrow and tomorrow " speech .
Analysts see in the character of Lady Macbeth the conflict between femininity and masculinity , as they are impressed in cultural norms . Lady Macbeth suppresses her instincts toward compassion , motherhood , and fragility — associated with femininity — in favour of ambition , ruthlessness , and the singleminded pursuit of power . This conflict colours the entire drama , and sheds light on gender @-@ based preconceptions from Shakespearean England to the present .
The role has attracted countless notable actors over the centuries , including Sarah Siddons , Charlotte Melmoth , Helen Faucit , Ellen Terry , Jeanette Nolan , Vivien Leigh , Simone Signoret , Vivien Merchant , Glenda Jackson , Francesca Annis , Judith Anderson , Judi Dench , Renée O 'Connor , Tabu , Keeley Hawes , Alex Kingston , Angela Bassett and Marion Cotillard .
= = Origins = =
Shakespeare 's Lady Macbeth appears to be a composite of two personages found in the account of King Duff and in the account of King Duncan in Holinshed 's Chronicles ( 1587 ) . In the account of King Duff , one of his captains , Donwald , suffers the deaths of his kinsmen at the orders of the King . Donwald then considers regicide at " the setting on of his wife " , who " showed him the means whereby he might soonest accomplish it . " Donwald abhors such an act , but perseveres at the nagging of his wife . After plying the King 's servants with food and drink and letting them fall asleep , the couple admit their confederates to the King 's room , where they then commit the regicide . The murder of Duff has its motivation in revenge , rather than ambition .
In Holinshed 's account of King Duncan , the discussion of Lady Macbeth is confined to a single sentence :
" The words of the three Weird Sisters also ( of whom before ye have heard ) greatly encouraged him hereunto ; but specially his wife lay sore upon him to attempt the thing , as she was very ambitious , burning with an unquenchable desire to bear the name of a queen . "
Not found in Holinshed are the invocation to the " spirits that tend on mortal thoughts , " the sleepwalking scene , and various details found in the drama concerning the death of Macbeth .
Although Macbeth 's wife can be traced to a real @-@ world counterpart , Queen Gruoch of Scotland , Shakespeare 's fictional character is tied so weakly to her that the bonds are virtually non @-@ existent .
= = Role in the play = =
Lady Macbeth makes her first appearance late in scene five of the first act , when she learns in a letter from her husband that three witches have prophesied his future as King . When King Duncan becomes her overnight guest , Lady Macbeth seizes the opportunity to effect his murder . Aware her husband 's temperament is " too full o ' the milk of human kindness " for committing a regicide , she plots the details of the murder ; then , countering her husband 's arguments and reminding him that he first broached the matter , she belittles his courage and manhood , finally winning him to her designs .
The King retires after a night of feasting . Lady Macbeth drugs his attendants and lays daggers ready for the commission of the crime . Macbeth kills the sleeping King while Lady Macbeth waits nearby . When he brings the daggers from the King 's room , his Lady orders him to return them to the scene of the crime . He refuses . She carries the daggers to the room and smears the drugged attendants with blood . The couple retire to wash their hands .
Following the murder of King Duncan , Lady Macbeth 's role in the plot diminishes . When Duncan 's sons flee the land in fear for their own lives , Macbeth is appointed King . Without consulting his Queen , Macbeth plots other murders in order to secure his throne , and , at a royal banquet , the Queen is forced to dismiss her guests when Macbeth hallucinates . In her last appearance , she sleepwalks in profound torment . She dies off @-@ stage , with suicide being suggested as its cause , when Malcolm declares that she died by " self and violent hands . "
In the First Folio , the only source for the play , she is never referred to as " Lady Macbeth " , but variously as " Macbeth 's wife " , " Macbeth 's lady " , or just " lady " .
= = Sleepwalking scene = =
The sleepwalking scene is one of the most celebrated scenes from Macbeth , and , indeed , in all of Shakespeare . It has no counterpart in Shakespeare 's source material for the play , Holinshed 's Chronicles , but is solely the Bard 's invention .
A.C. Bradley notes that , with the exception of the scene 's few closing lines , the scene is entirely in prose with Lady Macbeth being the only major character in Shakespearean tragedy to make a last appearance " denied the dignity of verse . " According to Bradley , Shakespeare generally assigned prose to characters exhibiting abnormal states of mind or abnormal conditions such as somnambulism , with the regular rhythm of verse being inappropriate to characters having lost their balance of mind or subject to images or impressions with no rational connection . Lady Macbeth 's recollections – the blood on her hand , the clock striking , her husband 's reluctance – are brought forth from her disordered mind in chance order with each image deepening her anguish . For Bradley , Lady Macbeth 's " brief toneless sentences seem the only voice of truth " with the spare and simple construction of the character 's diction expressing a " desolating misery . " Lady Macbeth 's compulsive washing of her hands to rid them of blood is reminiscent of hand washing common among sufferers from Obsessive @-@ compulsive disorder .
= = Analyses of the role = =
= = = Lady Macbeth as anti @-@ mother = = =
Stephanie Chamberlain in her article " Fantasicing " Infanticide : Lady Macbeth and the Murdering Mother in Early Modern England " argues that though Lady Macbeth wants power , her power is “ conditioned on maternity ” , which was a “ conflicted status in early modern England . ” Chamberlain argues that the negative images of Lady Macbeth as a mother figure , such as when she discusses her ability to " bash the brain of the babe that sucks her breast " , reflect controversies concerning the image of motherhood in early modern England . In early modern England , mothers were often accused of hurting the innocent lives that were placed in their hands . Lady Macbeth then personifies all mothers of early modern England who were condemned for Lady Macbeth ’ s fantasy of infanticide . Lady Macbeth ’ s fantasy , Chamberlain argues , is not struggling to be a man , but rather struggling with the condemnation of being a bad mother that was common during that time .
Jenijoy La Belle takes a slightly different view in her article , " A Strange Infirmity : Lady Macbeth ’ s Amenorrhea . " La Belle states that Lady Macbeth does not wish for just a move away from femininity ; she is asking the spirits to eliminate the basic biological characteristics of womanhood . The main biological characteristic that La Belle focuses on is menstruation . La Belle argues that by asking to be " unsex [ ed ] " and crying out to spirits to “ make thick [ her ] blood / Stop up th ’ access and passage to remorse , ” Lady Macbeth asks for her menstrual cycle to stop . By having her menstrual cycle stop , Lady Macbeth hopes to stop any feelings of sensitivity and caring that is associated with females . She hopes to become like a man to stop any sense of remorse for the regicide . La Belle furthers her argument by connecting the stopping of the menstrual cycle with the persistent infanticide motifs in the play . La Belle gives examples of " the strangled babe " whose finger is thrown into the witches ’ cauldron ( 4 @.@ 1 @.@ 30 ) ; Macduff ’ s babes who are " savagely slaughter ’ d " ( 4 @.@ 3 @.@ 235 ) ; and the suckling babe with boneless gums whose brains Lady Macbeth would dash out ( 1 @.@ 7 @.@ 57 – 58 ) to argue that Lady Macbeth represents the ultimate anti @-@ mother : not only would she smash in a baby ’ s brains but she would go even further to stop her means of procreation altogether .
= = = Lady Macbeth as witch = = =
Some literary critics and historians argue that not only does Lady Macbeth represent an anti @-@ mother figure in general , she also embodies a specific type of anti @-@ mother : the witch . Critic Joanna Levin defines a witch as a woman who succumbs to Satanic force , a lust for the devil , and who , either for this reason or the desire to obtain supernatural powers , invokes ( evil ) spirits . English physician Edward Jorden published Briefe Discourse of a Disease Called the Suffocation of the Mother in 1603 , in which he speculated that this force literally derived from the female sexual reproductive organs . Because no one else had published any other studies on the susceptibility of women , especially mothers , to becoming both the witch and the bewitched ( i.e. demonically possessed ) , Jorden 's findings helped create the foundation for the views popularized during the Renaissance about the relationship between women and witchcraft . Levin refers to Marianne Hester 's Lewd Women and Wicked Witches : A Study of Male Domination , in which Hester articulates a feminist interpretation of the witch as an empowered woman . Levin summarises the claim of feminist historians like Hester : the witch should be a figure celebrated for her nonconformity , defiance , and general sense of empowerment ; witches challenged patriarchal authority and hierarchy , specifically " threatening hegemonic sex / gender systems . " This view associates witchcraft — and by extension , Lady Macbeth — not with villainy and evil , but with heroism .
Jenijoy La Belle assesses Lady Macbeth 's femininity and sexuality as they relate to motherhood , and witchhood as well . The fact that she conjures spirits likens her to a witch , and the act itself establishes a similarity in the way that both Lady Macbeth and the Weird Sisters from the play " use the metaphoric powers of language to call upon spiritual powers who in turn will influence physical events — in one case the workings of the state , in the other the workings of a woman 's body . " Like the witches , Lady Macbeth strives to make herself an instrument for bringing about the future She proves herself a defiant , empowered nonconformist , and an explicit threat to a patriarchal system of governance in that , through challenging his masculinity , she manipulates Macbeth into murdering King Duncan . Despite the fact that she calls him a coward , Macbeth remains reluctant , until she asks : " What beast wasn 't , then , that made you break this enterprise to me ? / When you durst do it , then you were a man ; / And to be more than what you were , you would / Be so much more the man . " Thus Lady Macbeth enforces a masculine conception of power , yet only after pleading to be unsexed , or defeminised . The Weird Sisters are also depicted as defeminised , androgynous figures . They are bearded ( 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 46 ) , ( which may also be associated with Lady Macbeth 's amenorrhea ) . Witches were perceived as an extreme type of anti @-@ mother , even considered capable of cooking and eating their own children . Although Lady Macbeth may not express violence toward her child with that same degree of grotesqueness , she certainly expresses a sense of brutality when she states that she would smash the babe 's head .
= = Performance history = =
John Rice , a boy actor with the King 's Men , may have played Lady Macbeth in a performance of what was likely Shakespeare 's tragedy at the Globe Theatre on 20 April 1611 . The performance was witnessed and described by Simon Forman in his manuscript The Book of Plays and Notes thereof per Formans for Common Policy . His account , however , does not establish whether the play was Shakespeare 's Macbeth or a work on the same subject by another dramatist . The role may have been beyond the talents of a boy actor and may have been played by a man in early performances .
In the mid @-@ 18th century , Hannah Pritchard played Lady Macbeth opposite David Garrick 's Macbeth . She was , in Thomas Davies ' words , " insensible to compunction and inflexibly bent on cruelty . "
Sarah Siddons starred in John Philip Kemble 's 1794 production at the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane and offered a psychologically intricate portrait of Lady Macbeth in the tradition of Hannah Pritchard . Siddons was especially praised for moving audiences in the sleepwalking scene with her depiction of a soul in profound torment . Siddons and Kemble furthered the view established by Pritchard and Garrick that character was the essence of Shakespearean drama .
William Hazlitt commented on Siddons ' performance :
In speaking of the character of Lady Macbeth , we ought not to pass over Mrs. Siddons 's manner of acting that part . We can conceive of nothing grander . It was something above nature . It seemed almost as if a being of a superior order had dropped from a higher sphere to awe the world with the majesty of her appearance . Power was seated on her brow , passion emanated from her breast as from a shrine ; she was tragedy personified . In coming on in the sleeping @-@ scene , her eyes were open , but their sense was shut . She was like a person bewildered and unconscious of what she did . Her lips moved involuntarily — all her gestures were involuntary and mechanical . She glided on and off the stage like an apparition . To have seen her in that character was an event in every one 's life , not to be forgotten .
Helen Faucit was critiqued by Henry Morley , a professor of English literature in University College , London , who thought the actress " too demonstrative and noisy " in the scenes before Duncan 's murder with the " Come , you spirits " speech " simply spouted " and its closing " Hold ! Hold ! " shouted in a " most unheavenly manner . " In the " I have given suck " speech , he thought Faucit " poured out " the speech in a way that recalled the " scold at the door of a gin @-@ shop . " Faucit , he believed , was " too essentially feminine , too exclusively gifted with the art of expressing all that is most beautiful and graceful in womanhood , to succeed in inspiring anything like awe and terror . " He thought her talents more congenial to the second phase of the character , and found her " admirably good " in the banquet scene . Her sleepwalking scene , however , was described as having " the air of a too well @-@ studied dramatic recitation . "
In 1884 at the Gaiety Theatre , Sarah Bernhardt performed the sleepwalking scene barefoot and clad in a clinging nightdress , and , in 1888 , a critic noted Ellen Terry was " the stormy dominant woman of the eleventh century equipped with the capricious emotional subltety of the nineteenth century . "
In 1915 and 1918 , Sybil Thorndike played the role at Old Vic and then at the Prince 's Theatre in 1926 . Flora Robson played the role in Tyrone Guthrie 's Old Vic production in 1934 . In 1955 , Vivien Leigh played Lady Macbeth opposite Laurence Olivier at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre in Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon . In 1977 at The Other Place in Stratford , Judi Dench and Ian McKellen played the infamous husband and wife in Trevor Nunn 's production . Other notable Lady Macbeths in the late 20th century included Judith Anderson , Pamela Brown , Diana Wynyard , Simone Signoret , Vivien Merchant , Jane Lapotaire , Helen Mirren and Janet Suzman .
Jeanette Nolan performed the role in Orson Welles ' 1948 film adaptation and was critiqued by Bosley Crowther in the New York Times of 28 December 1950 : " The Lady Macbeth of Jeanette Nolan is a pop @-@ eyed and haggard dame whose driving determination is as vagrant as the highlights on her face . Likewise , her influence upon Macbeth , while fleetingly suggested in a few taut lines and etched in a couple of hot embraces , is not developed adequately . The passion and torment of the conflict between these two which resides in the play has been rather seriously neglected in this truncated rendering . " Michael Costello of Allmovie has described her performance as " uneven " and has also stated , " Her unique Lady Macbeth is either an exhibition of rank scenery @-@ chewing or a performance of intriguingly Kabuki @-@ like stylization . "
In 2009 , Pegasus Books published The Tragedy of Macbeth Part II , a play by American author and playwright Noah Lukeman which endeavoured to offer a sequel to Macbeth and to resolve its many loose ends , particularly Lady Macbeth ’ s reference to her having had a child ( which , historically , she did - from a previous marriage , having remarried Macbeth after being widowed . ) Written in blank verse , the play was published to critical acclaim .
Alex Kingston starred as Lady Macbeth opposite Kenneth Branagh in his and Rob Ashford 's adaption of Macbeth . The play was first performed at the Manchester Festival in 2013 and then transferred to New York for a limited engagement in 2014 .
Marion Cotillard played the character in Justin Kurzel 's 2015 film adaptation opposite Michael Fassbender .
= = In popular culture = =
During former United States President Bill Clinton 's 1992 campaign for the American presidency , Daniel Wattenberg 's August 1992 The American Spectator article " The Lady Macbeth of Little Rock " , and some twenty other articles in major publications drew comparisons between his wife and Lady Macbeth , questioning Hillary Clinton 's ideological and ethical record in comparison to Shakespeare 's famous character and suggesting parallels .
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= Invasion of Ceylon ( 1795 ) =
The Invasion of Ceylon was a military campaign fought as a series of amphibious operations between the summer of 1795 and spring of 1796 between the garrison of the Batavian colonies on the Indian Ocean island of Ceylon ( now Sri Lanka ) and a British invasion force sent from British India . The Dutch Republic had been a British ally during the French Revolutionary Wars , but was overrun by the French Republic in the winter of 1794 and reformed into the client state of the Batavian Republic . The British government , working with the exiled Stadtholder William of Orange , ordered the seizure of Batavian assets including colonies of the former Dutch Empire . Among the first territories to be attacked were those on the coast of the island of Ceylon , with operations initially focused on the trading port at Trincomalee .
To achieve the seizure of the colony , the British government instructed Lord Hobart , Governor of Madras to use the forces at his disposal to invade and capture the Batavian held parts of the island . Prosecution of the campaign was given to Colonel James Stuart , supported by naval forces under Rear @-@ Admiral Peter Rainier . Stuart called on Batavian governor Johan Van Angelbeek to surrender the colony peacefully and many trading posts were taken without resistance , but Stuart 's forces were opposed at Trincomalee in August 1795 and briefly at Colombo in February 1796 . Following short sieges British forces were able to secure control of the Dutch colony , and Ceylon would remain a part of the British Empire for the next 153 years .
= = Background = =
In 1793 , the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Dutch Republic went to war with the French Republic , joining the ongoing French Revolutionary Wars . Despite resistance from the Dutch Army and a British expeditionary force , the Dutch Republic was overrun by the French in the winter of 1794 – 1795 , the French reforming the country into the Batavian Republic , a client state of the French regime . Although war between Britain and the Batavian Republic had not been declared , the British government sent instructions on 19 January for Batavian shipping to be seized and , in conjunction with Stadtholder William of Orange , living in exile in London , for Batavian colonies to be neutralised in order to deny their use to the French . On 9 February these orders culminated in the outbreak of war between Britain and the Batavian Republic .
News of the conflict took some months to reach the East Indies , where British and French naval forces had fought an inconclusive campaign for control of the Indian Ocean trade routes since 1793 . British forces , supporting those of the East India Company , were principally operating from Madras and Calcutta in India , the French from their island bases of Île de France ( now Mauritius ) and Réunion . Following an inconclusive engagement off Île Ronde on 22 October 1794 , the French squadron on Île de France had remained under blockade at Port Louis and thus most of the British naval forces in the East Indies were available for the campaign against the Batavian territories . Dutch colonisation of Ceylon did not span the whole island , which was mostly ruled by the interior Kingdom of Kandy . European settlement was instead concentrated at coastal strips surrounding the significant ports of Colombo on the west coast and Trincomalee on the east , supplemented by smaller trading factories and settlements elsewhere . Trincomalee was particularly important as raiding forces based in the port could easily strike against British trade routes in the Bay of Bengal , but the port had limited food supplies , poorly @-@ developed facilities and a small garrison .
= = Planning = =
Upon receiving the news of the hostilities between Britain and the Batavian Republic , Lord Hobart , Governor of Madras , conferred with Rainier and ordered the invasion of Ceylon . Command of land forces was given to Colonel James Stuart , whose forces consisted of the 71st , 72nd and 73rd Regiments of Foot , 1st and 23rd battalions Madras Native Infantry and detachments from the Royal Artillery and Madras Artillery and auxiliary forces , totaling 2 @,@ 700 men . This force was supported by a Royal Navy force led by Rainier in the 74 @-@ gun ship of the line HMS Suffolk and the 50 @-@ gun fourth rate ship HMS Centurion , which sailed from Madras on 21 July . Suffolk escorted a large convoy of East India Company merchant ships transporting troops and supplies , augmented off Negapatnam by additional reinforcements protected by the frigates HMS Diomede and HMS Heroine .
It was hoped by Stuart and Rainer that the Batavian governor Johan Van Angelbeek might be persuaded to allow a peaceful occupation of Ceylon by British forces , especially in light of the Kew Letters from William of Orange , which advocated cooperation with British forces . A Major Agnew was sent ashore at Colombo to negotiate and his attempts to persuade Van Angelbeek to allow 300 British troops to land at Fort Oostenberg , which overlooked Trincomalee , were successful . On arrival off the port on the eastern coast of Ceylon on 1 August however the commander of the defences refused to acknowledge the instruction , citing problems with the wording of the instructions . For two days attempts were made to convince the Batavian commander , the British position partially undermined by the destruction of Diomede in Trincomalee harbour after striking an uncharted rock . Although all of the crew and passengers were saved , large quantities of military stores sank with the frigate .
= = Siege of Trincomalee = =
On 3 August , with negotiations fruitless , Rainier and Stuart ordered the invasion to go ahead . The troops landed 4 nautical miles ( 7 @.@ 4 km ) north of Trincomaleee unopposed and advanced slowly though the sandy terrain . Due to heavy surf and high winds the disembarkation was not completed until 13 August , and the first emplacements approaching Trincomalee were not begun until 18 August . Throughout this period the Batavian garrison made no effort to oppose or impede the advance British forces . After five days the British forces had emplaced eight 18 @-@ pounder long guns and a number of smaller cannon , some borrowed from Suffolk in firing positions , opening a heavy fusilade which by the following day had created a sizeable breach in the walls of Trincomalee . Preparations were made for an assault and messages sent to the fort 's commander demanding his surrender .
After some negotiation followed by a brief resumption of the bombardment , the Batavian commander surrendered . The garrison of 679 troops were taken prisoner and more than 100 cannon seized by the British . British losses in the brief campaign amounted to 16 killed and 60 wounded . Following the fall of Trincomalee , nearby Fort Oostenberg was summoned to surrender on 27 August . Four days later the commander turned his position over to the British under the same terms offered to the garrison of Trincomalee . With resistance broken , Batavian trading posts along the Ceylon coastline surrendered in quick succession , Batticaloa to the 22nd Regiment of Foot on 18 September , Jaffna to Stuart directly on 27 September after a landing in force , Mullaitivu to a detachment of troops from 52nd Regiment of Foot in HMS Hobart on 1 October and the island of Mannar on 5 October .
= = Fall of Colombo = =
In September 1795 , Rainier took most of his squadron eastwards to operate against Batavia , leaving Captain Alan Hyde Gardner in command of the blockade of Colombo , the last remaining Batavian territory on the island . In January 1796 , command of the East Indies was assumed by Sir George Keith Elphinstone , who ordered ships of the line HMS Stately and HMS Arrogant to assist Gardner .
In February 1796 a final expedition was prepared against Ceylon , with instructions to seize Colombo and the surrounding area . Stuart again took command , supported by Gardner in Heroine and the sloops HMS Rattlesnake , HMS Echo and HMS Swift , as well as five EIC ships . Stuart 's force disembarked at Negombo , a Dutch fort abandoned the previous year , on 5 February and marched overland to Colombo , arriving without opposition on 14 February . The garrison was issued with a demand requiring their surrender or to expect an immediate assault , and storming parties were prepared , but on 15 February Van Angelbeek agreed to capitulate and Stuart took possession of the city peacefully .
The value of the captured goods from Colombo alone amounted to more than £ 300 @,@ 000 . More importantly for the British , Ceylon was not one of the colonies returned to the Batavian Republic following the Treaty of Amiens which brought the war to a brief close in 1802 . Britain retained Ceylon as part of the British Empire until independence was granted in 1948 .
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= Kaminey =
Kaminey ( English : The Rascals ) is a 2009 Indian caper thriller film directed by Vishal Bhardwaj and featuring Shahid Kapoor , Priyanka Chopra and Amol Gupte in the lead roles . Set against the backdrop of the Mumbai underworld , Kaminey follows a rivalry between a pair of twins , one with a lisp and the other with a stutter , over the course of a single day .
Bhardwaj co @-@ wrote the screenplay with Sabrina Dhawan , Abhishek Chaubey , and Supratik Sen. Bhardwaj bought the original script for US $ 4 @,@ 000 from Kenyan writer Cajetan Boy — whom he had mentored at a scriptwriting workshop in Uganda . Kaminey was released on 14 August 2009 and became a box @-@ office success worldwide , grossing over ₹ 710 million ( US $ 11 million ) against a budget of ₹ 350 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 2 million ) . The film 's soundtrack album also became a commercial success , with the song " Dhan Te Nan " topping the charts on various platforms .
Kaminey was well @-@ received , with several critics and media publications placing it at number one on their listings of " Best film of the year " . Since its release , the film has attained cult status . It received several awards and nominations at ceremonies across India . At the 55th Filmfare Awards , it received ten nominations , including Best Film , Best Director , Best Actor , Best Actress , and Best Supporting Actor ; it won the award for Best Special Effects . At the 57th National Film Awards , Kaminey won two awards — Best Audiography for Subash Sahoo and Special Jury Award for its editing by A. Sreekar Prasad .
= = Plot = =
Charlie and Guddu are twins who were raised in Mumbai . Charlie lisps while Guddu stutters . Charlie likes to take shortcuts to fulfil his dream of becoming a bookmaker at the racecourse where he works for three criminal brothers who fix races . He is closer to the youngest brother Mikhail than to Guddu , to whom he is hostile . A jockey deceives Charlie when he bets ₹ 100 @,@ 000 ( US $ 1 @,@ 500 ) on a horse during a fixed race , losing all of his savings . Seeking revenge , Charlie locates the jockey in an upmarket city hotel .
At the same hotel , policemen Lobo and Lele kill three drug dealers and collect a guitar case containing cocaine , which they must deliver to drug lord Tashi . Charlie and his men invade the jockey 's hotel room and take all his possessions . The ensuing chase leads to the hotel car park where Lobo and Lele are placing the guitar case in their van . Charlie and his men seize the van to escape from the jockey 's men and realise they had stolen a police vehicle , whilst also discovering the cocaine , which Charlie steals to sell . The policemen , upon returning , discover that the cocaine is missing and set out to find Charlie .
Meanwhile , Guddu 's lover Sweety , sister of the politician Sunil Bhope , reveals that she is pregnant with Guddu 's child and expresses her wish to marry Guddu . They marry later that night . Bhope hears about his sister 's actions and sends his men to apprehend the lovers . Bhope 's men gatecrash Guddu 's wedding and beat him , then realise that he is a migrant from Uttar Pradesh . This enrages Bhope , who orders his men to kill Guddu and return Sweety to his house so he can arrange a marriage for her . Sweety fights off her brother 's henchmen and escapes with Guddu .
Charlie tells Mikhail about the cocaine , who is delighted . When Charlie returns to retrieve the case , Bhope and his men are waiting inside the van . One of Bhope 's men recognises Guddu as Charlie 's twin and Bhope demands that Charlie reveal Guddu 's whereabouts . An inebriated Mikhail interrupts their conversation and is killed by Bhope .
On the way to the airport , Guddu realises that Sweety has faked her stutter . At a petrol station , Lobo and Lele notice the pair . Mistaking Guddu for Charlie , they arrest him . They assault Guddu , refusing to believe that he is Charlie 's twin brother until Guddu 's mobile phone rings ; the caller is revealed to be Bhope . Lobo and Lele agree to exchange Charlie for Guddu and Sweety on a train . The policemen take Guddu and Sweety to Bhope 's house , where Bhope reveals that a local builder will pay him ₹ 50 million ( US $ 740 @,@ 000 ) to marry Sweety to the builder 's son . Guddu bargains with Bhope — if he retrieves the cocaine @-@ filled guitar case for Bhope , he will get Sweety . Bhope sends his henchmen with Guddu to retrieve the guitar case from Charlie 's house .
The policemen assault Charlie , who refuses to negotiate , realising that the policemen are in as much trouble as himself . Charlie outwits the policemen , takes them hostage and negotiates with Tashi to exchange the guitar case for ₹ 1 million ( US $ 15 @,@ 000 ) . Charlie sends the policemen to deliver the details to Tashi and returns to his house to retrieve the cocaine . At Charlie 's house , Guddu arrives with Bhope 's men . Sweety hears about Bhope 's plans to kill Guddu and shoots at the members of her household . Guddu finds the case and fights Charlie , who lets Guddu go . Guddu takes the cocaine to the police , who bug him . Guddu arrives at Bhope 's house the same time as Tashi and his gang , with Charlie as their hostage . Bhope and Tashi negotiate to trade the drugs , but Charlie snatches the guitar case and threatens to destroy it if Guddu and Sweety are not released . The lovers escape as the police arrive , leading to a shooting spree in which the cocaine is destroyed . Charlie 's bosses arrive to avenge Mikhail 's death , but are killed along with Bhope , Tashi and their henchmen . Charlie is shot and wounded .
Sweety gives birth to Guddu 's twins and Charlie opens a bookmaking counter at the racecourse . Charlie is engaged to Sophia , a woman earlier featured in his dream .
= = Cast = =
Shahid Kapoor as Charlie and Guddu Sharma
Priyanka Chopra as Sweety Shekhar Bhope
Amol Gupte as Sunil Shekhar Bhope ( Bhope Bhau )
Deb Mukherjee as Mujeeb
Shiv Kumar Subramaniam as Lobo
Chandan Roy Sanyal as Mikhail
Tenzing Nima as Tashi
Hrishikesh Joshi as Lele
Rajatava Dutta as Shumon
Harish Khanna as Afghani
Carlos Paca as Cajetan
Eric Santos as Ragos
Vishal Bhonsle as Steve
Satyajit Sharma as Francis
Adil Hussain as Flight Purser
Aakash Dahiya
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
During a scriptwriting workshop held by Mira Nair in 2005 , Cajetan Boy , a Kenyan writer from Nairobi , showed Vishal Bhardwaj a script about twin brothers from the city 's slums and the events that occur in their lives during a 24 @-@ hour period . Bhardwaj liked Boy 's approach to the script ; Nair and Bhardwaj discussed it and thought it was a typical Bollywood masala film . Boy sent Bhardwaj another draft of his script . Three years later , Bhardwaj asked Boy to sell him the idea , and he later bought the script for US $ 4 @,@ 000 . Bhardwaj revisited the idea and added some Bollywood elements and a dark , serious side to the script . He worked on the original idea with writers Sabrina Dhawan , Abhishek Chaubey and Supratik Sen. He included Dhawan in writing the screenplay because as he thought she would give it a " solid structure " . Bhardwaj said that during the writing of the screenplay , most of the original ideas were changed and the climax was " Indianized " . His re @-@ worked version now included one brother with a stammer and the other with a lisp . Bhardwaj said that despite the complicated structure , Kaminey is " anything but arty " and could not alienate audiences in any part of India , and that it is a simple story but with a complicated structure . Dhawan said that the film 's script was complex and has multiple stories which required excessive writing and rewriting to make each character sound distinct .
The media showed concern over the film 's title , deeming it " odd " , and some people were shocked because of the title , which can be translated into English as " mean " . However , the makers said that " kaminey " is not a negative term and is actually a term of endearment . According to Bhardwaj , the idea for the title came from a scene from Gulzar 's Ijaazat ( 1987 ) , in which the lead actor ( Naseeruddin Shah ) refers to the actress in a loving manner ; it was the first time that he heard the word used that way . Bhardwaj told Rediff , " when the script of this film was written , it was like discovering your own mean side . The format of the film is of a caper and all the characters in this film , excluding one , has an agenda . So I thought it was an apt title for the film " .
= = = Casting = = =
Shahid Kapoor was cast in the film 's lead role . Several media outlets reported that Bhardwaj considered many actors before casting Kapoor in the role , which he refused . Bhardwaj refuted the claims , saying , " There is a huge difference between discussing and narrating and offering someone a film and I would like to clear up the rumour by saying that Kaminey was never offered to anyone else and so no one rejected it . " Kapoor said that he accepted the role after reading the script . Priyanka Chopra was cast to play Sweety , the lead female role . She initially turned down the role , saying she felt it was a boys ' film and her eight @-@ scene part did not seem good enough . However , Bhardwaj persuaded her to accept the role . The idea for casting the screenwriter Amol Gupte came from the casting director Honey Terhan . Gupte said that when he received a call from Terham , he thought it was a joke . He stated , " A man named Honey introduced himself as Vishal Bhardwaj 's casting director and offered me a very important role . I banged the phone down not believing a word of what he said " . However , after meeting Bhradwaj and hearing a script reading , he loved the story and accepted the offer . The actors Chandan Roy Sanyal , Shiv Subramnayam , Hrishikesh Joshi , Rajatava Dutta and Deb Mukherjee were cast in supporting roles . For the role of drug dealer Tashi , Bhardwaj chose his friend Tenzing Nima — a tour operator in Mussoorie — saying he had the character and attitude he wanted , and a weird sense of humour .
= = = Characters = = =
Bhardwaj instructed the film 's entire cast and crew to watch caper classics such as Lock , Stock and Two Smoking Barrels ( 1998 ) , Snatch ( 2000 ) , Pulp Fiction ( 1994 ) and True Romance ( 1993 ) to study the nuances and become familiar with the genre . Shahid Kapoor played both Charlie and Guddu , twin brothers with speech impediments ; Charlie has a lisp and Guddu stammers . The producers did not want them to look like caricatures , so Kapoor prepared for both roles by meeting and interacting with speech therapists and people with these impediments . According to Kapoor , the producers wanted to find out about the medical reasons for the impediments and their mental effects . They met specialists and thoroughly researched stammering and lisping . Kapoor said that each role had its own challenges . Charlie 's physique was very different from Kapoor 's and it took him nearly a year to change the look of his body . He found changing from one character to the other difficult .
Chopra described her character Sweety as " feisty and vivacious " . She said , " Sweety is very busy , and does not have time to take care of her looks and apply make up . Her only aim in life is to bunk her lectures and visit her boyfriend 's college or stay in his hotel , and eventually marry him . " Chopra described both her character and herself as being " outspoken and fun loving " as well as honest and unable to " hide something that is wrong " . She said she had a different cultural background to Sweety , and found it challenging to convincingly portray a Maharashtrian Marathi girl . She had to adopt body language and a Maharashtrian accent to suit the character . She learnt the Marathi language to make the character as authentic as possible , which she found difficult as a Punjabi . Chopra said : " I am speaking a lot of Marathi in the film . It was difficult for me because it 's a difficult language and I am not good at Marathi . But I think it 's my luck that through Kaminey I got to learn one more language . "
Gupte described his character as mercurial , and found playing him a physical delight . Gupte said his character keeps the frame unpredictable and that it provided him with a foil to express rage and anguish . He worked a lot on his characterisation and tried to bring in his own references from European and Japanese cinema . Chandan Roy Sanyal described his character Mikhail as provocative , mad , wicked and humorous . Subramnayam and Joshi , who played Lobo and Lele respectively , described their characters as the most corrupt policemen in their department at the Anti @-@ Narcotics Bureau . They said that to prepare for the roles they followed the script and Bhardwaj 's instructions to get the characters right . Mukherjee prepared for his role as Mujeeb by reading the script and understanding the characters , and discussing it with Bhardwaj . Dutta , who played Shumon — a Bengali criminal involved in fixing horse races and arms dealing — said that he did not have much time to prepare for his role because he was given the script after he arrived in Mumbai , where Bhardwaj briefed him .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography commenced in mid @-@ 2008 , and the film was mostly shot in Mumbai . During a late night shoot for a scene in Pune , Chopra received minor injuries . Chopra was supposed to ride a motorcycle with Kapoor seated on the pillion seat . Both fell off the motorcycle as it skidded on mud . Kapoor was unhurt but Chopra received scratch marks and bruises . It was reported that Kapoor suffered from several injuries while shooting . During filming , Chopra became hoarse because she had to scream her lines ; an essential part of her role as an " extremely vocal Maharashtrian girl . " Some important railway sequences were shot at Wadi Bunder Yard near Sandhurst Road . Kapoor found filming for both of his characters at nearly the same time very difficult ; he would shoot them on alternate days .
= = Themes and influences = =
According to the Hindustan Times , Kaminey " is the first attempt to deal with reality in a mature , matter of fact manner . " Unlike other Hindi films , in which the female lead is Sita , the protagonist is Rama and the antagonist is Ravana , the characters in Kaminey are nuanced humans in " layered and complex " situations . Namrata Joshi from Outlook wrote that Kaminey reflects Bhardwaj 's " enduring fascination for underdogs , characters on the margins of society and the morally compromised " . Bhardwaj told Rediff.com that the film deals with " themes that affect our lives directly " , and " is a reminder that we all have a dark side , and often we are not fully aware of that side " . Rakesh Bedi from The Economic Times wrote , " Bhardwaj presents the two warring brothers with speech defects . In today 's world of logorrhea , communication is fraught with many dangers : misunderstandings , paranoias , recriminations , conflicts . Everyone speaks but no one understands . Bhardwaj gave the twins verbal impediments to show that the world has now been so hardwired to convoluted and calamitous communication that it needs silence or a speech defect to hash things out . " He continued , " [ w ] ith some glitches , Bhardwaj has almost re @-@ birthed the Hindi film " . The film also explores sex and sexuality , which according to Bedi were explored in a " radically different and refreshing " way , and the director " daringly takes it a step further " . When Sweety becomes pregnant , the couple " decide to carry the pregnancy to term after a bit of hesitation . So she literally pushes her man into marriage . ( Had Bhardwaj abjured marriage , it would have been a complete break but the nuptials were essential to the drama of the film . ) " The Daily Beast said that " for aficionados of the Hindi @-@ language genre , Kaminey is a revolutionary manifesto . It takes classic Bollywood tropes — estranged brothers , a case of mistaken identity , high drama approaching slapstick comedy — and presents them with Hollywood @-@ style realism instead of Bollywood 's wink @-@ nudge mix of melodrama and posturing .
Bhardwaj has been influenced by many directors — including Manmohan Desai , Subhash Ghai , Quentin Tarantino and Francis Ford Coppola — and combines these influences in his work . Rakesh Bedi wrote that " Bhardwaj keeps displaying his vision throughout the film " . Reviewers have compared the film 's multi @-@ plot narrative to those of several films by Tarantino , Guy Ritchie and the Coen Brothers . Reviewers said that the film mostly belongs to the level of Pulp Fiction ; Shubhra Gupta of The Indian Express called it " Bollywood 's first all @-@ the @-@ way @-@ out @-@ to @-@ there pulp fiction " . Bedi wrote , " there 's Buñuel in the Bengali dons , there 's Kurosawa ... in that surreal train car in which Charlie lives , there 's Ray in money @-@ floating dreams that Charlie has " . Keshav Chaturvedi of the Hindustan Times compared the apocalyptical gang war in the climax to Apocalypse Now ( 1979 ) . He said , " Bhardwaj just demolishes the cliches of Bollywood . In ripping apart the stereotype , he gives us a prototype : a Bollywood that deals with alienation , ... angst , ... and atrocity . " A review in The Times of India said that the film 's climax reaches the level of Reservoir Dogs , and described it as " absolutely riveting stuff , with the camera going on a hitherto unexplored journey in Indian cinema . "
= = Soundtrack = =
Vishal Bhardwaj composed the music soundtrack for Kaminey and Gulzar wrote the lyrics . The album contains five original songs , two remixes and one theme song ; it was released on 6 July 2009 . Vishal Bhardwaj stated that the song " Dhan Te Nan " was not originally composed for the film , but for an episode of the television series Gubbare titled Dhan Te Nan . The soundtrack album was commercially successful after its release , especially " Dhan Te Nan " , which topped the charts across various platforms .
The soundtrack album received positive reviews from music critics . Rediff.com rated the album 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 , labelled it a " masterpiece " and wrote , " Bhardwaj has delivered a soundtrack that is lethally explosive . Not that we expected anything less . And trust Gulzar to artfully craft a really long fuse for the Kaminey bomb , making sure the tracks stay afire long before and after they actually go boom . " Joginder Tuteja from Bollywood Hungama gave a rating 4 out 5 and wrote , " Kaminey is certainly not a run of the mill album and this is where its prime strength lies . The album boasts of at least three chartbuster tracks — ' Dhan Te Nan ' ( sure shot superhit ) , ' Thode Bheege ' ( must for the hearts in love ) and ' Raat Ke Dhai Baje ' ( for some ' masti ' and ' hungama ' ) . Songs like ' Fatak ' and ' Kaminey ' are innovative and situational which showcase the range of Vishal Bhardwaj . Add to that the ' Go Charlie Go – Theme Music ' and you know that Kaminey is yet another addition to some excellent albums that have hit the stands during last one month . " Planet Bollywood rated the album 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 and said it is the best soundtrack released that year , and that " [ i ] t has experimentations with both music and lyrics " . Indo @-@ Asian News Service praised the soundtrack and said that " ... " Kaminey " is easily among 2009 's finest scores . Experimental in its sound , yet very mainstream in appeal . Vishal Bhardwaj has proved his mettle yet again . "
= = Marketing and release = =
The teaser poster of Kaminey was received positively by critics . The trailer , which introduces four characters ; one lisping , one stuttering , a woman yelling about having raped a man and one jeering at the lisper , received positive reviews . Critics kept their expectations high due to Bhardwaj 's previous films , and said the trailer was like a comic book which introduces the characters of Kapoor and Chopra differently . The theatrical trailers and the music generated interest for the film . The film 's marketing also involved public appearances by Chopra and Kapoor .
The makers of the film were disappointed by the Censor Board for Film Certification 's decision to grant the film an " A " certificate — meant for viewers 18 years or older — instead of a " U / A " certificate that they had expected . Bhardwaj said , " It was injustice to us . There is no abusive language used in the film and the violence is of ' comic book kind ' . " The Censor Board asked him to replace dialogue which mentioned the city of Pilibhit — which they said was a sensitive constituency — with a fictitious city name . He replaced Pilibhit with Barabanki . " The film was subject to some controversies . A First Information Report was filed by Jagannath Sena Sangathan at a police station in Puri against the film for allegedly denigrating Lord Jagannath . According to them , a scene in which the text " Apna Hath Jagannath " is seen in a toilet on a semi @-@ clad model had hurt religious sentiments . The objectionable portion of the scene was removed from the prints released in the state of Orissa . A complaint supported by a caste group backed by a Samajwadi Party MP about the use of the name of a community " teli " in the song " Dhan Te Nan " — which was considered derogatory to the Teli community — was filed with the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting . The Censor Board reacted to the complaint , insisting on the replacement of the word , which was later replaced with " Dilli " .
Kaminey was scheduled to release on 5 June 2009 . However , the release was postponed because of problems between the producers and multiplexes in India . The film was released on 14 August 2009 on 1 @,@ 200 screens worldwide . Because of the 2009 flu pandemic , the film was not released in the Maharashtra region — including Mumbai and Pune — because the multiplexes in these cities were closed by the Maharashtra government for three days as part of precautionary measures against swine flu . Moser Baer Home Videos released Kaminey on DVD in October 2009 across all regions in a two @-@ disc pack complying with the NTSC format . One disc contains the film ; the other has additional content including a " making of the film " documentary , the original beginning and deleted scenes . VCD and Blu @-@ Ray versions were released at the same time . Bollywood Hungama critic Joginder Tuteja rated the DVD 4 out of 5 , praising the bonus features and the packaging .
Airtel Digital TV premièred the film on its Pay Per View service on 12 September 2009 . The Indian television première of the film was on Colors on 28 February 2010 .
= = Critical reception = =
Kaminey received widespread critical acclaim from critics who praised many aspects of the film . Raja Sen of Rediff.com rated the film 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 and wrote , " Kaminey is startlingly clever , an innovative film with genuine surprises . A kind of film whose success we ought all pray for , because it 'll prove smart cinema works . " The Indian Express gave a rating of 4 out of 5 , calling it " Bollywood 's first all @-@ the @-@ way @-@ out @-@ to @-@ there pulp fiction " . Rajeev Masand of CNN @-@ IBN gave the film 4 stars out of 5 , called it a " must watch " and wrote , " [ i ] t 's an unpredictable crime drama that combines violence and dark humor in a manner that 's reminiscent of the films of Quentin Tarantino , Guy Ritchie and the Coen Brothers . And yet Kaminey is so original and inventive in the manner in which it takes Bollywood 's favorite formula — twin brothers — and turns it on its head . " He praised the writing — which he said was the film 's real strength , the non @-@ linear screenplay and the dialogue , and wrote that the film has " the best performance you will see by an ensemble cast in a long time " . Nikhat Kazmi from The Times of India rated the film 4 out of 5 , and said it is " Bollywood 's first film which is full of brains , brawn and belligerence besides being a bravura attempt to rewrite the tried and tested idiom of desi movielore . Kaminey is a smart and balsy film that brings Hollywood to Bollywood which catapult the viewer into the dark , violent world of crime and criminals , leaving you no time to blink or breathe easy ... Tarantino , take a bow . Brave new Bollywood is here . "
Anupama Chopra gave a rating of 4 out of 5 and wrote " Kaminey is the best Bollywood film I 've seen this year . It 's an audacious , original rollercoaster ride . Written and directed by Vishal Bharadwaj , Kaminey requires patience and attention but the pay off is more than worth it . " Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama rated the film 4 out of 5 and wrote " Kaminey is bold , stark , funny and unpredictable and is a film with an attitude . Like it or leave it , but you 'd never be able to ignore it . Word from the wise : Go for this hatke ( different ) experience ! " Zee News also rated the film 4 out of 5 and said , " Bhardwaj has once again delivered a powerful film that completely bowls you over with its splendid script , riveting narrative and stellar performances by lead pair — Shahid and Priyanka [ who ] have a cracking on @-@ screen chemistry that certainly reminds you of yesteryears [ sic ] on @-@ screen couples . " The review also said , " Kaminey is an engrossing flick that does not let you move from your seat ! " Kaveree Bamzai of India Today rated the film 4 out of 5 and said it " is dark , melodramatic , poetic and ultimately operatic " . He also said , " Its lyrics are the blow @-@ up @-@ your @-@ brains @-@ out kind ... and its music , composed by the multi @-@ talented Bharadwaj is perfectly in sync with a narrative that doesn 't pause for breath . " Namrata Joshi from Outlook gave a rating of 4 out 5 and called Kaminey " a strikingly anarchic , unusually energetic , quirky and frenetic film " . Sudhish Kamath of The Hindu gave the film 4 stars and wrote , " Kaminey takes the post @-@ postmodern noir genre to a whole new level , to a sophistication the Indian audience isn 't used to . Watch it at least twice to fully appreciate this masterpiece . " Writing for Variety , critic Joe Leydon described the film as a " tasty cinematic masala that is energetically entertaining , if not consistently coherent " .
= = Box office = =
Kaminey was successful throughout India , with occupancy around 90 % across multiplexes . The film was successful across most single screens , and collected ₹ 170 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 5 million ) in India during the opening weekend . In its first week of release , the film collected ₹ 250 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 7 million ) in India . Because of the delayed release in Maharashtra , it lost about ₹ 50 million ( US $ 740 @,@ 000 ) . However , the film profited in Mumbai after its release in Maharashtra on Monday and during its run , and it had earned ₹ 410 million ( US $ 6 @.@ 1 million ) within four weeks . Kaminey earned ₹ 710 million ( US $ 11 million ) worldwide ; Box Office India declared it a hit and it became a commercial success .
Overseas , the film grossed around ₹ 82 @.@ 50 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 2 million ) in North America , the UAE , the UK and Australia during the opening weekend . The film 's most successful overseas market was North America . It collected around ₹ 120 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 8 million ) in 10 days from international markets and proved to be a commercial success outside India .
= = Legacy = =
Film director Shekhar Kapur praised the film , saying , " Kaminey catapults Indian Cinema in modernity beyond Tarantino " . He said that Kaminey would be able to compete with any film in the world in terms of its design , performances , inherent narratives , editing and pace . Filmmaker Karan Johar labelled it a cult film , describing it as " edgy ... cult and geniusely performed and executed ! Go get a shot of new age cinema and cinematic bravery ! " The film became the most widely debated and dissected Bollywood film after Rakeysh Omprakash Mehra 's 2006 film Rang De Basanti . Rajeev Masand , and Rediff.com rated it as the best film of the year . Raja Sen said the performances were among the best performances of 2009 . Gupte , Roy Sanyal and Kapoor were placed at numbers six , three and one respectively as the best performances of 2009 by a Hindi actor by Rediff .
Rediff.com placed Chopra at number one as the best performance of 2009 by an Hindi actress . Chopra said , " [ y ] ou don 't get to work in a fantastic movie like Kaminey and play someone like Sweety every day " . Hindi Film News said Kaminey was the best Bollywood film of the decade . It ranked Shahid Kapoor 's performance at number four for the finest performance by a Bollywood actor for the decade , and in a public poll the song " Dhan Te Nan " was voted the thirteenth @-@ best Bollywood song of the decade . Rediff.com also included the film on its list of " Top 25 Hindi Action Films of all Time " . Since its release , the film has gained a cult following and is regarded as a cult film of the 2000s decade of Bollywood .
= = Awards and nominations = =
Kaminey has received several awards and nominations in categories ranging from recognition of the film itself , to its cinematography , direction , screenplay , music and cast performances . At the 55th Filmfare Awards , the film received ten nominations — more than any other film — for awards including Best Film , Best Director , Best Actor , Best Actress , and Best Supporting Actor . However , it won only the award for Best Special Effects . The film also won two National Film Awards ; Best Audiography for Subash Sahoo and Special Jury Award for Film Editing at the 57th National Film Awards for A. Sreekar Prasad . It received eleven nominations at the 5th Apsara Film & Television Producers Guild Award and won two , one of which was Best Actress for Chopra .
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= Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve =
Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve is a U.S. National Monument and national preserve in the Snake River Plain in central Idaho . It is along US 20 ( concurrent with US 93 and US 26 ) , between the small towns of Arco and Carey , at an average elevation of 5 @,@ 900 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) above sea level . The protected area 's features are volcanic and represent one of the best @-@ preserved flood basalt areas in the continental United States .
The Monument was established on May 2 , 1924 . In November 2000 , a presidential proclamation by President Clinton greatly expanded the Monument area . The National Park Service portions of the expanded Monument were designated as Craters of the Moon National Preserve in August 2002 . It lies in parts of Blaine , Butte , Lincoln , Minidoka , and Power counties . The area is managed cooperatively by the National Park Service and the Bureau of Land Management ( BLM ) .
The Monument and Preserve encompass three major lava fields and about 400 square miles ( 1 @,@ 000 km2 ) of sagebrush steppe grasslands to cover a total area of 1 @,@ 117 square miles ( 2 @,@ 893 km2 ) . All three lava fields lie along the Great Rift of Idaho , with some of the best examples of open rift cracks in the world , including the deepest known on Earth at 800 feet ( 240 m ) . There are excellent examples of almost every variety of basaltic lava , as well as tree molds ( cavities left by lava @-@ incinerated trees ) , lava tubes ( a type of cave ) , and many other volcanic features .
= = Geography and geologic setting = =
Craters of the Moon is in south @-@ central Idaho , midway between Boise and Yellowstone National Park . The lava field reaches southeastward from the Pioneer Mountains . Combined U.S. Highway 20 – 26 – 93 cuts through the northwestern part of the monument and provides access to it . However , the rugged landscape of the monument itself remains remote and undeveloped , with only one paved road across the northern end .
The Craters of the Moon Lava Field spreads across 618 square miles ( 1 @,@ 601 km2 ) and is the largest mostly Holocene @-@ aged basaltic lava field in the contiguous United States . The Monument and Preserve contain more than 25 volcanic cones , including outstanding examples of spatter cones . The 60 distinct solidified lava flows that form the Craters of the Moon Lava Field range in age from 15 @,@ 000 to just 2 @,@ 000 years . The Kings Bowl and Wapi lava fields , both about 2 @,@ 200 years old , are part of the National Preserve .
This lava field is the largest of several large beds of lava that erupted from the 53 @-@ mile ( 85 km ) south @-@ east to north @-@ west trending Great Rift volcanic zone , a line of weakness in the Earth 's crust . Together with fields from other fissures they make up the Lava Beds of Idaho , which in turn are in the much larger Snake River Plain volcanic province . The Great Rift extends across almost the entire Snake River Plain .
Elevation at the visitor center is 5 @,@ 900 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) above sea level .
Total average precipitation in the Craters of the Moon area is between 15 – 20 inches ( 380 – 510 mm ) per year . Most of this is lost in cracks in the basalt , only to emerge later in springs and seeps in the walls of the Snake River Canyon . Older lava fields on the plain have been invaded by drought @-@ resistant plants such as sagebrush , while younger fields , such as Craters of the Moon , only have a seasonal and very sparse cover of vegetation . From a distance this cover disappears almost entirely , giving an impression of utter black desolation . Repeated lava flows over the last 15 @,@ 000 years have raised the land surface enough to expose it to the prevailing southwesterly winds , which help to keep the area dry . Together these conditions make life on the lava field difficult .
= = History = =
= = = Native American history = = =
Paleo @-@ Indians visited the area about 12 @,@ 000 years ago but did not leave much archaeological evidence . Northern Shoshone created trails through the Craters of the Moon Lava Field during their summer migrations from the Snake River to the camas prairie , west of the lava field . Stone windbreaks at Indian Tunnel were used to protect campsites from the dry summer wind . No evidence exists for permanent habitation by any Native American group . A hunting and gathering culture , the Northern Shoshone pursued elk , bears , American bison , cougars , and bighorn sheep — all large game who no longer range the area . The most recent volcanic eruptions ended about 2 @,@ 100 years ago and were likely witnessed by the Shoshone people . Shoshone legend speaks of a serpent on a mountain who , angered by lightning , coiled around and squeezed the mountain until liquid rock flowed , fire shot from cracks , and the mountain exploded .
= = = Goodale 's Cutoff = = =
Pioneers traveling in wagon trains on the Oregon Trail in the 1850s and 1860s followed an alternative route in the area that used old Indian trails that skirted the lava flows . This alternative route was later named Goodale 's Cutoff and part of it is in the northern part of the monument . The cutoff was created to reduce the possibility of ambush by Shoshone warriors along the Snake River such as the one that occurred at Massacre Rocks , which today is memorialized in Idaho 's Massacre Rocks State Park .
After gold was discovered in the Salmon River area of Idaho , a group of emigrants persuaded an Illinois @-@ born trapper and trader named Tim Goodale to lead them through the cutoff . A large wagon train left in July 1862 and met up with more wagons at Craters of the Moon Lava Field . Numbering 795 men and 300 women and children , the unusually large group was relatively unmolested during its journey and named the cutoff for their guide . Improvements to the cutoff such as adding a ferry to cross the Snake River made it into a popular alternative route of the Oregon Trail .
= = = Exploration and early study = = =
In 1879 , two Arco cattlemen named Arthur Ferris and J.W. Powell became the first known people to explore the lava fields . They were investigating its possible use for grazing and watering cattle but found the area to be unsuitable and left .
U.S. Army Captain and western explorer B.L.E. Bonneville visited the lava fields and other places in the West in the 19th century and wrote about his experiences in his diaries . Washington Irving later used Bonneville 's diaries to write the Adventures of Captain Bonneville , saying this unnamed lava field is a place " where nothing meets the eye but a desolate and awful waste , where no grass grows nor water runs , and where nothing is to be seen but lava . "
In 1901 and 1903 , Israel Russell became the first geologist to study this area while surveying it for the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) . In 1910 , Samuel Paisley continued Russell 's work and later became the monument 's first custodian . Others followed and in time much of the mystery surrounding this and the other Lava Beds of Idaho was lifted .
The few whites who visited the area in the 19th century created local legends that it looked like the surface of the Moon . Geologists Harold T. Stearns coined the name " Craters of the Moon " in 1923 while trying to convince the National Park Service to recommend protection of the area in a national monument .
= = = Limbert 's expedition = = =
Robert Limbert , a sometime taxidermist , tanner , and furrier from Boise , explored the area , which he described as " practically unknown and unexplored ... " in the 1920s after hearing stories from fur trappers about " strange things they had seen while ranging the region " .
Limbert wrote : " I had made two trips into the northern end , covering practically the same region as that traversed by a Geological Survey party in 1901 . My first was a hiking and camping trip with Ad Santel ( the wrestler ) , Dr. Dresser , and Albert Jones ; the second was with Wes Watson and Era Martin ( ranchers living about four miles [ 6 km ] from the northern edge ) . The peculiar features seen on those trips led me to take a third across the region in the hope that even more interesting phenomena might be encountered . "
Limbert set out on his third and most ambitious foray to the area in May 1920 , this time with Walter Cole and an Airedale Terrier to accompany him . Starting from Minidoka , Idaho , they explored what is now the monument area from south to north passing Two Point Butte , Echo Crater , Big Craters , North Crater Flow , and out of the lava field through the Yellowstone Park and Lincoln Highway ( now known as the Old Arco @-@ Carey Road ) . Taking the dog along was a mistake , Limbert wrote , " for after three days ' travel his feet were worn and bleeding " .
A series of newspaper and magazine articles written by Limbert were later published about this and previous treks , which increased public awareness of the area . The most famous of these was an article that appeared in a 1924 issue of National Geographic where he called the area " Craters of the Moon , " helping to solidify the use of that name . In the article he had this to say about the cobalt blue of the Blue Dragon Flows :
" It is the play of light at sunset across this lava that charms the spectator . It becomes a twisted , wavy sea . In the moonlight its glazed surface has a silvery sheen . With changing conditions of light and air , it varies also , even while one stands and watches . It is a place of color and silence ... "
= = = Protection and later history = = =
In large part due to Limbert 's work , Craters of the Moon National Monument was proclaimed on May 2 , 1924 by U.S. President Calvin Coolidge to " preserve the unusual and weird volcanic formations " . The Craters Inn and several cabins were built in 1927 for the convenience of visitors . The Mission 66 Program initiated construction of today 's road system , visitor center , shop , campground and comfort station in 1956 and in 1959 the Craters of the Moon Natural History Association was formed to assist the monument in educational activities . The addition of an island of vegetation completely surrounded by lava known as Carey Kipuka ( air photo ) increased the size of the monument by 5 @,@ 360 acres ( 22 km2 ) in 1962 .
Since then the monument has been enlarged . On October 23 , 1970 , Congress set aside a large part of it — 43 @,@ 243 acres ( 175 km2 ) — as Craters of the Moon National Wilderness , protecting that part under the National Wilderness Preservation System .
From 1969 to 1972 , NASA visited the real Moon through the Apollo program and found that its surface does not closely resemble this part of Idaho . NASA astronauts discovered that real Moon craters were almost all created by meteorites while their namesakes on Earth were created by volcanic eruptions . Apollo astronauts performed part of their training at Craters of the Moon Lava Field by learning to look for and collect good rock specimens in an unfamiliar and harsh environment .
For many years , geologists , biologists and environmentalists have advocated for expansion of the monument and its transformation into a national park . Part of that goal was reached in 2000 when the monument was expanded 13 @-@ fold from 53 @,@ 545 acres ( 217 km2 ) to its current size to encompass the entire Great Rift zone and its three lava fields . The entire addition is called the Backcountry Area while the two older parts are called the Developed Area and Wilderness Area . Opposition by cattle interests and hunters to a simple expansion plan led to a compromise of having the addition become a national preserve in 2002 ( which allows hunting , not ordinarily permitted in national parks and monuments in the U.S. ) . Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve is co @-@ managed by the National Park Service and the Bureau of Land Management , both under the Department of the Interior .
= = Geology = =
The Snake River Plain is a volcanic province that was created by a series of cataclysmic caldera @-@ forming eruptions which started about 15 million years ago . A migrating hotspot thought to now exist under Yellowstone Caldera in Yellowstone National Park has been implicated . This hot spot was under the Craters of the Moon area some 10 to 11 million years ago but ' moved ' as the North American Plate migrated southwestward . Pressure from the hot spot heaves the land surface up , creating fault @-@ block mountains . After the hot spot passes the pressure is released and the land subsides .
Leftover heat from this hot spot was later liberated by Basin and Range @-@ associated rifting and created the many overlapping lava flows that make up the Lava Beds of Idaho . The largest rift zone is the Great Rift ; it is from this ' Great Rift fissure system ' that Craters of the Moon , Kings Bowl , and Wapi lava fields were created . The Great Rift is a National Natural Landmark
In spite of their fresh appearance , the oldest flows in the Craters of the Moon Lava Field are 15 @,@ 000 years old and the youngest erupted about 2000 years ago , according to Mel Kuntz and other USGS geologists . Nevertheless , the volcanic fissures at Craters of the Moon are considered to be dormant , not extinct , and are expected to erupt in less than a thousand years . There are eight major eruptive periods recognized in the Craters of the Moon Lava Field . Each period lasted about 1000 years or less and were separated by relatively quiet periods that lasted between 500 and as long as 3000 years . Individual lava flows were up to 30 miles ( 50 km ) long with the Blue Dragon Flow being the longest .
Kings Bowl Lava Field erupted during a single fissure eruption on the southern part of the Great Rift about 2 @,@ 250 years ago . This eruption probably lasted only a few hours to a few days . The field preserves explosion pits , lava lakes , squeeze @-@ ups , basalt mounds , and an ash blanket . The Wapi Lava Field probably formed from a fissure eruption at the same time as the Kings Bowl eruption . More prolonged activity over a period of months to a few years led to the formation of low shield volcanos- ( ? ) in the Wapi field . The Bear Trap lava tube , between the Craters of the Moon and the Wapi lava fields , is a cave system more than 15 miles ( 24 km ) long . The lava tube is remarkable for its length and for the number of well @-@ preserved lava cave features , such as lava stalactites and curbs , the latter marking high stands of the flowing lava frozen on the lava tube walls . The lava tubes and pit craters of the monument are known for their unusual preservation of winter ice and snow into the hot summer months , due to shielding from the sun and the insulating properties of basalt .
A typical eruption along the Great Rift and similar basaltic rift systems starts with a curtain of very fluid lava shooting up to 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) high along a segment of the rift up to 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) long . As the eruption continues , pressure and heat decrease and the chemistry of the lava becomes slightly more silica rich . The curtain of lava responds by breaking apart into separate vents . Various types of volcanoes may form at these vents : gas @-@ rich pulverized lava creates cinder cones ( such as Inferno Cone – stop 4 ) , and pasty lava blobs form spatter cones ( such as Spatter Cones – stop 5 ) . Later stages of an eruption push lava streams out through the side or base of cinder cones , which usually ends the life of the cinder cone ( North Crater , Watchmen , and Sheep Trail Butte are notable exceptions ) . This will sometimes breach part of the cone and carry it away as large and craggy blocks of cinder ( as seen at North Crater Flow – stop 2 – and Devils Orchard – stop 3 ) . Solid crust forms over lava streams and lava tubes ( a type of cave ) , and are created when lava vacates its course ( examples can be seen at the Cave Area – stop 7 ) .
Geologists feared that a large earthquake that shook Borah Peak , Idaho 's tallest mountain , in 1983 would restart volcanic activity at Craters of the Moon , though this proved not to be the case . Geologists predict that the area will experience its next eruption some time in the next 900 years with the most likely period in the next 100 years .
= = Biology = =
= = = Conditions = = =
All plants and animals that live in and around Craters of the Moon are under great environmental stress due to constant dry winds and heat @-@ absorbing black lavas that tend to quickly sap water from living things . Summer soil temperatures often exceed 150 ° F ( 66 ° C ) and plant cover is generally less than 5 % on cinder cones and about 15 % over the entire monument . Adaptation is therefore necessary for survival in this semi @-@ arid harsh climate .
Water is usually only found deep inside holes at the bottom of blow @-@ out craters . Animals therefore get the moisture they need directly from their food . The black soil on and around cinder cones does not hold moisture for long , making it difficult for plants to establish themselves . Soil particles first develop from direct rock decomposition by lichens and typically collect in crevices in lava flows . Successively more complex plants then colonize the microhabitat created by the increasingly productive soil .
The shaded north slopes of cinder cones provide more protection from direct sunlight and prevailing southwesterly winds and have a more persistent snow cover ( an important water source in early spring ) . These parts of cinder cones are therefore colonized by plants first .
Gaps between lava flows were sometimes cut off from surrounding vegetation . These literal islands of habitat are called kīpukas , a Hawaiian name used for older land surrounded by younger lava . Carey Kīpuka is one such area in the southernmost part of the monument and is used as a benchmark to measure how plant cover has changed in less pristine parts of southern Idaho .
= = = Plants = = =
There are 375 species of plant known to grow in the monument . When wildflowers are not in bloom , most of the vegetation is found in semi @-@ hidden pockets and consists of pine trees , cedars , junipers , and sagebrush . Strategies used by plants to cope with the adverse conditions include :
Drought tolerance by physiological adaptations such as the ability to survive extreme dehydration or the ability to extract water from very dry soil . Sagebrush and antelope bitterbrush are examples .
Drought avoidance by having small , hairy , or succulent leaves to minimize moisture loss or otherwise conserve water . Hairs on scorpionweed , the succulent parts of the pricklypear cactus , and the small leaves of the wirelettuce are all local examples .
Drought escape by growing in small crevices or near persistent water supplies , or by staying dormant for about 95 % of the year . Mosses and ferns in the area grow near constant water sources such as natural potholes and seeps from ice caves . Scabland penstemon , fernleaf fleabane , and gland cinquefoil grow in shallow crevices . Syringa , bush rockspirea , tansybush , and even limber pine grow in large crevices . While dwarf monkeyflowers ( photo ) carry out their entire life cycle during the short wet part of the year and survive in seed form the rest of the time .
A plant commonly seen on the lava field is the dwarf buckwheat ( Eriogonum ovalifolium var. depressum ) ( photo ) , a flowering plant 4 inches ( 100 mm ) tall with a root system 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) wide . The root system monopolizes soil moisture in its immediate area , resulting in individual plants that are evenly spaced . Consequently , many visitors have asked park rangers if the buckwheat were systematically planted .
Wildflowers bloom from early May to late September but most are gone by late August . Moisture from snow @-@ melt along with some rainfall in late spring kick @-@ starts the germination of annual plants , including wildflowers . Most of these plants complete their entire life cycle in the few months each year that moisture levels are good . The onset of summer decreases the number of wildflowers and by autumn only the tiny yellow flowers of sagebrush and rabbitbrush remain . Some wildflowers that grow in the area are the arrow @-@ leaved balsamroot , bitterroot , blazingstar , desert parsley , dwarf monkeyflower , paintbrush , scorpionweed , scabland penstemon and the wild onion .
= = = Animals = = =
Years of cataloging by biologists and park rangers have recorded 2000 species of insect , 8 reptiles , 169 birds , 48 mammals , and even one amphibian ( the western toad ) . Birds and some rodents are seen most frequently in the Craters of the Moon area . Brown bears once roamed this area but have long ago become locally extinct . Traditional livestock grazing continues within the grass / shrublands administered by the BLM .
Most desert animals are nocturnal , or mainly active at night . Nocturnal behavior is an adaptation to both predation and hot summer daytime temperatures . Nocturnal animals at Craters of the Moon include woodrats ( also called packrats ) , skunks , foxes , bobcats , mountain lions , bats , nighthawks , owls , and most other small desert rodents .
Animals that are most active at dawn and dusk , when temperatures are cooler than mid @-@ day , are called crepuscular . The subdued morning and evening light helps make them less visible to predators , but is bright enough to allow them to locate food . Some animals are crepuscular mainly because their prey is . Crepuscular animals in the area include mule deer , coyotes , porcupines , mountain cottontails , jackrabbits , and many songbirds .
Some desert animals are diurnal , or primarily active during the day . These include ground squirrels , marmots , chipmunks , lizards , snakes , hawks , and eagles .
Many animals have a specific temperature range where they are active , meaning the times they are active vary with the seasons . Snakes and lizards hibernate during the winter months , are diurnal during the late spring and early fall , and become crepuscular during the heat of summer . Many insects and some birds also alter their times of activity . Some animals , like ground squirrels and marmots , have one or more periods of estivation , a summer hibernation that allows them to avoid the hottest and driest periods .
Several animals are unique to Craters of the Moon and the surrounding area . Subspecies of Great Basin pocket mouse , pika , yellow @-@ pine chipmunk , and yellow @-@ bellied marmot are found nowhere else . Lava tube beetles and many other cave animals are found only in the lava tubes of eastern Idaho .
= = = = Mule deer = = = =
In May 1980 wildlife researcher Brad Griffith of the University of Idaho started a three @-@ year study to mark and count the mule deer in the monument . The National Park Service was concerned that the local herd might grow so large that it would damage its habitat . Griffith found that this group of mule deer has developed a drought evasion strategy unique for its species .
The deer arrive in the southern part of the pre @-@ 2000 extent of the monument mid @-@ April each year once winter snows have melted away enough to allow for foraging . Griffith found that by late summer plants in the area have already matured and dried to the point that they can no longer provide enough moisture to sustain the deer . In late July after about 12 days above 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) and warm nights above 50 ° F ( 10 ° C ) the herd migrates 5 to 10 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 to 16 @.@ 1 km ) north to the Pioneer Mountains to obtain water from free @-@ flowing streams and shade themselves in aspen and Douglas @-@ fir groves . Rain in late September prompts the herd to return to the monument to feed on bitterbrush until snow in November triggers them to migrate back to their winter range . This herd , therefore , has a dual summer range . It is also very productive with one of the highest fawn survival rates of any herd in the species .
Afternoon winds usually die down in the evening , prompting behavioral modifications in the herd . The deer avoid the dry wind by being more active at night when the wind is not blowing . In 1991 there was a three @-@ year average of 420 mule deer .
= = Recreational activities = =
A series of fissure vents , cinder cones , spatter cones , rafted blocks , and overlapping lava flows are accessible from the Loop Drive , 7 miles ( 11 km ) long . Wildflowers , shrubs , trees , and wild animals can be seen by hiking on one of the many trails in the monument or by just pulling over into one of the turn @-@ offs . More rugged hiking opportunities are available in the Craters of the Moon Wilderness Area and Backcountry Area , the roadless southern and major part of the monument .
The Visitor Center is near the monument 's only entrance . Various displays and publications along with a short film about the geology of the area help to orient visitors . Ranger @-@ led walks are available in summer and cover topics such as wildlife , flowers , plants , or geology . Self @-@ guiding tours and displays are available year @-@ round and are easily accessible from the Loop Drive .
A paved trail less than 1 / 4 mile ( 400 m ) long at North Crater Flow ( photo ) crosses the North Crater Lava Flow , which formed about 2200 years ago , making it one of the youngest lava flows on the Craters of the Moon Lava Field . This lava is named for the purplish @-@ blue tint that tiny pieces of obsidian ( volcanic glass ) on its surface exhibit . Good examples of pahoehoe ( ropey ) , aa ( jagged ) , and some block lava are readily visible along with large rafted crater wall fragments . The rafted crater wall fragments seen on the flow were once part of this cinder cone but were torn away when the volcano 's lava @-@ filled crater was breached . A 1 @.@ 8 @-@ mile @-@ long trail ( 2 @.@ 9 km ) includes the 1 / 2 mile ( 800 m ) overlook trail but continues on through the crater and to the Big Craters / Spatter Cones parking lot .
Devils Orchard ( photo ) is a group of lava @-@ transported cinder cone fragments ( also called monoliths or cinder crags ) that stand in cinders . Like the blocks at stop 2 they were once part of the North Crater cinder cone but broke off during an eruption of lava . A 1 / 2 mile @-@ long ( 800 m ) paved loop trial through the formations and trees of the " orchard " is available . The interpretive displays on the trail emphasize human impacts to the area .
Inferno Cone Viewpoint ( photo ) is on top of Inferno Cone cinder cone . A short but steep trail up the cinder cone leads to an overlook of the entire monument . From there the Spatter Cones can be seen just to the south along with a large part of the Great Rift . In the distance is the over 700 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( > 200 m ) Big Cinder Butte , one of the world 's largest , purely basaltic , cinder cones . Further away are the Pioneer Mountains ( behind the Visitor Center ) and beyond the monument are the White Knob Mountains , the Lost River Range , and the Lemhi Range .
Big Craters and Spatter Cones ( photo ) sit directly along the local part of the Great Rift fissure . Spatter cones are created by accumulations of pasty gas @-@ poor lava as they erupt from a vent . Big Craters is a cinder cone complex less than 300 feet ( 91 m ) up a steep foot trail .
Tree Molds ( photo ) is an area within the Craters of the Moon Wilderness where lava flows overran part of a forest . The trees were incinerated but as some of them burned they released enough water to cool the lava to form a cast . Some of these casts survived the eruption and mark the exact location and shape of the burning trees in the lava . Both holes and horizontal molds were left , some still showing shapes indicative of bark . The actual Tree Molds area is a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the Tree Molds parking lot and picnic area off a moderately difficult wilderness trail . The Wilderness trail also leaves from this parking lot , and extends nearly 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) into the wilderness area before gradually disappearing near The Sentinel cinder cone . The 1 @.@ 8 miles ( 2 @.@ 9 km ) Broken Top loop trail encircles the youngest cinder cone in the monument and can be done separately or as part of a longer trek on the Wilderness trail . A pull off on the spur road leading to the Tree Molds area presents the Lava Cascades , a frozen river of Blue Dragon Flow lava that temporarily pooled in the Big Sink .
Cave Area is the final stop on Loop Drive and , as the name indicates , has a collection of lava tube caves . Formed from the Blue Dragon Flow , the caves are a half @-@ mile ( 800 m ) from the parking lot and include ,
Dewdrop Cave ,
Boy Scout Cave ,
Beauty Cave , and
Indian Tunnel .
The caves are open to visitors but flashlights are needed except in Indian Tunnel and some form of head protection is highly recommended when exploring any of the caves . Lava tubes are created when the sides and surface of a lava flow hardens . If the fluid interior flows away a cave is left behind . Entering caves requires a free permit .
Craters of the Moon Campground has 51 sites – none of which can be reserved in advance . Camping facilities are basic but do include water , restrooms , charcoal grills , and trash containers . National Park Service rangers present evening programs at the campground amphitheater in the summer . Camping enables visitors to enjoy the park during the evening and morning , when the heat , glare and wind are far less .
A Lunar Ranger program enables children to earn an embroidered patch in a few hours .
Backcountry hiking is available in the Craters of the Moon Wilderness and the much larger Backcountry Area beyond ( added in 2000 ) . Only two trails enter the wilderness area and even those stop after a few miles or kilometers . From there most hikers follow the Great Rift and explore its series of seldom @-@ visited volcanic features . All overnight backcountry hikes require registration with a ranger . No drinking water is available in the backcountry and the dry climate quickly dehydrates hikers . Avoiding summer heat and winter cold are therefore recommended by rangers . Pets , camp fires , and all mechanized vehicles , including bicycles , are not allowed in the wilderness area .
Skiing is allowed on the Loop Drive after it is closed to traffic in late November because of snow drifts . Typically there are 20 inches ( 51 cm ) of snow by January and 25 in ( 64 cm ) by February . Cross @-@ country skiing off Loop Drive is allowed but may be dangerous owing to sharp lava and hidden holes under the snow . Blizzards and other inclement weather may occur .
= = Nearby protected areas = =
Hagerman Fossil Beds National Monument protects Pliocene @-@ aged fossil sites along the Snake River .
City of Rocks National Reserve contains various monoliths , spires , and domes used by the Northern Shoshone and white emigrants on the California Trail . Rock climbing is a popular activity in the reserve .
Nez Perce National Historical Park has 24 archaeological sites in north @-@ central Idaho of the Nez Perce culture .
Yellowstone National Park is world famous for its geysers , mudpots , Yellowstone Canyon , waterfalls , and wildlife such as the American Bison and reintroduced wolves .
Grand Teton National Park includes the steep , glacially carved Teton Range , tectonically created Jackson Hole valley , and a string of moraine @-@ impounded lakes .
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= Rashtrakuta dynasty =
Rashtrakuta ( IAST : rāṣṭrakūṭa ) was a royal dynasty ruling large parts of the Indian Subcontinent between the sixth and 10th centuries . The earliest known Rashtrakuta inscription is a 7th @-@ century copper plate grant detailing their rule from Manapura , a city in Central or West India . Other ruling Rashtrakuta clans from the same period mentioned in inscriptions were the kings of Achalapur ( modern Elichpur in Maharashtra ) and the rulers of Kannauj . Several controversies exist regarding the origin of these early Rashtrakutas , their native home and their language .
The Elichpur clan was a feudatory of the Badami Chalukyas , and during the rule of Dantidurga , it overthrew Chalukya Kirtivarman II and went on to build an empire with the Gulbarga region in modern Karnataka as its base . This clan came to be known as the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta , rising to power in South India in 753 . At the same time the Pala dynasty of Bengal and the Prathihara dynasty of Malwa were gaining force in eastern and northwestern India respectively . An Arabic text , Silsilat al @-@ Tawarikh ( 851 ) , called the Rashtrakutas one of the four principal empires of the world .
This period , between the eighth and the 10th centuries , saw a tripartite struggle for the resources of the rich Gangetic plains , each of these three empires annexing the seat of power at Kannauj for short periods of time . At their peak the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta ruled a vast empire stretching from the Ganges River and Yamuna River doab in the north to Cape Comorin in the south , a fruitful time of political expansion , architectural achievements and famous literary contributions . The early kings of this dynasty were influenced by Hinduism and the later kings by Jainism .
During their rule , Jain mathematicians and scholars contributed important works in Kannada and Sanskrit . Amoghavarsha I , the most famous king of this dynasty wrote Kavirajamarga , a landmark literary work in the Kannada language . Architecture reached a milestone in the Dravidian style , the finest example of which is seen in the Kailasanath Temple at Ellora in modern Maharashtra . Other important contributions are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal in modern Karnataka , both of which are UNESCO World Heritage Sites .
= = History = =
The origin of the Rashtrakuta dynasty has been a controversial topic of Indian history . These issues pertain to the origin of the earliest ancestors of the Rashtrakutas during the time of Emperor Ashoka in the 2nd century BCE , and the connection between the several Rashtrakuta dynasties that ruled small kingdoms in northern and central India and the Deccan between the 6th and 7th centuries . The relationship of these medieval Rashtrakutas to the most famous later dynasty , the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta ( present day Malkhed in the Gulbarga district , Karnataka state ) , who ruled between the 8th and 10th centuries has also been debated .
The sources for Rashtrakuta history include medieval inscriptions , ancient literature in the Pali language , contemporaneous literature in Sanskrit and Kannada and the notes of the Arab travellers . Theories about the dynastic lineage ( Surya Vamsa — Solar line and Chandra Vamsa — Lunar line ) , the native region and the ancestral home have been proposed , based on information gleaned from inscriptions , royal emblems , the ancient clan names such as " Rashtrika " , epithets ( Ratta , Rashtrakuta , Lattalura Puravaradhiswara ) , the names of princes and princesses of the dynasty , and clues from relics such as coins . Scholars debate over which ethnic / linguistic groups can claim the early Rashtrakutas . Possibilities include the north western ethnic groups of India , the Kannadiga , Reddi , the Maratha , or the tribes from the Punjab region .
Scholars however concur that the rulers of the imperial dynasty in the 8th to 10th century made the Kannada language as important as Sanskrit . Rashtrakuta inscriptions use both Kannada and Sanskrit ( historians Sheldon Pollock and Jan Houben claim they are mostly in Kannada ) , and the rulers encouraged literature in both languages . The earliest existing Kannada literary writings are credited to their court poets and royalty . Though these Rashtrakutas were Kannadigas , they were conversant in a northern Deccan language as well .
The heart of the Rashtrakuta empire included nearly all of Karnataka , Maharashtra and parts of Andhra Pradesh , an area which the Rashtrakutas ruled for over two centuries . The Samangadh copper plate grant ( 753 ) confirms that the feudatory King Dantidurga , who probably ruled from Achalapura in Berar ( modern Elichpur in Maharashtra ) , defeated the great Karnatic army ( referring to the army of the Badami Chalukyas ) of Kirtivarman II of Badami in 753 and took control of the northern regions of the Chalukya empire . He then helped his father @-@ in @-@ law , Pallava King Nandivarman regain Kanchi from the Chalukyas and defeated the Gurjaras of Malwa , and the rulers of Kalinga , Kosala and Srisailam .
Dantidurga 's successor Krishna I brought major portions of present @-@ day Karnataka and Konkan under his control . During the rule of Dhruva Dharavarsha who took control in 780 , the kingdom expanded into an empire that encompassed all of the territory between the Kaveri River and Central India . He led successful expeditions to Kannauj , the seat of northern Indian power where he defeated the Gurjara Pratiharas and the Palas of Bengal , gaining him fame and vast booty but not more territory . He also brought the Eastern Chalukyas and Gangas of Talakad under his control . According to Altekar and Sen , the Rashtrakutas became a pan @-@ India power during his rule .
= = = Expansion = = =
The ascent of Dhruva Dharavarsha 's third son , Govinda III , to the throne heralded an era of success like never before . There is uncertainty about the location of the early capital of the Rashtrakutas at this time . During his rule there was a three way conflict between the Rashtrakutas , the Palas and the Pratiharas for control over the Gangetic plains . Describing his victories over the Pratihara Emperor Nagabhatta II and the Pala Emperor Dharmapala , the Sanjan inscription states the horses of Govinda III drank from the icy waters of the Himalayan streams and his war elephants tasted the sacred waters of the Ganges . His military exploits have been compared to those of Alexander the Great and Arjuna of Mahabharata . Having conquered Kannauj , he travelled south , took firm hold over Gujarat , Kosala ( Kaushal ) , Gangavadi , humbled the Pallavas of Kanchi , installed a ruler of his choice in Vengi and received two statues as an act of submission from the king of Ceylon ( one statue of the king and another of his minister ) . The Cholas , the Pandyas and the Cheras all paid him tribute . As one historian puts it , the drums of the Deccan were heard from the Himalayan caves to the shores of the Malabar . The Rashtrakutas empire now spread over the areas from Cape Comorin to Kannauj and from Banaras to Broach .
The successor of Govinda III , Amoghavarsha I made Manyakheta his capital and ruled a large empire . Manyakheta remained the Rashtrakutas ' regal capital until the end of the empire . He came to the throne in 814 but it was not until 821 that he had suppressed revolts from feudatories and ministers . Amoghavarsha I made peace with the Western Ganga dynasty by giving them his two daughters in marriage , and then defeated the invading Eastern Chalukyas at Vingavalli and assumed the title Viranarayana . His rule was not as militant as that of Govinda III as he preferred to maintain friendly relations with his neighbours , the Gangas , the Eastern Chalukyas and the Pallavas with whom he also cultivated marital ties . His era was an enriching one for the arts , literature and religion . Widely seen as the most famous of the Rashtrakuta Emperors , Amoghavarsha I was an accomplished scholar in Kannada and Sanskrit . His Kavirajamarga is considered an important landmark in Kannada poetics and Prashnottara Ratnamalika in Sanskrit is a writing of high merit and was later translated into the Tibetan language . Because of his religious temperament , his interest in the arts and literature and his peace @-@ loving nature , he has been compared to the emperor Ashoka and called " Ashoka of the South " .
During the rule of Krishna II , the empire faced a revolt from the Eastern Chalukyas and its size decreased to the area including most of the Western Deccan and Gujarat . Krishna II ended the independent status of the Gujarat branch and brought it under direct control from Manyakheta . Indra III recovered the dynasty 's fortunes in central India by defeating the Paramara and then invaded the doab region of the Ganges and Jamuna rivers . He also defeated the dynasty 's traditional enemies , the Pratiharas and the Palas , while maintaining his influence over Vengi . The effect of his victories in Kannauj lasted several years according to the 930 copper plate inscription of Emperor Govinda IV . After a succession of weak kings during whose reigns the empire lost control of territories in the north and east , Krishna III the last great ruler consolidated the empire so that it stretched from the Narmada River to Kaveri River and included the northern Tamil country ( Tondaimandalam ) while levying tribute on the king of Ceylon .
= = = Decline = = =
In 972 A.D. , during the rule of Khottiga Amoghavarsha , the Paramara King Siyaka Harsha attacked the empire and plundered Manyakheta , the capital of the Rashtrakutas . This seriously undermined the reputation of the Rastrakuta Empire and consequently led to its downfall . The final decline was sudden as Tailapa II , a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta ruling from Tardavadi province in modern Bijapur district , declared himself independent by taking advantage of this defeat . Indra IV , the last emperor , committed Sallekhana ( fasting unto death practised by Jain monks ) at Shravanabelagola . With the fall of the Rashtrakutas , their feudatories and related clans in the Deccan and northern India declared independence . The Western Chalukyas annexed Manyakheta and made it their capital until 1015 and built an impressive empire in the Rashtrakuta heartland during the 11th century . The focus of dominance shifted to the Krishna River – Godavari River doab called Vengi . The former feudatories of the Rashtrakutas in western Deccan were brought under control of the Chalukyas , and the hitherto @-@ suppressed Cholas of Tanjore became their arch enemies in the south .
In conclusion , the rise of Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta had a great impact on India , even on India 's north . Sulaiman ( 851 ) , Al Masudi ( 944 ) and Ibn Khurdadba ( 912 ) wrote that their empire was the largest in contemporary India and Sulaiman further called it one among the four great contemporary empires of the world . According to the travelogues of the Arabs Al Masudi and Ibn Khordidbih of the 10th century , " most of the kings of Hindustan turned their faces towards the Rashtrakuta king while they were praying , and they prostrated themselves before his ambassadors . The Rashtrakuta king was known as the " King of kings " ( Rajadhiraja ) who possessed the mightiest of armies and whose domains extended from Konkan to Sind . " Some historians have called these times an " Age of Imperial Kannauj " . Since the Rashtrakutas successfully captured Kannauj , levied tribute on its rulers and presented themselves as masters of North India , the era could also be called the " Age of Imperial Karnataka " . During their political expansion into central and northern India in the 8th to the 10th centuries , the Rashtrakutas or their relatives created several kingdoms that either ruled during the reign of the parent empire or continued to rule for centuries after the its fall or came to power much later . Well @-@ known among these were the Rashtrakutas of Gujarat ( 757 – 888 ) , the Rattas of Saundatti ( 875 – 1230 ) in modern Karnataka , the Gahadavalas of Kannauj ( 1068 – 1223 ) , the Rashtrakutas of Rajasthan ( known as Rajputana ) and ruling from Hastikundi or Hathundi ( 893 – 996 ) , Dahal ( near Jabalpur ) , Mandore ( near Jodhpur ) , the Rathores of Dhanop , Rashtraudha dynasty of Mayuragiri in modern Maharashtra and Rashtrakutas of Kannauj . Rajadhiraja Chola 's conquest of the island of Ceylon in the early 11th century CE led to the fall of four kings there . According to historian K. Pillay , one of them , King Madavarajah of the Jaffna kingdom , was an usurper from the Rashtrakuta Dynasty .
= = Administration = =
Inscriptions and other literary records indicate the Rashtrakutas selected the crown prince based on heredity . The crown did not always pass on to the eldest son . Abilities were considered more important than age and chronology of birth , as exemplified by the crowning of Govinda III who was the third son of king Dhruva Dharavarsha . The most important position under the king was the Chief Minister ( Mahasandhivigrahi ) whose position came with five insignia commensurate with his position namely , a flag , a conch , a fan , a white umbrella , a large drum and five musical instruments called Panchamahashabdas . Under him was the commander ( Dandanayaka ) , the foreign minister ( Mahakshapataladhikrita ) and a prime minister ( Mahamatya or Purnamathya ) , all of whom were usually associated with one of the feudatory kings and must have held a position in government equivalent to a premier . A Mahasamantha was a feudatory or higher ranking regal officer . All cabinet ministers were well versed in political science ( Rajneeti ) and possessed military training . There were cases where women supervised significant areas as when Revakanimaddi , daughter of Amoghavarsha I , administered Edathore Vishaya .
The kingdom was divided into Mandala or Rashtras ( provinces ) . A Rashtra was ruled by a Rashtrapathi who on occasion was the emperor himself . Amoghavarsha I 's empire had sixteen Rashtras . Under a Rashtra was a Vishaya ( district ) overseen by a Vishayapathi . Trusted ministers sometimes ruled more than a Rashtra . For example , Bankesha , a commander of Amoghavarsha I headed Banavasi @-@ 12000 , Belvola @-@ 300 , Puligere @-@ 300 , Kunduru @-@ 500 and Kundarge @-@ 70 , the suffix designating the number of villages in that territory . Below the Vishaya was the Nadu looked after by the Nadugowda or Nadugavunda ; sometimes there were two such officials , one assuming the position through heredity and another appointed centrally . The lowest division was a Grama or village administered by a Gramapathi or Prabhu Gavunda .
The Rashtrakuta army consisted of large contingents of infantry , horsemen , and elephants . A standing army was always ready for war in a cantonment ( Sthirabhuta Kataka ) in the regal capital of Manyakheta . Large armies were also maintained by the feudatory kings who were expected to contribute to the defense of the empire in case of war . Chieftains and all the officials also served as commanders whose postings were transferable if the need arose .
The Rashtrakutas issued coins ( minted in an Akkashale ) such as Suvarna , Drammas in silver and gold weighing 65 grains , Kalanju weighing 48 grains , Gadyanaka weighing 96 grains , Kasu weighing 15 grains , Manjati with 2 @.@ 5 grains and Akkam of 1 @.@ 25 grain .
= = Economy = =
The Rashtrakuta economy was sustained by its natural and agricultural produce , its manufacturing revenues and moneys gained from its conquests . Cotton was the chief crop of the regions of southern Gujarat , Khandesh and Berar . Minnagar , Gujarat , Ujjain , Paithan and Tagara were important centres of textile industry . Muslin cloth were manufactured in Paithan and Warangal . The cotton yarn and cloth was exported from Bharoch . White calicos were manufactured in Burhanpur and Berar and exported to Persia , Turkey , Poland , Arabia and Egypt . The Konkan region , ruled by the feudatory Silharas , produced large quantities of betel leaves , coconut and rice while the lush forests of Mysore , ruled by the feudatory Gangas , produced such woods as sandal , timber , teak and ebony . Incense and perfumes were exported from the ports of Thana and Saimur .
The Deccan was rich in minerals , though its soil was not as fertile as that of the Gangetic plains . The copper mines of Cudappah , Bellary , Chanda , Buldhana , Narsingpur , Ahmadnagar , Bijapur and Dharwar were an important source of income and played an important role in the economy . Diamonds were mined in Cudappah , Bellary , Kurnool and Golconda ; the capital Manyakheta and Devagiri were important diamond and jewellery trading centres . The leather industry and tanning flourished in Gujarat and some regions of northern Maharashtra . Mysore with its vast elephant herds was important for the ivory industry .
The Rashtrakuta empire controlled most of the western sea board of the subcontinent which facilitated its maritime trade . The Gujarat branch of the empire earned a significant income from the port of Bharoch , one of the most prominent ports in the world at that time . The empire 's chief exports were cotton yarn , cotton cloth , muslins , hides , mats , indigo , incense , perfumes , betel nuts , coconuts , sandal , teak , timber , sesame oil and ivory . Its major imports were pearls , gold , dates from Arabia , slaves , Italian wines , tin , lead , topaz , storax , sweet clover , flint glass , antimony , gold and silver coins , singing boys and girls ( for the entertainment of the royalty ) from other lands . Trading in horses was an important and profitable business , monopolised by the Arabs and some local merchants . The Rashtrakuta government levied a shipping tax of one golden Gadyanaka on all foreign vessels embarking to any other ports and a fee of one silver Ctharna ( a coin ) on vessels travelling locally .
Artists and craftsman operated as corporations ( guilds ) rather than as individual business . Inscriptions mention guilds of weavers , oilmen , artisans , basket and mat makers and fruit sellers . A Saundatti inscription refers to an assemblage of all the people of a district headed by the guilds of the region . Some guilds were considered superior to others , just as some corporations were , and received royal charters determining their powers and privileges . Inscriptions suggest these guilds had their own militia to protect goods in transit and , like village assemblies , they operated banks that lent money to traders and businesses .
The government 's income came from five principal sources : regular taxes , occasional taxes , fines , income taxes , miscellaneous taxes and tributes from feudatories . An emergency tax was imposed occasionally and were applicable when the kingdom was under duress , such as when it faced natural calamities , or was preparing for war or overcoming war 's ravages . Income tax included taxes on crown land , wasteland , specific types of trees considered valuable to the economy , mines , salt , treasures unearthed by prospectors . Additionally , customary presents were given to the king or royal officers on such festive occasions as marriage or the birth of a son .
The king determined the tax levels based on need and circumstances in the kingdom while ensuring that an undue burden was not placed on the peasants . The land owner or tenant paid a variety of taxes , including land taxes , produce taxes and payment of the overhead for maintenance of the Gavunda ( village head ) . Land taxes were varied , based on type of land , its produce and situation and ranged from 8 % to 16 % . A Banavasi inscription of 941 mentions reassessment of land tax due to the drying up of an old irrigation canal in the region . The land tax may have been as high as 20 % to pay for expenses of a military frequently at war . In most of the kingdom , land taxes were paid in goods and services and rarely was cash accepted . A portion of all taxes earned by the government ( usually 15 % ) was returned to the villages for maintenance .
Taxes were levied on artisans such as potters , sheep herders , weavers , oilmen , shopkeepers , stall owners , brewers and gardeners . Taxes on perishable items such as fish , meat , honey , medicine , fruits and essentials like fuel was as high as 16 % . Taxes on salt and minerals were mandatory although the empire did not claim sole ownership of mines , implying that private mineral prospecting and the quarrying business may have been active . The state claimed all such properties whose deceased legal owner had no immediate family to make an inheritance claim . Other miscellaneous taxes included ferry and house taxes . Only Brahmins and their temple institutions were taxed at a lower rate .
= = Culture = =
= = = Religion = = =
The Rashtrakuta kings supported the popular religions of the day in the traditional spirit of religious tolerance . Scholars have offered various arguments regarding which specific religion the Rashtrakutas favoured , basing their evidence on inscriptions , coins and contemporary literature . Some claim the Rashtrakutas were inclined towards Jainism since many of the scholars who flourished in their courts and wrote in Sanskrit , Kannada and a few in Apabhramsha and Prakrit were Jains . The Rashtrakutas built well @-@ known Jain temples at locations such as Lokapura in Bagalkot district and their loyal feudatory , the Western Ganga Dynasty , built Jain monuments at Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli . Scholars have suggested that Jainism was a principal religion at the very heart of the empire , modern Karnataka , accounting for more than 30 % of the population and dominating the culture of the region . King Amoghavarsha I was a disciple of the Jain acharya Jinasena and wrote in his religious writing , Prashnottara Ratnamalika , " having bowed to Varaddhamana ( Mahavira ) , I write Prashnottara Ratnamalika " . The mathematician Mahaviracharya wrote in his Ganita Sarasangraha , " The subjects under Amoghavarsha are happy and the land yields plenty of grain . May the kingdom of King Nripatunga Amoghavarsha , follower of Jainism ever increase far and wide . " Amoghavarsha may have taken up Jainism in his old age .
However , the Rashtrakuta kings also patronized Hinduisms , followers of the Shaiva , Vaishnava and Shakta faiths . Almost all of their inscriptions begin with an invocation to god Vishnu or god Shiva . The Sanjan inscriptions tell of King Amoghavarsha I sacrificing a finger from his left hand at the Lakshmi temple at Kolhapur to avert a calamity in his kingdom . King Dantidurga performed the Hiranyagarbha ( horse sacrifice ) and the Sanjan and Cambay plates of King Govinda IV mention Brahmins performing such rituals as Rajasuya , Vajapeya and Agnishtoma . An early copper plate grant of King Dantidurga ( 753 ) shows an image of god Shiva and the coins of his successor , King Krishna I ( 768 ) , bear the legend Parama Maheshwara ( another name for Shiva ) . The kings ' titles such as Veeranarayana showed their Vaishnava leanings . Their flag had the sign of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers , perhaps copied from the Badami Chalukyas . The famous Kailasnatha temple at Ellora and other rock @-@ cut caves attributed to them show that the Hinduism was flourishing . Their family deity was a goddess by name Latana ( also known as Rashtrashyena , Manasa Vindyavasini ) who took the form of a falcon to save the kingdom . They built temples with icons and ornamentation that satisfied the needs of different faiths . The temple at Salotgi was meant for followers of Shiva and Vishnu and the temple at Kargudri was meant for worshipers of Shiva , Vishnu and Bhaskara ( Surya , the sun god ) .
In short , the Rashtrakuta rule was tolerant to multiple popular religions , Jainism , Vaishnavaism and Shaivism . Buddhism too found support and was popular in places such as Dambal and Balligavi , although it had declined significantly by this time . The decline of Buddhism in South India began in the 8th century with the spread of Adi Shankara 's Advaita philosophy . Islamic contact with South India began as early as the 7th century , a result of trade between the Southern kingdoms and Arab lands . Jumma Masjids existed in the Rashtrakuta empire by the 10th century and many Muslims lived and mosques flourished on the coasts , specifically in towns such as Kayalpattanam and Nagore . Muslim settlers married local women ; their children were known as Mappilas ( Moplahs ) and were actively involved in horse trading and manning shipping fleets .
= = = Society = = =
Chronicles mention more castes than the four commonly known castes in the Hindu social system , some as many as seven castes . One traveller 's account mentions sixteen castes including the four basic castes of Brahmins , Kshatriya , Vaishya and Sudras . The Zakaya or Lahud caste consisted of communities specialising in dance and acrobatics . People in the professions of sailing , hunting , weaving , cobblery , basket making and fishing belonged to specific castes or subcastes . The Antyajas caste provided many menial services to the wealthy . Brahmins enjoyed the highest status in Rashtrakuta society ; only those Kshatriyas in the Sat @-@ Kshatriya sub @-@ caste ( noble Kshatriyas ) were higher in status .
The careers of Brahmins usually related to education , the judiciary , astrology , mathematics , poetry and philosophy or the occupation of hereditary administrative posts . Also Brahmins increasingly practiced non @-@ Brahminical professions ( agriculture , trade in betel nuts and martial posts ) . Capital punishment , although widespread , was not given to the royal Kshatriya sub @-@ castes or to Brahmins found guilty of heinous crimes ( as the killing of a Brahmin in medieval Hindu India was itself considered a heinous crime ) . As an alternate punishment to enforce the law a Brahmin 's right hand and left foot was severed , leaving that person disabled .
By the 9th century , kings from all the four castes had occupied the highest seat in the monarchical system in Hindu India . Admitting Kshatriyas to Vedic schools along with Brahmins was customary , but the children of the Vaishya and Shudra castes were not allowed . Landownership by people of all castes is recorded in inscriptions Intercaste marriages in the higher castes were only between highly placed Kshatriya girls and Brahmin boys , but was relatively frequent among other castes . Intercaste functions were rare and dining together between people of various castes was avoided .
Joint families were the norm but legal separations between brothers and even father and son have been recorded in inscriptions . Women and daughters had rights over property and land as there are inscriptions recording the sale of land by women . The arranged marriage system followed a strict policy of early marriage for women . Among Brahmins , boys married at or below 16 years of age and the brides chosen for them were 12 or younger . This age policy was not strictly followed by other castes . Sati ( a custom in which a dead man 's widow would immolate herself on her husband 's funeral pyre ) was practiced but the few examples noted in inscriptions were mostly in the royal families . The system of shaving the heads of widows was infrequent as epigraphs note that widows were allowed to grow their hair but decorating it was discouraged . The remarriage of a widow was rare among the upper castes and more accepted among the lower castes .
In the general population men wore two simple pieces of cloth , a loose garment on top and a garment worn like a dhoti for the lower part of the body . Only kings could wear turbans , a practice that spread to the masses much later . Dancing was a popular entertainment and inscriptions speak of royal women being charmed by dancers , both male and female , in the king 's palace . Devadasis ( girls were " married " to a deity or temple ) were often present in temples . Other recreational activities included attending animal fights of the same or different species . The Atakur inscription ( hero stone , virgal ) was made for the favourite hound of the feudatory Western Ganga King Butuga II that died fighting a wild boar in a hunt . There are records of game preserves for hunting by royalty . Astronomy and astrology were well developed as subjects of study , and there were many superstitious beliefs such as catching a snake alive proved a woman 's chastity . Old persons suffering from incurable diseases preferred to end their lives by drowning in the sacred waters of a pilgrim site or by a ritual burning .
= = = Literature = = =
Kannada became more prominent as a literary language during the Rashtrakuta rule with its script and literature showing remarkable growth , dignity and productivity . This period effectively marked the end of the classical Prakrit and Sanskrit era . Court poets and royalty created eminent works in Kannada and Sanskrit that spanned such literary forms as prose , poetry , rhetoric , the Hindu epics and the life history of Jain tirthankars . Bilingual writers such as Asaga gained fame , and noted scholars such as the Mahaviracharya wrote on pure mathematics in the court of King Amoghavarsha I.
Kavirajamarga ( 850 ) by King Amoghavarsha I is the earliest available book on rhetoric and poetics in Kannada , though it is evident from this book that native styles of Kannada composition had already existed in previous centuries . Kavirajamarga is a guide to poets ( Kavishiksha ) that aims to standardize these various styles . The book refers to early Kannada prose and poetry writers such as Durvinita , perhaps the 6th @-@ century monarch of Western Ganga Dynasty .
The Jain writer Adikavi Pampa , widely regarded as one of the most influential Kannada writers , became famous for Adipurana ( 941 ) . Written in champu ( mixed prose @-@ verse style ) style , it is the life history of the first Jain tirthankara Rishabhadeva . Pampa 's other notable work was Vikramarjuna Vijaya ( 941 ) , the author 's version of the Hindu epic , Mahabharata , with Arjuna as the hero . Also called Pampa Bharata , it is a eulogy of the writer 's patron , King Chalukya Arikeseri of Vemulawada ( a Rashtrakuta feudatory ) , comparing the king 's virtues favorably to those of Arjuna . Pampa demonstrates such a command of classical Kannada that scholars over the centuries have written many interpretations of his work .
Another notable Jain writer in Kannada was Sri Ponna , patronised by King Krishna III and famed for Shantipurana , his account of the life of Shantinatha , the 16th Jain tirthankara . He earned the title Ubhaya Kavichakravathi ( supreme poet in two languages ) for his command over both Kannada and Sanskrit . His other writings in Kannada were Bhuvanaika @-@ ramaabhyudaya , Jinaksharamale and Gatapratyagata . Adikavi Pampa and Sri Ponna are called " gems of Kannada literature " .
Prose works in Sanskrit was prolific during this era as well . Important mathematical theories and axioms were postulated by Mahaviracharya , a native of Gulbarga , who belonged to the Karnataka mathematical tradition and was patronised by King Amoghavarsha I. His greatest contribution was Ganitasarasangraha , a writing in 9 chapters . Somadevasuri of 950 wrote in the court of Arikesari II , a feudatory of Rashtrakuta Krishna III in Vemulavada . He was the author of Yasastilaka champu , Nitivakyamrita and other writings . The main aim of the champu writing was to propagate Jain tenets and ethics . The second writing reviews the subject matter of Arthasastra from the standpoint of Jain morals in a clear and pithy manner . Ugraditya , a Jain ascetic from Hanasoge in the modern Mysore district wrote a medical treatise called Kalyanakaraka . He delivered a discourse in the court of Amoghavarsha I encouraging abstinence from animal products and alcohol in medicine .
Trivikrama was a noted scholar in the court of King Indra III . His classics were Nalachampu ( 915 ) , the earliest in champu style in Sanskrit , Damayanti Katha , Madalasachampu and Begumra plates . Legend has it that Goddess Saraswati helped him in his effort to compete with a rival in the kings court . Jinasena was the spiritual preceptor and guru of Amoghavarsha I. A theologian , his contributions are Dhavala and Jayadhavala ( written with another theologian Virasena ) . These writings are named after their patron king who was also called Athishayadhavala . Other contributions from Jinasena were Adipurana , later completed by his disciple Gunabhadra , Harivamsha and Parshvabhyudaya .
= = = Architecture = = =
The Rashtrakutas contributed much to the architectural heritage of the Deccan . Art historian Adam Hardy categorizes their building activity into three schools : Ellora , around Badami , Aihole and Pattadakal , and at Sirval near Gulbarga . The Rashtrakuta contributions to art and architecture are reflected in the splendid rock @-@ cut cave temples at Ellora and Elephanta , areas also occupied by Jain monks , located in present @-@ day Maharashtra . The Ellora site was originally part of a complex of 34 Buddhist caves probably created in the first half of the 6th century whose structural details show Pandyan influence . Cave temples occupied by Hindus are from later periods .
The Rashtrakutas renovated these Buddhist caves and re @-@ dedicated the rock @-@ cut shrines . Amoghavarsha I espoused Jainism and there are five Jain cave temples at Ellora ascribed to his period . The most extensive and sumptuous of the Rashtrakuta works at Ellora is their creation of the monolithic Kailasanath Temple , a splendid achievement confirming the " Balhara " status as " one among the four principal Kings of the world " . The walls of the temple have marvellous sculptures from Hindu mythology including Ravana , Shiva and Parvathi while the ceilings have paintings .
The Kailasanath Temple project was commissioned by King Krishna I after the Rashtrakuta rule had spread into South India from the Deccan . The architectural style used is Karnata Dravida according to Adam Hardy . It does not contain any of the Shikharas common to the Nagara style and was built on the same lines as the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal in Karnataka . According to art historian Vincent Smith , the achievement at the Kailasanath temple is considered an architectural consummation of the monolithic rock @-@ cut temple and deserves to be considered one of the wonders of the world . According to art historian Percy Brown , as an accomplishment of art , the Kailasanath temple is considered an unrivalled work of rock architecture , a monument that has always excited and astonished travellers .
While some scholars have claimed the architecture at Elephanta is attributable to the Kalachuri , others claim that it was built during the Rashtrakuta period . Some of the sculptures such as Nataraja and Sadashiva excel in beauty and craftsmanship even that of the Ellora sculptures . Famous sculptures at Elephanta include Ardhanarishvara and Maheshamurthy . The latter , a three faced bust of Lord Shiva , is 25 feet ( 8 m ) tall and considered one of the finest pieces of sculpture in India . It is said that , in the world of sculpture , few works of art depicting a divinity are as balanced . Other famous rock @-@ cut temples in the Maharashtra region are the Dhumer Lena and Dashvatara cave temples in Ellora ( famous for its sculptures of Vishnu and Shivaleela ) and the Jogeshvari temple near Mumbai .
In Karnataka their most famous temples are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal , a UNESCO World Heritage site . Other well @-@ known temples are the Parameshwara temple at Konnur , Brahmadeva temple at Savadi , the Settavva , Kontigudi II , Jadaragudi and Ambigeragudi temples at Aihole , Mallikarjuna temple at Ron , Andhakeshwara temple at Huli ( Hooli ) , Someshwara temple at Sogal , Jain temples at Lokapura , Navalinga temple at Kuknur , Kumaraswamy temple at Sandur , numerous temples at Shirival in Gulbarga , and the Trikuteshwara temple at Gadag which was later expanded by Kalyani Chalukyas . Archeological study of these temples show some have the stellar ( multigonal ) plan later to be used profusely by the Hoysalas at Belur and Halebidu . One of the richest traditions in Indian architecture took shape in the Deccan during this time which Adam Hardy calls Karnata dravida style as opposed to traditional Dravida style .
= = = Language = = =
With the ending of the Gupta Dynasty in northern India in the early 6th century , major changes began taking place in the Deccan south of the Vindyas and in the southern regions of India . These changes were not only political but also linguistic and cultural . The royal courts of peninsular India ( outside of Tamilakam ) interfaced between the increasing use of the local Kannada language and the expanding Sanskritic culture . Inscriptions , including those that were bilingual , demonstrate the use of Kannada as the primary administrative language in conjunction with Sanskrit . Government archives used Kannada for recording pragmatic information relating to grants of land . The local language formed the desi ( popular ) literature while literature in Sanskrit was more marga ( formal ) . Educational institutions and places of higher learning ( ghatikas ) taught in Sanskrit , the language of the learned Brahmins , while Kannada increasingly became the speech of personal expression of devotional closeness of a worshipper to a private deity . The patronage Kannada received from rich and literate Jains eventually led to its use in the devotional movements of later centuries .
Contemporaneous literature and inscriptions show that Kannada was not only popular in the modern Karnataka region but had spread further north into present day southern Maharashtra and to the northern Deccan by the 8th century . Kavirajamarga , the work on poetics , refers to the entire region between the Kaveri River and the Godavari River as " Kannada country " . Higher education in Sanskrit included the subjects of Veda , Vyakarana ( grammar ) , Jyotisha ( astronomy and astrology ) , Sahitya ( literature ) , Mimansa ( Exegesis ) , Dharmashastra ( law ) , Puranas ( ritual ) , and Nyaya ( logic ) . An examination of inscriptions from this period shows that the Kavya ( classical ) style of writing was popular . The awareness of the merits and defects in inscriptions by the archivists indicates that even they , though mediocre poets , had studied standard classical literature in Sanskrit . An inscription in Kannada by King Krishna III , written in a poetic Kanda metre , has been found as far away as Jabalpur in modern Madhya Pradesh . Kavirajamarga , a work on poetics in Kannada by Amoghavarsha I , shows that the study of poetry was popular in the Deccan during this time . Trivikrama 's Sanskrit writing , Nalachampu , is perhaps the earliest in the champu style from the Deccan .
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= Ninja Gaiden III : The Ancient Ship of Doom =
Ninja Gaiden III : The Ancient Ship of Doom , known in Japan as Ninja Ryūkenden III : Yomi no Hakobune ( 忍者龍剣伝III 黄泉の方船 , lit . " Legend of the Ninja Dragon Sword III : The Ark from Hades " ) is a side @-@ scrolling platforming video game developed and published by Tecmo . It was released in Japan on June 26 , 1991 ( 1991 @-@ 06 @-@ 26 ) for the Famicom and in North America in August 1991 for the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) . The NES version was not released in Europe . It was later ported to the Atari Lynx by Atari and released in 1993 in North America and Europe , the European version retaining the North American Ninja Gaiden III title . It was also re @-@ released as part of its Ninja Gaiden Trilogy Super NES compilation in 1995 in Japan and North America . Long after , it was released for the Virtual Console service in North America on February 18 , 2008 ( 2008 @-@ 02 @-@ 18 ) for the Wii and in North America and Europe on November 28 , 2013 ( 2013 @-@ 11 @-@ 28 ) and January 23 , 2014 ( 2014 @-@ 01 @-@ 23 ) respectively for the Nintendo 3DS . It was designed by Masato Kato , who took over for Hideo Yoshizawa — designer of the first two games in the NES series .
The game is the third installment of the Ninja Gaiden trilogy , in which the events take place between the first two games in the series , Ninja Gaiden and Ninja Gaiden II : The Dark Sword of Chaos . The player controls Ryu Hayabusa as he is framed for the murder of Irene Lew and investigates the circumstances behind her death . He eventually discovers a plan by CIA agent Foster and another person named Clancy to utilize an interdimensional rift to create and control a race of energy @-@ infused superhuman mutants . The game features similar gameplay from its previous two Ninja Gaiden titles and includes some new features such as the ability to hang overhead from pipes and sword power @-@ ups .
As with the previous titles , Ninja Gaiden III received mostly positive reviews from critics . Early reviews praised the game for its plot , gameplay , and difficulty ; later reviews criticized it for that plot being overly outlandish , inconsistent level designs , and the game 's difficulty level , in which the North American version was intentionally made harder than the Japanese version through limited continues , stronger enemies , and omission of a password system . The Atari Lynx port , while receiving general praise for graphics and controls , received poor reception for its sound and for the inability for players to see characters and items , attributing it to the Lynx 's small screen .
= = Plot = =
Ninja Gaiden III : The Ancient Ship of Doom takes place between the events of the original Ninja Gaiden and Ninja Gaiden II : The Dark Sword of Chaos . The story opens with Irene Lew , one of the protagonists in the first two Ninja Gaiden titles , an agent for the Central Intelligence Agency on a mission called " Cardinal " . She gets chased to the edge of a cliff by a man who looks like Ryu Hayabusa , when the edge gives way , and Irene falls in the water to her apparent death . Ryu is accused of Irene 's murder but says it was not him , that it was somebody else who looked like him who tried to frame him . He first investigates a laboratory that Irene was investigating . After going through the laboratory , a mysterious man appears and tells Ryu to go the Castle Rock fortress , where he will give Ryu more information about Irene when he gets there .
On his way to the outer limits of Castle Rock fortress , Ryu encounters Foster , who was the head of the CIA 's Special Auxiliary Unit in the first Ninja Gaiden game , via a video image . After saying that nobody has ever made it through the fortress ' defenses alive , Ryu inquires about Irene , to which Foster replies : " I don 't know what you 're talking about . " Ryu vows to push on , Upon reaching the foundation of Castle Rock fortress , Ryu encounters his " original " , or a person designed to look like Ryu , and finds out that it was he who killed Irene . They both thrust themselves at each other , and afterwards look @-@ alike tells Ryu that he has gained all of his powers . The look @-@ alike flees , saying that Foster ordered him not to eliminate Ryu quite yet .
When Ryu reaches Castle Rock fortress , he encounters the stranger whom he met after his trip to the laboratory , who reveals his name as Clancy . He tells Ryu about a project he and Foster have been working on called the " Biohazard plan " . Clancy says that he can no longer work with Foster . He said Foster was designing creatures called " bio @-@ noids " – transformed superhumans that are infused with " life energy " that flows from an interdimensional rift that appeared after the demon from the first Ninja Gaiden game was defeated . He explained that this rift appeared at the site of the Castle Rock ruins , in which Foster rebuilt in order to harness this power . Clancy reveals that it was a bio @-@ noid that killed Irene , and that Foster controls the bio @-@ noids ; he pleas to Ryu to stop Foster . After making his way into the fortress , he encounters Foster and the look @-@ alike . Foster vows to eliminate Ryu and use the life energy from the rift and Ryu 's secrets of the Dragon Clan to make him into an all @-@ powerful bio @-@ noid . Just as Foster and the look @-@ alike advance on Ryu , Irene appears , to the amazement of both Ryu and Foster , and is armed with a machine gun ; she was working with the army with regards to Foster 's plan . The look @-@ alike then transmutes into a bio @-@ noid , which Ryu defeats .
After the defeat of the look @-@ alike bio @-@ noid , the door to the interdimensional rift throws wide open , and Clancy appears , telling Ryu , Irene , and Foster that they were all used as pawns in his plan to take over the ruins and claim all the life energy as his . Foster tries to follow Clancy through the door , but the energy tears him apart and is destroyed . Ryu instructs Irene to stay behind while he goes through the rift into the subspace , as he knows that he will be protected from the power that is inside . Ryu encounters the look @-@ alike bio @-@ noid again while inside the subspace , who was resurrected and transmuted into a super creature . After he defeats the look @-@ alike , Ryu is instantly teleported into a room , where he meets Clancy once again . He tells Ryu that he has already claimed the life energy as his and explains the truth behind Castle Rock – that the ruins are a dimensional warship called the " Ancient Ship of Doom " . He says that " these super @-@ dimensional ruins are the foundation upon which a new world will be created " , and that it will now be where all new life will originate from . The ship reappears in the real world , and Clancy then fires a test shot from the ship into the distance to demonstrate its power , which Irene watches in horror . He then drops Ryu through a trap door to the outside of the ship .
Ryu fights back to the inner chambers of the Ancient Ship of Doom , where he prepares to engage in the final showdown against Clancy , who has now transmuted into a super bio @-@ noid . Clancy offers Ryu to have him and Irene work for him by his side wipe out the human race and usher a new age , but Ryu refuses and commences with the final battle . After transforming twice into progressively @-@ stronger versions of himself , Clancy is defeated by Ryu , and Ryu is transported outside the warship and back to Irene ; they both watch as the Ancient Ship of Doom is brought down and explodes , and they witness the crumbling of Castle Rock fortress . In the aftermath , Ryu tells Irene that Clancy 's and Foster 's plan have been foiled , and that mankind will live on and refuse to be part of anyone 's evil plans ; he adds that mankind would never stoop to a level in which they would completely destroy themselves out of mere ambition . The two watch as the sun rises and as a new day begins .
= = Gameplay = =
Ninja Gaiden III : The Ancient Ship of Doom is a side @-@ scrolling platform game in which the player controls the player character Ryu Hayabusa as he investigates the events behind Irene Lew 's death . In the game , Ryu can jump , hang , and climb up and down walls with the control pad ; pressing the jump button while holding the control pad the direction away from the wall causes Ryu to spring off the wall . Ryu is also able to attack enemies with secondary weapons while on a wall by pressing the attack button . A new feature introduced in Ninja Gaiden III is the ability for Ryu to hang overhead from pipes or ivy ; he can swing up on top or drop from them , and as with walls , he can only attack enemies while hanging with secondary weapons .
As with the previous Ninja Gaiden games , Ryu 's physical strength is represented by a life meter on the top of the screen ; it decreases when Ryu gets his enemies or other dangerous objects . Throughout the levels , the player can find " Recovery Medicine " bottles that partially replenish Ryu 's physical strength ; as with all other items in the game , they are located in crystal balls that Ryu must slash to open . The player loses a " life " when Ryu 's life meter runs out , he falls into a pit , or if the timer runs out . The game ends when players lose all their lives , but they can continue and resume play at the beginning of the Act in which they have lost all their lives . However , in Ninja Gaiden III , players only get five continues total before being required to restart the game from the beginning .
Ryu can defeat enemies by attacking with his Dragon Sword or by using secondary weapons which consume Ryu 's " ninja power " ; such weapons include the following : " Windmill Throwing Stars " which move back and forth like boomerangs , " Fire Dragon Balls " which launch fireballs downward at an angle , the " Fire Wheel Art " which launches fireballs upward at an angle , the " Invincible Fire Wheel " that forms a series of rotating of fireballs around Ryu and destroys any enemy who comes into contact , and a new weapon in this series called the " Vacuum Wave Art " which hurls vacuum blades above and below Ryu simultaneously . Players can collect red and blue capsules to refill Ryu 's ninja power , and they can also collect " Scrolls of the spirit of the Dragon " to increase Ryu 's maximum ninja power level . Another new item in Ninja Gaiden III is the " Dragon Spirit Sword " that increases Ryu range of his sword . At the end of each Act is a boss which has its own life meter that decreases when damaged ; Ryu can defeat the boss by completely depleting its life meter . Ninja Gaiden III 's first four bosses consist of the " bio @-@ noids " – super @-@ human creatures created and controlled by Foster to take over the world ; they each represent the four elementals : earth , wind , fire , and water .
= = = Tiger Handheld version = = =
Ninja Gaiden III : The Ancient Ship of Doom was ported by Tiger Electronics as an LCD handheld game . This port features five levels in which Ryu must reach the end of each level by defeating various robots with his Dragon Sword and a " ninja weapon ball " . At the end of each level , Ryu fights a boss ; the first four levels ' bosses are the same bio @-@ noids from the NES version , while the fifth level 's final enemy is the " Giant Boss " , which must be defeated to beat the game . Gameplay is similar to the NES version , in that Ryu and the bosses have life meters and that they feature similar items . Features included built @-@ in sound which could be muted , battery backup high score , and an automatic switch @-@ off feature in which the device shuts off after three minutes of inactivity .
= = Development = =
Ninja Gaiden III : The Ancient Ship of Doom was developed and released by Tecmo , who also did the previous two games in the series , Ninja Gaiden and Ninja Gaiden II : The Dark Sword of Chaos . It was released in Japan on June 26 , 1991 ( 1991 @-@ 06 @-@ 26 ) for the Famicom under the title Ninja Ryūkenden III : Yomi no Hakobune ; it was released in North America for the NES in August 1991 . It was ported to the Atari Lynx in 1993 by Atari , and then Tecmo re @-@ released the game as part of its Ninja Gaiden Trilogy Super NES compilation in 1995 . It was released for the Wii 's Virtual Console service in North America on February 18 , 2008 ( 2008 @-@ 02 @-@ 18 ) .
Ninja Gaiden III was designed by Masato Kato , who took over Hideo Yoshizawa 's main role in the game 's development from the previous two titles . In an interview with Kato , he said that Ninja Gaiden III needed " to go into a new direction " . The game was given more of a science @-@ fiction motif as opposed to the Cthulhu Mythos motif in the previous two titles ; the enemies changed to look more robotic than in the previous games . The original intent from the developers was to make the game easier than the previous titles , " to create a game a normal player can enjoy " . However , the perceived popularity of difficult video games in North America caused Tecmo to release the game for the NES with a much higher difficulty level than the Japanese version . They also decided to place the events of Ninja Gaiden III between the events of the first two titles in order to maintain continuity ; they figured that it was too difficult to continue the story after Ninja Gaiden II : The Dark Sword of Chaos , so they developed the plot sometime before the events of Ninja Gaiden II that revolved around the game 's main antagonist , Foster .
= = Reception = =
Ninja Gaiden III : The Ancient Ship of Doom received preview coverage in video gaming magazine Electronic Gaming Monthly , where it was displayed at the Consumer Software Group trade show in Tokyo on March 24 – 25 , 1991 . They said that Ninja Gaiden III was the best Famicom game in display there , that it " easily walked away with the best for this system ! " The game was also previewed in the July 1991 issue of Nintendo Power . They said that the game contained all the old features of previous Ninja Gaiden games which included ninja arts ( but they lamented at the lack of the " jump and slash " , absent from Ninja Gaiden II : The Dark Sword of Chaos ) and similar usage of cinematic cutscenes that made the original Ninja Gaiden game popular . They also particularly praised the new moves Ryu had as well as an excellent plot . GamePro magazine previewed the game in August 1991 . They said that the game 's visuals were good and on par with the previous titles and that the scrolling was great .
The game was featured in Electronic Gaming Monthly 's July 1991 issue as an " EGM Exclusive " . They praised the game , saying " Ninja Gaiden gets better every time ! " It was also one of the featured games in the August 1991 issue of Nintendo Power , where it received 11 pages of coverage , which included a full walkthrough of the first four Acts plus a brief plot overview of the entire game . It was in this issue where Ninja Gaiden III was purported to be the final Ninja Gaiden game by Tecmo . As in their preview , they gave praise to the action , gameplay , elaborate plot , and difficulty . GamePro reviewed the game in its September 1991 issue . The magazine gave the game top ratings in all categories except sound . They noted the difficulty level as being dictated by the enemies ' strategic placements in the various environments ; they added that while Act 1 is easy , the remainder of the game is very difficult . The review praised the usage and usefulness of the secondary weapons , Ryu 's new ability to hang overhead , and the new addition of the sword power @-@ up , which it said bore resemblance to the game Strider . They slightly criticized the game for leaving out the " cloning " power @-@ up from Ninja Gaiden II : The Dark Sword of Chaos as well as the limited continues and lack of passwords . In March 1992 , Ninja Gaiden III received three nominations in the " Nintendo Power Awards ' 91 " in the following NES @-@ related categories : " Best Graphics and Sound " , " Best Challenge " , and " Best Overall " . It won in the " Best Challenge " category ; the magazine commented that " the game @-@ playing public knows a challenging game when they see one ! " It placed second in the " Best Graphics and Sound " category , finishing behind Battletoads for the top spot . It was the ranked as the third " Best Overall " NES title for 1991 , finishing close behind Tecmo Super Bowl .
The Atari Lynx version of Ninja Gaiden III also received coverage in various magazines in 1994 . In GamePro magazine , they criticized the fact that the Lynx 's small screen makes it difficult for players to see the various power @-@ ups and enemies and to use secondary weapons . However , they praised the good controls , and they said the sound was fine though " weird and spacy " . VideoGames & Computer Entertainment praised the game for being better than the arcade version that was previously ported to the Lynx , but they were disappointed that Tecmo did not port the first two NES Ninja Gaiden titles to the handheld , as well . Electronic Gaming Monthly praised Tecmo for a good translation of the game from the NES to the Lynx – complete with good graphics , controls , and varied gameplay – while saying that " Ninja Gaiden [ III ] is a game that the Atari Lynx has been longing for " . Despite that , the reviewers noted that the Lynx 's small screen made all the sprites too small for most players to see well , and the screen 's blurring makes it frustrating for players to track character movements . In a retrospective review , Allgame gave a mostly negative review , saying that the background makes it difficult to see foreground elements , that players cannot see their character or what power @-@ ups they are collecting , and that sound is very poor , saying " thirteen banshees all wailing different , off @-@ key songs would only begin to approach just how bad the music is " .
A few modern video gaming websites reviewed Ninja Gaiden III upon its release to the Virtual Console in 2008 . Nintendo Life 's Damien McFerran gave lackluster ratings , saying that the game " passed under the radar of many a videogame enthusiast " . He added that while the presentation was great , he pointed out flaws in the " silly " plot , the inconsistently laid @-@ out level designs , and frustrating difficulty in addition to the five @-@ continue limit . He said that many gamers would prefer the previous two Ninja Gaiden titles over this one . IGN 's Lucas Thomas appreciated the improvement in Ryu 's ability to scale and climb on top of walls , his ability to hang overhead , good storyline , and the new items such as the Dragon Sword power @-@ up and the Vacuum Wave . His chief criticism was the game 's difficulty , saying that it 's not the " rewarding kind of difficult " but instead " the cheap , annoying kind of difficult that makes you want to throw your controller at the TV screen and just go read a book " . As with the Nintendo Life review , Thomas similarly criticized the inconsistent level design as well as a storyline which becomes progressively more bizarre , including " weird science @-@ fiction themes about bionics and clones " .
In a retrospective of the Ninja Gaiden series , Eurogamer said that Ninja Gaiden III was the only game in the NES trilogy not to make it to Europe . They made similar criticisms about the difficulty level , saying that the North American version was made more difficult than the Japanese version by utilizing limited continues , making the enemies much more powerful , and removing the password system present in the Japanese version . They said the story was too outlandish , calling the plot , of which a short @-@ lived anime Ninja Gaiden series would loosely be based , " a glorious load of old bollocks " . While the version from Ninja Gaiden Trilogy for the Super NES remedied most of their criticisms , they said that the game added new frustrations which included slower framerates , lower @-@ quality controls , and the omission and shuffling around of several tracks , which they said " is precisely the sort of thing that makes die @-@ hard videogame fans apoplectic with rage " .
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= Calbovista =
Calbovista is a fungal genus containing the single species Calbovista subsculpta , commonly known as the sculptured puffball , sculptured giant puffball , and warted giant puffball . It is a common puffball of the Rocky Mountains and Pacific Coast ranges of western North America . The puffball is more or less round with a diameter of up to 15 cm ( 6 in ) , white becoming brownish in age , and covered with shallow pyramid @-@ shaped plates or scales . It fruits singly or in groups along roads and in open woods at high elevations , from summer to autumn .
Although the puffball was originally described as new to science by Elizabeth Eaton Morse in 1935 , it was not published validly until 60 years later . The species is named for its resemblance to Calvatia sculpta , from which it can be usually distinguished in the field by its less prominent pyramidal warts , and microscopically by the antler @-@ like branches of its capillitium ( thread @-@ like material among the spores ) . Calbovista subsculpta is a good edible species while its interior flesh ( the gleba ) is still firm and white . As the puffball matures , its insides become dark brown and powdery from mature spores .
= = Taxonomy = =
In her 1935 Mycologia article , American mycologist Elizabeth Eaton Morse noted the existence of an abundant and widely distributed puffball of the western United States that was commonly misidentified as Calvatia sculpta , although it differed from that species in having extensively branched capillitial threads . The puffball had characteristics that aligned it with several other taxa . The peridium was similar to those of Calvatia sculpta , Calvatia caelata ( now known as Calvatia bovista ) , Scleroderma flavidum , and Scleroderma aurantium ( now Scleroderma citrinum ) ; the rooting base was similar to Bovistella ; and the structure of the capillitial threads reminiscent of Bovista , Bovistella , and Mycenastrum . However , the new species had a unique combination of characteristics and did not fit neatly into any already @-@ described genera . As a result , Morse circumscribed the new genus Calbovista to contain Calbovista sculpta . The type collection was made at Soda Springs , California in May 1934 at an elevation of 6 @,@ 767 ft ( 2 @,@ 063 m ) . Morse 's publication of the genus was invalid because it lacked a description in Latin — a requirement of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature that was implemented effective January 1 , 1935 . The genus and species were published validly with a Latin description by Michelle Seidl in 1995 .
Alexander H. Smith described a variety , Calbovista subsculpta var. fumosa , in 1965 , based on a collection he made in Kaniksu National Forest ( northeastern Washington ) in 1964 . This variety , known only from the type locality , differs from the nominate variety in its grayish outer peridium and minute scales . Because it was based on an invalid genus , it too was invalid ; it was later published correctly in 2012 with the full name and authority Calbovista subsculpta var. fumosa A.H.Sm. ex J.C.Coetzee & A.E.van Wyk .
Calbovista is usually classified in the family Lycoperdaceae , although the nomenclatural status of this group is unclear , as some authorities lump it into the Agaricaceae . By contrast , Sanford Myron Zeller placed Calbovista in Mycenastracae , a family erected by him in 1948 to contain Calbovista and Mycenastrum , two genera united by similarities in capillitial morphology . Mycenastraceae is not currently considered to have independent taxonomic significance and is folded into synonymy with the Agaricaceae .
The genus name Calbovista combines the parts cal , referring to the genus 's puffball ally Calvatia , and bovista , alluding to the genus 's similarity to Bovista and Bovistella . The specific epithet subsculpta refers to its resemblance to Calvatia sculpta , a species with which it had been frequently confused . Common names used to refer to the fungus include the sculptured puffball , sculptured giant puffball , and warted giant puffball .
= = Description = =
Fruit bodies are irregularly top @-@ shaped to roughly spherical , measuring 7 – 17 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 – 6 @.@ 7 in ) wide by 6 – 12 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) high . It has a two @-@ layered peridium . The outer layer of the peridium ( the exoperidium ) is thick and leathery ( except where it thins toward the base ) , measuring 5 – 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 4 in ) thick . It is divided into irregular three- to six @-@ sided , low pyramids that are usually blunt , but sometimes pointed . The pyramids are 5 – 8 mm thick . They have parallel markings , a feature Morse attributed to the differences in growth rate caused by variations in daytime and nighttime temperatures . The pyramid centers have short brownish hairs . The pyramids cover the entire peridium except for near the base , where it is smooth . Warts on the surface of young fruit bodies may be disproportionately thick .
The inner peridium is a thin shiny tissue that is depressed into areas demarcated by the pyramidal plates . The puffball base , which occupies about a third to a quarter of the bottom of the fruit body , consists of moderately @-@ sized chambers that persist even after the gleba has matured and the spores have dispersed . The base can assume a purplish hue after weathering . The base is rooted into the soil with rhizomorphs . Initially white , the gleba turns color from yellow to golden brown to dark brown as the spores mature . As the gleba dries , the inner peridium dries and cracks , exposing the spore mass in cracks between the scales . The gleba is supported by a yellowish @-@ brown to light brown subgleba .
The spherical spores measure 3 – 5 μm , including an outer covering ( an epispore ) of about 0 @.@ 5 μm . Their surface texture ranges from smooth to faintly warted . They have an oil droplet , and a translucent pedicel ( a small stalk ) up to 2 @.@ 5 μm long . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored , and measure 10 – 12 @.@ 5 μm long by 5 – 7 @.@ 5 μm wide . The capillitium comprises short , highly branched ( resembling antlers ) and entangled threads measuring 5 – 10 μm wide with walls up to 2 @.@ 5 μm thick . Capillitial threads do not have septa .
The puffballs are edible when the interior gleba is still firm and white . The flesh has no odor and a mild taste .
= = Similar species = =
In the field , Calbovista puffballs are sometimes difficult to reliably distinguish from Calvatia sculpta . Although the latter species has prominent pyramidal warts , some specimens of Calbovista ( especially young ones ) may share this feature and the distinction between them becomes blurred . Microscopic differences can be used to tell the two species apart : Calvatia puffballs do not have a highly branched and entangled capillitium . Another lookalike , Mycenastrum corium , has a smooth peridium , a reduced or absent base , tends to split open in maturity into irregularly shaped sections , and has spiny capillitial threads . Calvatia subcretacea , also found in high elevations under conifers in western North America , has smaller fruit bodies , measuring up to 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) high and 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) wide . It has small pointed warts with gray tips . Calvatia booniana is a large puffball — up to 60 cm ( 24 in ) in diameter — found in open pastures and grassy areas of the western United States that has flat polygonal scales on the outer peridium . In addition to its larger size , it differs from Calbovista in that it lacks a sterile base and its capillitia are less branched and have septa .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Calbovista is a saprobic species , decomposing dead plant material . Its fruit bodies grow singly , in groups , or occasionally in clusters . Fruiting occurs from April to August in areas with broken rocks mixed with soil , or in open coniferous forest at elevations ranging from 3 @,@ 000 to 11 @,@ 000 ft ( 900 to 3 @,@ 400 m ) . Another usual habitat is on road sides . Calbovista is a common mountain puffball . Its distribution covers the Rocky Mountains and Pacific Coast ranges of the western United States . On the eastern side of the Cascade Range , the puffball is often found growing under ponderosa pine . It has been collected from California , Colorado , Idaho , Washington , Wyoming , and Oregon . Its range extends north to British Columbia and Alaska . The puffball is often found by morel hunters in the spring , as it grows in similar habitats .
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= SM U @-@ 20 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) =
SM U @-@ 20 or U @-@ XX was the lead boat of the U @-@ 20 class of submarines or U @-@ boats built for and operated by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( German : Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) during the First World War . The design for U @-@ 20 was based on submarines of the Royal Danish Navy 's Havmanden class ( three of which had been built in Austria @-@ Hungary ) , and was largely obsolete by the beginning of the war .
U @-@ 20 was just over 127 feet ( 39 m ) long and was armed with two bow torpedo tubes , a deck gun , and a machine gun . U @-@ 20 had no wartime successes and was sunk in early July 1918 by the Italian submarine F @-@ 12 . The wreck of U @-@ 20 was located in 1962 and salvaged . A portion of her conning tower is on display in a military museum in Vienna .
= = Design and construction = =
When it became apparent to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy that the First World War would not be a short war , they moved to bolster their U @-@ boat fleet by seizing the plans for Denmark 's Havmanden class submarines , three of which had been built at Whitehead & Co. in Fiume . Although the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy was not happy with the design , which was largely obsolete , it was the only design for which plans were available and which could be begun immediately in domestic shipyards . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy unenthusiastically placed orders for U @-@ 20 and her three sister boats on 27 March 1915 .
U @-@ 20 was one of two boats of the class to be built at the Pola Navy Yard . Due to demands by the Hungarian government , subcontracts for the class were divided between Hungarian and Austrian firms , but this politically expedient solution worsened technical problems with the design and resulted in numerous modifications and delays for the class in general .
U @-@ 20 was an ocean @-@ going submarine that displaced 173 tonnes ( 191 short tons ) surfaced and 210 tonnes ( 231 short tons ) submerged and was designed for a complement of 18 . She was 127 feet 2 inches ( 38 @.@ 76 m ) long with a beam of 13 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) and a draft of 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) . For propulsion , she featured a single propeller shaft , a single 450 bhp ( 340 kW ) diesel engine for surface running , and a single 160 shp ( 120 kW ) electric motor for submerged travel . She was capable of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ) while surfaced and 9 knots ( 17 km / h ) while submerged . Although there is no specific notation of a range for U @-@ 20 , the Havmanden class , upon which the U @-@ 20 class was based , had a range of 1 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 600 km ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ) , surfaced , and 23 nautical miles ( 43 km ) at 8 knots ( 15 km / h ) submerged .
U @-@ 20 was armed with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes located in the front and carried a complement of two torpedoes . She was also equipped with a 66 mm / 26 ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) deck gun and an 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun .
U @-@ 20 was laid down on 29 September 1915 , six months after she was ordered , and was launched on 18 September 1916 .
= = Service career = =
Upon completion , U @-@ 20 began diving trials . On her 15 March 1917 trial , she was accidentally rammed by Admiral Spaun in the Fasana Channel . The collision with the Austro @-@ Hungarian light cruiser twisted U @-@ 20 's periscope , extensively damaged the conning tower , and knocked off her deck gun . After seven months of reconstruction , U @-@ 20 was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy on 20 October .
After initially operating out of Pola , U @-@ 20 was transferred to Trieste in February 1918 . Over the next three months , the U @-@ boat patrolled in the northern Adriatic between the Tagliamento estuary and Venice . U @-@ 20 had an encounter with an enemy submarine on 7 April but was not able to successfully launch an attack . On 3 July , Linienschiffsleutnant Ludwig Müller sailed U @-@ 20 out from Trieste for the Gulf of Venice . A day later , U @-@ 20 was spotted by the Italian submarine F @-@ 12 , which was on patrol in the northern Adriatic . F @-@ 12 initially pursued U @-@ 20 underwater , and then on the surface . At a range of 650 yards ( 590 m ) , F @-@ 12 torpedoed U @-@ 20 at position 45 ° 29 ′ N 13 ° 05 ′ E , sinking her with all hands . There was no wreckage on the surface , only an oil slick . Like all of her sister boats , U @-@ 20 had no wartime successes .
In mid 1962 , the wreck of U @-@ 20 was discovered in the northern Adriatic . Italian salvage crews raised the boat 's rear portion on 22 July and her front section on 21 November . The conning tower and a small midships section of U @-@ 20 were donated to the Heeresgeschichtliches Museum in Vienna , where they are on display , while the rest of the boat was scrapped . The remains of the crewmen were buried on the grounds of the Theresian Military Academy at Wiener Neustadt .
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= Effects of Typhoon Bopha in Micronesia and Palau =
The effects of Typhoon Bopha in the Federated States of Micronesia and Palau were significant , though limited in extent in comparison to the cyclone 's intensity . Typhoon Bopha originated from a tropical depression south of Pohnpei on November 25 , 2012 , and tracked generally westward for more than a week . During this time , it threatened several islands across Micronesia , prompting the issuance of typhoon watches and warnings . The system skirted the Nomoi Islands on November 28 where it caused limited damage . Thereafter , it became a threat to Palau as an intense typhoon . Residents there boarded up their homes and some evacuated to public shelters while officials enacted a strict curfew during the typhoon 's passage . Bopha passed 55 km ( 35 mi ) south of Angaur island , or 100 km ( 65 mi ) south of Babeldaob , on December 2 with winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) .
Damage was most severe in the states of Angaur , Melekeok , Ngiwal , and Ngaraard where storm surge damaged or destroyed many homes . Electricity and water service in many areas was lost during the storm , and remained so for over a week in the hardest hit areas . Throughout Palau , 92 homes were destroyed while 59 others sustained severe damage . Total damage amounted to US $ 10 @.@ 1 million with repair costs estimated at US $ 15 – 20 million . A state of emergency was declared on December 5 while the Palau Red Cross Society assisted with recovery efforts . Palau 's congress allocated US $ 10 million for relief while international donors provided a collective US $ 235 @,@ 000 in aid .
= = Background = =
On November 25 , 2012 , a tropical depression developed to the south of Pohnpei in the Federated States of Micronesia . Initially tracking northwest and later due west under the influence of a strong subtropical ridge to its north , the system intensified into a tropical storm the following day at which time it received the name Bopha . The storm passed roughly 65 km ( 40 mi ) south of the Nomoi Islands early on November 28 . After slowly intensifying for several days Bopha underwent a period of rapid intensification from November 30 to December 1 , with its central pressure falling from 990 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 39 inHg ) to 945 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 91 inHg ) . The system reached its initial peak intensity on December 2 with winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) according to the Japan Meteorological Agency . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) estimated Bopha to have been a much stronger storm , with one @-@ minute sustained winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) , a high @-@ end Category 4 on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale ( SSHWS ) .
Around 06 : 00 UTC , Bopha passed 100 km ( 65 mi ) south of Babeldaob island in Palau while at its initial peak . Shortly thereafter it made its closest approach the nation , tracking roughly 55 km ( 35 mi ) south of Angaur island . After clearing Palau , Bopha ultimately intensified further before making a devastating landfall on Mindanao in the Philippines . The JTWC estimated its peak intensity at 280 km / h ( 175 mph ) , a Category 5 on the SSHWS . The storm resulted in up to 1 @,@ 901 fatalities in the country and tremendous infrastructural damage . Land interaction substantially weakened the system by the time it emerged over the Sulu Sea . Turning north , Bopha briefly weakened to a tropical storm on December 6 before undergoing another period of rapid intensification . After reaching its tertiary peak on December 7 , hostile wind shear caused dramatic weakening . In a 24 ‑ hour span , the typhoon 's central pressure rose by 55 mbar ( hPa ; 1 @.@ 62 inHg ) while its winds fell from 170 km / h ( 105 mph ) to 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) . Bopha soon degraded to a tropical depression and dissipated off the northwestern coast of Luzon early on December 9 .
= = Preparations = =
Upon the Joint Typhoon Warning Center 's declaration of Tropical Depression 26W on November 26 , a tropical storm watch was issued for Nukuoro and Lukunor in the FSM . Hours later , the watch was superseded by a tropical storm warning while new watches were declared for Losap and Chuuk . The watch was expanded during the afternoon of November 27 to include Poluwat . As the storm moved westward through the FSM and intensified on November 28 , a typhoon watch was issued for Woleai ; tropical storm warnings for the Nomoi Islands , Poluwat , and Satawal ; a tropical storm watch was also put in place for Faraulep . Throughout November 29 , watches and warnings were discontinued across the FSM , with all being canceled by the evening hours . During the morning of November 30 , the remaining advisories were discontinued ; however , new typhoon watches were issued for Koror , Ngulu Atoll , and a tropical storm watch for Yap and Sonsorol .
Prior to the storm 's arrival , the Micronesia Red Cross Society began stockpiling relief materials on Yap and Chuuk . Emergency communication testing , via satellite phones , was also conducted with regional offices . On November 30 , residents in Palau were urged to secure their homes in preparation for the typhoon . They were also advised to stock up on emergency supplies that would last for at least three days . The storm delayed shipment of emergency food supplies to a boarding school on a remote island in Micronesia .
Beginning on November 27 and continuing through December 3 , the National Emergency Management Office in Palau issued more than ten detailed public announcements warning residents of the approaching storm and how to prepare . In response , numerous families boarded up their homes and sought refuge in the 45 public shelters opened across the republic . On December 1 , a United States Navy vessel arrived in Palau in case requests for assistance were made after the storm . As a precautionary measure , the nations electric grid was shut down at 6 : 00 p.m. local time on December 2 . All flights to and from Roman Tmetuchl International Airport were suspended during the morning of December 3 . A strict curfew was put in place for the city of Koror for the duration of the typhoon .
= = Impact = =
Across Micronesia , impact from the typhoon was fairly limited . Winds on Nukuoro were estimated at 45 – 75 km / h ( 30 – 45 mph ) , resulting in minor damage to buildings and crops . Losses on the atoll reached $ 10 @,@ 000 . Lukunor , located farther west , experienced similar winds ; however , damage was slightly more severe . Notable coastal impact took place , with portions of the dock and sea wall damaged . Damage across Lukunor and nearby islands amounted to $ 20 @,@ 000 .
During the early hours of December 3 , Typhoon Bopha made its closest approach to Palau , bringing heavy rains and strong winds to much of the archipelago . Winds up to 215 km / h ( 130 mph ) impacted Angaur and 160 km / h ( 100 mph ) in Peleliu . Widespread damage took place across the republic , with the most severe occurring in the states of Angaur , Peleliu , Ngchesar , Melekeok , Ngiwal , and Ngaraard . Initial assessments stated that 92 homes were destroyed and 59 others were severely damaged ; however , later reports stated that nearly 200 were destroyed . This left roughly 350 people homeless . Along eastern facing coasts , storm surge caused extensive coastal damage and , in some cases , pushed several hundred feet inland , cutting off roads and leaving behind several feet of debris . Hundreds of residents were forced to evacuate to higher ground as a result of the flooding . According to preliminary reports , Angaur Island experienced extensive damage from the storm . At least six homes were destroyed and travel was severely hampered due to downed trees and debris blocking roads . On Peleliu , eight large coral masses were driven onto the reef surrounding the island . Crops and vegetation across the island sustained heavy damage ; however , most homes were reportedly " ok " .
On the main island of Babeldaob , the coastal states of Melekeok , Ngiwal , and Ngaraard reported that nearly all homes along the shore were damaged or destroyed by storm surge . Power and water service was almost completely lost across the three states as well . In Koror , wind gusts up to 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) downed trees and power lines . Rainfall at the local National Weather Service office reached 84 mm ( 3 @.@ 32 in ) . Water and power systems across the republic were severely disrupted , with some areas remaining without service more than a week after the storm . Two schools in Ngaraard also sustained severe damage . Despite the severity of the storm , there were no reports of casualties . Across Palau , total damage to crops and property reached U $ 10 @.@ 1 million while the cost to repair damage from the storm was estimated at US $ 15 – 20 million .
= = Aftermath = =
After the storm had moved through the region on December 2 , officials began allowing evacuees to return home on December 3 . The same day , all airports and roads were re @-@ opened ; however , some roads on Koror remained impassable due to damage from storm surge . Additionally , electricity shut off prior to the storm was restored on Koror . On December 5 , the President of Palau declared a state of emergency and US $ 10 million was authorized by congress for relief efforts . The Palau Red Cross Society began distributing clean @-@ up kits and communal tools in the eastern states of Melekeok , Ngaraard , and Ngiwal by December 7 . Further distributions on the southern islands of Anguar and Peleliu began the following day . A week after the typhoon 's passage , damage assessments across Palau had been completed and authorities had begun a large @-@ scale reconstruction of damaged properties . The operation , known as the Bopha Catastrophe Relief Committee , was being coordinated by Dr. Patrick Tellei , president of Palau Community College . The committee planned to build 30 homes across the republic : 10 in Ngaraard and 5 each in Angaur , Melekeok , Ngiwal , and Peleliu . By December 12 , telecommunications and water supplies were 95 percent restored while power had been brought back to 90 percent of capacity . Although water had been restored to most areas by December 13 , residents were advised to continue boiling water , especially in more populated locales until further notice . Schools resumed classes on December 17 across the republic ; however , several institutions were either temporarily relocated or had half days due to damage from the storm . On December 23 , the Government of Palau announced that , " in the holiday spirit " , December 24 and 31 would be declared national holidays for 2012 in light of the typhoon . In some areas , residents burned vegetative debris left behind by the storm .
By December 12 , Palau received a US $ 100 @,@ 000 grant from USAID and US $ 25 @,@ 000 from the Bank of Guam for relief efforts . On December 13 , the Government of Japan offered ¥ 5 million ( US $ 60 @,@ 000 ) worth of emergency goods , such as jerry cans and water purifiers , through the Japan International Cooperation Agency . The following day , the Republic of Korea provided US $ 50 @,@ 000 in humanitarian assistance to Palau through the local Red Cross .
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= Robert Rossen =
Robert Rossen ( March 16 , 1908 – February 18 , 1966 ) was an American screenwriter , film director , and producer whose film career spanned almost three decades .
His 1949 film All the King 's Men won Oscars for Best Picture , Best Actor and Best Supporting Actress , while Rossen was nominated for an Oscar as Best Director . He won the Golden Globe for Best Director and the film won the Golden Globe Award for Best Picture . In 1961 he directed The Hustler , which was nominated for nine Oscars and won two .
After directing and writing for the stage in New York , Rossen moved to Hollywood in 1937 . There he worked as a screenwriter for Warner Bros. until 1941 , and then interrupted his career to serve until 1944 as the chairman of the Hollywood Writers Mobilization , a body to organize writers for the effort in World War II . In 1945 he joined a picket line against Warner Bros. After making one film for Hal Wallis 's newly formed production company , Rossen made one for Columbia Pictures , another for Wallis and most of his later films for his own companies , usually in collaboration with Columbia .
Rossen was a member of the American Communist Party from 1937 to about 1947 , and believed the Party was " dedicated to social causes of the sort that we as poor Jews from New York were interested in . "
He ended all relations with the Party in 1949 . Rossen was twice called before the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee ( HUAC ) , in 1951 and in 1953 . He exercised his Fifth Amendment rights at his first appearance , refusing to state whether he had ever been a Communist . As a result , he found himself blacklisted by Hollywood studios as well as unable to renew his passport . At his second appearance he named 57 people as current or former Communists and his blacklisting ended . In order to repair finances he produced his next film , Mambo , in Italy in 1954 . While The Hustler in 1961 was a great success , conflicts on the set of Lilith so disillusioned him that it was his last film .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and career = = =
Robert Rosen was born on March 16 , 1908 , and raised on the Lower East Side of New York City . His parents were Russian @-@ Jewish immigrants and his father was a rabbi . As a youth Rossen attended New York University , hustled pool and fought some prizefights . - the latter two providing crucial background for his two greatest films , Body and Soul and The Hustler , respectively .
He started his theatrical career as a stage manager and director in stock and off @-@ Broadway productions , mainly in the social and radical theaters that flourished in New York in the early and mid @-@ 1930s , as did John Huston , Elia Kazan and Joseph Losey . In 1932 Rossen directed John Wexley 's Steel , about labor agitation , and Richard Maibaum 's The Tree , about a lynching . A year later Rossen directed Birthright , in which Maibaum attacked Nazism , which had just triumphed in Germany with the dictatorship of Adolf Hitler in 1933 .
In 1935 Rossen wrote and directed his first play , The Body Beautiful , a comedy about a naive burlesque dancer . Although the play closed after four performances , Warner Bros. director Mervyn LeRoy was so impressed that in 1936 he signed Rossen to a personal screenwriting contract .
= = = Marriage = = =
In 1936 Rossen married Susan Siegal ; the couple had three children .
= = = Work in Hollywood = = =
For his first credit in Hollywood , in 1937 Rossen co @-@ wrote with Abem Finkel a script based on the prosecution of crime lord Lucky Luciano and eventually titled Marked Woman . Although some of Warner Bros. management saw Rossen as an unknown quantity , the result won praise from both Jack L. Warner and the Daily Worker . Rossen 's first solo script was for They Won 't Forget ( 1937 ) , a fictionalized account of the lynching of Leo Frank , featuring Lana Turner in her debut performance .
Dust Be My Destiny , co @-@ written in 1939 by Rossen , is the story of a fugitive from justice who is eventually acquitted with help from an attorney and a journalist , the latter arguing that " a million boys all over the country " were in a similar plight . Warner Bros. then ordered producer Lou Edelman to cut the script , adding that " This is the story of two people – not a group . It is an individual problem – not a national one . " Rossen was one of three writers on the gangster melodrama The Roaring Twenties , released in 1939 . A remake of the 1932 play and film Life Begins was written in 1939 by Rossen and released in 1940 as A Child Is Born . The plot recounted the experiences of six expectant mothers , and there was little scope to modify the original .
The Sea Wolf , released in 1941 , was based on Jack London 's novel . Although the film had a strong cast and production , Rossen 's re @-@ draft of the script may be the greatest influence on the film . While the character of Captain Larsen remained both victim and oppressed in a capitalist hierarchy , he became a symbol of fascism . He split the novel 's idealist hero into an intellectual bosun and a rebellious seaman . Warner Bros. cut many political points during production .
Blues in the Night , written by Rossen and two colleagues and released in 1941 , shows a group of jazz musicians traveling in the Depression . Their informal methods represent working @-@ class culture rather than the commercialized music of the big bands . However , The New York Times ' reviewer thought the sound track was " about all the film has to offer " , and Warner was disappointed with the sales .
After the Attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7 , 1941 , the Screen Writers Guild set up on December 8 , 1941 , the Hollywood Writers Mobilization , a body to organize writers for the war effort . Rossen served as the body 's chairman until 1944 and advocated the opening of a Second Front to support West European resistance again the Nazis . His earnings were much greater than in 1937 . However , his work for Hollywood Writers Mobilization and for the Communist Party forced him to abandon some partly developed film projects , including The Treasure of the Sierra Madre , which John Huston eventually directed in 1948 .
In 1945 Rossen joined a picket line against Warner Bros , making an enemy of Jack Warner . Rossen signed a contract with an independent production company formed by Hal Wallis , who had previously been Warner Bros. ' head of production . However Rossen wrote only two full scripts for this company , The Strange Love of Martha Ivers in 1946 and Desert Fury in 1947 . In The Strange Love of Martha Ivers Rossen used a short story by John Patrick to introduce the main plot , which was set fifteen years later and which Rossen wrote himself . The relationship between Rossen and Wallis broke down when Rossen received offers from other production companies .
Dick Powell had been a crooner but was making a new career as a dramatic actor . When Columbia Pictures agreed to make Johnny O 'Clock for him in 1947 , Powell successfully campaigned for Rossen to direct , and this became Rossen 's debut in directing . As this crime melodrama proved a modest success , Roberts Productions signed Rossen to direct Abraham Polonsky 's script of Body and Soul , described by Bob Thomas as " possibly the best prizefight film ever made . " Rossen preferred an ending in which the hero wins a boxing match and then is killed by a gangster , but Polonsky insisted on his own ending , in which the hero escapes into obscurity before the fight . Following the success of Body and Soul , Rossen formed his own production company and signed with Columbia Pictures a contract that gave him wide autonomy over every second film that he made at the studio .
All the King 's Men ( 1949 ) was based on the novel of the same name by Robert Penn Warren , which in turn was based on the career of the Louisiana politician Huey Long . Rossen introduced a new concept , that the defenders of the ordinary people can in turn become the new exploiters . As a requirement for his participation in the film , Rossen had to write to Columbia 's Harry Cohn saying that he was no longer a Communist Party member . Cohn 's critiques of the draft of Rossen 's script included scrapping a framing structure that was difficult for audiences to follow and several improvements in the relationships and motivations of characters . A meeting of the Communist Party in Los Angeles severely criticized the film , and Rossen severed all relations with the Party . All the King 's Men won the Academy Award for Best Picture , Broderick Crawford won the award for Best Actor and Mercedes McCambridge was honored as Best Supporting Actress . Rossen was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Director but lost to Joseph L. Mankiewicz for A Letter to Three Wives . Rossen won a Golden Globe for Best Director and the film won the Golden Globe for Best Picture . His next film , The Brave Bulls , was directed in 1950 and released in 1951 . This was Rossen 's last work before the studios blacklisted him . New York Times critic Bosley Crowther called this " the best film on bull @-@ fighting yet . "
= = = Examinations by HUAC = = =
After the end of World War II in 1945 , the rightwing elements who had resisted the US entry into World War Two because of their pro @-@ Fascist isolationism , continued their attempts to control and punish the left @-@ leaning and highly talented entertainment professionals who had done so much to support Churchill and FDR and fight the spread of Fascism in Europe during the 1930s while the United States was technically neutral . In 1946 , the Republicans gained an overwhelming majority in the Congressional elections. and used this power to re @-@ invigorate committees there that had failed to stop anti @-@ Fascist artists before the war . The Communist victory of China in 1949 and the start of the Korean War in 1950 reinforced the anti @-@ Communist hysteria being whipped up at the time .
During hearings in 1947 , Jack Warner included Rossen among the many openly leftist writers whom his studio , Warner Bros. , had hired as the earliest and most openly anti @-@ Nazi studios in Hollywood ( Warner Bros had made " Confessions of a Nazi Spy ' in 1939 and were attacked by GOP forces for this at the time ) . Warner reportedly accused Rossen of incorporating Communist propaganda in scripts and claimed this was why he had fired him , though in fact the real reason for Warner 's enmity with Rossen were his writer 's union activities .
Rossen was one of 19 " unfriendly witnesses " subpoenaed in October 1947 by the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee ( HUAC ) during the second Red Scare but was one of eight not called to testify . In 1951 , Rossen was named as a Communist by several HUAC witnesses and he appeared before HUAC for the first time in June 1951 . He exercised his rights under the Fifth Amendment against self @-@ incrimination , taking what came to be known as the " augmented Fifth " . He testified that he was not a member of the Communist Party and that he disagreed with the aims of the party , but when asked to state whether he had ever been a member of the party , Rossen refused to answer . He was placed on the unofficial blacklist by the Hollywood studios , and Columbia broke its production contract with him .
In an unconstitutional though widespread practice during the Communist witchhunts , the U.S. State Department refused to renew Rossen 's passport . This , and his inability to find work , brought Rossen , like his friend , ex @-@ Communist Elia Kazan , back to the committee in May 1953 , where he named 57 people as Communists . He explained to the committee why he chose to testify : " I don 't think , after two years of thinking , that any one individual can indulge himself in the luxury of personal morality or pit it against what I feel today very strongly is the security and safety of this nation . " Stephen Rossen later shed light on his father 's decision :
" It killed him not to work . He was torn between his desire to work and his desire not to talk , and he didn 't know what to do . What I think he wanted to know was , what would I think of him if he talked ? He didn 't say it in that way , though . Then he explained to me the politics of it — how the studios were in on it , and there was never any chance of his working . He was under pressure , he was sick , his diabetes was bad , and he was drinking . By this time I understood that he had refused to talk before and had done his time , from my point of view . What could any kid say at that point ? You say , ' I love you and I 'm behind you . ' "
Like Elia Kazan 's testimony , Rossen 's HUAC testimony destroyed many lifelong friendships , along with dozens of careers ; however , unlike Kazan , Rossen 's career never recovered , while Kazan 's flourished for the rest of his life .
= = = Return to filmmaking = = =
From 1952 to 1953 , Rossen wrote Mambo , trying to repair his finances after almost two years without work following the 1951 HUAC hearing . He had to produce the film in Italy , and it was premiered in Italy in 1954 and the USA in 1955 . Rossen later said " Mambo was to be for fun only , " but he " took it seriously , and it didn 't come off . " Critics dismissed the film . However , in 2001 , Dorothea Fischer @-@ Hornung concluded that the film achieved more than Rossen and contemporary critics realized . The female lead resolves her own conflicts by devoting herself to dance . Katherine Dunham 's choreography highlights this process ; and innovative cinematography intensifies the dance scenes .
Rossen hoped Alexander the Great ( 1956 ) would be a blockbuster , but the majority of the reviews criticized the film for failing to keep the audience 's interest . However , the review from The New York Times wrote that " its moments of boredom are rare ... an overlong but thoughtful and spectacular entertainment . "
In 1961 , Rossen co @-@ wrote , produced and directed The Hustler . Drawing upon his own experiences as a pool hustler , he teamed with Sidney Carroll to adapt the novel of the same name for the screen . The Hustler was nominated for nine Academy Awards and won two . Rossen was nominated as Best Director and with Carroll for Best Adapted Screenplay but did not win either award . He was named Best Director by the New York Film Critics Circle and shared with Carroll the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Written Drama . The Hustler was an enormous popular success and is credited with sparking a resurgence in the popularity of pool in the United States , which had been on the decline for decades .
Rossen was already ill when he started on his final film , Lilith ( 1964 ) , and it was poorly received in the United States . After it Rossen lost interest in directing , reportedly because of conflicts with the film 's star , Warren Beatty . The filmmaker said , " It isn 't worth that kind of grief . I won 't take it any more . I have nothing to say on the screen right now . Even if I never make another picture , I 've got The Hustler on my record . I 'm content to let that one stand for me . " However , at the time of his death Rossen was planning Cocoa Beach , a script he conceived in 1962 , showing the hopes and struggles of transients in a local community and contrasting this with nearby Cape Canaveral , which Neve described as a " symbol of America 's imperial reach " .
= = Death = =
Rossen died in New York City at age 57 on February 18 , 1966 , following a series of illnesses and is interred at Westchester Hills Cemetery in Hastings @-@ on @-@ Hudson , Westchester County , New York . He was survived by his wife Susan , son Stephen , and daughters Carol and Ellen . His grandchild , Daniel Rossen , is the guitarist / vocalist of alternative bands Grizzly Bear and Department of Eagles .
= = Reception = =
Rossen was one of the directors who developed film gris ( French for " grey film " ) . In his films for Warner Brothers ' between 1937 and 1944 , consistent themes were the conditions of working people , the portrayal of gangsters and racketeers , and opposition to fascism . After Dust Be My Destiny , written by Rossen and released in 1939 , Frank Nugent , who regularly reviewed for The New York Times , complained about Warner Brothers ' long line of melodramas about boys from poor neighbourhoods . Unlike filmmakers such as John Ford and Howard Hawks , Rossen was willing to explain his aims as a director : " The element common to many of my films is the desire for success , ambition , which is an important element in American life . It is an important element , and has become increasingly more important in what is known as Western Civilization . " Polonsky commented that " Rossen 's talent is force applied everywhere without let @-@ up . " Neve acknowledged that social concerns were central in most of Rossen 's works , but commented that Lilith was different from Rossen 's earlier films as it emphasized mood rather than narrative and examined through pictures and silences the nature of maladjustment and madness .
Farber noted the strong female characters of the 1930s and 1940s , and laments their replacing by all @-@ male relationships from the 1950s onwards . For the earlier pattern Farber cited Rossen 's 1946 script The Strange Love of Martha Ivers , which was over melodramatic but portrayed a woman consumed by power , money and success . Lilith created one of the few strong women in the 1960s . Rossen generally destroyed the main character .
All of Rossen 's playscripts were adaptions except Marked Woman , Racket Buster and Alexander the Great , which were based on real events . Before he was blacklisted in 1951 , only two of Rossen 's adaptions were of serious novels , and Rossen 's early drafts of the script for All the King 's Men received serious criticisms within Columbia .
While head of production at Warner , Hal Wallis considered that some of his best films – including The Roaring Twenties , Marked Woman and The Sea Wolf – were written by Rossen . Wallis was very pleased with Rossen 's script in 1946 for The Strange Love of Martha Ivers , which was produced by Wallis own company . However , Rossen turned down Wallis 's next two films . Both Wallis as producer and Rossen as writer @-@ director wanted to operate as independents , rather than under the control of a studio .
All the King 's Men was one of the last of the social " message " films , as they were eclipsed as America turned conservative . Thomas Schatz ' regarded All the King 's Men as possibly the best of the genre , as it examined alcoholism , adultery , political corruption and the influence of journalism . In 2001 the United States National Film Registry preserved the film as " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant . "
Rossen produced , directed and co @-@ wrote The Hustler in 1961 . At the time Variety praised the cast , complained about the " sordid aspects " of the story and felt the film was far too long . The New Republic praised the cast and Rossen 's " sure , economical " direction , but thought the script " strains hard to give an air of menace and criminality . " The film won two Academy Awards and was nominated for another seven , was nominated in four of the Golden Globes ' categories , and gained many other awards and nominations .
In 1997 the National Film Registry preserved The Hustler as " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant . " In 2002 Roger Ebert described the film as one " where scenes have such psychic weight that they grow in our memories " and praised Rossen 's decision to develop all four main characters , and James Berardinelli listed the film in his All Time Top 100 for similar reasons . Ebert also praised Rossen 's decision to shoot the film in the " stygian gloom of the billiard parlor " created by black @-@ and @-@ white . Other accolades appeared in the 2000s ( decade ) .
In 1966 Stephen Farber used " Gothic " to describe Lilith and a few other American films of the early 1960s based on psychological horror , and regarded Lilith 's female protagonist as a demonic temptress . Nina Leibman regarded Lilith as the most extreme of the American film industry 's applications , or rather misapplications , of psychoanalytic concepts , as the patient is already psychotic and has a track record of previous conquests . In The New Biographical Dictionary of Film David Thomson describes Lilith as " an oddity , the only one of [ Rossen 's ] films that seems passionate , mysterious and truly personal . The other films will look increasingly dated and self @-@ contained , but Lilith may grow . "
= = Works = =
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= Lisa 's Wedding =
" Lisa 's Wedding " is the 19th episode of The Simpsons ' sixth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 19 , 1995 . The plot focuses around Lisa visiting a carnival fortune teller and learning about her future love . It was written by Greg Daniels and directed by Jim Reardon . Mandy Patinkin guest stars as Hugh Parkfield and Phil Hartman guest stars as Troy McClure . The episode won an Emmy Award in 1995 for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program , becoming the third episode of The Simpsons to win the award .
= = Plot = =
The episode begins with the Simpson family visiting a renaissance fair . Homer eats eight different kinds of meat , and an embarrassed Lisa wanders off and eventually finds a fortune @-@ telling booth . Although Lisa is at first skeptical , the fortune teller gets her attention by telling Lisa the names of everyone in her family . She then uses tarot cards to predict Lisa 's future , and says she will tell Lisa the story of her true love .
The story then shifts to an Eastern University in 2010 ( at the time of the episode 's broadcast , fifteen years in the future ) , where a now 23 @-@ year @-@ old Lisa meets a English student named Hugh Parkfield . At first , the two quarrel over a book in the library and their respective academic talents , but the pair eventually fall madly in love . Hugh invites Lisa to come back to his home in England so she can meet his parents . While there , Hugh asks Lisa to marry him ; she immediately accepts .
The next day , Lisa calls home to tell Marge of the news ; Marge promises that she will prevent Homer from ruining the wedding . Marge is still a housewife , Bart ( now 25 ) works as a successful building demolition expert , Maggie is a teenager who wears a necklace with her pacifier attached and apparently never shuts up ( although each time she opens her mouth in the episode , she is interrupted ) and Homer still works at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant in Sector 7G , with Milhouse as his supervisor . Lisa and Hugh travel to Springfield , where Lisa is worried that her family will embarrass her . Things get off to a bad start when Bart and Homer accidentally set the British flag on fire , which they extinguish by throwing it on the ground and pouring compost on it .
At dinner , Lisa plans on going for a wedding dress fitting and Homer decides to take Hugh out to Moe 's Tavern . While there , Homer presents Hugh with a pair of cuff links ( a bride and groom pig ) that all Simpsons men have worn on their wedding day , asking him to continue the tradition ; Hugh reluctantly agrees to wear them during the wedding . Later that night , Lisa apologizes profusely for her family 's behavior ; although Hugh says it does not bother him , he appears worried . On the day of the wedding , Homer talks with Lisa and she discovers that Hugh did not wear Homer 's cufflinks . She finds Hugh and asks him to wear them . He agrees . The only condition however , is that after the wedding Lisa must leave her family behind because Hugh has felt embarrassed by them all along . Lisa is outraged , stating that she cannot marry him if he cannot understand that she still loves her family despite their shortcomings , and calls off the wedding , running off in anger and sorrow .
Back in the present , the fortune teller says that Hugh went back to England and never saw Lisa again , and that there is nothing Lisa can do to prevent it — although she should " try to look surprised " . Lisa questions the fortune teller about her " true love " and the fortune teller reveals that although Lisa will have a true love , she " specializes in foretelling relationships where you get jerked around " . Lisa leaves the booth and finds her father , who is excited to tell her about his day at the fair . They walk off , hand in hand , as Lisa listens , happy and content .
= = Production = =
The idea for the episode came from James L. Brooks , who called David Mirkin and pitched the idea as traveling to the future and Lisa meeting the perfect guy , who in turn cannot stand her family . Believing that it would be a tough episode to write , Brooks gave the job to Greg Daniels , who was enthusiastic about it and has said that was a lot easier and more fun to write than expected . The part involving Homer 's cuff links was not in the original draft , it was later added because the writers felt that something was needed to represent Hugh 's disdain for the Simpson family . The end theme was redone by Alf Clausen as a " Renaissance version " , including a harp .
Everything in the episode had to be redesigned , which included new sets and all of the characters had to be remodeled for their age . In most cases , the adults were made heavier , had a few lines added to the face and less hair . On Homer , the redesign was minimal , making him a bit heavier , removing one hair and placing an extra line under the eye . Homer also wears a shirt like George Jetson 's . Krusty 's design is based on Groucho Marx . The night sky was intentionally made a more reddish color in a subtle joke about how the producers thought the world would be much more polluted in 2010 . Nancy Cartwright 's Bart voice was electronically lowered a couple of notches .
This is the first of five future @-@ themed episodes . The others were " Bart to the Future " in season 11 , " Future @-@ Drama " in season 16 , " Holidays of Future Passed " from season 23 , and " Days of Future Future " from season 25 . While both " Lisa 's Wedding " and " Future @-@ Drama " were nominated for an Emmy , in 2003 Entertainment Weekly named " Bart to the Future " the worst episode in the history of the series .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode makes mention of " 40 classic films starring Jim Carrey " , which include The Mask and " Ace Ventura VI " . According to David Mirkin , this is a joke about how " huge " Carrey 's movies were at the time , and how he was not garnering much respect as an actor . The sounds of the car are the same as the ones used in The Jetsons . Wrist communicators are using same sounds as communicators in Star Trek . In this episode 's version of the future , apparently three of the major American television networks have been bought by ABC and merged into CNNBCBS . At the same time , Fox has gradually become a hardcore sex channel . Hugh Parkfield is a parody of English actor Hugh Grant . The beginning of Lisa and Hugh 's romance is similar to the one in Love Story . Martin Prince 's fate is a parody of The Phantom of the Opera . The song that he plays on the organ is a variation of " A Fifth of Beethoven " by Walter Murphy , a disco version of Beethoven 's " Symphony No. 5 " in C Minor .
= = Reception and legacy = =
In its original broadcast , " Lisa 's Wedding " finished 52nd in ratings for the week of March 13 – 19 , 1995 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 1 , equivalent to approximately 8 @.@ 7 million viewing households . It was the third highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following Beverly Hills , 90210 and Melrose Place .
" Lisa 's Wedding " won an Emmy Award in 1995 for Outstanding Animated Program , becoming the third episode of The Simpsons to win in the category . This episode is a favorite of James L. Brooks , who believes that it is one of the best written episodes and ranks near the top of Simpsons episodes . The emotion of " Lisa 's Wedding " is often compared with season 2 's " Lisa 's Substitute " . The Quindecim , a college newspaper , made their own top 25 list , ranking " Lisa 's Wedding " as the greatest episode of The Simpsons . They also criticized Entertainment Weekly for leaving this episode and " Lisa 's Substitute " off their top 25 list , saying it was the " equivalent of leaving the Sistine Chapel off a list of Michelangelo 's best work ... Serving well as bookends , these episodes are not only brilliantly funny , they 're among the most genuinely touching stories in the show 's entire run . "
Mandy Patinkin as Hugh is considered one of the best Simpsons guest spots by Chris Turner in his book Planet Simpson , who says that many of the best Simpsons guest stars have been lesser known celebrities . In a 2008 article , Entertainment Weekly named Patinkin one of the 16 best Simpsons guest stars . The Daily Telegraph characterized the episode as one of " The 10 Best Simpsons TV Episodes . "
On August 1 , 2010 , the day of Lisa 's wedding in the episode , the name " Lisa Simpson " was a trending topic on Twitter , a microblogging website . Most of the Twitter users that tweeted her name wished her a happy wedding day .
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= Cowes Castle =
Cowes Castle , also known as West Cowes Castle , is a Device Fort in Cowes on the Isle of Wight . Originally built by Henry VIII in 1539 to protect England against the threat of invasion from France and the Holy Roman Empire , it comprised a circular bastion , flanking wings and a keep , and in 1547 it housed 17 pieces of artillery . With its companion fortification at East Cowes , the castle overlooked the entrance to the River Medina , an important anchorage . The invasion threat passed but the fortification continued in use until the middle of the 19th century , very briefly seeing action in 1642 during the English Civil War .
Decommissioned in 1854 , the castle was first leased , and later bought outright , by the Royal Yacht Squadron to form their new clubhouse . The Squadron then employed the architect Anthony Salvin to rebuild large parts of it between 1856 and 1858 . It became the headquarters for part of the D @-@ Day invasion force during the Second World War , but has otherwise remained in use by the Squadron and is a distinctive landmark in yacht races along the Isle of Wight .
= = History = =
= = = 16th century = = =
Cowes Castle was built as a consequence of international tensions between England , France and the Holy Roman Empire in the final years of the reign of King Henry VIII . Traditionally the Crown had left coastal defences to the local lords and communities , only taking a modest role in building and maintaining fortifications , and while France and the Empire remained in conflict with one another , maritime raids were common but an actual invasion of England seemed unlikely . Modest defences , based around simple blockhouses and towers , existed in the south @-@ west and along the Sussex coast , augmented by a few more impressive works in the north of England , but in general the fortifications were very limited in scale .
In 1533 , Henry broke with Pope Paul III to annul the long @-@ standing marriage to his wife , Catherine of Aragon , and remarry . Catherine was the aunt of Charles V , the Holy Roman Emperor , and he took the annulment as a personal insult . This resulted in France and the Empire declaring an alliance against Henry in 1538 , and the Pope encouraging the two countries to attack England . An invasion of England appeared certain . In response , Henry issued an order , called a " device " , in 1539 , giving instructions for the " defence of the realm in time of invasion " and the construction of forts along the English coastline .
The Solent , a stretch of water that gave access to the ports of Southampton and Portsmouth , was considered vulnerable to attack . Two castles were built on the west and east sides of the River Medina , the entrance to the principal harbour of the adjacent Isle of Wight , and were intended to attack any enemy ships that might approach . The castles took their names from the traditional term for this location , " the Cowes " . Constructed in 1539 , the western fortification , which became known as West Cowes Castle , had a D @-@ shaped bastion at the front , a round , two @-@ storey keep at the rear and two low buildings on either side , all of which mounted artillery guns . The landward side was protected by a ditch 4 metres ( 13 ft ) wide and a stone wall at least 2 @.@ 4 metres ( 7 ft 10 in ) wide at the top . It was built from limestone ashlar stone , which may have been recycled from the demolition of nearby Beaulieu Abbey , a consequence of Henry 's recent dissolution of the monasteries .
Settlements grew up around both castles on the Medina , but East Cowes Castle was rapidly abandoned and ultimately destroyed by coastal erosion ; as a result , today West Cowes Castle is often simply referred to as Cowes Castle . Inspections in 1547 showed that there were 17 iron and brass artillery pieces at the fort , but that nine of these were inoperable ; nonetheless it continued in use as a fortification after the original invasion scare had ended , staffed with a garrison of a captain , porter and three gunners during Queen Elizabeth 's reign .
= = = 17th – 19th centuries = = =
Cowes Castle was used to house important visitors to the Isle of Wight and also as a prison ; the captain of the castle had further responsibilities for managing the arrival of foreign vessels . When the English Civil War broke out in 1642 between the supporters of Charles I and Parliament , the castle was initially held for the King by its captain , Humphrey Turney . On 12 August , as tensions between the rival factions on the island increased , Turney personally fired one of the castle 's guns at the nearby Parliamentary naval vessel Lion . An unidentified Scottish naval captain then came ashore on 16 August and captured Turney , before landing more men and taking the castle for Parliament , who held it for the rest of the war .
During the Interregnum , the castle continued to be used as a prison . Charles I could not be housed in the castle while en route to his imprisonment by Parliament at Carisbrooke Castle in 1647 because the facility was full , and he stayed at a local alehouse instead . The Royalist Sir William Davenant was imprisoned in Cowes during 1650 , writing the poem Gondibert while incarcerated . As with East Cowes Castle , coastal erosion proved a particular problem for the fortification . An inspection in 1692 reported that the walls were cracked and at risk of collapse , and the antiquarian Francis Grose observed in 1785 that the castle was " strongly fenced with piles and planks " to prevent erosion from the sea .
During the course of the 18th century , Cowes became a fashionable location for visitors , with several bathhouses , one of them located beside the castle , and by the early 19th century the town had become a noted resort . Cowes Castle was partially rebuilt in 1716 to modernise its accommodation . Most of the front of the keep was demolished and rebuilt with new windows , a turret for a spiral staircase was erected , new three- and two @-@ storey residential wings were added , and a garden was created over the landward defences . In 1795 , the writer Richard Warner noted that the garrison consisted of the captain , a porter , two soldiers , a master gunner and five regular gunners , their wages coming to £ 103 a year . The castle remained in use during the Napoleonic Wars , and in 1825 was equipped with eleven 9 @-@ pound ( 4 @.@ 1 kg ) guns . Warner had already complained , though , that the castle was " utterly useless " in military terms and a guidebook in 1824 echoed this judgement , describing Cowes as " useless as a place of defence " and ridiculing the sentries on duty there .
Lord Anglesey became the captain of Cowes Castle in 1826 , by now a sinecure rather than a regular military appointment , and spent part of each year at the castle , making further , lavish improvements to the interiors . Anglesey was also a member of the Royal Yacht Squadron , first established in 1815 , which then operated from the Gloster Hotel in Cowes . By this time yachting had become a prestigious local event ; the painter J. M. W. Turner sketched the yachts sailing off the castle when he visited in 1827 . When Anglesey died in 1854 the government decommissioned the castle and leased the property initially to Anglesey 's son @-@ in @-@ law Lord Conyngham , and then to the Squadron in 1855 .
The architect Anthony Salvin , an expert on adapting medieval buildings , was employed by the Squadron to remodel the building between 1856 and 1858 . He enlarged the house , altered its profile and built a new tower , platform and a gatehouse , along with a service wing , a ballroom and more accommodation for the members , at a cost of around £ 6 @,@ 000 . Prince Albert and Edward , the Prince of Wales , visited the castle before it was formally reopened in 1858 ; the work received mixed reviews , one local newspaper likening the result to " a discipline establishment " . Cowes became a major centre for yachting . After the destruction of William IV 's miniature frigate the Royal Adelaide in 1877 , its 21 brass cannons were donated to the castle by the Prince of Wales .
= = = 20th – 21st centuries = = =
Cowes Castle was bought outright from the Crown by the Royal Yacht Squadron in 1917 . Further development work was carried out on the property in the 1920s , and a ballroom in an adjacent hotel was purchased for use as an annexe for female members .
The Isle of Wight became an important staging location for the Allied efforts to invade France during the Second World War . By October 1942 , the castle was occupied by the British Admiralty and became the senior officer 's headquarters of the HQ Naval Commander Force " J " Landing Craft base , known as HMS Vectis . The force 's vessels docked in the nearby Solent , and took part in the D @-@ Day landings . The castle was damaged during the German bombing raids on the island .
After the war , the architect A. G. Biggs carried out substantial additions to the castle between 1962 and 1968 , including remodelling the western range to provide for more female accommodation , using stone from the second East Cowes Castle , an 18th and 19th @-@ century stately home , which had been demolished the previous year . A prefabricated conservatory extension followed in 1988 , and a new pavilion designed by Sir Thomas Croft was added in 2000 .
Archaeological excavations in the winter of 2010 – 11 rediscovered the remains of the old castle wall and ditch , and more than 400 artefacts were removed for storage at the Isle of Wight County Museum . Cowes Castle is a distinctive landmark in yachting and powerboat events , particularly at the start and finish of local races . It is protected under UK law as a 2 * Listed Building .
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= Merseyside Skeptics Society =
The Merseyside Skeptics Society ( MSS ) is a nonprofit organisation that promotes scientific skepticism in Merseyside and the United Kingdom . Founded in 2009 , the society has campaigned against the use of homeopathy , challenged the claims of psychics , and hosts regular events in Liverpool , podcasts , and an annual conference in Manchester , QED : Question . Explore . Discover .
As part of their Liverpool Skeptics in the Pub events the society hosts guest speakers , who have included Simon Singh , David Nutt , and Robert Llewellyn . It also organises the awareness and protest against homeopathy campaign , 10 : 23 .
= = History = =
The Merseyside Skeptics Society was founded in February 2009 to develop and support the skeptical community in Merseyside . The Society held its first speaker 's meeting on 17 September 2009 at the Crown Hotel in Liverpool , England . Professor Chris French , editor of The Skeptic magazine gave a talk entitled " The Psychology of Anomalous Experiences " . Merseyside Skeptics Society Limited was registered in the United Kingdom as a private , limited by guarantee , no share capital company on 20 August 2010 .
According to co @-@ founder Michael Marshall , the group chose to use the American spelling of ' skeptic ' because " in the States , the word isn ’ t as strongly linked to cynicism . It 's not seen as being as negative as it is over here . "
When climate change deniers began identifying as skeptics , vice president Michael Marshall made a clear distinction , stating : " In our view , climate change sceptics are not sceptics . A sceptic looks at the available evidence and makes a decision , and for homeopathy the evidence is that it doesn 't work . But the sceptical position on climate change is that it is happening . "
= = Activities = =
= = = Meetings = = =
The Society holds several regular meetings in the Liverpool area , including the Liverpool Skeptics in the Pub , Skeptic Dinners , and Women 's Socials . Liverpool Skeptics in the Pub holds two meetings a month , one of which is a social event and the other of which features a guest speaker . Guest speakers have included Ariane Sherine , Simon Singh , David Aaronovitch , Evan Harris , Elizabeth Pisani , Brian Deer , Jon Ronson , Stephen Law , David Nutt , Mark Stevenson , Mark Lynas and Robert Llewellyn , among others . Topics covered vary widely and include health care , science , atheism , the paranormal and supernatural , psychics , politics and psychology .
= = = Homeopathy = = =
In 2009 , the society wrote an open letter to pharmacy chain Boots in which they denounced the sales of homeopathic products in their store . In the letter they wrote that " We trust brands such as Boots to check the facts for us ... We don 't expect to find products on the shelf at our local pharmacy which do not work " , calling for them to remove the " bogus therapy " from their shelves .
The Society organised the 10 : 23 campaign to raise awareness of , and campaign against , homeopathy . This campaign included protests in 2010 against Boots for selling homeopathic preparations as equivalent to mainstream , scientifically @-@ based medicine and involved mass homeopathic overdoses outside Boots stores to mock what the protesters asserted to be the lack of efficacy in homeopathic products .
Following the overdose , Boots responded by saying " We know that many people believe in the benefits of complementary medicines and we aim to offer the products we know our customers want . " These protests took place in 70 cities in 30 countries around the world , including Australia and New Zealand , and resulted in no ill effects to those taking the products .
In addition , the Society has complained about GPs who have advocated alternative medicine including homeopathy .
= = = Sports wristband test = = =
In 2012 , Merseyside Skeptics Society investigated claims that the Shuzi Qi sports wristbands – bands supposed to improve athletic performance similar to Power Balance bands – had any effect . These bands were promoted in marketing materials as containing a computer chip programmed to " resonate with blood cells ' natural frequencies " , improving circulation by causing them to " unclump " , and were claimed to " bring your whole being into a state of balance where ... your endurance levels are increased . " The study cited by Shuzi UK used a technique called live blood cell analysis which has been discredited , and Merseyside Skeptics Society characterized the claims as " nonsensical techno @-@ babble " .
After the society conducted tests with a rugby player , it was reported that the bands had made " no discernable difference " and that when subject to double blind trials , the product failed to have any effect on the rugby player 's performance . Following the test , a spokesman for Shuzi UK stated that the claims made on its UK website would be updated ; however , the director of the company claimed that the tests were biased and unfair .
= = = Challenging psychic claims = = =
In 2011 , celebrity psychic Sally Morgan was accused of having an off @-@ stage assistant at her shows who passed information to her via radio . Merseyside Skeptics Society subsequently challenged her to participate in a test of her supposed powers , designed by psychologist Chris French . Around the same time , Simon Singh received emails from Sally Morgan 's solicitor , stating that she had instructed the solicitor to " take libel proceedings , if necessary , in relation to allegations that she is a cheat " following the campaign encouraging her to take the test .
The Society turned the initial challenge into an annual event titled the " Halloween Challenge " ; a scientific test to investigate if professional mediums could demonstrate psychic abilities in a controlled setting . In 2012 , researchers at Goldsmiths , University of London conducted the challenge with two professional mediums , who both agreed beforehand that it was a fair test of their abilities , asking them to attempt to identify information about five volunteers they had not previously met and could not see . The experiment involved the mediums writing details about the volunteers , who then had to identify themselves from the descriptions . With a success rate of one in five , the results showed little evidence of the mediums ' claimed psychic ability . One of the mediums described the test as " designed to confirm the researchers ' preconceptions " , saying that she had to work face @-@ to @-@ face to make a connection .
Vice @-@ president Michael Marshall supported the ban of the sale of tarot readings and spells on eBay in 2012 , stating he thought it was " solid consumer protection " . He continued that " tarot , spells and curses are all highly unproven " , noting that although many tarot readers are sincere and believe they have psychic abilities , " that doesn 't make it any more real . "
When the owner of a missing cat in Lincolnshire enlisted the help of a psychic , who said that it had been adopted by another family and would be found in an area children play , the society said : " Both of these are incredibly obvious scenarios to suggest for a missing cat , and would likely be the suggestions you 'd get from someone without psychic powers – and without the need for a fee , too . "
In June 2010 , Liverpudlian psychic Joe Power made allegations to the police that threats of violence had been directed towards him from members of the society on social media site Facebook . After police contacted the society in regards to the claims , a member was able to explain that the allegations were unfounded . In a statement on their website following the incident , they wrote " nobody involved with the Merseyside Skeptics Society – or anyone that I even know of – has ever made threats to Joe or his family , and we absolutely never will . "
= = = Podcasts = = =
Merseyside Skeptics Society produces three podcasts titled Skeptics with a K , InKredulous and Be Reasonable .
= = = = Skeptics with a K = = = =
Skeptics with a K , " the podcast for science , reason and critical thinking " , is the official podcast of the Society . Its first episode was recorded on 28 July 2009 , at Mike Hall 's home . The podcast features hosts Mike Hall , Michael " Marsh " Marshall and Colin Harris – in April 2014 replaced by Alice Howarth – discussing recent events from a skeptical point of view . Co @-@ host Michael Marshall described it as , " a fairly @-@ shambolic , overly @-@ enthusiastic and snarky mix of science , skepticism and sarcasm . " A popular semi @-@ regular segment , until 14 July 2011 when it concluded with a special " Best of " edition , was a fact check on the children 's book The Giant Book of Fantastic Facts . On 1 April 2013 , an entire episode consisted of fictional stories including a parody of Ghost Busters , a story about the " Mersey Book of Monsters " and one about the " Paranormal Investigation Society Scotland ( PISS ) " . The hosts have appeared as guests on other popular podcasts including Cognitive Dissonance and the Token Skeptic .
= = = = InKredulous = = = =
InKredulous is a comedy panel quiz show , inspired by shows such as Mock the Week , Have I Got News for You , and The News Quiz , featuring a variety of guests from the skeptic community . In the pilot episode , host Andy Wilson described it as " the quiz show where we satirically examine news stories , websites , events and personalities who will tweak the spider sense of our sceptical listeners and delicous looking panelists . " The first episode was released on 8 February 2010 . Hosts of other podcasts are frequently guests , including Steven Novella of The Skeptics ' Guide to the Universe , Robin Ince of Infinite Monkey Cage , George Hrab of Geologic , Brian Dunning of Skeptoid , Kylie Sturgess of Token Skeptic , Ross Blocher and Carrie Poppy of Oh No , Ross and Carrie ! , and others . Other notable guests include David Aaronovitch , Paul Zenon , and Jon Ronson .
= = = = Be Reasonable = = = =
Be Reasonable is a monthly interview show that engages guests with ideas outside the mainstream scientific consensus , such as a member of the Flat Earth Society . In the first episode , on 28 January 2013 , hosts Hayley Stevens ( until June 2014 ) and Michael Marshall described the show as an examination of their guests ' beliefs and their structure , and the evidence they believe supports these beliefs . Guests have discussed past life therapy , aura photography and the presence of aliens on Earth .
= = = QED : Question , Explore , Discover = = =
Starting in February 2011 the Merseyside Skeptics Society , in conjunction with the Greater Manchester Skeptics Society , began organising and presenting an annual two @-@ day skeptical science festival , QED : Question . Explore . Discover .
QED is organised by skeptics volunteers and any proceeds go back into the event or a charity . On the " Token Skeptic " podcast Michael Marshall said , " How we try to always pitch it and how we try and run it is - it 's all about the skeptical community . Because its being run by people who are just part of that community who are doing this because we really love it , the atmosphere , seems to be , of people coming together . It 's kind of a big party , a celebration of UK skepticism and also international skepticism " .
= = = = QED 2011 = = = =
The master of ceremonies for the first QED was George Hrab . Notable speakers included Steven Novella and Eugenie Scott , and episodes of the podcasts InKredulous , The Pod Delusion , and Strange Quarks were recorded live during the event . In an article on the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry website about the first QED conference , Kylie Sturgess said , " The organisers of QEDCon didn 't need to proclaim the success of their convention from the stage — it was evident from the beginning to the end . "
= = = = QED 2012 = = = =
The second QED convention in 2012 was sponsored by the Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science and featured speakers such as Robin Ince and Maryam Namazie . The Skeptic magazine awarded the first annual " Ockhams ' Awards " at QED 2012 . The categories and winners were ; Editor 's Choice Award – Mike Hutchinson from The Skeptic ; Best Skeptic Video – Tim Minchin 's " Storm " ; Best Science Video – Daniel Keogh and Luke Harris ; Best Skeptic Blog of 2011 – Skepchick ; Best Podcast – The Pod Delusion ; and Best Event / Campaign / Outreach – Robin Ince .
= = = = QED 2013 = = = =
The third QED , sponsored by the Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science and the British Humanist Association , featured speakers such as Richard Dawkins and Lawrence Krauss . The second annual Ockham 's Awards were presented to " Shut Up Infinity " ( Best Video ) ; Quackometer ( Best Blog ) ; Kylie Sturgess , Token Skeptic ( Best Podcast ) ; Skeptics on the Fringe , Edinburgh Skeptics Society ( Best Event / Campaign ) and The Pod Delusion ( Editor 's Choice ) .
= = = = QED 2014 = = = =
The fourth QED was hosted by magician Paul Zenon , who co @-@ wrote and appeared in the humorous opening film and was also a panelist . Notable speakers included Richard Wiseman , Elizabeth Pisani , Mark Crislip , Robert Llewellyn , Nathan Phelps , Susan Gerbic , Mark Edward and Deborah Hyde . The Ockham Awards for the year 2013 were hosted by Wiseman and included Skepticality ( Best Podcast ) , Leaving Fundamentalism by Jonny Scaramanga ( Best Blog ) , Nightingale Collaboration ( Best Campaign ) , Superstition ain 't the way : Kylie Sturgess at TEDxPerth ( Best Video ) and the QED organisers ( Editor 's Choice ) .
= = = = QED 2015 = = = =
The fifth QED took place in April 2015 and featured guest included Mitch Benn , A. C. Grayling , Harriet Hall , Lucie Green , Ryan Bell , Natalie Haynes , Jennifer Michael Hecht , Bruce Hood , Aron Ra , Kate Smurthwaite and Matt Dillahunty .
= = Board of directors = =
President – Mike Hall
Vice President & Press Officer – Michael Marshall
Secretary – Alice Howarth
Treasurer & Events Co @-@ ordinator – Andrew Johnston
Director – Laurie Phillips
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= Mount Redoubt =
Redoubt Volcano , or Mount Redoubt , is an active stratovolcano in the largely volcanic Aleutian Range of the U.S. state of Alaska . Located at the head of the Chigmit Mountains subrange in Lake Clark National Park and Preserve , the mountain is just west of Cook Inlet , in the Kenai Peninsula Borough about 180 km ( 110 mi ) southwest of Anchorage . At 10 @,@ 197 feet ( 3 @,@ 108 m ) , in just over 5 miles ( 8 km ) Mount Redoubt attains 9 @,@ 150 feet ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) of prominence over its surrounding terrain . It is the highest summit in the Aleutian Range .
Active for millennia , Mount Redoubt has erupted four times since it was first observed : in 1902 , 1966 , 1989 and 2009 , with two questionable eruptions in 1881 and 1933 . The eruption in 1989 spewed volcanic ash to a height of 45 @,@ 000 ft ( 14 @,@ 000 m ) . It caught KLM Flight 867 , a Boeing 747 aircraft , in its plume . After the plane descended 13 @,@ 000 feet , the pilots restarted the engines and landed the plane safely at Anchorage . The ash blanketed an area of about 7 @,@ 700 sq mi ( 20 @,@ 000 km2 ) . The 1989 eruption is also notable for being the first ever volcanic eruption to be successfully predicted by the method of long @-@ period seismic events developed by Swiss / American volcanologist Bernard Chouet . As of August 2015 , the Alaska Volcano Observatory has rated Redoubt as Aviation Alert Level Green and Volcano Alert Level Normal .
= = Name = =
The official name of the mountain is Redoubt Volcano , a translation of the Russian name " Sopka Redutskaya " , referring to , as does the word " redoubt " , " a fortified place " . A local name , " Ujakushatsch " , also means " fortified place " , but it is difficult to determine if one name is derived from the other . The Board on Geographic Names decided on the name " Redoubt Volcano " in 1891 .
The Global Volcanism Program of the Smithsonian Institution refers to the mountain simply as " Redoubt " , and lists the following as alternate names : Burnt Mountain , Goreloi , Mirando , Ujakushatsch , Viesokaia and Yjakushatsch . The Alaska Volcano Observatory also uses simply " Redoubt " ; it lists the same alternate names in addition to the following : Goryalaya ; Redoute Mtn . ; and Redutskaya , Sopka .
= = Geology = =
The volcano is about 3 @.@ 7 miles ( 6 @.@ 0 km ) in diameter at its base with a rough volume of 7 @.@ 2 to 8 @.@ 4 cu mi ( 30 – 35 km3 ) . The sides of the upper cone are relatively steep ( in comparison to volcanoes in general ) . Made up of pyroclastic flow deposits and lava flows , and resting on Mesozoic era rocks of the Aleutian Mountain Range batholith , the mountain has been somewhat weathered by movement of several glaciers that reside on it . The current main vent is on the north side of the crater by the head of the Drift glacier . Also present on the mountain are Holocene lahar deposits that extend as far as the Cook Inlet . This mountain has produced andesite , basalt and dacite , with relatively silicic andesite dominant in recent eruptions .
= = Eruptions = =
= = = Early reports = = =
Captain James Cook saw Mt . Redoubt during the summer of 1778 , describing it as " emitting a white smoke but no fire " which made some think it was no more than a white thick cloud such as we have frequently seen on the Coast , for the most part appearing on the sides of hills and often extends along a whole range and at different times falls or rises , expands or contracts itself and has a resemblance to Clouds of white smoke . But this besides being too small for one of those clouds , remained as it were fixed in the same spot for the whole time the Mountain was clear which was above 48 hours . " However , several sources call this a " discredited eruption " . There are several other of these activities that are not called eruptions .
In 1819 , smoke was observed at the mountain . However , this is often not recorded as an eruption as the information was insufficient to identify it as such . Similarly , in 2003 , a blowing cloud of snow was mistaken by an employee of the ConocoPhillips Building in Anchorage for an ash plume . Possible steam @-@ vapor let off was observed in 1933 at the mountain .
= = = 1881 = = =
There was apparently an eruption described as " to the eastward , Redoubt Volcano , 11 @,@ 060 feet ( 3 @,@ 370 m ) high , is constantly smoking , with periods of exaggerated activity . Fire has been seen issuing from its summit far out at sea . A great eruption took place in 1881 , when a party of native hunters half @-@ way up its slopes were overwhelmed by a lava @-@ flow and only two escaped . " However , this eruption is not well documented by other sources .
= = = 1902 = = =
The volcano erupted rather abruptly in 1902 , spewing out ash from January 18 to June 21 in the year . A local newspaper stated , " Word has just been received that Redoubt , one of the volcanoes at Cook 's Inlet had an eruption on January 18 , and the country for 150 miles ( 240 km ) around was covered with ashes and lava . The news comes from Sunrise , but nothing definite has been ascertained as to whether any damage was done , for no boats have as yet been in the neighborhood of the volcano . " There were many other news reports on the eruption , one describing the eruption as " a terrific earthquake which burst the mountain asunder leaving a large gap , " which could possibly suggest the crack formation in the volcano 's crater , however , it is unlikely . Supposedly , the volcano was ejecting " flames " from its caldera , and the eruption terrified natives in the area . Newspapers seemed to suggest that the ash had traveled for more than 150 miles ( 240 km ) , reaching the opposite side of the Cook Inlet .
= = = 1989 – 1990 = = =
The volcano erupted on December 14 , 1989 , and continued to erupt for over six months . Sudden melting of snow and ice at the summit caused by pyroclastic flows and dome collapses caused lahars , or mudflows , which flowed down the north flank of the mountain . A majority of the mudflows coursed to Cook Inlet , about 22 miles ( 35 km ) from the volcano . The lahars entered a nearby river , worrying officials that they might destroy an oil storage facility located along it .
Since lahars were produced repeatedly , scientists realized that they could use these to analyze a trial period for a newly developed device proposed to measure the movement of rocks against each other . This device , now known as an Acoustic Flow Monitor , alerts nearby stations to possible lahars .
The eruption also caused an airliner to have all four engines fail after a Boeing 747 @-@ 400 jumbo jet operated by KLM Royal Dutch Airlines flew into a cloud of volcanic ash . Damage from the eruption was estimated at $ 160 million , the second costliest volcanic eruption in United States history .
= = = 2009 = = =
= = = = Pre @-@ eruption = = = =
On January 30 , 2009 , scientists from the Alaska Volcano Observatory ( AVO ) warned that an eruption was imminent , sending experienced Alaskans shopping for protection against a dusty shower of volcanic ash that could descend on south @-@ central Alaska .
By January 31 , volcanic earthquakes increased to several per hour , and a large hole in the glacier on the side of the mountain was spotted . Scientists began to monitor seismic data from the mountain twenty @-@ four hours a day in an effort to warn people in nearby communities . A flyover conducted by the AVO detected " significant steaming from a new melt depression at the mouth of the summit crater near the vent area of the 1989 @-@ 90 eruption . "
= = = = March 15 = = = =
Seismic activity at Redoubt increased beginning about 13 : 00 ATZ . An AVO observation flight reported that a steam and ash plume rose as high as 15 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) above sea level and produced minor ash fall on the upper south flank of Redoubt . Later reports were that the plume was then mainly steam .
On the basis of this change in activity , AVO increased the level of concern and alert level to ORANGE / WATCH .
= = = = Emissions = = = =
The material ejected from the volcano mainly consisted of water vapor , along with smaller amounts of carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide . Further study by airborne monitors suggests that the materials were not oxidized much , and little of the concentration contained sulfates , less than 20 % .
= = = = Large scale eruptions begin = = = =
Mount Redoubt erupted explosively late in the evening of March 22 , 2009 . AVO has recorded numerous volcanic eruptions and / or explosions at Redoubt volcano .
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= SpiceJet =
SpiceJet is a low @-@ cost airline headquartered in Gurgaon , India . It is the fourth largest airline in the country by number of passengers carried , with a market share of 13 @.@ 1 % as of February 2016 . The airline operates 306 daily flights to 41 destinations , including 35 Indian and 6 international destinations from its hubs at Delhi and Hyderabad .
Established as air taxi provider ModiLuft in 1984 , the company was acquired by Indian entrepreneur Ajay Singh in 2004 and re @-@ christened as SpiceJet . The airline operated its first flight in May 2005 . Indian media baron Kalanidhi Maran acquired a controlling stake in SpiceJet in June 2010 through Sun Group which was sold back to Ajay Singh in January 2015 . The airline operates a fleet of Boeing 737 and Bombardier Dash aircraft .
= = History = =
= = = 1984 – 1996 : ModiLuft era = = =
The origins of SpiceJet can be tracked back to March 1984 when the company was established by Indian industrialist S. K. Modi to provide private air taxi services . On 17 February 1993 , the company was named as MG Express and entered into technical partnership with the German flag carrier Lufthansa . The airline provided passenger and cargo services under the name of Modiluft before ceasing operations in 1996 .
= = = 2005 – 2013 : Inception and expansion = = =
In 2004 , the company was acquired by Ajay Singh and the airline planned to restart operations as SpiceJet following the low @-@ cost model . SpiceJet leased two Boeing 737 @-@ 800 aircraft in 2005 and planned to order 10 new aircraft for expansion . SpiceJet opened bookings on 18 May 2005 and the first flight was operated between Delhi and Mumbai on 24 May 2005 . By July 2008 , it was India 's third @-@ largest low @-@ cost carrier in terms of market share after Air Deccan and IndiGo . Indian media baron Kalanidhi Maran acquired 37 @.@ 7 % stake in SpiceJet in June 2010 through Sun Group . The airline ordered 30 Boeing 737 @-@ 8 aircraft worth US $ 2 @.@ 7 billion July 2010 and a further 15 Bombardier Q4 Dash short @-@ haul aircraft worth US $ 446 million in December 2010 .
In 2012 , SpiceJet suffered a loss of over ₹ 390 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 8 million ) owing to increase in global crude prices . On 9 January 2012 , the Directorate General of Civil Aviation , reported that several airlines in India , including SpiceJet , have not maintained crucial data for the flight operations quality assurance . The Bombay Stock Exchange announced that ever since June 2011 , SpiceJet had been suffering losses . In 2012 , Kalanidhi Maran increased his stake in the airline by investing ₹ 1 billion ( US $ 15 million ) in the airline . The airline returned to profits at the end of the same year . In 2013 , SpiceJet entered into an inter airline pact with Tigerair on 16 December 2013 which was later scrapped in January 2015 .
= = = 2014 – present : Downturn and recovery = = =
In July 2014 , SpiceJet announced up to 50 percent discount in air fares due to competition . In August 2014 , SpiceJet became the second largest carrier in terms of passenger market share after IndiGo , beating full service carrier Jet Airways for the first time in its operational history . In December 2014 , financial losses and unpaid dues led to cancellation of many domestic flights . Directorate General of Civil Aviation issued a warning to the airline over non @-@ payment of salaries and dues and the carrier was put on cash @-@ and @-@ carry mode by airport operators , meaning the airline can use the airport facilities only upon prior payment of money . On 17 December 2014 , all flights were grounded after oil companies refused to refuel its planes due to non @-@ payment of dues with flights resuming the next day . Flights resumed the next day . In January 2015 , the Sun group sold its entire shareholding and transferred control to Ajay Singh .
In 2015 , SpiceJet 's operations experienced a significant turn around with 93 percent of available seats on flights being filled and only 0 @.@ 13 percent of scheduled flights canceled each month . The airline became profitable in the first three consecutive quarters of the year 2015 , in contrast to the previous five quarters when it suffered losses . As of January 2016 , it is the fourth largest airline in India in terms of passengers carried with a 13 @.@ 1 percent market share .
= = Corporate affairs = =
SpiceJet is headquartered in Gurgaon , India . Ajay Singh serves as the Managing Director of the airline since January 2015 . The airline 's logo consists of 15 dots arranged in three rows of five each in the order of their reducing sizes on a red background . In June 2015 , the airline unveiled its current logo with a new tagline Red . Hot . Spicy . SpiceJet names all its aircraft with the name of an Indian spice .
= = Destinations = =
As of July 2016 , SpiceJet operates 306 flights daily to 35 Indian and 6 international destinations . It operates hubs at Delhi and Hyderabad , which is the primary base for its fleet of Bombardier Q400 aircraft . After completing five years of flying , SpiceJet was allowed to commence international flights by Directorate General of Civil Aviation on 7 September 2010 . SpiceJet launched flights from Delhi to Kathmandu and Chennai to Colombo and the first international flight took off on 7 October 2010 from Delhi .
= = Fleet = =
= = = Current fleet = = =
As of July 2016 , the airline operates the following aircraft :
SpiceJet leased two Boeing 737 @-@ 800 aircraft in 2005 when it began operations and later inducted new Boeing 737 aircraft into its fleet . In February 2012 , SpiceJet announced that it would take the delivery of ten more aircraft during the year , of which seven would be the Bombardier Q400 .
= = = New orders = = =
SpiceJet placed its first firm order for 20 Next @-@ Generation Boeing 737 @-@ 800s in March 2005 , with deliveries scheduled up to 2010 . In November 2010 , in the presence of US president Barack Obama , the airline ordered 30 Boeing 737 @-@ 800s with winglets . On 9 December 2010 , Bombardier Aerospace announced that SpiceJet placed a firm order for 15 Q400 NextGen turboprop airliners and has also placed an option to buy another 15 of those . SpiceJet used its fleet of Q400s for short @-@ haul operations . In March 2014 , Spicejet signed a US $ 4 @.@ 4 billion deal with Boeing for the procurement of 42 737 @-@ 8 MAX aircraft . In 2015 , SpiceJet was in talks with both Boeing and Airbus for a possible order of more than 100 single aisle aircraft , either Airbus A320neo or the Boeing 737MAX with the same being confirmed by Managing Director , Ajay Singh in a conference in Dubai .
= = Services = =
Being a low @-@ cost carrier , SpiceJet offers only economy class seating accommodating 186 passengers per aircraft . To keep fares low , SpiceJet does not provide complimentary meals in any of its flights , though it does have a buy @-@ on board in @-@ flight meal programme . SpiceJet does not operate any frequent @-@ flyer programme and do not provide any in @-@ flight entertainment options . The airline offers premium services under the name Spice Add @-@ ons , where the passengers can avail additional benefits like a pre @-@ assigned seat , priority baggage handling and priority check @-@ in at a higher fare .
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= Battle of Labuan =
The Battle of Labuan was an engagement fought between Allied and Japanese forces on the island of Labuan off Borneo during June 1945 . It formed part of the Australian invasion of North Borneo , and was initiated by the Allied forces as part of a plan to capture the Brunei Bay area and develop it into a base to support future offensives .
Following several weeks of air attacks and a short naval bombardment , soldiers of the Australian 24th Brigade were landed on Labuan from American and Australian ships on 10 June . The Australians quickly captured the island 's harbour and main airfield . The greatly outnumbered Japanese garrison was mainly concentrated in a fortified position in the interior of Labuan , and offered little resistance to the landing . The initial Australian attempts to penetrate the Japanese position in the days after the invasion were not successful , and the area was subjected to a heavy bombardment . A Japanese raiding force also attempted to attack Allied positions on 21 June , but was defeated . Later that day , Australian forces assaulted the Japanese position . In the following days , Australian patrols killed or captured the remaining Japanese troops on the island . A total of 389 Japanese personnel were killed on Labuan and 11 were captured . Australian casualties included 34 killed .
After securing the island , the Allied forces developed Labuan into a significant base . The 24th Brigade left from the island to capture the eastern shore of Brunei Bay in late June , and the island 's airfield was repaired and expanded to host Royal Australian Air Force units . While occupying Labuan , the Allies had to reconstruct the island 's infrastructure and provide assistance to thousands of civilians who had been rendered homeless by the pre @-@ invasion bombardment . Following the war , a major Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemetery was established on Labuan .
= = Background = =
Labuan is a small island in the mouth of Brunei Bay with an area of 35 square miles ( 91 km2 ) . Before the Pacific War , it formed part of the British @-@ administered Straits Settlements and had a population of 8 @,@ 960 . The island had a town , Victoria , on its south coast which fronted onto Victoria Harbour , with a population of 8 @,@ 500 and limited port facilities . Aside from a 1 @,@ 500 @-@ yard ( 1 @,@ 400 m ) beach just to the east of Victoria , the coast was ringed by coral .
On 3 January 1942 , Japanese forces captured Labuan unopposed during the Battle of Borneo . The Japanese developed two airfields ( Labuan and Timbalai ) on the island , which were built by labourers who had been conscripted from the Lawas and Terusan regions of mainland Borneo . The island population was also subjected to harsh occupation policies . After Japanese forces suppressed a revolt at the town of Jesselton in late 1943 , which was led by Chinese @-@ ethnic civilians , 131 of the rebels were held on Labuan . Only nine rebels survived to be liberated by Australian forces in 1944 . Until mid @-@ 1944 , few Japanese combat units were stationed in Borneo .
In March 1945 the Australian Army 's I Corps , whose main combat elements were the veteran 7th and 9th Divisions , was assigned responsibility for liberating Borneo . Planning for the offensive was undertaken over the following weeks . While invading the Brunei Bay area did not form part of the initial iteration of the plans , it was added in early April after a proposed landing on Java was cancelled . The main purpose of attacking Brunei Bay was to secure it as a base for the British Pacific Fleet ( BPF ) , and gain control of oil fields and rubber plantations in the area . Labuan was to be developed as an air base and form part of a string of strategic positions which would allow the Allies to control the seas off the Japanese @-@ occupied coast between Singapore and Shanghai .
While the liberation of the Brunei area had been authorised by the United States Joint Chiefs of Staff , it was not supported by the British Chiefs of Staff Committee . The British leadership did not want the BPF to be diverted from the main theatre of operations off Japan and preferred to establish a base for the fleet in the Philippines . In response to a suggestion from the Joint Chiefs of Staff that Brunei Bay could support future operations in south @-@ east Asia , the Chiefs of Staff Committee judged that it would take too long to establish facilities there , especially as Singapore might have been recaptured by the time they were complete .
= = Preparations = =
= = = Allied planning = = =
The plans for the invasion of Borneo evolved considerably during April . Initially , the offensive was to commence on 23 April with the landing of a brigade from the 6th Division on the island of Tarakan , off the east coast of Borneo . The 9th Division would then assault Balikpapan followed by Banjarmasin in south @-@ east Borneo . These positions would be used to support the invasion of Java by the remainder of I Corps . After the attack on Java was cancelled , it was decided to employ two brigades of the 7th Division at Brunei Bay , and I Corps conducted further preparations on this basis . However , on 17 April General Douglas MacArthur 's General Headquarters ( to which I Corps reported ) swapped the roles of the 7th and 9th Divisions . Accordingly , the final plan for the attack against Borneo specified that one of the 9th Division 's brigades would land on Tarakan island on 29 April ( later postponed to 1 May ) , with the remainder of the division to invade the Brunei Bay area on 23 May . The 7th Division was scheduled to assault Balikpapan on 1 July . The Borneo campaign was designated the " Oboe " phase of the Allied offensive through the southern Philippines towards the Netherlands East Indies , and the landings at Tarakan , Brunei Bay and Balikpapan were designated Operations Oboe One , Six and Two respectively .
The 9th Division began to move from Australia to the island of Morotai in the Netherlands East Indies , where the Borneo campaign would be staged , in March 1945 . The division had seen extensive combat in North Africa and New Guinea , and its officers and enlisted men were well trained for amphibious operations and jungle warfare . However , the 9th Division had been out of action since early 1944 , leading to poor morale among its combat units . A large number of support , logistics and Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) units were assigned to the division for the operations at Brunei Bay , taking its strength to over 29 @,@ 000 personnel ( including 1 @,@ 097 in United States and British units ) .
Final preparations for the landings in the Brunei Bay area took place in May 1945 . After shortages of shipping delayed I Corps ' movement from Australia to Morotai , General Headquarters agreed on 8 May to reschedule the operation from 23 May to 10 June . The 9th Division 's staff completed their plans for operations in the Brunei Bay area on 16 May . The 24th Brigade Group was assigned responsibility for capturing Labuan , and the 20th Brigade Group was tasked with securing Brunei and Muara Island . Both brigades were to land simultaneously on the morning of 10 June . The invasion of the Brunei Bay region was to be preceded by attacks on Japanese bases and transport infrastructure across western and northern Borneo by United States and Australian air units , as well as three days of minesweeping operations in the bay itself .
The 24th Brigade Group was commanded by Brigadier Selwyn Porter . His main combat units for operations on Labuan were the 2 / 28th and 2 / 43rd Battalions , the 2 / 11th Commando Squadron and the 2 / 12th Field Regiment . In addition , a squadron from the 2 / 9th Armoured Regiment ( equipped with Matilda II tanks ) , a company of the 2 / 2nd Machine Gun Battalion and a range of engineer , signals and logistics units formed part of the brigade group . A party of 13 officers from the British Borneo Civil Affairs Unit ( BBCAU ) was also attached to the 24th Brigade and were tasked with restoring the colonial government on the island and distributing supplies to its civilian population . The 24th Brigade 's third infantry battalion , the 2 / 32nd Battalion , was assigned to the 9th Division 's reserve force . Porter and the 2 / 28th Battalion 's commander , Lieutenant Colonel Hugh Norman , had a difficult relationship which generated ill @-@ feeling between the two men and their respective headquarters . Porter considered relieving Norman of command before the landing on Labuan in the belief that he was exhausted and not capable of effectively leading his battalion , but decided against doing so after Norman made an emotional appeal to remain in his position .
The plans for the capture of Labuan specified that the 24th Brigade Group 's two infantry battalions were to land simultaneously on the beach near Victoria ( designated Brown Beach ) at 9 : 15 am , with the 2 / 28th Battalion coming ashore on the western side of the beach and the 2 / 43rd to the east . The 2 / 11th Commando Squadron was to be initially held in reserve on board the invasion fleet . The brigade group 's objectives were to secure a beachhead , capture the main airfield ( located north of Victoria and designated " No. 1 Strip " by the Australians ) , destroy the Japanese garrison , and prepare for further operations on the eastern shore of Brunei Bay . Priority was given to rapidly opening the port and airfield so that they could be used to support other operations .
Porter expected that fighting for the main objectives would begin soon after the landing , and decided to begin landing his artillery and heavy mortars with the assault waves of infantrymen , just before the tanks came ashore . The 2 / 28th Battalion was initially assigned responsibility for securing Victoria and Flagstaff Hill to its north , while the 2 / 43rd Battalion was tasked with capturing the airfield . Once these areas were in Australian hands , the 2 / 28th Battalion would secure the western part of the island while the 2 / 11th Commando Squadron captured the western shore of Victoria Harbour . Due to the Australian Army 's manpower shortages , all elements of the 9th Division were under orders to minimise their casualties during the Borneo Campaign and unit commanders would rely heavily upon the available air and artillery support during operations . The Australians estimated that the Japanese garrison on Labuan comprised 650 personnel , made up of 400 airfield troops , 100 naval troops and 150 other lines @-@ of @-@ communications personnel .
= = = Japanese preparations = = =
As the Allies advanced towards Borneo , additional units were dispatched from Japan during the second half of 1944 and the 37th Army was established in September to coordinate the island 's defence . In December 1944 , Japanese staff officers deduced that it was likely that Australian troops would be landed at strategic points on the east and west coasts of Borneo in about March the next year ( by which time they also expected United States forces to have liberated the Philippines ) . Accordingly , several Japanese units stationed in north @-@ east Borneo were ordered to march to the western side of Borneo . This movement proceeded slowly , owing to the distances involved and disruptions caused by Allied air attacks .
By June 1945 around 550 Japanese military personnel were stationed on Labuan . The main unit on the island was the 371st Independent Infantry Battalion ( almost in its entirety , save for one company located elsewhere ) with a strength of around 350 . This battalion formed part of the 56th Independent Mixed Brigade , which had arrived at Tawao in north @-@ east Borneo from Japan in July 1944 with six infantry battalions . During early 1945 the brigade headquarters , 371st Independent Infantry Battalion and three other battalions marched across the island to assume responsibility for defending the Brunei Bay area . Many of the 56th Independent Mixed Brigade 's soldiers fell sick during the march , and all four combat battalions were considerably below their authorised strength by the time they arrived at Brunei Bay . In June 1945 the 371st Independent Infantry Battalion was commanded by Captain Shichiro Okuyama . A detachment of about 50 men from the 111th Airfield Battalion was also on Labuan , along with around 150 men assigned to other small units . In line with Japanese doctrine , the Labuan garrison did not make preparations to contest the Allied landing force as it came ashore . Instead , it constructed defensive positions inland from the island 's beaches . Documents captured by Australian soldiers during the fighting on Labuan indicated that Okuyama had instructions to attempt to withdraw his force from the island if the battle went against him .
= = Battle = =
= = = Pre @-@ invasion operations = = =
Australian and United States air units began their pre @-@ invasion attacks on north Borneo in late May . The first attack on the Brunei Bay area took place on 3 May , and included a raid targeting the town of Victoria on Labuan . A large number of further attacks were conducted to suppress Japanese airfields and other facilities throughout north @-@ western and north @-@ eastern Borneo . The plans for the invasion of Brunei Bay had specified that the landings would be supported by aircraft based at Tarakan , but delays in rebuilding the airfield there rendered this impossible and reduced the scale of the pre @-@ invasion bombardment .
United States Navy minesweepers commenced operations in Brunei Bay on 7 June , and a flotilla of four cruisers and seven destroyers ( including an Australian light cruiser and destroyer ) served as a covering force . The minesweeping operation was successful , though USS Salute struck a mine on 8 June and sank with the loss of four lives . Underwater demolition teams investigated all of the landing beaches on 9 June searching for obstacles which could impede the landing craft . The teams assigned to clear obstacles off Labuan were endangered by an unauthorised attack on the island conducted by a force of American B @-@ 24 Liberator heavy bombers . Following the landings on 10 June , American Thirteenth Air Force aircraft flying from a base on Palawan Island in the Philippines provided close air support for the forces on Labuan until RAAF units based on the island were ready to take over .
The Australian Services Reconnaissance Department ( SRD ) also collected intelligence on Labuan and other parts of the Brunei Bay area during May . On the first of the month several RAAF PBY Catalina aircraft carrying SRD personnel overflew Labuan . These aircraft later landed near two native prahu and questioned their crews ; two sailors were flown back to an Allied base for further questioning . On 15 May two Malays working for the SRD were landed in Brunei Bay by a Catalina , and sailed to Labuan on board a prahu . These agents recruited a local civilian from Labuan , and the party was extracted by a Catalina near the mainland village of Kampong Mengalong on 19 May . The intelligence gained from these operations provided the Australians with a good understanding of Labuan 's geography and infrastructure . In addition , civilians who had been recruited by the SRD 's SEMUT 2 team ( which had been parachuted into Borneo during April ) provided intelligence on the size and movements of Labuan 's garrison force .
During the last days of May the 9th Division embarked at Morotai onto the ships which would transport it to Brunei Bay , and undertook rehearsals for the landing . Due to a shortage of shipping , the available vessels were heavily loaded and many soldiers were forced to endure cramped and hot conditions during the ten days before the landing . Australian official historian Gavin Long later wrote that for many troops these conditions " were as uncomfortable as any of the experiences that followed " during the campaign . The 24th Brigade Group was carried by a variety of landing ships : the two large Australian LSIs HMAS Manoora and Westralia , as well the attack cargo ship USS Titania , LSD USS Carter Hall , ten LSTs , five LCIs and seven LSMs from the United States Navy . A total of 38 small LCVPs and 26 LCMs were also assigned to land the brigade once it arrived off Labuan . Due to the coral reefs surrounding the island , the assault waves landed in LVTs of the US Army 's 727th Amphibious Tractor Battalion . The convoy carrying the 9th Division left Morotai on 4 June and arrived in Brunei Bay before dawn on 10 June . The main body of the convoy anchored off Labuan , and the remainder proceeded to the Brunei area . A Japanese aircraft dropped a bomb near two of the transport ships off Labuan at 6 : 51 am , but caused no damage .
= = = Landing = = =
The landing of the assault troops at Labuan went well . The Allied fleet began bombarding the landing area from 8 : 15 am , and seven Australian B @-@ 24 Liberators dropped anti @-@ personnel bombs in the area behind the intended beachhead . No Japanese forces opposed the two battalions ' assault forces as they came ashore in LVTs , and the landing of later waves of infantry and tanks went smoothly . The 2 / 43rd Battalion rapidly advanced north and captured No. 1 Strip in the evening of 10 June . Some Japanese soldiers attempted to defend the airfield area , and the 2 / 43rd Battalion claimed to have killed 23 Japanese for the loss of four Australians wounded .
A company from the 2 / 28th Battalion captured Victoria shortly after coming ashore , and the battalion first met opposition at Flagstaff Hill at 10 : 45 am . One of the battalion 's companies subsequently captured the hill , while its other companies continued to advance . The 2 / 28th Battalion encountered increasing opposition as the day progressed , particularly to the west of its area of responsibility . During the afternoon of 10 June the battalion engaged Japanese troops in the area west of Flagstaff Hill ( at the junction of Callaghan and MacArthur Roads ) , with the infantrymen being supported by tanks and mortars ; the Australians counted 18 Japanese dead by the end of the day , and suffered several fatalities and men wounded in this fighting . After civilians reported that no Japanese were stationed on the Hamilton peninsula which formed the western side of Victoria Harbour , a troop from the 2 / 11th Commando Squadron was landed in the area during 10 June and secured it without opposition .
During the afternoon of 10 June a group of senior officers , including General Douglas MacArthur , his air commander General George Kenney , and Australians Lieutenant General Morshead and Air Vice Marshal William Bostock ( head of RAAF Command ) , made an inspection tour of the Labuan beachhead . MacArthur insisted on seeing Australian soldiers in action , and the party visited a group of front line infantrymen before departing . The process of unloading supplies from the invasion fleet during 10 June proceeded quickly , and the ships began to depart for Morotai during the afternoon of 11 June .
The 24th Brigade 's goal for 11 June was to secure the airfield area . The 2 / 43rd Battalion patrolled to the north and west of the airfield during the day , meeting only light opposition . In contrast , the 2 / 28th Battalion ( which was tasked with advancing into Labuan 's interior ) encountered entrenched Japanese forces , and it became clear that it was facing the main body of the island 's garrison . Norman manoeuvred his companies to push the Japanese back , but the rate of advance was slow . The airfield engineers of No. 62 Wing RAAF were also landed during 11 June to begin work on returning No. 1 Strip to service ; reconstruction of the airfield began the next day .
On the basis of the fighting on 11 June , Porter judged that the Japanese were withdrawing into a stronghold position located to the north of Victoria and about 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) to the west of the airfield . On 12 June he directed the two battalions to patrol around the stronghold area . The 2 / 43rd Battalion patrolled the interior of Labuan to the west of No. 1 Strip , but located only a single Japanese position . This position was attacked and destroyed that day by the 2 / 43rd Battalion 's C Company supported by three tanks . The 2 / 28th Battalion sent patrols towards the stronghold area , with a company supported by a tank troop meeting heavy resistance as it pushed westwards along a track towards MacArthur Road . The 2 / 11th Commando Squadron also advanced north , and linked up with elements of the 2 / 43rd Battalion near the centre of Labuan during the late afternoon . The 371st Independent Infantry Battalion 's main radio was destroyed during an air attack on 12 June , cutting the unit off from the 37th Army 's headquarters . As a result of the patrolling , by the end of 12 June the location of the Japanese position was fairly well known to the Australian force . The 24th Brigade 's casualties to this point in the battle were 18 killed and 42 wounded , and the Australians believed that at least 110 Japanese had been killed . The 2 / 32nd Battalion was also landed on Labuan during 12 June , but remained in divisional reserve .
On 13 and 14 June the 24th Brigade Group continued operations aimed at forcing the Japanese garrison into the stronghold — dubbed " the Pocket " by the Australians . The 2 / 43rd Battalion secured the emergency airstrip at Timbalai on Labuan 's west coast on 13 June , and elements of the 2 / 28th Battalion continued to push west into the Pocket along MacArthur Road . A company from the 2 / 28th Battalion made another attack into the Pocket the next day after the 2 / 12th Field Regiment had fired 250 rounds into the area , but was forced to withdraw after being unable to overcome heavy resistance . By the conclusion of 14 June the Australians judged that , aside from the Pocket , the island was now secure . Porter assessed that an attack on this position would need to be made in strength using well @-@ coordinated forces .
Following the landing the BBCAU detachment and 24th Brigade were faced with a significant humanitarian challenge . The Allied air and naval attacks had destroyed almost all of the buildings on Labuan , rendering large numbers of civilians homeless . Within days of the invasion , about 3 @,@ 000 civilians were housed in a compound within the beachhead . The BBCAU party were unable to assist so many civilians , and the 24th Brigade needed to assign soldiers to support them and transport supplies .
= = = Destruction of the Japanese garrison = = =
The Japanese stronghold position was about 1 @,@ 200 yards ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) long from north to south , and 600 yards ( 550 m ) wide . The terrain within this area comprised a series of small jungle @-@ covered ridges , and the position was bordered on the western and southern sides by swamps . The main terrain features within the Pocket were three areas of high ground named Lushington Ridge , Norman Ridge and Lyon Ridge by the Australians . There were only two feasible routes into the area . The first was a track which led south into the position along Lyon Ridge and Norman Ridge ; this was passable by tanks but heavily mined . The other route was a track which ran into the eastern side of the Pocket from MacArthur Road along Lushington Ridge and joined the other track at Norman Ridge . It is likely that around 250 Japanese personnel were initially stationed within the Pocket .
In order to minimise the casualties to his brigade , Porter decided to isolate the Pocket with two infantry companies while a heavy artillery barrage was fired into the area over several days . An attempt to capture the Pocket would only be made once it was judged that the Japanese were no longer capable of resisting effectively . As part of this plan , the 2 / 12th Field Regiment eventually fired 140 tons of shells into the Pocket between 15 and 20 June .
The 2 / 28th Battalion probed into the Pocket on 16 June . The previous day a 2 / 11th Commando Squadron patrol had reported that the track along Lyon Ridge would be passable by tanks if a bomb crater was filled , and on the morning of the 16th A Company from the 2 / 28th Battalion accompanied by a troop of three tanks and a bulldozer began to move south along it . After the bulldozer filled the crater , the force continued along Lyon Ridge but became pinned down by heavy fire from Japanese troops on Eastman Spur to the south @-@ east of the ridge . One of the Australian tanks was damaged . A subsequent attempt by a section from the 2 / 11th Commando Squadron to advance towards Eastman Spur to the east of A Company was also beaten back , with two Australians killed and another wounded . A Company resumed its advance during the afternoon , supported by a new troop of tanks . The three tanks moved ahead of the infantry , and killed eight or ten Japanese personnel , but one was damaged by a bomb and another became bogged . By the end of the day , A Company had suffered five men killed and 23 wounded . Overall , 150 patients were admitted by the 24th Brigade 's attached medical units during 16 June , which stretched their capacity .
Due to the losses his brigade suffered on 16 June , Porter decided to continue the bombardment before undertaking further attacks . On 18 and 19 June the bombardment of the Pocket was intensified when the heavy cruiser HMAS Shropshire fired into the area . Infantrymen supported by tanks conducted another probe into the Pocket on 19 June , and killed 10 Japanese ; three Australians were wounded . On 20 June the 2 / 12th Field Regiment fired a particularly heavy bombardment and six Allied bombers attacked the Pocket . Porter judged that this would be sufficient to suppress the Japanese defenders , and ordered that the Pocket be attacked by two companies from the 2 / 28th Battalion supported by tanks ( including " Frog " flamethrower variants of the Matilda II ) the next day .
In the early hours of 21 June a force of about 50 Japanese troops slipped out of the Pocket and attempted to attack Australian positions on Labuan . Different groups of Japanese troops attacked a prisoner of war enclosure , dock facilities and No. 1 Strip , but all were defeated by Australian and American logistics personnel and engineers . A total of 32 Japanese personnel were killed around Victoria , and another 11 were killed at the airfield . Three Americans and two Australians were killed in these engagements .
The Japanese attack did not delay the Australian assault on the Pocket . At 10 am on 21 June , C Company of the 2 / 28th Battalion began to advance to the west along Lushington Ridge , and D Company moved south from Eastman Spur . D Company was supported by a troop of three conventional Matilda tanks and two Frog flamethrowers . C Company advanced about half of the way into the Pocket before being halted by Norman who was concerned that they might be accidentally attacked by D Company , which was also making good progress . The force built around D Company subsequently completed the occupation of the Pocket , with the flamethrower tanks playing a key role . The Japanese soldiers who had survived the artillery bombardment offered little resistance to the Australian forces . The 24th Brigade assessed that 60 Japanese personnel were killed in the final assault on the Pocket , with 117 being killed by the artillery bombardment which had preceded it .
From 21 June , the 2 / 12th Commando Squadron conducted patrols of the outlying areas of Labuan to clear them of any Japanese forces ; up to this point the squadron had formed part of the 9th Division 's reserve . Each troop of the squadron was assigned a different sector of Labuan , and by mid @-@ July had completed its task . During these patrols the squadron killed 27 Japanese soldiers , mainly as part of repelling a raid on the BBCAU compound on 24 June , and captured a single prisoner . The 2 / 12th Commando Squadron was subsequently directed to undertake topographic work in order to improve the quality of maps of the island . The 24th Brigade 's total combat casualties in its operations on Labuan were 34 killed and 93 wounded . The Australian soldiers counted 389 Japanese dead and took 11 prisoners .
= = Aftermath = =
The process of bringing No. 1 Strip back into service went well . Nos 4 and 5 Airfield Construction Squadrons were assigned the task . A 4 @,@ 000 @-@ by @-@ 100 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 220 by 30 m ) unsurfaced temporary runway was constructed at a 5 ° angle to the existing strip . The first RAAF aircraft , two P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks from No. 76 Squadron , landed on the strip on 17 June , and commenced operations from this base the next day . No. 457 Squadron , which was equipped with Spitfires , arrived on 18 June though two of its aircraft crashed on the still @-@ unfinished runway and had to be written off . The units based at the airfield took over responsibility for providing air support for the Army units on Labuan that day , and flew their first close air support sorties over the island on 19 June . No. 86 Wing 's two flying squadrons — No. 1 and No. 93 — also arrived on Labuan in late July , but conducted few operations from this base before the end of the war . The wing had originally been scheduled to move to Labuan in late June , but it took longer than expected to extend No. 1 Strip 's runway to the length needed by No. 1 Squadron 's Mosquito light bombers .
To reconstruct No. 1 's existing runway as an all @-@ weather strip , the bomb craters had to have the water pumped out of them and then be filled in . Sandstone from a quarry on northern Labuan was placed over the clay and sand subbase , and the runway was topped with crushed coral from the west coast of the island , and sealed with bitumen . The 5 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) runway had 70 hardstandings for aircraft . With 70 also on the dry weather strip , the air base could accommodate 140 aircraft . The 9th Division 's engineers also undertook a wide range of construction projects on Labuan . These included building 356 @,@ 000 square feet ( 33 @,@ 100 m2 ) of storage , new port facilities , bridges and oil tanks as well as surfacing 29 miles ( 47 km ) of roads . A wharf for Liberty ships was begun on 18 June , allowing the first ship to berth on 10 July . A fuel jetty was in operation by 20 June , and a fuel tank farm with seven 2 @,@ 300 @-@ US @-@ barrel ( 270 @,@ 000 l ; 72 @,@ 000 US gal ; 60 @,@ 000 imp gal ) tanks was completed on 12 July , as was a 600 @-@ bed hospital . Work then began on a 1 @,@ 200 @-@ bed general hospital . The 2 / 4th and 2 / 6th Australian General Hospitals were transferred from Morotai to Labuan during July , though the later unit 's hospital facilities were not completed until 17 September .
Once Labuan was secured , the 24th Brigade was ordered to capture the eastern shore of Brunei Bay . On 16 June , the 2 / 32nd Battalion was transported from Labuan to Padas Bay . The battalion captured the town of Weston the next day . The remainder of the 24th Brigade was transported across the bay during the last week of June , and the force advanced inland to capture the town of Beaufort which was defended by between 800 and 1 @,@ 000 Japanese personnel . Following some heavy fighting , the town was secured on 28 June . The brigade then advanced further inland to Papar in early July . Later that month the 9th Division 's commander , Major General George Wootten , relieved Norman from command over an incident in which he had lost control of the 2 / 28th Battalion during the fighting on Labuan . Following the announcement of the surrender of Japan on 15 August 1945 and the formal ceremony held in Tokyo Bay on 2 September , the commander of the 37th Army , Major General Masao Baba , surrendered to Wootten on 10 September at a ceremony conducted at the 9th Division 's headquarters on Labuan .
After the war , Labuan was one of several locations at which the Australian military conducted trials to prosecute suspected Japanese war criminals . A total of 16 trials were held on the island between 3 December 1945 and 31 January 1946 , during which 128 men were convicted and 17 acquitted . Labuan War Cemetery was also established as the burial place for all of the Commonwealth personnel killed on or near Borneo . It includes 3 @,@ 900 graves , most of which are for prisoners of war who died while being held by the Japanese .
Memorials have also been erected on Labuan to mark its wartime history . These include the Australian Battle Exploit Memorial at Brown Beach , a plaque marking the location of the 37th Army 's surrender ceremony and a Japanese peace park .
= = = Works consulted = = =
24th Brigade ( 1945 ) . " AWM52 8 / 2 / 24 / 36 – June 1945 , Appendices " ( PDF ) . AWM52 8 / 2 / 24 – 24 Infantry Brigade . Australian War Memorial . Retrieved 3 January 2015 . ( page numbers cited are those of the PDF document on the AWM website )
Casey , Hugh J. , ed . ( 1951 ) . Airfield and Base Development . Engineers of the Southwest Pacific . Washington , D.C. : United States Government Printing Office . OCLC 220327037 .
Converse , Allan ( 2011 ) . Armies of Empire : The 9th Australian and 50th British Divisions in Battle 1939 – 1945 . Port Melbourne , Victoria : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 19480 @-@ 8 .
Coombes , David ( 2001 ) . Morshead : Victor of Tobruk and El Alamein . South Melbourne : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 551398 @-@ 3 .
Coulthard @-@ Clark , Chris ( 2001 ) . The Encyclopaedia of Australia 's Battles . Sydney : Allen & Unwin . ISBN 1 @-@ 86508 @-@ 634 @-@ 7 .
Dredge , A.C.L. ( 1998 ) . " Order of Battle : Intelligence Bulletin No. 237 , 15 June 1946 " . In Gin , Ooi Keat . Japanese Empire in the Tropics : Selected Documents and Reports of the Japanese Period in Sarawak Northwest Borneo 1941 – 1945 . Volume 2 . Athens , Ohio : Ohio University Press. pp. 572 – 598 . ISBN 0 @-@ 89680 @-@ 199 @-@ 3 .
Gill , G Herman ( 1968 ) . Royal Australian Navy , 1942 – 1945 . Australia in the War of 1939 – 1945 . Series 2 – Navy . Volume II . Canberra : Australian War Memorial . OCLC 65475 .
Gin , Ooi Keat ( 1999 ) . Rising Sun Over Borneo : The Japanese Occupation of Sarawak , 1941 – 1945 . Basingstoke , Hampshire : Macmillan Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 333 @-@ 71260 @-@ 9 .
Gin , Ooi Keat ( 2002 ) . " Prelude to invasion : covert operations before the re @-@ occupation of Northwest Borneo , 1944 – 45 " . Journal of the Australian War Memorial 37 . ISSN 1327 @-@ 0141 . Retrieved 18 April 2015 .
Gin , Ooi Keat ( 2013 ) . Post @-@ War Borneo , 1945 – 1950 : Nationalism , Empire and State @-@ Building . London : Routledge . ISBN 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 55959 @-@ 6 .
Hutchinson , Garrie ( 2006 ) . Pilgrimage : A Traveller 's Guide to Australia 's Battlefields . Melbourne : Black Inc . ISBN 1 @-@ 86395 @-@ 387 @-@ 6 .
Johnston , Mark ( 2002 ) . That Magnificent 9th : An Illustrated History of the 9th Australian Division 1940 – 46 . Sydney : Allen & Unwin . ISBN 1 @-@ 86508 @-@ 654 @-@ 1 .
Long , Gavin ( 1963 ) . The Final Campaigns . Australia in the War of 1939 – 1945 . Series 1 – Army . Volume VII . Canberra : Australian War Memorial . OCLC 1297619 .
Morison , Samuel Eliot ( 2002 ) [ 1957 ] . The Liberation of the Philippines – Luzon , Mindanao , the Visayas , 1944 – 1945 . History of United States Naval Operations in World War II . Volume 13 . Champaign , Illinois : University of Illinois Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 252 @-@ 07064 @-@ X.
Odgers , George ( 1968 ) [ 1957 ] . Air War Against Japan , 1943 – 1945 . Australia in the War of 1939 – 1945 . Series 3 – Air . Volume II . Canberra : Australian War Memorial . OCLC 1990609 .
Pratten , Garth ( 2009 ) . Australian Battalion Commanders in the Second World War . Port Melbourne , Victoria : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 76345 @-@ 2 .
Rottman , Gordon L. ( 2002 ) . World War II Pacific Island Guide . A Geo @-@ Military Study . Westport : Greenwood Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 313 @-@ 31395 @-@ 4 .
Walker , Allan Seymour ( 1957 ) . The Island Campaigns . Australia in the War of 1939 – 1945 . Series 5 – Medical . Volume III . Canberra : Australian War Memorial . OCLC 249848614 .
Waters , Gary ( 1995 ) . " The Labuan Island and Brunei Bay Operations " . In Wahlert , Glenn . Australian Army Amphibious Operations in the South @-@ West Pacific : 1942 – 45 ( PDF ) . Canberra : Australian Army Doctrine Centre. pp. 42 – 59 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 642 @-@ 22667 @-@ 9 .
Wilson , David ( 1998 ) . Always First : The RAAF Airfield Construction Squadrons 1942 – 1974 . Canberra : Air Power Studies Centre . ISBN 0 @-@ 642 @-@ 26525 @-@ 9 .
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= Frog Fractions =
Frog Fractions is a 2012 browser game developed by Twinbeard Studios , a company composed primarily of founder Jim Crawford . The game , released on October 25 , 2012 , has been described as a spoof of the edutainment game genre . In the game , the player begins by controlling a frog to eat bugs and defend fruit . Later on , the player may spend points on upgrades to improve their frog 's abilities . The game does not actually teach the player about fractions ; the player 's score is given in fractions , but no knowledge of them is necessary to play .
= = Gameplay = =
Frog Fractions begins with a frog sitting on a lily pad . The player controls the frog , and must use its tongue to attack insects , while collecting and protecting fruit . The game later introduces upgrades that the player may purchase , including lock @-@ on targeting , a cybernetic brain , and a flying dragon . When the player collects enough fruit , they can buy a warp drive , which lets them ride their dragon through an asteroid field to Bug Mars , where the player then battles an alien robot squid . The player is then sent to Bug Court , where they sign their work visa . The player then travels under the water below Bug Mars , while listening to a narrated history of the creation of boxing . At the end of the maze , the player activates a spaceship , and must complete a text adventure game to return to Bug Mars , where the game appears to end ( actually fake credits ) . Upon returning , the player runs for president in a music simulator game . Regardless of how well they perform , they succeed in being elected president , and must complete a business simulator manufacturing bug pornography to unlock further upgrades . Once all required upgrades are collected the game concludes . The game takes about one hour to complete .
= = Development = =
Crawford originally created Frog Fractions to entertain his friends , and to see their reactions when they first played it . Later on , he felt that with the indie genre taking off , Frog Fractions was taken more seriously among gamers . Crawford noted that although critics often described the game as a satire on old educational games , he never intentionally developed Frog Fractions with that in mind . Instead , Crawford explained that Frog Fractions had an educational theme because of the name 's alliteration , and because he considered educational games a part of his youth .
Originally , Frog Fractions included tutorials to teach the player how to progress through the game . However , after Crawford asked his friend Tim Ambrogi to play test the game , Ambrogi stated that he did not want to read any of the informational popups that appeared throughout the game because he was too busy focusing on the gameplay . Crawford added transitions that made the game feel like a " dream @-@ like progression " , which he believed would better appeal to players . For transitions in the game 's latter half , Crawford wanted the transitions to entertain players more , rather than attempt to make any sense of the game 's story . PC World complimented Frog Fractions for using the transitions to draw connections between each scene to add a feeling of consistency , despite the often strange transitions that take place .
In order to make money from Frog Fractions , Crawford first sold the game 's soundtrack , with part of the proceeds going to the game 's music team . He later decided to sell T @-@ shirts containing jokes from the game in order to benefit its art team . While developing Frog Fractions , Crawford said that he came up with a lot of other video game ideas , but he then realized that he could implement them immediately into Frog Fractions rather than start a new project , due to the game 's unpredictable nature .
= = Release = =
Crawford released Frog Fractions earlier than he wanted , when he sent an incomplete version to the 2013 Independent Games Festival as a " Main Competition Entrant " but was told that he needed to increase the game 's popularity before it would be accepted . Subsequently , he let Gamasutra editor and popular Twitter user Brandon Sheffield play the game , who enjoyed it so much that he shared it with his more than 3 @,@ 000 Twitter followers . Within a day , tens of thousands of people had played the game .
After the game 's release , players began requesting new features , such as more updates , a high definition version for tablets and smartphones , and a sequel . Crawford is interested in developing a high definition version in which he could include some leftover ideas , but admits that he is unsure if this will ever materialize . He notes that he created Frog Fractions to gain visibility for himself rather than to profit from it . Frog Fractions has been described as being possibly the " greatest game of all time " by Rock Paper Shotgun , who credit the wild range of gameplay mechanics . It has also been called " the most deranged thing you 'll play this year " by Eurogamer , and " either the best or worst piece of math edu @-@ tainment in history " by the Gameological Society . The game won Giant Bomb 's " URL of the Year " award for 2012 . In March 2014 , Twinbeard launched a Kickstarter campaign to crowdfund the development of a sequel entitled Frog Fractions 2 .
= = Sequel = =
Frog Fractions 2 is a sequel to the free , browser @-@ based game Frog Fractions , which was developed by the game studio Twinbeard , founded by Jim Crawford . In the style of the original , Frog Fractions 2 is intended to have hidden elements that will reveal themselves to careful players . Crawford stated that Frog Fractions 2 would be released publicly without any announcement from himself or Twinbeard , and it will be the players ' job to find it . The lead @-@ up to discovering the game is the subject of a multiple @-@ year ARG , or Alternate Reality Game , and the subject of much media attention . Eventually , the game will be available as a downloadable standalone program for Windows , OS X , and Linux .
= = = Funding and development = = =
The potential future existence of Frog Fractions 2 was announced as part of a Kickstarter campaign . The campaign was started in March 2014 and was funded and complete on April 11 , 2014 , exceeding its original goal of $ 60 @,@ 000 , for a total funded amount of $ 72 @,@ 107 with 2 @,@ 571 backers .
A video accompanying the Kickstarter page held a series of clues that led interested participants to find out more information about where Frog Fractions 2 would eventually appear on the internet . These clues have been discussed and analyzed in online forums , and there have been a few attempts to summarize early puzzle in the ARG . Although the ARG is a critical part of the eventual revelation of Frog Fractions 2 's release , it is a large , collaborative effort to solve the puzzles written for it , and is functionally a different game than the downloadable version promised in the Kickstarter campaign .
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= Dan Brouthers =
Dennis Joseph " Dan " Brouthers ( / ˈbruːθərz / ; May 8 , 1858 – August 2 , 1932 ) was an American first baseman in Major League Baseball whose career spanned the period from 1879 to 1896 , with a brief return in 1904 . Nicknamed " Big Dan " for his size , he was 6 feet 2 inches ( 1 @.@ 88 m ) and weighed 207 pounds ( 94 kg ) , which was large for 19th @-@ century standards .
Recognized as the first great slugger in baseball history , and among the greatest sluggers of his era , he held the record for career home runs from 1887 to 1889 , with his final total of 106 tying for the fourth most of the 19th century . His career slugging percentage of .519 remained the Major League record for a player with at least 4 @,@ 000 at bats until Ty Cobb edged ahead of him in 1922 . At the time of his initial retirement , he also ranked second in career triples ( 205 ) , and third in runs batted in ( 1 @,@ 296 ) and hits .
A dominating hitter during the prime of his career , he led ( or was in the top of ) the league in most offensive categories , including batting average , runs scored , runs batted in ( RBI ) , on @-@ base percentage and hits . He led the league in batting average five times , the most by a 19th @-@ century player , and his career .342 batting average still ranks ninth all @-@ time . Brouthers is one of only 29 players in baseball history to date who have appeared in Major League games in four decades .
He was also an active players ' union member , and was elected vice president of the Brotherhood of Professional Base Ball Players . Brouthers was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1945 by the Veterans Committee .
= = Early career = =
Born in Sylvan Lake , New York , he played organized baseball from the time that he was a child , from playing in the local sandlots to the semi @-@ professional Actives of Wappingers Falls , New York . On July 7 , 1877 , while running the bases , he collided at home plate with a catcher , named Johnny Quigley , of the Clippers of Harlem . Quigley was knocked unconscious , having suffered a traumatic head injury , and later died from these injuries on August 12 . The 19 @-@ year @-@ old Brouthers was cleared of any wrongdoing by the authorities .
= = Major League career = =
= = = Troy = = =
Brouthers made his Major League debut on June 23 , 1879 , for the Troy Trojans , and contributed a single in a come @-@ from @-@ behind victory against the Syracuse Stars . Although he was a first baseman , he was called upon to pitch that season with the Trojans in three games , one of which was on August 21 against Tommy Bond and the Boston Red Caps . Brouthers lost 16 – 0 , and within two weeks he was released from the club . He hit .274 that first season , with four home runs , and had 17 RBIs in 39 games played .
After his release , Brouthers played for a minor league team in Rochester , New York , and on one occasion in 1880 , he hit a game @-@ winning home run in an exhibition game versus the Buffalo Bisons , off future Hall of Fame pitcher Pud Galvin . He hit well enough in the minors to get another shot with the Trojans , which lasted just three games when he had only two hits in 12 at bats , and he was released again .
= = = Buffalo = = =
He got his first chance to be an everyday player in 1881 , when he was signed by the Bisons , the team that he did well against the previous year . That season he batted .319 , and played with them until the team folded after the 1885 season . In his first season with the Bisons , he led the National League ( NL ) in home runs and slugging percentage . Brouthers , along with teammates Jack Rowe , Hardy Richardson and Deacon White , became known as the " Big Four " . In 1882 and 1883 he won his first two batting titles , posting .368 and .374 averages , respectively . Along with his two batting titles , during his time in Buffalo he also led the NL in slugging five times , hits and total bases twice each , and triples and RBIs once each , with his 1883 total of 97 RBIs setting a new Major League record ; Cap Anson had set the previous mark of 83 the year before , and retook the record the following year with a total of 102 . On July 19 , 1883 , Brouthers went 6 @-@ for @-@ 6 with two doubles in a 25 – 5 defeat of the Philadelphia Quakers .
= = = Detroit and The Brotherhood = = =
At the end of the 1885 season , Buffalo was going through financial trouble and were forced to sell off their players , so " The Big Four " were sold to the Detroit Wolverines of the NL for US $ 7 @,@ 000 . In 1886 , his first season in Detroit , he again led the league in slugging percentage , the sixth year in a row , and led the league in total bases and doubles and claimed his first home run title . He finished within the top 10 in most offensive categories , including a third @-@ place finish in the batting race with a lofty .370 average . On September 10 , 1886 , Brouthers hit three home runs ‚ along with a double and a single , to set the NL record with 15 total bases in one game . This mark tied the Major League record at the time , as Guy Hecker of the Louisville Colonels totaled 15 the previous month in the American Association .
The Detroit team was filled with stars from the era , including future Hall of Famers Sam Thompson and Ned Hanlon , as well as second baseman Fred Dunlap , the " Big Four " , and the pitching of Lady Baldwin and Charlie Getzien . The team finished with a record of 87 wins and 36 losses , but finished in second place behind the Chicago White Stockings by 2 1 ⁄ 2 games .
During the off @-@ season , on November 11 , 1886 , The Executive Council of the Brotherhood of Professional Base Ball Players ‚ formed in 1885 as the first organized players ' union , met and re @-@ elected John Montgomery Ward as president , and elected Brouthers as vice president .
In 1887 , with the 1886 roster intact , the Wolverines finished in first place , besting the Quakers by 3 1 ⁄ 2 games . Brouthers batted .338 , and led the league in runs scored with 153 , doubles with 36 , and on @-@ base percentage , while again finishing in the top 10 in most offensive categories . The Wolverines , behind the bats of Brouthers , Thompson and Richardson , led the League in batting , runs scored and slugging , and went on to face the St. Louis Browns in a best @-@ of @-@ 15 post @-@ season tournament , the " World 's Series " . The Wolverines sealed a series championship with their eighth victory in 11 games ; however , the two teams finished the series anyway , with Detroit winning 10 games to the Browns ' five . Brouthers only played in one of those games , getting two hits in three at bats .
Following the season , on November 17 , 1887 , members of the NL officially recognized the Brotherhood and met with a Brotherhood committee that consisted of three players – Ward ‚ Hanlon and Brouthers .
The 1888 Detroit team did not fare as well , finishing in fifth place with a record of 68 – 63 , which was a full 16 games behind the first @-@ place New York Giants . Brouthers ' numbers declined as well , as he did not produce at the same level of his previous seasons . Even with the lower numbers , he still led the league in runs scored with 118 , and doubles for the third year in a row . The team 's decline is attributed to prolonged injuries sustained by key players , while turmoil that unfolded concerning veteran stars ' salary demands , and with falling attendance numbers , the club was forced to fold at the season 's end . Brouthers was then purchased by the Boston Beaneaters of the NL on October 16 .
= = = Boston = = =
In 1889 , his only season with the Beaneaters , he batted a league @-@ leading .373 , along with 105 runs scored and 118 runs batted in ; he struck out only six times . The first strikeout occurred on June 11 , when he fell victim to Mickey Welch of the Giants .
After the season , he – along with many Major League players – jumped to the Players ' League , a league established by the Brotherhood which competed against the two other Major Leagues already in existence . Brouthers signed with the Boston Reds , and batted .330 while leading the league in on @-@ base percentage and slugging . The Reds , behind the talents of Brouthers , Harry Stovey , Hardy Richardson , Charles Radbourn and player @-@ manager King Kelly , finished in first place , 6 1 ⁄ 2 games ahead of the Brooklyn Ward 's Wonders .
The Players ' League lasted just the one season , and the Reds merged into the American Association , carrying many of the championship team 's previous players . Again , the team won the league 's championship , finishing 8 1 ⁄ 2 games ahead of the St. Louis Browns . Brouthers led the league in batting average ( .350 ) , on @-@ base percentage and slugging , while finishing second in triples with 19 , sixth in doubles with 26 , and third in RBIs with 109 .
= = = Late career = = =
After the American Association folded following the 1891 season , Brouthers was sent to the Brooklyn Grooms of the NL , where he played two seasons . Most of his success came in that first season , when he led the league in batting average , hits , RBIs and total bases . For the 1893 season , he played in only 77 of the team 's games , but did well , hitting .337 . After the season , Brouthers was traded along with Willie Keeler to the Baltimore Orioles for Billy Shindle and George Treadway .
This trade brought in two future Hall of Fame players , which added to the already established Orioles core of players including third baseman John McGraw , catcher Wilbert Robinson , shortstop Hughie Jennings , and center fielder Joe Kelley , all future Hall of Fame members . The Orioles won the league 's championship that season , and it was Brouthers ' last full season in the majors , as he again produced great numbers , batting .347 , finishing seventh in total bases , fifth in RBIs ( 128 ) , fourth in doubles ( 39 ) , and fifth in triples ( 23 ) .
During his career , and most notably during his time in Baltimore , he was known to always have his dog , an Irish setter named Kelly , and had him sit in the players ' area . It is claimed that the players never minded much , as he was very well @-@ behaved and never left the area to run out on the field or made very much noise .
Early in the 1895 season , Baltimore sold Brouthers to the Louisville Colonels for $ 500 , as his skills seemed to have diminished , and he only played in 24 of Louisville 's games that season ; he came back to hit .309 for them , ending the year with a .300 overall mark . Following the season , Louisville sold him to the Philadelphia Phillies for $ 500 , where he played in 57 games in 1896 , batting .344 . It was his last season in the majors until he appeared for the 1904 New York Giants , where he was hitless in a two @-@ game stint before retiring .
Brouthers is still among the all @-@ time leaders in many offensive categories . His .342 batting average ranks ninth , 205 triples ranks eighth , and his .423 on @-@ base percentage ranks 15th . He is tied with Mike Tiernan for fourth among 19th @-@ century home run hitters with a total of 106 , behind Roger Connor ( 138 ) , Sam Thompson ( 127 ) and Stovey ( 122 ) .
= = Post @-@ career = =
Brouthers played minor league baseball for the 1898 Toronto Maple Leafs of the Eastern League , where he won a batting title with a .415 average . Later he played for the Poughkeepsie , New York , team of the Hudson River League , batting a league @-@ leading .373 at age 46 .
He remained near baseball for many years , working for his former teammate and New York Giants manager John McGraw , who placed him in charge of the Polo Grounds press gate . He was with the Giants for nearly 20 years in this and other capacities .
Brouthers died at the age of 74 of a heart attack in East Orange , New Jersey , and is interred at Saint Mary 's Cemetery in Wappingers Falls , New York . There is a statue dedicated to him located in Veteran 's Park in this small village . In 1945 , Brouthers and several other stars of the era prior to 1910 were elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame by the Veterans Committee . In honor of his achievements in Buffalo , he was inducted into the newly formed Buffalo Baseball Hall of Fame in 1985 . In 1999 , a survey of the Society for American Baseball Research ranked him as the sixth @-@ greatest player of the 19th century .
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= Russian battleship Slava =
Slava ( Russian : Слава " Glory " ) was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship of the Imperial Russian Navy , the last of the five Borodino @-@ class battleships . Commissioned too late to participate in the Battle of Tsushima during the Russo @-@ Japanese War , she survived while all of her sister ships were either sunk during the battle or surrendered to the Imperial Japanese Navy .
Serving in the Baltic Sea during World War I , Slava was the largest ship of the Russian Gulf of Riga Squadron that fought the German High Seas Fleet in the Battle of the Gulf of Riga in August 1915 . She repeatedly bombarded German positions and troops for the rest of 1915 and during 1916 . During the Battle of Moon Sound in 1917 , Slava was badly damaged by the German dreadnought SMS König , significantly increasing her draft . The shallow channel made it impossible to escape and she was scuttled in the Moon Sound Strait between the island of Muhu ( Moon ) and the mainland . The Estonians scrapped her during the 1930s .
= = Description = =
Slava was 389 feet 5 inches ( 118 @.@ 69 m ) long at the waterline and 397 feet 3 inches ( 121 @.@ 1 m ) long overall , with a beam of 76 feet 1 inch ( 23 @.@ 2 m ) and a draft of 29 feet 2 inches ( 8 @.@ 9 m ) , 38 inches ( 965 mm ) more than designed . Her normal displacement was 14 @,@ 415 long tons ( 14 @,@ 646 t ) , almost 900 long tons ( 914 t ) more than her designed displacement of 13 @,@ 516 long tons ( 13 @,@ 733 t ) .
The ship was powered by two 4 @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion steam engines , each driving one 4 @-@ bladed propeller , with twenty Belleville water @-@ tube boilers providing steam to the engines at a pressure of 21 standard atmospheres ( 2 @,@ 128 kPa ; 309 psi ) . The engines and boilers were both built by the Baltic Works . The engines had a total designed output of 15 @,@ 800 indicated horsepower ( 11 @,@ 782 kW ) , but they produced 16 @,@ 378 ihp ( 12 @,@ 213 kW ) on trials and gave a top speed of 17 @.@ 64 knots ( 32 @.@ 67 km / h ; 20 @.@ 30 mph ) . At full load she carried 1 @,@ 350 long tons ( 1 @,@ 372 t ) of coal that provided her a range of 2 @,@ 590 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 800 km ; 2 @,@ 980 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had four steam @-@ driven dynamos , each with a capacity of 150 kW , and two auxiliary generators with a capacity of 64 kW each .
Slava 's 40 @-@ caliber 12 @-@ inch guns were mounted in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one each fore and aft . They had a rate of fire of about one round per minute . Sixty rounds per gun were carried . The twelve 45 @-@ caliber 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns were mounted in six electrically powered twin @-@ gun turrets carried on the sides of the ship . They had a practical rate of fire of about three rounds per minute and were provided with 180 rounds per gun . Four of the twenty 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns used against torpedo boats were mounted in casemates just below the forward main gun turret , two on each side . These guns were placed well above the waterline for use in any weather , unlike the remaining sixteen guns , which were mounted in casemates one deck lower and distributed over the length of the ship , close to the water . This was graphically demonstrated when Slava 's sister ship Imperator Aleksandr III made a high @-@ speed turn during her trials , heeling 15 ° , and began taking water through the lower casemates . Each gun had 300 rounds available . All but four of her 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns were removed before she was completed and the remaining guns were used as saluting guns . She carried four 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) torpedo tubes , one above water in the bow and one in the stern with two torpedoes each , and a submerged tube on each side forward with three torpedoes each . Two of these were removed before 1914 , although it is not known which ones were retained .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
She was reportedly fitted with two 47 mm anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns during the war , but carried only four 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) AA guns in early 1917 . Her light armament had been reduced to twelve 75 mm guns by that same date . While she was laid up over the winter of 1916 at Helsinki , the elevation of her main guns was increased to a maximum of 25 ° which increased their range to 23 @,@ 000 yards ( 21 @,@ 000 m ) .
= = Service = =
Slava was built by the Baltic Works at Saint Petersburg . She was laid down on 1 November 1902 , launched on 29 August 1903 , and completed in October 1905 , too late to participate in the Russo @-@ Japanese War . Together with the battleship Tsesarevich , she helped to suppress the Sveaborg Rebellion in 1906 . Slava was assigned to a training squadron for new officers fresh from the Naval College that was formed after the Rebellion as part of the post @-@ Tsushima naval reforms . On one of her training cruises to the Mediterranean , her crewmen rescued survivors during the 1908 Messina earthquake and the ship took casualties to Naples for medical care . She had a serious boiler accident in August 1910 and was towed by Tsesarevich to Gibraltar for temporary repairs before sailing to Toulon for repairs that required nearly a year to complete . Upon her return to Kronstadt she was relieved of her training assignment and transferred to the Baltic Fleet .
The Baltic Fleet only had four pre @-@ dreadnoughts in service , as the Second Brigade of Battleships , when World War I began , although the four dreadnoughts of the Gangut class were almost finished . After they were completed and could defend the mouth of the Gulf of Finland , Slava sailed through the Irbe Strait on 31 July 1915 to assist Russian forces defending the Gulf of Riga . More specifically she was to support the Imperial Russian Army with her guns and to defend the gulf against German naval forces .
= = = Battle of the Gulf of Riga = = =
Barely a week later , on 8 August , the Germans began to sweep the mines defending the Irbe Strait , and Slava , accompanied by the gunboats Khrabry and Groziashchii , sortied to fire on the minesweepers . The German pre @-@ dreadnoughts Elsass and Braunschweig attempted to drive the Russians off , but Slava remained in position despite sustaining splinter damage from near misses . She did not open fire , as her captain did not want to reveal the fact that she was out @-@ ranged by the German battleships . The Germans were not prepared for the number of mines laid by the Russians and withdrew to reconsider their plans .
They tried again on 16 August , this time with the dreadnoughts Nassau and Posen defending the minesweepers . Slava flooded her side compartments to give herself a 3 ° list which increased her maximum range to about 18 @,@ 000 yards ( 16 @,@ 459 m ) . She did not engage the German battleships , but only fired on the minesweepers and any German ships such as the armored cruiser Prinz Adalbert when they approached the other Russian ships . When the Germans returned the next day Slava was hit three times by 283 @-@ millimeter ( 11 @.@ 1 in ) shells in quick succession . The first hit penetrated her upper belt armor and exploded in a coal bunker ; the second hit penetrated her upper deck , hit the supporting tube of the aft port side six @-@ inch turret and started a fire in the ammunition hoist which caused the magazine to be flooded . The third shell passed through a pair of the ship 's boats , but exploded in the water off to one side . These hits did not seriously damage Slava and she remained in place until ordered to retreat . The Germans entered the Gulf the next day , but they were forced to withdraw shortly afterward when the British submarine HMS E1 torpedoed the battlecruiser Moltke on 19 August and the Russian coastal artillery that still commanded the Irbe Strait made it very risky to enter the Gulf of Riga .
The German withdrawal allowed Slava , after repairs , to switch to her other task and support the army with gunfire . During one of these missions , as she was bombarding German positions near Tukums on 25 September 1915 , she was hit in the conning tower while at anchor , killing her captain and five others . McLaughlin attributes the hit to German field artillery , but Nekrasov quotes German accounts that attribute it to a 10 @-@ kilogram ( 22 lb ) bomb dropped by one of a pair of German seaplanes . Slava remained in position and resumed her bombardment . She continued to support the Army until the water in the Gulf of Riga threatened to freeze over at which time she retired to the port of Kuivastu to winter over . While still in port she was hit by three light bombs dropped by a seaplane on 12 April 1916 ; these did little material damage , but killed seven sailors . On 2 July she resumed her support of the army with a bombardment of advancing German troops despite sustaining one hit by an 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) shell on her waterline armor that caused no damage . She repeated these missions a number of times in July and August . These annoyed the Germans enough that they attempted to sink Slava with a coordinated ambush by the submarine UB @-@ 31 and low @-@ flying torpedo bombers as she responded to a feint by German cruisers on 12 September , but all their torpedoes missed . This was the first attack by torpedo bombers against a moving battleship .
= = = Battle of Moon Sound = = =
Slava was held back during the initial stages of the German landings ( Operation Albion ) on Saaremaa ( Oesel ) Island guarding the mouth of the Gulf of Riga in October 1917 to defend Kassar Wiek ( Inlet ) , which separates the outer islands of Saaremaa and Hiiumaa ( Dagö ) . She intermittently fired at German torpedo boats as they fought Russian light forces in Kassar Wiek on 15 and 16 October , but scored no hits from her position near Kesselaid ( Schildau ) Island in Moon Sound Strait . On the morning of 17 October the Germans attempted to sweep the Russian mines placed at the southern entrance to Moon Sound Strait . Slava , the pre @-@ dreadnought Grazhdanin and the armored cruiser Bayan were ordered south to meet them by Vice Admiral Mikhail Bakhirev , opening fire on the minesweepers at 8 : 05 a.m. The dreadnoughts König and Kronprinz were to provide cover for the minesweepers , but Slava , sailing further south , opened fire on them at 8 : 12 at nearly her maximum range . Grazhdanin , whose turrets had not been modified for extra elevation , remained behind with Bayan and continued to engage the minesweepers . The German ships returned fire , but their shells fell short at a range of 20 @,@ 400 meters ( 22 @,@ 300 yd ) . Slava continued to fire on the Germans , but scored no hits , although some shells impacted only 50 meters ( 160 ft ) from König . The German ships were at a severe disadvantage as they were sailing in a narrow swept channel and could not maneuver , so they reversed course to get out of range .
The German minesweepers made good progress , despite minor damage from shell splinters and numerous near misses by Slava , Grazhdanin , Bayan , and the Russian shore batteries . During this period Slava 's front turret became inoperable when a bronze rack and pinion gear bent so that the gear wheel could not be moved . Only eleven shots had been fired between the two guns in the turret before the breakdown . Slava and her consorts were ordered north to allow the crews to eat lunch , but returned to the fray and opened fire on the minesweepers again at 10 : 04 with her rear turret at an approximate range of 12 @,@ 000 yards ( 10 @,@ 973 m ) . The minesweepers had cleared a channel to the north while the Russians were eating and the dreadnoughts took advantage of it to engage the Russian pre @-@ dreadnoughts . König opened fire on Slava at 10 : 14 and hit her with three shells from her third salvo . The first hit Slava 's bow , 10 – 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 7 m ) below the waterline , and exploded in the bow dynamo room , flooding that room , the forward 12 @-@ inch magazine and other bow compartments , while the second penetrated the capstan flat . The ship took on 1 @,@ 130 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 112 long tons ) of water which gave her a list of 8 ° , later reduced to 4 ° by counter @-@ flooding . This also increased her forward draft to about 32 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) . The third shell hit the port side armor abreast the engine room , but failed to penetrate . Two more shells struck her at 10 : 24 in the superstructure near the forward funnel . They damaged a six @-@ inch magazine and the forward stokehold ( boiler room ) and started a fire which was put out after about fifteen minutes . However , the forward left six @-@ inch magazine was flooded as a precaution . At 10 : 39 two more shells hit her , killing three men in the boiler room and flooding a coal bunker . Around this time Slava and her compatriots were ordered to retire to the north while Bayan trailed behind to divert fire from the battleships .
Slava 's draft had increased too much to allow her to use the dredged channel between Hiiumaa Island and Vormsi ( Worms ) Island so she was ordered to wait until all the other deep @-@ draft ships had entered the channel and then scuttle herself at the channel entrance . However , the Sailors ' Committee organized on the ship after the February Revolution had ordered the engine room abandoned for fear of sinking , and she grounded on a shoal southeast of the channel because there was no one to obey the captain 's order to stop . A number of destroyers evacuated the crew before the rear 12 @-@ inch magazine exploded at 11 : 58 . However this was not deemed sufficient and three destroyers were ordered to torpedo her . Only one of their six torpedoes worked and Slava settled on the shallow bottom with a hole on the starboard side near the funnel . She was officially struck off the Navy List on 29 May 1918 by the Soviets and scrapped in 1935 by the Estonians .
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= Temptations ( song ) =
" Temptations " is a song by rap artist Tupac Shakur ( 2Pac ) from the album Me Against the World . It was released as a single on June 4 , 1996 , and was released as a CD , cassette , and 12 " promo . While rapping is solely performed by Shakur , Erick Sermon and producer Easy Mo Bee are also featured in the song , primarily as background vocalists . The song uses the bassline from the " Computer Love " , and the theme focuses on relationship and infidelity issues . Debuting at number sixty @-@ eight on the Billboard Hot 100 , the song did fairly well in the United States . It was also well received by critics , with many writers commenting on its romantic tone .
The song 's music video does not have any shots of Shakur , since he was incarcerated at the time . Instead , the video features many celebrities such as Coolio , Ice @-@ T , Warren G , Adina Howard and Kenya Moore . Taking place in a hotel , the video opens and closes with the concierge ( Ice @-@ T ) complaining about Coolio ( a bellboy ) . The main plot of the video follows Coolio while he is working in the hotel .
= = Writing and composition = =
The idea for " Temptations " began in late 1993 when record producer Easy Mo Bee came to Shakur while he was on the set of Above the Rim ( 1994 ) . At Rucker Park in New York City , Mo Bee approached Shakur with several different songs they could sample from in the Me Against the World album . Out of the pieces he showed the rapper , Shakur favored the Zapp song " Computer Love . " Despite being frequently sampled in the past by other artists , Shakur proposed that they simply speed up the tempo of " Computer Love " and use a low frequency automatic filter to retrieve the song 's bassline .
After adding new beats and synth pads / leads , Mo Bee decided to add a sample of the Redman and Erick Sermon song " Watch Yo Nuggets " , which contributes to much of the song 's tenor section with the repeated line of " Hey . " The song 's hook samples " Sing a Simple Song " by Sly & the Family Stone . The song also features Mo Bee and some of his friends singing harmonies .
" Temptations " deals with a male @-@ female relationship , where Shakur is — in Mo Bee 's word 's — basically saying to his significant other , " I like the time I 'm spendin ' with [ you ] , but baby , I 'm busy . " Other than the theme of the relationship issues , the song also focuses on the ability for anyone to feel lonely . The lines " ' cause even thugs get lonely , understand . Even the hardest of my homies need attention ; catch you blowin ' up the telephone , reminiscing . " from the third verse , are explained by William Buckholz in his 2011 book , Understand Rap : Explanations of Confusing Rap Lyrics You and Your Grandma Can Understand . He states that despite having a " tough " attitude and exterior , thugs are not emotionless . Buckholz goes on to say that there are times where everyone longs for the company of someone — be a friend or significant other — so they can share feelings and troubles with .
= = Music video = =
Despite being the only rapper to perform in the song 's musical composition , the music video neglects an appearance by Shakur because of his incarceration for alleged sexual abuse . Directed by David Nelson , the video features celebrity guest appearances by Adina Howard , B @-@ Real , Bill Bellamy , Cheryl James , Coolio , Crystal Waters , DJ Spinderella , Ice @-@ T , Isaac Hayes , Jada Pinkett Smith , Jasmine Guy , Kenya Moore , Shock G , Joe Torry , Treach , Warren G , and Yo @-@ Yo .
Nelson said the video 's production was ambitious , stating : " It 's an incredible challenge to make a creative clip of a song without the artist . " He goes onto say that Coolio helped enormously because he was the first to commit to his role as the bellboy . Nelson says that Coolio 's role " provides the thread that weaves together the entire concept of the video . " Yvette Lang , who executive produced the clip for F.M. Rocks , described the filming to be like a " big party " to show their support for Shakur . Ice @-@ T 's role as the hotel concierge was not originally intended . At first , there was a comedian set to play his role , but he ended up cancelling at the last minute . Since Ice @-@ T was only available to shoot in the morning , Nelson decided to make him the concierge . The director called it a " strange blessing " since he is more memorable as a concierge , rather than his intended role .
" I shot the clip as if it were a movie , and the preview edit is the equivalent of a film trailer . We both wanted the video to be sexy and erotic , but not sleazy . It definitely pushes the envelope , but then it throws comedy to keep things from getting too serious . "
The music video opens with Ice @-@ T , the concierge , and Coolio , the bellboy , in a hotel lobby . Ice @-@ T is getting onto Coolio about how he does not put forth enough effort in his work and does not deserve the job . The song begins to play after this scene ends , and the plot follows Coolio who , while on the job , sees acts of strip poker , lesbian affairs , and several sexual scenarios . The bellboy eventually is invited into one of the rooms and the music comes to an end . The video ends with a scene of Ice @-@ T continuing to complain about the bellboy 's work ethics .
= = = Controversial = = =
The Los Angeles Times inquires that the video deals with acts which lead to Shakur 's imprisonment , commenting : " The clip itself practically invites that kind of scrutiny . The hotel setting and explicit sex echo Shakur 's own crimes , which involved sodomy occurring in a hotel . " Nelson denies these claims , insisting that it is purely coincidental that Shakur was imprisoned for similar occurrences .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical = = =
Steve Huey at AllMusic described the piece as a romance , and said that it gave a " new meaning as an escape from the hellish pressure of everyday life . " Cheo Coker of the Rolling Stone said the song is based on a slow beat and " avoids formulaic , radio @-@ friendly material , " and instead focuses on rhymes and confessions from the heart . Music critic Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote that Shakur is describing himself as a " touring rap star " with the song line : " Even though I 'm known for my one @-@ night stands , I want to be an honest man . " Jordan Spak wrote in the Sun @-@ Sentinel Tribune Company that Tupac is apologizing to his listeners and defining his stance on moral rights and wrongs .
= = = Charts = = =
" Temptations " did fairly well on United States charts . It spent six weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 , peaking at number sixty @-@ eight . The song debuted at number thirteen on the US Hot Rap Singles , and spent fourteen weeks on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , debuting at number thirty @-@ five .
= = Formats and track listings = =
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= Who 's Your City ? =
Who 's Your City ? : How the Creative Economy Is Making Where You Live the Most Important Decision of Your Life is a non @-@ fiction book written by Richard Florida . The book advances Florida 's previous work on the locational choices of people and businesses . He adds a dimension of environmental psychology by assigning psychological profiles to urban regions according to the dominant personality traits of the people who live there . For example , the New York metropolitan area and the ChiPitts area have the highest concentration in the United States of people whose dominant personality trait is neuroticism . The book ends with a ten step guide to choosing a location best suited to the reader 's personality and life situation . Since the 2002 publication of The Rise of the Creative Class , Florida has enjoyed academic and commercial success in his study and promotion of the concept of a creative class , or a cohort of highly innovative , highly creative individuals who are sought after by businesses . Who 's Your City ? , Florida 's fourth book on the subject , combines scholarly research with a lighthearted self @-@ help tone . Some critics questioned the assumption that the target audience , those easily able to move , would consult the book for advice on moving , but also found the book provides a valuable insight into the impacts of locational choices on the urbanized world .
= = Background = =
Economic geographer Richard Florida came to prominence when he popularized the concept of a creative class , or a subset of individuals whose work involves creativity and innovation . Florida 's previous three books , The Rise of the Creative Class ( 2002 ) , Cities and the Creative Class ( 2005 ) , and The Flight of the Creative Class ( 2005 ) , link the creative class with wealth generation and argue that the individuals in the creative class choose to locate in places with strong cultural and recreational activities , as well as an interesting nightlife . Cities that have offered those activities have attracted innovative people , and despite high land and labor costs , businesses have chosen to re @-@ locate to those areas in order to access them . With the success of his creative class theories , Florida founded a consulting firm , called the Creative Class Group , to advise local governments and other organizations about how to attract creative and innovative people . Florida , a professor at Carnegie Mellon University 's Heinz College in Pittsburgh until 2005 , wrote his next book , Who 's Your City ? , after moving to George Mason University 's School of Public Policy . By the time he agreed to move to the University of Toronto he was deemed an " academic pop star " . Upon his arrival , he was personally greeted by the mayor of Toronto and the premier of Ontario . Articles in the National Post and Toronto Star heralded his move , an article appeared in the magazine Style at Home featuring his new house , and he was given a regular column in the Globe & Mail .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Part 1 : Why Place Matters = = =
Who 's Your City ? is divided into four parts with a total of 16 chapters . The first part presents data that suggests the world 's population and economy are becoming increasingly geographically concentrated into few mega @-@ regions , such as BosWash and the San Francisco Bay Area . Thomas Friedman 's Flat World Theory , or his assertion that distance and place is becoming irrelevant , is countered by Florida with maps of population growth , economic activity , innovation ( as demonstrated by patent registration ) , and scientific discovery ( as demonstrated by residence of the most heavily cited scientists ) . Florida 's maps show " spiky " concentrations in these mega @-@ regions , although each region does not necessarily rank high in each category . For example , the Taiheiyō Belt ranks high in innovation but low in scientific discovery , and Indian and Pakistani cities show high population concentrations but low economic activity . Florida explains the existence of these geographical spikes by insisting that talented individuals tend to cluster to one another , creating a ( non @-@ linear ) multiplier effect that attracts additional talented individuals to that geographical area .
= = = Part 2 : The Wealth of Place = = =
The second part of the book presents evidence that globalization is creating a new class divide : those who are able to move to a different community to take advantage of opportunity and those who are rooted . This mobile class of people are differentiating urban areas in terms of values , culture , economic specialization , and other factors , and businesses are following the most talented people to these cities despite high land prices and labor costs . Florida also insists that a disproportionate amount of wealth is being generated in those cities which have been successful in attracting the creative class . Finally , globalization has reduced the importance of resource extraction and manufacturing in the economy and increased the importance of fields in which the creative class participate .
= = = Part III : The Geography of Happiness = = =
The third part of Who 's Your City ? examines the role of " where someone lives " as a factor of happiness . Florida 's " Place and Happiness Survey " , which he conducted with The Gallup Organization , shows that higher incomes and levels of education produces more community satisfaction , married people tend to be more satisfied with their community than singles , as older people as compared to younger people . In addition , renters are slightly more satisfied with their living arrangements than home owners , and people are generally satisfied with where they live .
Adding psychological profiles to his previous work , Florida was able to find strong connections between the Big Five personality traits and regions in the United States . For example , neuroticism is concentrated in the New York metropolitan area and the ChiPitts area , agreeableness and conscientiousness in the eastern Sunbelt area , extraversion in the Chicago metropolitan area , the St. Louis / Nashville / Atlanta area , and the South Florida area . Openness seems to be concentrated in the BosWash and the San Francisco Bay Area . Florida explains the results by linking the dominant forms of employment in the areas with the personality traits : manufacturing regions require people who are agreeable ( i.e. , they follow rules ) and conscientious ( they work with dangerous machinery ) , areas with high immigrant populations require that their residents exhibit openness , and management and sales @-@ related jobs need workers with extroversion . Florida was also able to find that his " Gay and Bohemian Index " , which connects gay and artistic communities to high growth and wealth generation areas , is a proxy for regions with large concentrations of the openness personality trait .
= = = Part IV : Where We Live Now = = =
The final part of the book suggests that most people have three significant moves : when leaving their parents ' home , when starting a family , and when retiring ( or when their own adult children move out ) . When young people leave their home ( or when they complete college ) , they tend to locate to areas that offer attractive job markets , cultural or recreational amenities , and rank high in quality of life factors . When they get married or have children , people choose areas that are perceived as safe and family @-@ friendly . Florida suggests using a " Trick @-@ or @-@ Treater Index " to gauge if parents feel safe allowing their children to go door @-@ to @-@ door on Halloween . He also cites Catherine Austin Fitts ' " Popsicle Index " , which gauges how far are parents willing to allow their children to walk to buy a treat . Once retired , or when their adult children move away , people tend to gravitate towards similar areas as young people , if it is close to their grandchildren , but in quieter neighborhoods that provide opportunities for hobbies or for a second career .
= = Style = =
Who 's Your City ? was intended to be a self @-@ help book , based on scholarly research and an academic theory , that provided a reader the mental framework necessary to match their personality and life situation with the optimum city to reside . Florida drew upon his past research on the geographical aspects of wealth generation and locational decisions of members of the creative class , as well as theories and opinions of other academics , like Jane Jacobs , and even those who have been critical of Florida 's work , like Tim Harford . New research included a psychological aspect to his theory . Maps , graphs , tables , and indices illustrate the text . The book has been described as having a " lighthearted tone ... [ that ] doesn 't always work " , " earnest ... [ with ] forced exuberance " , and wandering from a broad " discussion of the world economy to home @-@ buying advice " . Doron Taussig of Washington Monthly described the book as a hybrid between " academic form " and " professional @-@ advice @-@ giving " . Several reviewers noted that while a popular audience is the target , the book is also of interest to professionals or students of the topic .
= = Publication = =
Who 's Your City ? was published as a hardcover in March 2008 by Basic Books in the United States and Random House Canada in Canada . A year later , the trade paperback version was published in the United States . After Canadian reviewers commented on the US @-@ focus of the book , a revised Canadian version , with some studies and maps expanded to include Canada , was published by Vintage Canada as a trade paperback . An international version was published overseas . Excerpts were published in The Globe and Mail newspaper and Fast Company magazine .
= = Reception = =
While critics recognize the value in Florida 's work , many found the premise behind Who 's Your City ? flawed . The reviewer for Salon.com wrote it was questionable that " anyone , least of all a member of the creative class , would need such a self @-@ help book . ... Ambitious people already have a clear sense of where they need to be , and wannabes know but can 't get off their rusty dusties and go " .
Several critics noted that Florida sounded too eager to coin terms and that some of the pop cultural references and anecdotes were awkward . Environmental psychologist Michael Dudley pointed out copy @-@ editing errors such as misspellings , and complained that Florida ignored existing literature on the topic of the connections between personalities and places . Likewise , Tom Hutton in the journal Economic Geography noted the absence of influential academics Allen Scott and Peter Hall in the text . The reviewer in The Chronicle of Higher Education found the chapter that examined the Big Five personality traits to be the best part of the book . In The Globe and Mail , reviewer Joe Berridge wrote , " Like all self @-@ help books , it suffers from the assertive blandness of soft psychologizing " , but called Who 's Your City ? an " informative , insightful , imaginative book " . Reviewer Nathan Glazer in The New Republic commented on the inappropriate urban area conglomerations like Delhi – Lahore , and geographical scales such as metropolitan areas . Steve Sailer of The American Conservative wrote a negative review and called Florida 's conclusions " professionally cautious " so that they would not harm his consulting career . The review in the Library Journal recommended the book for all libraries and stated that " Although the text is occasionally overloaded with trendy demographic jargon , this thought @-@ provoking and seminal work will surely be studied , not only by scholars but ... by consumers pondering a move " .
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= Star Wars Episode I : Obi @-@ Wan 's Adventures =
Star Wars Episode I : Obi @-@ Wan 's Adventures is a video game that chronicles the events of the film Star Wars : Episode I – The Phantom Menace from the character Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi 's perspective . It is the result of an agreement made in 2000 between the two video game publishers LucasArts and THQ . The agreement allows THQ to turn LucasArts licenses into games for the hand held console Game Boy Color , the first being Obi @-@ Wan 's Adventures . THQ published the game and HotGen developed it . It was released on November 27 , 2000 .
The story of Obi @-@ Wan 's Adventures is set in the middle of a conflict in the Galactic Republic ; the antagonistic Trade Federation and the evil Sith Lord are planning to take control of the galaxy . In the game , the player operates the character Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi as he fights the forces of the Trade Federation which culminates in a battle against Darth Maul . His weapons include a lightsaber , a blaster , and use of the Force . Since its release , Obi @-@ Wan 's Adventures has received mixed reviews . The game has been criticized for its visuals and controls , but praised for its sound design and creative levels .
= = Gameplay = =
Obi @-@ Wan 's Adventures is an isometric action @-@ adventure video game with side @-@ scrolling sections . Set in the fictional Star Wars galaxy , the game takes place in a time when the fictional Galactic Republic is in imbalance as a result of the antagonistic Trade Federation and the evil Sith Lord 's plans to take over . In the game , the player controls the Star Wars character Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi , a young Jedi apprentice , during the events of the film Star Wars Episode I : The Phantom Menace .
There are a total of nine levels in Obi @-@ Wan 's Adventures that can be played with different difficult @-@ settings . Obi @-@ Wan is attacked by the Trade Federation 's droids , bounty hunters , and other evil critters during his travels , and the player is able to control his lightsaber and blaster to defeat them . Both close- and long @-@ range combat are available in the battles with the Federation 's forces . The player can also take advantage of Obi @-@ Wan 's connection to the Force as a weapon . In order to do this , the player hits the " A " key to zoom in on the target and then hits " A " again to blow the enemy away . The power of the Force is limited and eventually runs out . To power up , the player accumulates Force pellets that can be obtained on the different levels . The Force is not only used as weapon , but also to get through the levels by moving objects that are in the way .
= = Plot = =
The game begins with the Trade Federation 's blockage of the planet Naboo . Jedi Master Qui @-@ Gon Jinn and his Jedi apprentice Obi @-@ Wan are sent there by the Jedi Council as part of a mission to officiate the dispute and reach a settlement with the Federation leaders . When they reach the Federation 's ship on Naboo , however , they find out that the Federation is not interested in negotiations and has allied with the Sith Lord , who plans to invade Naboo and take control of the galaxy by killing all Jedi . Obi @-@ Wan and Qui @-@ Gon are attacked by Federation droids , but manage to escape . They head to Theed , the capital of Naboo , to warn the inhabitants of Naboo about the imminent attack .
During their journey to the city , the two Jedi cross the Naboo swamps and are assaulted by more troops sent by the Federation . After delivering the warning , they travel to the planet Coruscant to talk with the Jedi Council . They are attacked by more Federation troops after arriving , but the two Jedi are able to defeat them . Jedi Master Yoda instructs Obi @-@ Wan and Qui @-@ Gon to return to Naboo and help Queen Amidala and the Naboo inhabitants defeat the Federation . Upon reaching Theed , the Jedi set out to liberate the city , now overrun by the Federation . They are able to infiltrate the city by going through a secret entrance to the ancient catacombs , but are once again forced to battle enemy droids on their way .
Obi @-@ Wan and Qui @-@ Gon discover that the Queen has fallen into the hands of the Federation . Before heading to the Queen 's palace to initiate an attack , they free captured citizens on the streets of Theed . The Jedi infiltrate the palace and manage to free the Queen . Meanwhile , Obi @-@ Wan 's young friend Anakin Skywalker commandeers a vacant starfighter and is able to destroy the Federation droid control ship in space , causing the entire droid army to deactivate . Obi @-@ Wan and Qui @-@ Gon , meanwhile , encounter the Sith Lord 's apprentice , Darth Maul . Qui @-@ Gon is mortally wounded in the battle , but Obi @-@ Wan manages to kill the Sith apprentice . As a result , Obi @-@ Wan 's quest to become a Jedi Knight is completed .
= = Development = =
In 2000 , the two video game publishers LucasArts and THQ announced an agreement that would allow THQ to turn LucasArts licenses into games for the hand held console Game Boy Color . THQ had previously published the Game Boy Color game Star Wars : Yoda Stories , and began work on their second Star Wars @-@ licensed product , Obi @-@ Wan 's Adventures , thereafter as part of the agreement with LucasArts . It was a port of the then upcoming game Star Wars : Obi @-@ Wan , which was planned to be released for personal computers ( PC ) but was later canceled . Obi @-@ Wan 's Adventures was first announced to the public in September 2000 .
THQ hired the third @-@ party Game Boy developer HotGen to develop the game , which they described as " the most authentic Star Wars adventure on the Game Boy Color system . " Mark Fisher , director of product development at HotGen , commented on the game : " THQ has a solid hold on the Game Boy Color market , and we look forward to collaborating with them on Star Wars : Obi @-@ Wan 's Adventures . Millions of Star Wars fans will have the opportunity to interact with their favorite characters in a brand new Star Wars adventure just in time for the holidays . " Obi @-@ Wan 's Adventures was released in stores on November 27 , 2000 . It received an " Everyone " rating from the Entertainment Software Rating Board .
= = Reception = =
The game has received mixed reviews from critics , with an aggregate score of 62 @.@ 33 % on GameRankings . Marc Nix of IGN gave it a 5 / 10 rating and commented that " murky visuals and slothful control destroy any hope of greatness in this game . " The visuals were also criticized by an editor of 1UP.com , who stated that " you couldn 't even see what the hell you were doing half the time in the game . " Matt Paddock of Game Vortex commented that Obi Wan 's Adventures " will be a must @-@ buy for Star Wars freaks ( and there 's more than a few ) , but flawed control and lack of depth make for a generally average experience . "
Kevin Cheung of The Sydney Morning Herald said the game " loses out badly in the graphics department " , commenting that on the " tiny LCD screen the characters look like a garbled confusion of black pixels . It takes a healthy imagination to see the lasers bouncing off one 's lightsabre . What 's worse is that it 's not always obvious where the exit passage is , which is frustrating after a slog through a tough level . " In addition , Tim Wapshott of The Times said that " despite some rather good storyline screens , the graphics generally lack colour and the music is repetitive and tedious . "
Nix praised the game 's sound design , describing it as " far and away above what would be expected on the Game Boy Color . " He noted , for example , that " there are individual sounds of the lightsaber swinging back and forth — cutting left will sound differently than the backswing or upswing of the third stroke against an enemy . " Samantha Craggs of The Electric Playground praised Obi @-@ Wan 's Adventures for its interesting gameplay and the use of the lightsaber . She commented : " There are quite a few things to like about this game . For one thing , you can 't underestimate the feeling of moving across the floor wielding a deadly lightsaber . Also , the levels are interesting . [ ... ] In [ one level ] , Obi @-@ Wan is actually in a boat , going through the Naboo swamp , while battle droids shoot at him from the banks . While you 're essentially fighting the same enemies in the same manner , there are enough twists in the level designs to interest you in continuing . "
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= Battle of Bloody Creek ( 1711 ) =
The Battle of Bloody Creek was fought on 10 / 21 June 1711 during Queen Anne 's War . An Abenaki militia successfully ambushed British and New England soldiers at a place that became known as Bloody Creek after the battles fought there . The creek empties into the Annapolis River at present day Carleton Corner , Nova Scotia , and was also the location of a battle in 1757 .
The battle was part of an orchestrated attempt by the leaders of New France to weaken the British hold on Annapolis Royal . The British had only captured the fort the previous year and they only had a very tenuous control of the area . The battle , in which the entire British force was captured or killed , emboldened the French and their native allies to blockade Annapolis Royal . Without heavy weapons , the force was unable to effectively attack the fort , and abandoned the siege when British reinforcements arrived by sea .
= = Background = =
Port Royal , the capital of the French colony of Acadia , was settled in 1604 , one year after Acadia 's founding , and served as the colonial capital for much of the next hundred years . It consequently became a focal point for conflict between the English colonists of New England and the Acadian inhabitants . It was destroyed in 1613 by English raiders led by Samuel Argall , but eventually rebuilt . In 1690 it was captured by forces from the Province of Massachusetts Bay , although it was restored to France on 20 September 1697 by the Treaty of Ryswick .
In the 1710 Siege of Port Royal an expedition of New England militia and British marines under Francis Nicholson again captured Port Royal . The town was renamed Annapolis Royal , with Samuel Vetch as the British Governor of Nova Scotia , and the fort was renamed Fort Anne . This expedition left a garrison numbering about 450 men , that was composed of a combination of British marines and New England provincial militia . The garrison was reinforced with regular troops in the following months , however the British only had effective control of the fort and the nearby town . The terms of capitulation had included a provision in which the French residents within 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) of the fort were to be protected , provided they took an appropriate oath to the British crown . A total of 481 Acadians were covered by this provision , but by mid @-@ January 1711 only 57 had actually taken an oath .
When word of Port Royal 's fall reached France , the marine minister Pontchartrain ordered Antoine Gaulin , the French Catholic missionary priest to the loosely allied Indian tribes of present @-@ day Maine and New Brunswick , to harass the British at Annapolis Royal so that they could not establish a firm foothold in the territory . Bernard @-@ Anselme d 'Abbadie de Saint @-@ Castin , the métis Acadian ( French father and a Penobscot mother ) , was given military command of Acadia , and received similar orders .
= = Prelude = =
The first winter was a particularly difficult one for the British garrison , which was reduced by early 1711 to about 240 " effective men Officers included " due to death , disease , and desertion . They had ongoing difficulty getting provisions and materials needed to repair the fort because of the reluctance of the Acadians to help . This reluctance was fueled in part by the activities of Saint @-@ Castin and Gaulin — the Acadians in Annapolis Royal refused to do the necessary logging , citing the danger of Indian attacks . To counter this , the British began sending out armed parties to protect the loggers . These logging parties were sent into the woodlands up the Annapolis River , and the cut wood was floated down the river . In May 1711 Governor Vetch received reports that these work crews and others who supported the British were being harassed by Mi 'kmaq and Abenakis opposed to British rule . In his reports he noted that the fort was " every day more and more Infested with skulking Indians " , and that villagers within the banlieu ( the three @-@ mile protection area ) were being harassed . Desperate for timbers to repair the fort , Vetch organized a force of 70 New England militia under Captain David Pigeon to accompany the fort 's engineer on an expedition up the river . Pigeon 's instructions were to assure the loggers that they would be paid and protected if they brought the timber down to the fort , but that there would be " severity " if they did not .
Not long before Pigeon 's party set out , an Indian force organized by Gaulin and Saint @-@ Castin arrived in the area north of Annapolis Royal , with instructions to harass and ambush the British when the opportunity presented itself . The exact size and composition of this force is not known with precision . Vetch reported it to be 150 , but other sources reported it to be as low as 50 men . Many historians report that the force was composed of Abenakis , although Geoffrey Plank and others claim that the force also included some Mi 'kmaq . British Lieutenant Paul Mascarene for a time thought that some local Acadians might have been involved , but thought this unlikely after learning of its recent arrival ( literally the day before , according to one account ) in the area . The identity and ethnicity of its leader is also uncertain ; Governor Vaudreuil reported that it was led by someone named l 'Aymalle .
= = Battle = =
The New Englanders departed Annapolis Royal on 10 / 21 June in a whaleboat and two flatboats , heading up the Annapolis River . Because they were delayed by the tide , word of the force 's departure preceded them , giving the Indians time to set up an ambush near the mouth of what later became known as Bloody Creek . The whaleboat was faster on the water , and was about a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) ahead of the flatboats when it reached the ambush site . The surprise was complete : all but one of the whaleboat 's men were killed . Hearing the gunfire , the flatboats hurried to catch up , and carelessly made directly for the whaleboat . This exposed them to fire from Indians on the shore , and they suffered further significant casualties before they were surrounded and the survivors surrendered . Sixteen were killed , nine wounded , and the rest were captured .
= = Aftermath = =
The victory at Bloody Creek rallied the local resistance , and prompted many of the Acadians who were nominally under British protection to withdraw to the north . Soon thereafter a force of some 600 warriors , including Acadians , Abenaki , and Mi 'kmaq , gathered and blockaded Fort Anne under the leadership of Gaulin and Saint @-@ Castin . The defending garrison was small , but the attackers had no artillery and were thus unable to make an impression on the fort , and the fort was still accessible by sea . Gaulin went to Plaisance in Newfoundland for supplies and equipment to advance the siege ; Governor Philippe Pastour de Costebelle provided supplies , but the ship had the misfortune to encounter a major British fleet and was captured . That same expedition abandoned its goal of attacking Quebec when eight of its ships were lost on the shores of the Saint Lawrence River ; Governor Vetch , who had accompanied the expedition as a leader of the provincial militia , returned to Annapolis Royal with 200 provincial militia , after which the besiegers withdrew .
Annapolis Royal remained in British hands for the remainder of the war , but Acadians and Indians continued to resist the British after peace was reached and Acadia was formally ceded to Britain with the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 . This resistance was motivated by a French desire to recover Acadia and by the concerns of the Abenaki and Mi 'kmaq , who had not been parties to Utrecht , to British encroachment on their lands and liberties after the war ended . The Indian disputes led to Dummer 's War in the 1720s ; it was fought primarily in northern New England , but British settlements in Nova Scotia were also attacked . The disputes between the French and British over Acadia / Nova Scotia were not resolved until the British conquests of the Seven Years ' War and the expulsion of the Acadians in the 1750s . The site was again the scene of battle during the Seven Years ' War , and has been designated by the Canadian government as a National Historic Site of Canada .
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= Satyajit Ray =
Satyajit Ray ( listen ; 2 May 1921 – 23 April 1992 ) was an Indian Bengali filmmaker , widely regarded as one of the greatest filmmakers of the 20th century . Ray was born in the city of Calcutta into a Bengali family prominent in the world of arts and literature . Starting his career as a commercial artist , Ray was drawn into independent filmmaking after meeting French filmmaker Jean Renoir and viewing Vittorio De Sica 's Italian neorealist film Bicycle Thieves ( 1948 ) during a visit to London .
Ray directed 36 films , including feature films , documentaries and shorts . He was also a fiction writer , publisher , illustrator , calligrapher , music composer , graphic designer and film critic . He authored several short stories and novels , primarily aimed at children and adolescents . Feluda , the sleuth , and Professor Shonku , the scientist in his science fiction stories , are popular fictional characters created by him . He was awarded an honorary degree by Oxford University .
Ray 's first film , Pather Panchali ( 1955 ) , won eleven international prizes , including the inaugural Best Human Document award at the 1956 Cannes Film Festival . This film , along with Aparajito ( 1956 ) , and Apur Sansar ( The World of Apu ) ( 1959 ) form The Apu Trilogy . Ray did the scripting , casting , scoring , and editing , and designed his own credit titles and publicity material . Ray received many major awards in his career , including 32 Indian National Film Awards , a number of awards at international film festivals and award ceremonies , and an Academy Honorary Award in 1992 . The Government of India honored him with the Bharat Ratna in 1992 .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early life and background = = =
Satyajit Ray 's ancestry can be traced back for at least ten generations . Ray 's grandfather , Upendrakishore Ray Chowdhury was a writer , illustrator , philosopher , publisher , amateur astronomer and a leader of the Brahmo Samaj , a religious and social movement in nineteenth century Bengal . He also set up a printing press by the name of U. Ray and Sons , which formed a crucial backdrop to Satyajit 's life . Sukumar Ray , Upendrakishore 's son and father of Satyajit , was a pioneering Bengali writer of nonsense rhyme ( abol tabol ) and children 's literature , an illustrator and a critic . Ray was born to Sukumar and Suprabha Ray in Calcutta .
Sukumar Ray died when Satyajit was barely three , and the family survived on Suprabha Ray 's meager income . Ray studied at Ballygunge Government High School , Calcutta , and completed his BA in economics at Presidency College , Calcutta then affiliated with the University of Calcutta , though his interest was always in fine arts . In 1940 , his mother insisted that he study at the Visva @-@ Bharati University at Santiniketan , founded by Rabindranath Tagore . Ray was reluctant due to his love of Calcutta , and the low opinion of the intellectual life at Santiniketan His mother 's persuasion and his respect for Tagore finally convinced him to try . In Santiniketan , Ray came to appreciate Oriental art . He later admitted that he learned much from the famous painters Nandalal Bose and Benode Behari Mukherjee . Later he produced a documentary film , The Inner Eye , about Mukherjee . His visits to Ajanta , Ellora and Elephanta stimulated his admiration for Indian art .
In 1943 , Ray started work at D.J. Keymer , a British @-@ run advertising agency , as a " junior visualiser , " earning eighty rupees a month . Although he liked visual design ( graphic design ) and he was mostly treated well , there was tension between the British and Indian employees of the firm . The British were better paid , and Ray felt that " the clients were generally stupid . " Later , Ray also worked for Signet Press , a new publishing house started by D. K. Gupta . Gupta asked Ray to create cover designs for books to be published by Signet Press and gave him complete artistic freedom . Ray designed covers for many books , including Jibanananda Das 's Banalata Sen , and Rupasi Bangla , Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay 's Chander Pahar , Jim Corbett 's Maneaters of Kumaon , and Jawaharlal Nehru 's Discovery of India . He worked on a children 's version of Pather Panchali , a classic Bengali novel by Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay , renamed as Aam Antir Bhepu ( The mango @-@ seed whistle ) . Designing the cover and illustrating the book , Ray was deeply influenced by the work . He used it as the subject of his first film , and featured his illustrations as shots in his ground @-@ breaking film .
Along with Chidananda Dasgupta and others , Ray founded the Calcutta Film Society in 1947 . They screened many foreign films , many of which Ray watched and seriously studied . He befriended the American GIs stationed in Calcutta during World War II , who kept him informed about the latest American films showing in the city . He came to know a RAF employee , Norman Clare , who shared Ray 's passion for films , chess and western classical music .
In 1949 , Ray married Bijoya Das , his first cousin and long @-@ time sweetheart . The couple had a son , Sandip , who is now a film director . In the same year , French director Jean Renoir came to Calcutta to shoot his film The River . Ray helped him to find locations in the countryside . Ray told Renoir about his idea of filming Pather Panchali , which had long been on his mind , and Renoir encouraged him in the project . In 1950 , D.J. Keymer sent Ray to London to work at its headquarters office . During his three months in London , Ray watched 99 films . Among these was the neorealist film Ladri di biciclette ( Bicycle Thieves ) ( 1948 ) by Vittorio De Sica , which had a profound impact on him . Ray later said that he came out of the theatre determined to become a film @-@ maker .
= = = The Apu years ( 1950 – 59 ) = = =
Ray decided to use Pather Panchali ( 1928 ) , the classic Bildungsroman of Bengali literature , as the basis for his first film . The semi @-@ autobiographical novel describes the maturation of Apu , a small boy in a Bengal village .
Ray gathered an inexperienced crew , although both his cameraman Subrata Mitra and art director Bansi Chandragupta went on to achieve great acclaim . The cast consisted of mostly amateur actors . He started shooting in late 1952 with his personal savings and hoped to raise more money once he had some passages shot , but did not succeed on his terms . As a result , Ray shot Pather Panchali over three years , an unusually long period , based on when he or his production manager Anil Chowdhury could raise additional funds . He refused funding from sources who wanted a change in script or supervision over production . He also ignored advice from the government to incorporate a happy ending , but he did receive funding that allowed him to complete the film . Ray showed an early film passage to the American director John Huston , who was in India scouting locations for The Man Who Would Be King . The passage was of the vision which Apu and his sister have of the train running through the countryside , the only sequence which Ray had yet filmed due to his small budget . Huston notified Monroe Wheeler at the New York Museum of Modern Art ( MOMA ) that a major talent was on the horizon .
With a loan from the West Bengal government , Ray finally completed the film . It was released in 1955 to great critical and popular success . It earned numerous prizes and had long runs in both India and abroad . In India , the reaction to the film was enthusiastic ; The Times of India wrote that " It is absurd to compare it with any other Indian cinema [ ... ] Pather Panchali is pure cinema . " In the United Kingdom , Lindsay Anderson wrote a glowing review of the film . But , the reaction was not uniformly positive . After watching the movie , François Truffaut is reported to have said , " I don 't want to see a movie of peasants eating with their hands . " Bosley Crowther , then the most influential critic of The New York Times , wrote a scathing review of the film . Its American distributor Ed Harrison was worried Crowther 's review would dissuade audiences , but the film had an exceptionally long run when released in the United States .
Ray 's international career started in earnest after the success of his next film , Aparajito ( The Unvanquished ) . This film shows the eternal struggle between the ambitions of a young man , Apu , and the mother who loves him . Critics such as Mrinal Sen and Ritwik Ghatak rank it higher than Ray 's first film . Aparajito won the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival , bringing Ray considerable acclaim . Before completing The Apu Trilogy , Ray directed and released two other films : the comic Parash Pathar ( The Philosopher 's Stone ) , and Jalsaghar ( The Music Room ) , a film about the decadence of the Zamindars , considered one of his most important works .
While making Aparajito , Ray had not planned a trilogy , but after he was asked about the idea in Venice , it appealed to him . He finished the last of the trilogy , Apur Sansar ( The World of Apu ) in 1959 . Critics Robin Wood and Aparna Sen found this to be the supreme achievement of the trilogy . Ray introduced two of his favourite actors , Soumitra Chatterjee and Sharmila Tagore , in this film . It opens with Apu living in a Calcutta house in near @-@ poverty . He becomes involved in an unusual marriage with Aparna . The scenes of their life together form " one of the cinema 's classic affirmative depictions of married life . " They suffer tragedy . After Apur Sansar was harshly criticised by a Bengali critic , Ray wrote an article defending it . He rarely responded to critics during his filmmaking career , but also later defended his film Charulata , his personal favourite .
Ray wrote his memoirs during his filming of the Apu Trilogy which has been published as My Years with Apu : A Memoir .
Ray 's film successes had little influence on his personal life in the years to come . He continued to live with his wife and children in a rented house , with his mother , uncle and other members of his extended family .
= = = From Devi to Charulata ( 1959 – 64 ) = = =
During this period , Ray composed films on the British Raj period ( such as Devi ) , a documentary on Tagore , a comic film ( Mahapurush ) and his first film from an original screenplay ( Kanchenjungha ) . He also made a series of films that , taken together , are considered by critics among the most deeply felt portrayals of Indian women on screen .
Ray followed Apur Sansar with Devi ( The Goddess ) , a film in which he examined the superstitions in Hindu society . Sharmila Tagore starred as Doyamoyee , a young wife who is deified by her father @-@ in @-@ law . Ray was worried that the censor board might block his film , or at least make him re @-@ cut it , but Devi was spared . In 1961 , on the insistence of Prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru , Ray was commissioned to make a documentary on Rabindranath Tagore , on the occasion of the poet 's birth centennial , a tribute to the person who likely most influenced Ray . Due to limited footage of Tagore , Ray faced the challenge of making a film out of mainly static material . He said that it took as much work as three feature films .
In the same year , together with Subhas Mukhopadhyay and others , Ray was able to revive Sandesh , the children 's magazine which his grandfather once published . Ray had been saving money for some years to make this possible . A duality in the name ( Sandesh means both " news " in Bengali and also a sweet popular dessert ) set the tone of the magazine ( both educational and entertaining ) . Ray began to make illustrations for it , as well as to write stories and essays for children . Writing became his major source of income in the years to come .
In 1962 , Ray directed Kanchenjungha . Based on his first original screenplay , it was his first film in colour . The film tells of an upper @-@ class family spending an afternoon in Darjeeling , a picturesque hill town in West Bengal . They try to arrange the engagement of their youngest daughter to a highly paid engineer educated in London . He had first conceived shooting the film in a large mansion , but later decided to film it in the famous hill town . He used the many shades of light and mist to reflect the tension in the drama . Ray noted that while his script allowed shooting to be possible under any lighting conditions , a commercial film contingent present at the same time in Darjeeling failed to shoot a single scene , as they only wanted to do so in sunshine .
In the sixties , Ray visited Japan and took particular pleasure in meeting the filmmaker Akira Kurosawa , for whom he had very high regard . While at home , he would take an occasional break from the hectic city life by going to places such as Darjeeling or Puri to complete a script in isolation .
In 1964 Ray made Charulata ( The Lonely Wife ) ; it was the culmination of this period of work , and regarded by many critics as his most accomplished film . Based on " Nastanirh " , a short story of Tagore , the film tells of a lonely wife , Charu , in 19th @-@ century Bengal , and her growing feelings for her brother @-@ in @-@ law Amal . Critics have referred to this as Ray 's Mozartian masterpiece . He said the film contained the fewest flaws among his work , and it was his only work which , given a chance , he would make exactly the same way . Madhabi Mukherjee 's performance as Charu , and the work of both Subrata Mitra and Bansi Chandragupta in the film , have been highly praised . Other films in this period include Mahanagar ( The Big City ) , Teen Kanya ( Three Daughters ) , Abhijan ( The Expedition ) and Kapurush o Mahapurush ( The Coward and the Holy Man ) .
= = = New directions ( 1965 – 82 ) = = =
In the post @-@ Charulata period , Ray took on projects of increasing variety , ranging from fantasy to science fiction to detective films to historical drama . Ray also made considerable formal experimentation during this period . He expressed contemporary issues of Indian life , responding to a perceived lack of these issues in his films . The first major film in this period is Nayak ( The Hero ) , the story of a screen hero travelling in a train and meeting a young , sympathetic female journalist . Starring Uttam Kumar and Sharmila Tagore , in the twenty @-@ four hours of the journey , the film explores the inner conflict of the apparently highly successful matinée idol . In spite of the film 's receiving a " Critics prize " at the Berlin International Film Festival , it had a generally muted reception .
In 1967 , Ray wrote a script for a film to be called The Alien , based on his short story " Bankubabur Bandhu " ( " Banku Babu 's Friend " ) , which he wrote in 1962 for Sandesh , the Ray family magazine . Columbia Pictures was the producer for what was a planned US @-@ India co @-@ production , and Peter Sellers and Marlon Brando were cast as the leading actors . Ray found that his script had been copyrighted and the fee appropriated by Mike Wilson . Wilson had initially approached Ray through their mutual friend , Arthur C. Clarke , to represent him in Hollywood . Wilson copyrighted the script credited to Mike Wilson & Satyajit Ray , although he contributed only one word . Ray later said that he never received a penny for the script . After Brando dropped out of the project , the project tried to replace him with James Coburn , but Ray became disillusioned and returned to Calcutta . Columbia expressed interest in reviving the project several times in the 1970s and 1980s , but nothing came of it . When E.T. was released in 1982 , Clarke and Ray saw similarities in the film to his earlier Alien script . Ray claimed that this film plagiarized his script . Ray said that Steven Spielberg 's movie " would not have been possible without my script of ' The Alien ' being available throughout America in mimeographed copies . " Spielberg denied any plagiarism by saying , " I was a kid in high school when this script was circulating in Hollywood . " ( Spielberg actually graduated high school in 1965 and released his first film in 1968 . Besides The Alien , two other unrealised projects that Ray had intended to direct were adaptations of the ancient Indian epic , the Mahābhārata , and E. M. Forster 's 1924 novel A Passage to India . In 1969 , Ray released what would be commercially the most successful of his films . Based on a children 's story written by his grandfather , Goopy Gyne Bagha Byne ( The Adventures of Goopy and Bagha ) , it is a musical fantasy . Goopy the singer and Bagha the drummer , endowed with three gifts by the King of Ghosts , set out on a fantastic journey . They try to stop an impending war between two neighboring kingdoms . Among his most expensive enterprises , the film project was difficult to finance . Ray abandoned his desire to shoot it in color , as he turned down an offer that would have forced him to cast a certain Hindi film actor as the lead .
Ray made a film from a novel by the young poet and writer , Sunil Gangopadhyay . Featuring a musical motif structure acclaimed as more complex than Charulata , Aranyer Din Ratri ( Days and Nights in the Forest ) traces four urban young men going to the forests for a vacation . They try to leave their daily lives behind . All but one of them become involved in encounters with women , which becomes a deep study of the Indian middle class . According to Robin Wood , " a single sequence [ of the film ] ... would offer material for a short essay " .
After Aranyer , Ray addressed contemporary Bengali life . He completed what became known as the Calcutta trilogy : Pratidwandi ( 1970 ) , Seemabaddha ( 1971 ) , and Jana Aranya ( 1975 ) , three films that were conceived separately but had thematic connections . Pratidwandi ( The Adversary ) is about an idealist young graduate ; if disillusioned at the end of film , he is still uncorrupted . Jana Aranya ( The Middleman ) showed a young man giving in to the culture of corruption to make a living . Seemabaddha ( Company Limited ) portrayed an already successful man giving up his morality for further gains . In the first film , Pratidwandi , Ray introduces a new , elliptical narrative style , such as scenes in negative , dream sequences , and abrupt flashbacks . In the 1970s , Ray adapted two of his popular stories as detective films . Though mainly addressed to children and young adults , both Sonar Kella ( The Golden Fortress ) and Joi Baba Felunath ( The Elephant God ) found some critical following .
Ray considered making a film on the Bangladesh Liberation War but later abandoned the idea . He said that , as a filmmaker , he was more interested in the travails of the refugees and not the politics . In 1977 , Ray completed Shatranj Ke Khiladi ( The Chess Players ) , a Hindi film based on a story by Munshi Premchand . It was set in Lucknow in the state of Oudh , a year before the Indian rebellion of 1857 . A commentary on issues related to the colonisation of India by the British , this was Ray 's first feature film in a language other than Bengali . It is his most expensive and star @-@ studded film , featuring Sanjeev Kumar , Saeed Jaffrey , Amjad Khan , Shabana Azmi , Victor Bannerjee and Richard Attenborough .
In 1980 , Ray made a sequel to Goopy Gyne Bagha Byne , a somewhat political Hirak Rajar Deshe ( Kingdom of Diamonds ) . The kingdom of the evil Diamond King , or Hirok Raj , is an allusion to India during Indira Gandhi 's emergency period . Along with his acclaimed short film Pikoo ( Pikoo 's Diary ) and hour @-@ long Hindi film , Sadgati , this was the culmination of his work in this period .
= = = The last phase ( 1983 – 92 ) = = =
In 1983 , while working on Ghare Baire ( Home and the World ) , Ray suffered a heart attack ; it would severely limit his productivity in the remaining 9 years of his life . Ghare Baire was completed in 1984 with the help of Ray 's son ( who operated the camera from then on ) because of his health condition . He had wanted to film this Tagore novel on the dangers of fervent nationalism for a long time , and wrote a first draft of a script for it in the 1940s . In spite of rough patches due to Ray 's illness , the film did receive some critical acclaim . It had the first kiss fully portrayed in Ray 's films . In 1987 , he made a documentary on his father , Sukumar Ray .
Ray 's last three films , made after his recovery and with medical strictures in place , were shot mostly indoors , and have a distinctive style . They have more dialogue than his earlier films and are often regarded as inferior to his earlier body of work . The first , Ganashatru ( An Enemy of the People ) is an adaptation of the famous Ibsen play , and considered the weakest of the three . Ray recovered some of his form in his 1990 film Shakha Proshakha ( Branches of the Tree ) . In it , an old man , who has lived a life of honesty , comes to learn of the corruption of three of his sons . The final scene shows the father finding solace only in the companionship of his fourth son , who is uncorrupted but mentally ill . Ray 's last film , Agantuk ( The Stranger ) , is lighter in mood but not in theme . When a long @-@ lost uncle arrives to visit his niece in Calcutta , he arouses suspicion as to his motive . This provokes far @-@ ranging questions in the film about civilisation .
In 1992 , Ray 's health deteriorated due to heart complications . He was admitted to a hospital , but never recovered . The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences awarded him an Honorary Academy Award . Ray is the first and the only Indian , yet , to receive the honor . Twenty @-@ four days before his death , Ray accepted the award in a gravely ill condition , calling it the " Best achievement of [ his ] movie @-@ making career . " He died on 23 April 1992 at the age of 71 .
= = Film craft = =
Satyajit Ray considered script @-@ writing to be an integral part of direction . Initially he refused to make a film in any language other than Bengali . In his two non @-@ Bengali feature films , he wrote the script in English ; translators interpreted it in Hindi or Urdu under Ray 's supervision . Ray 's eye for detail was matched by that of his art director Bansi Chandragupta . His influence on the early films was so important that Ray would always write scripts in English before creating a Bengali version , so that the non @-@ Bengali Chandragupta would be able to read it . The craft of Subrata Mitra garnered praise for the cinematography of Ray 's films . A number of critics thought that his departure from Ray 's crew lowered the quality of cinematography in the following films . Though Ray openly praised Mitra , his single @-@ mindedness in taking over operation of the camera after Charulata caused Mitra to stop working for him after 1966 . Mitra developed " bounce lighting " , a technique to reflect light from cloth to create a diffused , realistic light even on a set . Ray acknowledged his debts to Jean @-@ Luc Godard and François Truffaut of the French New Wave for introducing new technical and cinematic innovations .
Ray 's regular film editor was Dulal Datta , but the director usually dictated the editing while Datta did the actual work . Because of financial reasons and Ray 's meticulous planning , his films were mostly cut in @-@ camera ( apart from Pather Panchali ) . At the beginning of his career , Ray worked with Indian classical musicians , including Ravi Shankar , Vilayat Khan , and Ali Akbar Khan . He found that their first loyalty was to musical traditions , and not to his film . He had a greater understanding of Western classical forms , which he wanted to use for his films set in an urban milieu . Starting with Teen Kanya , Ray began to compose his own scores .
He used actors of diverse backgrounds , from famous film stars to people who had never seen a film ( as in Aparajito ) . Robin Wood and others have lauded him as the best director of children , pointing out memorable performances in the roles of Apu and Durga ( Pather Panchali ) , Ratan ( Postmaster ) and Mukul ( Sonar Kella ) . Depending on the talent or experience of the actor , Ray varied the intensity of his direction , from virtually nothing with actors such as Utpal Dutt , to using the actor as a puppet ( Subir Banerjee as young Apu or Sharmila Tagore as Aparna ) . Actors who had worked for Ray praised his customary trust but said he could also treat incompetence with total contempt .
= = Literary works = =
Ray created two popular fictional characters in Bengali children 's literature — Feluda , a detective , and Professor Shonku , a scientist . The Feluda stories are narrated by Topesh Ranjan Mitra aka Topse , his teenage cousin , something of a Watson to Feluda 's Holmes . The science fictions of Shonku are presented as a diary discovered after the scientist had mysteriously disappeared . Ray also wrote a collection of nonsense verse named Today Bandha Ghorar Dim , which includes a translation of Lewis Carroll 's " Jabberwocky " . He wrote a collection of humorous stories of Mullah Nasiruddin in Bengali .
His short stories were published as collections of 12 stories , in which the overall title played with the word twelve ( for example Aker pitthe dui , or literally " Two on top of one " ) . Ray 's interest in puzzles and puns is reflected in his stories . Ray 's short stories give full rein to his interest in the macabre , in suspense and other aspects that he avoided in film , making for an interesting psychological study . Most of his writings have been translated into English . Most of his screenplays have been published in Bengali in the literary journal Eksan . Ray wrote an autobiography about his childhood years , Jakhan Choto Chilam ( 1982 ) , translated to English as Childhood Days .
Ray penned his experiences during the period when he filmed the Apu Trilogy in his memoirs titled My Years with Apu : A Memoir .
He also wrote essays on film , published as the collections : Our Films , Their Films ( 1976 ) , Bishoy Chalachchitra ( 1976 ) , and Ekei Bole Shooting ( 1979 ) . During the mid @-@ 1990s , Ray 's film essays and an anthology of short stories were also published in English in the West . Our Films , Their Films is an anthology of film criticism by Ray . The book contains articles and personal journal excerpts . The book is presented in two sections : Ray first discusses Indian film , before turning his attention toward Hollywood , specific filmmakers ( Charlie Chaplin and Akira Kurosawa ) , and movements such as Italian neorealism . His book Bishoy Chalachchitra was published in translation in 2006 as Speaking of Films . It contains a compact description of his philosophy of different aspects of the cinemas .
= = Ray as calligrapher = =
Satyajit Ray designed four typefaces for roman script named Ray Roman , Ray Bizarre , Daphnis , and Holiday Script , apart from numerous Bengali ones for the Sandesh magazine . Ray Roman and Ray Bizarre won an international competition in 1971 . In certain circles of Calcutta , Ray continued to be known as an eminent graphic designer , well into his film career . Ray illustrated all his books and designed covers for them , as well as creating all publicity material for his films , i.e. , Ray 's artistic playing with the Bengali graphemes was also revealed in the cine posters and cine promo @-@ brochures ' covers . He also designed covers of several books by other authors . In his calligraphic technique there are deep impacts of : ( a ) Artistic pattern of European musical staff notation in the graphemic syntagms ; ( b ) alpana ( " ritual painting " mainly practiced by Bengali women at the time of religious festival ; the term denotes ' to coat with ' . Generally categorized as " Folk " -Art cf. in Ray 's graphemes representations .
Thus , so @-@ called division between classical and folk art is blurred in Ray 's representation of Bengali graphemes . The three @-@ tier X @-@ height of Bengali graphemes was presented in a manner of musical map and the contours , curves in between horizontal and vertical meeting @-@ point , follow the patterns of alpana . It is also noticed that the metamorphosis of graphemes ( This might be designated as " Archewriting " ) as a living object / subject in Ray 's positive manipulation of Bengali graphemes .
= = Critical and popular response = =
Ray 's work has been described as full of humanism and universality , and of a deceptive simplicity with deep underlying complexity . The Japanese director Akira Kurosawa said , " Not to have seen the cinema of Ray means existing in the world without seeing the sun or the moon . " But his detractors find his films glacially slow , moving like a " majestic snail . " Some find his humanism simple @-@ minded , and his work anti @-@ modern ; they criticize him for lacking the new modes of expression or experimentation found in works of Ray 's contemporaries , such as Jean @-@ Luc Godard . As Stanley Kauffman wrote , some critics believe that Ray assumes that viewers " can be interested in a film that simply dwells in its characters , rather than one that imposes dramatic patterns on their lives . " Ray said he could do nothing about the slow pace . Kurosawa defended him by saying that Ray 's films were not slow , " His work can be described as flowing composedly , like a big river " .
Critics have often compared Ray to artists in the cinema and other media , such as Chekhov , Renoir , De Sica , Hawks or Mozart . The writer V. S. Naipaul compared a scene in Shatranj Ki Khiladi ( The Chess Players ) to a Shakespearean play ; he wrote , " only three hundred words are spoken but goodness ! – terrific things happen . " Even critics who did not like the aesthetics of Ray 's films generally acknowledged his ability to encompass a whole culture with all its nuances . Ray 's obituary in The Independent included the question , " Who else can compete ? " His work was promoted in France by The Studio des Ursuline cinema .
Praising his contribution to the world of cinema , Martin Scorsese mentions : " His work is in the company of that of living contemporaries like Ingmar Bergman , Akira Kurosawa and Federico Fellini . "
Political ideologues took issue with Ray 's work . In a public debate during the 1960s , Ray and the Marxist filmmaker Mrinal Sen engaged in an argument . Sen criticised him for casting a matinée idol such as Uttam Kumar , whom he considered a compromise . Ray said that Sen only attacked " easy targets " , i.e. the Bengali middle @-@ classes . However Ray himself has made movies on Bengali middle class in films like Pratidwandi and Jana Aranya set during the period of the naxalite movement in Bengal . Advocates of socialism said that Ray was not " committed " to the cause of the nation 's downtrodden classes ; some critics accused him of glorifying poverty in Pather Panchali and Ashani Sanket ( Distant Thunder ) through lyricism and aesthetics . They said he provided no solution to conflicts in the stories , and was unable to overcome his bourgeois background . During the naxalite movements in the 1970s , agitators once came close to causing physical harm to his son , Sandip . Early in 1980 , Ray was criticised by an Indian M.P. and former actress Nargis Dutt , who accused Ray of " exporting poverty . " She wanted him to make films to represent " Modern India . "
= = Legacy = =
Satyajit Ray is a cultural icon in India and in Bengali communities worldwide . Following his death , the city of Calcutta came to a virtual standstill , as hundreds of thousands of people gathered around his house to pay their last respects . Satyajit Ray 's influence has been widespread and deep in Bengali cinema ; a number of Bengali directors , including Aparna Sen , Rituparno Ghosh and Gautam Ghose as well as Vishal Bhardwaj , Dibakar Banerjee , Shyam Benegal and Sujoy Ghosh from Hindi cinema in India , Tareq Masud and Tanvir Mokammel in Bangladesh , and Aneel Ahmad in England , have been influenced by his film craft . Across the spectrum , filmmakers such as Budhdhadeb Dasgupta , Mrinal Sen and Adoor Gopalakrishnan have acknowledged his seminal contribution to Indian cinema . Beyond India , filmmakers such as Martin Scorsese , Francis Ford Coppola , James Ivory , Abbas Kiarostami , Elia Kazan , François Truffaut , Carlos Saura , Isao Takahata , Wes Anderson , Danny Boyle and many other noted filmmakers from all over the world have been influenced by his cinematic style , with many others such as Akira Kurosawa praising his work . Gregory Nava 's 1995 film My Family had a final scene that repeated that of Apur Sansar . Ira Sachs 's 2005 work Forty Shades of Blue was a loose remake of Charulata . Other references to Ray films are found , for example , in recent works such as Sacred Evil , the Elements trilogy of Deepa Mehta . According to Michael Sragow of The Atlantic Monthly , the " youthful coming @-@ of @-@ age dramas that have flooded art houses since the mid @-@ fifties owe a tremendous debt to the Apu trilogy " . The trilogy also introduced the bounce lighting technique . Kanchenjungha ( 1962 ) introduced a narrative structure that resembles later hyperlink cinema . Pratidwandi ( 1972 ) helped pioneer photo @-@ negative flashback and X @-@ ray digression techniques . Together with Madhabi Mukherjee , Ray was the first Indian film figure to be featured on a foreign stamp ( Dominica ) .
Many literary works include references to Ray or his work , including Saul Bellow 's Herzog and J. M. Coetzee 's Youth . Salman Rushdie 's Haroun and the Sea of Stories contains fish characters named Goopy and Bagha , a tribute to Ray 's fantasy film . In 1993 , UC Santa Cruz established the Satyajit Ray Film and Study collection , and in 1995 , the Government of India set up Satyajit Ray Film and Television Institute for studies related to film . In 2007 , the BBC declared that two Feluda stories would be made into radio programs . During the London Film Festival , a regular " Satyajit Ray Award " is given to a first @-@ time feature director whose film best captures " the artistry , compassion and humanity of Ray 's vision " . Wes Anderson has claimed Ray as an influence on his work ; his 2007 film , The Darjeeling Limited , set in India , is dedicated to Ray . Ray also a graphic designer , designed most of his film posters , combining folk @-@ art and calligraphy to create themes ranging from mysterious , surreal to comical ; an exhibition his posters was held at British Film Institute in 2013 .
= = Awards , honours and recognitions = =
Ray received many awards , including 32 National Film Awards by the Government of India , and awards at international film festivals . At the 11th Moscow International Film Festival in 1979 , he was awarded with the Honorable Prize for the contribution to cinema . At the Berlin International Film Festival , he was one of only three filmmakers to win the Silver Bear for Best Director more than once and holds the record for the most number of Golden Bear nominations , with seven . At the Venice Film Festival , where he had previously won a Golden Lion for Aparajito ( 1956 ) , he was awarded the Golden Lion Honorary Award in 1982 . That same year , he received an honorary " Hommage à Satyajit Ray " award at the 1982 Cannes Film Festival .
Ray is the second film personality after Chaplin to have been awarded an honorary doctorate by Oxford University . He was awarded the Dadasaheb Phalke Award in 1985 and the Legion of Honor by the President of France in 1987 . The Government of India awarded him the Padma Bhushan in 1965 and the highest civilian honour , Bharat Ratna , shortly before his death . The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences awarded Ray an Honorary Oscar in 1992 for Lifetime Achievement . It was one of his favourite actresses , Audrey Hepburn , who represented the Academy on that day in Calcutta . Ray , unable to attend the ceremony due to his illness , gave his acceptance speech to the Academy via live video feed from the hospital bed . In 1992 he was posthumously awarded the Akira Kurosawa Award for Lifetime Achievement in Directing at the San Francisco International Film Festival ; it was accepted on his behalf by actress Sharmila Tagore .
In 1992 , the Sight & Sound Critics ' Top Ten Poll ranked Ray at No. 7 in its list of " Top 10 Directors " of all time , making him the highest @-@ ranking Asian filmmaker in the poll . In 2002 , the Sight & Sound critics ' and directors ' poll ranked Ray at No. 22 in its list of all @-@ time greatest directors , thus making him the fourth highest @-@ ranking Asian filmmaker in the poll . In 1996 , Entertainment Weekly magazine ranked Ray at No. 25 in its " 50 Greatest Directors " list . In 2007 , Total Film magazine included Ray in its " 100 Greatest Film Directors Ever " list .
= = Ray family = =
= = Filmography = =
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