page
stringlengths 23
146k
|
|---|
= The Chronicles of Narnia : Prince Caspian =
The Chronicles of Narnia : Prince Caspian is a 2008 American high fantasy film based on Prince Caspian , the second published , fourth chronological novel in C. S. Lewis 's epic fantasy series , The Chronicles of Narnia . It is the second in The Chronicles of Narnia film series from Walden Media , following The Chronicles of Narnia : The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe ( 2005 ) . The four Pevensie children ( William Moseley , Anna Popplewell , Skandar Keynes , and Georgie Henley ) return to Narnia to aid Prince Caspian ( Ben Barnes ) in his struggle for the throne against his corrupt uncle , King Miraz ( Sergio Castellitto ) . The film was released on May 16 , 2008 in the United States and on June 26 , 2008 in the United Kingdom . The screenplay based on the novel by C. S. Lewis was written by Stephen McFeely and Christopher Markus .
Prince Caspian is also the last Narnia film to be co @-@ produced by Walt Disney Pictures , as 20th Century Fox became the distributor of its future films starting with The Chronicles of Narnia : The Voyage of the Dawn Treader . Work on the script began before The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe was released , so filming could begin before the actors grew too old for their parts . Director Andrew Adamson wanted to make the film more spectacular than the first , and created an action sequence not in the novel . The Narnians were designed to look wilder as they have been hiding from persecution , stressing the darker tone of the sequel . The filmmakers also took a Spanish influence for the antagonistic race of the Telmarines . Filming began in February 2007 in New Zealand , but unlike the previous film , the majority of shooting took place in Central Europe , because of the larger sets available in those countries . To keep costs down , Adamson chose to base post @-@ production in the UK , because of recent tax credits there .
The film was a moderate success in the United States and Canada with a total sum of $ 141 million. and $ 278 million in the rest of the world . It received generally positive reviews from film critics . The film became 2008 's 10th highest grossing film worldwide .
= = Plot = =
1 @,@ 300 Narnian years after the Pevensie siblings left , Caspian , a Telmarine prince and heir to the throne , is informed by mentor Doctor Cornelius that his uncle , Miraz , is plotting to kill him and seize the throne for himself and his newborn heir . Cornelius gives him Queen Susan 's ancient magical horn , instructing him to blow it only at his greatest need . Caspian flees into the woods where he encounters two Narnian dwarfs , Trumpkin and Nikabrik , and a talking badger named Trufflehunter , and blows the horn to summon help .
Only one year in England has passed since the Pevensie children returned from Narnia . The children are waiting for a tube train when the station suddenly starts collapsing and they are magically transported to Narnia . At first they are overjoyed , but soon realize that much time has passed since their last visit , and their castle at Cair Paravel is in ruin with evidence it was attacked by catapults .
In the Telmarine castle , the lords of the council learn that Prince Caspian is gone , and Miraz , using Trumpkin , who has been captured , persuades them to attack the Narnians to retrieve Caspian while secretly plotting to kill him instead . Lord Sopespian suspects Miraz 's motives , and discusses his treasonous thoughts with his ally , General Glozelle .
The Pevensies save Trumpkin from being drowned by two Telmarines ; he realizes that the four children are the Kings and Queens of Old and they continue on together . Lucy glimpses Aslan and tries convincing the others that she has seen him ; only Edmund believes her .
Nikabrik and Trufflehunter lead Caspian to a gathering of the old Narnians , where he convinces them to help him win his throne so he can return their land . They meet the Pevensies and Trumpkin , and all journey to Aslan 's How . Peter decides they will attack Miraz 's castle , rejecting Lucy 's advice that they wait for Aslan to return .
The Narnians raid Miraz 's castle , but Caspian ruins the plan by freeing Cornelius instead of opening the gate . He learns that Miraz killed his father , and confronts Miraz but is wounded . Overwhelmed , Peter calls for a retreat . Peter , Susan , Edmund , Caspian and the Narnians escape with heavy losses . Upon returning to Aslan 's How , Peter and Caspian argue , while back at the castle , Miraz is crowned King .
Nikabrik , with the aid of a hag and a werewolf , offers Caspian his help to guarantee victory . The hag uses black sorcery to summon Jadis , the White Witch . From inside a wall of ice , the White Witch tries convincing Caspian to free her , when Peter , Edmund , Lucy and Trumpkin arrive . Peter kills the hag , Edmund kills the werewolf , and Trumpkin stabs Nikabrik when he attacks Lucy . Peter knocks Caspian aside to face the Witch himself , but begins to be entranced , until Edmund shatters the ice , destroying the Witch 's apparition .
As Miraz and his army arrive at Aslan 's How , Caspian suggests Peter and Miraz duel to the death , with the loser 's army to surrender , to buy Lucy and Susan time to find Aslan . Miraz agrees to the duel , not wanting to look like a coward in front of his men . The girls are attacked by Telmarine soldiers , so Susan remains behind to fight them while Lucy continues alone . Peter defeats Miraz , and gives Caspian his sword to finish him off , but Caspian spares Miraz 's life . Sopespian kills Miraz with one of Susan 's arrows and accuses the Narnians , leading to a battle , with the Telmarines gradually winning . Lucy finds Aslan in the woods and he awakens the trees , turning the battle in the Narnians ' favor . Sopespian orders retreat to a bridge , where they are confronted by Lucy and Aslan . Aslan summons the river god , who destroys the bridge , killing many of the soldiers , swallowing Sopespian and winning the battle .
Caspian invites the Telmarines to remain in Narnia if they will coexist peacefully with the Narnians ; but if they wish , they can return to the human world from which they originally came to Narnia . Some , including General Glozelle , agree to do so , and Aslan creates a portal for them and the four Pevensies . Susan kisses Caspian , knowing they will never meet again , as Aslan told her and Peter that they will never return to Narnia . The Pevensies return to England , leaving Caspian as King .
= = Cast = =
Pevensies
William Moseley reprises his role as Peter Pevensie . In a departure from the novel , Peter has a rivalry with Caspian . Moseley explained ,
" Peter 's got his own issues to deal with , and Caspian 's got his own issues to deal with , and when neither is willing to compromise , there 's bound to be friction . Peter came back to Narnia expecting to be king again and that everyone would do as he said , and Caspian is unwilling to let him take over , so that causes some of it . That 's really what happens . And it 's a lot about humility . I think they both have to learn a certain humility [ ... ] and that 's really what a great king needs is to be humble , to listen to his people , to be willing to compromise , and they start off as these sort of angry teenagers , and become kings at the end . "
In real life , the two actors got on well together . Moseley also stated that he identified with Peter , having gone back to school between shooting both films . He trained for three months in New York City to improve his performance and his physicality .
Skandar Keynes reprises his role as Edmund Pevensie , the second youngest Pevensie . Edmund matured during the events of The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe , so the writers saw him " as our Han Solo " , " [ doing ] the right thing " and " probably going to be a little low @-@ key about it " , highlighting the immaturity of his older brother . Keynes bruised his heel when performing a stunt where he jumped onto a horse . He narrowly missed landing on it and hit his foot against a column when holding on . Excepting that , he enjoyed performing the action .
Anna Popplewell reprises her role as Susan Pevensie , the second oldest Pevensie . Popplewell had been disappointed she barely used her bow and arrow in the first film . Adamson convinced Douglas Gresham to have her present during the battles by suggesting her passive role in the novel indicated Lewis ' view of women before he met Joy Gresham . " I think [ Lewis ] cast women down in the earlier books , but when you look at The Horse and His Boy , it has a strong female character . Doug 's mother was a strong woman . " Adamson also chose to have her fall for Caspian , because " The kids are growing up . If you look at Ben and you look at Anna , it seems really implausible that they wouldn 't have some feelings for each other . " He knew it had to be " sensitively handled " though , and ultimately it is not about romance , but " [ accepting ] the fact that you can have a wondrous experience , enjoy it and move on " . Popplewell added that it would not make sense for the Narnians not to use Susan , a talented archer , in battle , and that the romance contributed to her character 's reconciliation with losing Narnia in the first place .
Georgie Henley reprises her role as Lucy Pevensie . Henley acknowledged Lucy represents faith in the story , being the youngest and therefore most open @-@ minded of the Pevensies . During filming , Henley 's baby teeth were falling out , so she wore fake teeth to fill in the gaps .
Telmarines
Ben Barnes as Prince Caspian . Adamson said " Caspian is a coming of age and , to some degree , a loss of innocence story , with Caspian starting out quite naïve , then craving revenge and finally letting go of the vengeance . " While many readers interpret Caspian as a child , a passage in the novel mentions his age to be near that of Peter 's , so an older actor was sought to match Moseley . Barnes had read the novel as a child , and was cast in two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half weeks after meeting with the filmmakers . He spent two months in New Zealand horse riding and stunt training to prepare for shooting . Barnes modelled his Spanish accent on Mandy Patinkin 's performance as Inigo Montoya in The Princess Bride , though he also had a dialect coach aiding him . Adamson did not expect to cast a British actor as Caspian , and said Barnes fitted well into the surrogate family of Adamson and the four actors playing the Pevensies . When cast , Barnes was set to tour with the Royal National Theatre 's production of The History Boys : producer Mark Johnson joked Barnes " probably isn 't the Nation 's favourite actor right now " . Barnes left England without telling the Theatre . They were furious when they found out that he had left them without permission , so they considered suing him for breach of contract , but decided against it .
Sergio Castellitto as King Miraz . Castellitto was not familiar with the novel , but his four children had enjoyed the first film . Miraz marks the first time the Italian actor has portrayed a villain , and he found it interesting to " act out a stereotype . " Nonetheless , he also felt that he and Adamson brought depth to the role , explaining Miraz is a soldier , not a coward , and that he takes the throne for his son . He compared the character to King Claudius in Hamlet .
Pierfrancesco Favino as General Glozelle , Miraz 's military commander , who plots with Sopespian to have his king killed in combat with Caspian and Peter in order to lead his own attack on the Narnians . However , in the end , Glozelle repents and is the first to volunteer to go into the Pevensies ' world , and in return , is granted a good future by Aslan . This was Favino 's idea , because originally Glozelle would have died in battle . Adamson dubbed the character " a real Benedict Arnold " . Favino is able to speak several languages and generally acted as a translator to Adamson on set while working with actors and crew members of multiple nationalities .
Damián Alcázar as Lord Sopespian . " In some ways Sopespian turns out to be the real bad guy of the film , " Adamson said . " Where it seems that Miraz has the upper hand at the beginning , we see that Sopespian , like Shakespeare 's Iago , is trying to manipulate the situation . "
Vincent Grass as Doctor Cornelius : Caspian 's mentor , who is half @-@ dwarf . Adamson compared Caspian and Cornelius ' relationship to Aristotle and Alexander the Great . Cornelius ' role in the movie is significantly smaller than in the novel , and he is not named on screen , being referred to only as " Professor " .
Alicia Borrachero as Queen Prunaprismia . Prunaprismia was Miraz 's wife . When she had learned that her husband had killed his own brother , she became heartbroken . After Miraz 's death , Prunaprismia was the second volunteer to go back to our world ( with her child ) . Because of her repenting , Prunprismia and her child were promised a good life back in our world .
Simón Andreu as Lord Scythley .
Predrag Bjelac as Lord Donnon .
David Bowles as Lord Gergiore . He served as one of the marshals during the duel between Peter and Miraz .
Juan Diego Montoya Garcia as Lord Montoya .
Narnians
Liam Neeson reprises his role as the voice of the lion Aslan . Aslan is " more parental here , [ he ] lets the kids , well , make their own mistakes " . Aslan 's entrance was filmed as a dream sequence to emphasize his messianic nature , and not make it reflect badly on his absence when Narnia is in turmoil . Although the character is considered C.S. Lewis ' version of Jesus , Neeson " see [ s ] him more as the spirit of the planet – this living , breathing planet . That 's what he stands for , for me ; more what the native Americans would believe . " As Aslan has fewer action scenes than in the first film , the animators found it difficult to make him move interestingly . His pose had to be regal , but if he moved his head too much , he would remind viewers of a dog . As well as having his size increased by fifteen percent , Aslan 's eyes were also changed to look less " Egyptian " . Many of his shots were finished at the last minute .
Peter Dinklage as Trumpkin , a cynical red dwarf . Dinklage was Adamson and Johnson 's first choice , having seen him in The Station Agent . He accepted because " often , you get the hero and the villain and not much in between . Trumpkin is in between . He is not a lovable Snow White dwarf . Audiences appreciate these cynical characters . It helps parents and adults to go along with the journey . " Dinklage 's prosthetics took three hours to apply , and restricted his performance to his eyes . Even his frown was built into the make @-@ up . On his first day of filming , he was bitten by sand flies and fell into a river . " We were lucky that he returned after his first day ! " recalled Johnson .
Warwick Davis as Nikabrik , a black dwarf . He is descendant of Ginarrbrik , who served the White Witch , and bears one of his rings , which was passed down from each generation . Mark Johnson acknowledged casting Davis as the treacherous Nikabrik was casting against type : Berger covered all his face bar his eyelids in prosthetics , to allow Davis to ward off the audience 's perceptions of him . Nikabrik 's nose was based on Berger . Davis feared filming in the Czech Republic , because the grass is filled with ticks , so he put elastic bands to hold his trousers against his legs . Davis portrayed Reepicheep in the 1989 BBC production of Prince Caspian .
Ken Stott as the voice of Trufflehunter the badger . Adamson called Trufflehunter " a walking and talking Narnian library [ who is ] totally old @-@ school " . The animators visited a badger sanctuary to aid in depicting his performance .
Eddie Izzard as the voice of Reepicheep , a swashbuckling mouse . Over 100 actors auditioned to voice the character . Izzard approached Reepicheep as less camp and more of a bloodthirsty assassin with a sense of honour ( a cross between Mad Max and a Stormtrooper from Star Wars ) : Izzard interpreted Reepicheep as someone whose family was killed by the Telmarines . The Narnia series were some of the few books Izzard read as a child , and he cherished them . When discussing Reepicheep to the animators , Adamson told them to rent as many Errol Flynn films as possible . Adamson credits Izzard for making the role his own ; beforehand , the director was approaching the character similarly to Puss in Boots in Shrek 2 .
Cornell John as Glenstorm the Centaur . Adamson had seen John perform in Porgy and Bess in London , and liked his long face . John imagined the character as being 170 years old , and wanted to convey " honour , pride and tradition " .Lejla Abbasová as Windmane ( Glenstorm 's wife ) .
Yemi Akinyemi as Ironhoof ( Glenstorm 's son ) .
Carlos Da Silva as Suncloud ( Glenstorm 's son ) .
David Walliams as the voice of the Bulgy Bear .
Klara Issova as a Narnian Hag who attempts to resurrect the White Witch . She used some Arabic words in her incantation .
Gomez Mussenden ( son of costume designer Isis Mussenden ) plays Lightning Bolt , a child Centaur .
Jan Pavel Filipensky as Wimbleweather the giant .
Shane Rangi as Asterius the Minotaur and Josh Campbell as the voice of Asterius . An elderly minotaur who aids Caspian . He is killed during the raid while holding the gate open to allow some of the army to escape . Rangi also stood in for Aslan , the Bulgy Bear , the Werewolf , another Minotaur , and the Wild Bear on set . Rangi played General Otmin in the previous film and Tavros in The Voyage of The Dawn Treader . He was able to see more in the redesigned animatronic minotaur heads , though " in order to make the eye line straight and correct , you 've actually got to hold your head down , so your view is only about a foot and a half in front of you , which still makes it a little bit hard " . This resulted in Rangi knocking himself against the rising gate of the Telmarine castle , although he was fine and it was the animatronic head that bore the brunt of the damage . The costumes were still very hot , reducing him to a " walking waterfall " . Although a head sculpt of Aslan was used to stand in for the character on the first film , Rangi had to portray the character on set because Lucy interacts with him more . Rangi lost four kilograms wearing all his costumes .
Cameos
Tilda Swinton reprises her role as Jadis , the White Witch . Her ghost appears as the hag and werewolf attempt to resurrect her . Swinton and her two children also cameoed towards the film 's end as centaurs .
Composer Harry Gregson @-@ Williams made a vocal cameo as Pattertwig the squirrel , as Adamson felt he had a " squirrel @-@ like energy " .
Douglas Gresham cameos as a Telmarine crier .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Before the release of The Chronicles of Narnia : The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe , the screenplay for the sequel Prince Caspian had already been written . Director Andrew Adamson said the decision was made to follow the publication order of the novels because " if we don 't make it now we 'll never be able to , because the [ actors will ] be too old " . Prince Caspian , the second published novel in the series , is the fourth chronologically . The Horse and His Boy takes place during a time only hinted at in The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe . The writers briefly considered combining Caspian with The Voyage of the Dawn Treader , which the BBC did for their television adaptation .
Screenwriters Christopher Markus & Stephen McFeely wanted to explore how the Pevensies felt after returning from Narnia , going from being kings and queens back to an awkward year as school children . They noted , " [ C. S. Lewis ] doesn 't much consider what it would be like for a King of Narnia to return to being a 1940 's schoolchild . " They also decided to introduce the Pevensies back into Narnia nearer the start , in order to weave the two separate stories of the Pevensies and Caspian , in contrast to the book 's structure . A sense of guilt on the Pevensies ' part was added , seeing the destruction of Narnia in their absence , as was hubris for Peter to enhance the theme of belief : his arrogance means he is unable to see Aslan .
Adamson also desired to make the film larger in scale ; " I 've gained confidence having gone through the first . This time , I was able to go larger [ in ] scale , with more extras and bigger battle scenes . " Inspired by a passage in the novel where Reepicheep says he would like to attack the castle , a new battle scene in which Peter and Caspian make an attempted raid on Miraz 's castle was created . Adamson felt the imagery of mythological Greek creatures storming a castle was highly original . Markus and McFeely used the sequence to illustrate Peter and Caspian 's conflict and Edmund 's maturity , in an effort to tighten the script by using action as drama . Adamson preferred subtlety to the drama scenes , asking his young male actors not to perform angrily . Adamson copied Alfred Hitchcock by " tell [ ing ] people at the end of the scene , ' Now just give me something where you 're not thinking about anything . ' By using it in context , the audience will read an emotion into it . "
= = = Design = = =
Andrew Adamson described the film as being darker , as it takes place " another 1300 years later , [ and ] Narnia has been oppressed by Telmarines for a large period of that time , so it 's a dirtier , grittier , darker place than the last world was " . He added , " This one is more of a boy 's movie . It 's a harsher world . The villains are human , and that lends a more realistic attitude . " Creatures were designed by veteran horror and monster concept artist Jordu Schell and supervised by Howard Berger , who said that Prince Caspian would be more medieval than The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe . Alongside Adamson , Berger 's children critiqued his designs , aiding the process : his son thought the werewolf 's ears were silly , so they were made smaller .
For the Narnians , Berger envisioned them as more wild in appearance , as they have been forced into the forests . He also decided to increase the portrayal of various ages , sizes and races . The black dwarfs are distinguished from the red dwarfs as they have more leather and jewellery , and a darker colour scheme in their costumes . Each race of creatures also had their fighting styles made more distinguishable . The minotaurs have maces , and the centaurs use swords . The satyrs were redesigned , as their creation on the first film had been rushed . 4 @,@ 600 make @-@ up jobs were performed , which Berger believes is a record .
The filmmakers interpreted the Telmarines , including Caspian , as being Spanish because of their pirate origins , which producer Mark Johnson noted made Caspian " a contrast to the lily @-@ white [ Pevensies ] " . Production designer Roger Ford originally wanted the Telmarines to be French , as they had a confrontational history with the English , who are represented by the Pevensies . This was scrapped as the crew were unable to shoot at Pierrefonds Castle , for Miraz 's lair , so they went for the Spanish feel . Weta Workshop created masked helmets for their army , and faceplates for the live horses on set . The stunt soldiers wield two @-@ hundred polearms in two different styles , two @-@ hundred rapiers of varying design , over a hundred falchions , two @-@ hundred and fifty shields and fifty @-@ five crossbows . Caspian 's own sword is a variation of the Royal Guard 's weapons . Costume designer Isis Mussenden looked to the paintings of El Greco to inspire the Telmarines ' costumes . She wanted to use colours that looked " acidic and hot and cool at the same time " , unlike the red and gold seen in the Narnian soldiers . Their masked helmets are based on conquistadors and samurai . She visited the armour archives of the Metropolitan Museum of Art for inspiration . An eagle emblem was incorporated into the characters ' lairs to make them feel fascist .
= = = Filming = = =
Eight months were spent scouting locations , including Ireland , China and Argentina , before New Zealand , Prague , Slovenia and Poland were chosen . Whereas the previous film was predominantly shot in New Zealand with a few months of filming in Central Europe , Adamson decided New Zealand lacked enough sound stages to accommodate the larger scale of the film . The decision to film most of the picture in Europe also allowed the ability to shoot during summer in both continents , although the weather turned out to be so erratic during filming that Adamson joked he had been lied to .
Filming began on February 12 , 2007 in Auckland . The scene where the Pevensies return to the ruined Cair Paravel was shot at Cathedral Cove . The filmmakers chose the location because it had a tunnel @-@ like arch , which echoed the train tunnel the children go into before being summoned back into Narnia . Henderson Valley Studios was used for the Pevensies ' ancient treasure room and the Underground station .
On April 1 , 2007 , the crew began filming at Barrandov Studios in Prague . There , sets such as Miraz 's castle , Aslan 's How and the underground hiding places of the Narnians were created . The 200 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 61 m ) castle was built to scale because Adamson felt he overused digital sets on the last film . The castle was built in the open air during winter , where the temperature would drop to minus 20 ° C. Miraz 's courtyard is the largest set in production designer Roger Ford 's career , including the previous Narnia film . Aslan 's How was modified into the hideout after filming for those scenes was finished . To create Trufflehunter 's den , Ford 's crew put a camera inside a badger 's den to study what it should look like . The den 's roof had to be raised by three inches because Ben Barnes was too tall .
In June 2007 , they shot the bridge battle near Bovec in the Soča Valley , Slovenia . The location was chosen for its resemblance to New Zealand . A large bridge was built , which was modelled on the one Julius Caesar built to cross the Rhine . Whereas Caesar supposedly built his bridge in ten days , the filmmakers had around forty . The schedule was short though , but the authorities would only allow them this build time to not completely disrupt normal summer activities on the lake . The filmmakers made a trench to change the river 's course , so they could deepen the drained sides of the riverbed so it looked like one could drown in it . The crew also cut down 100 trees for shots of the Telmarines building the bridge ; the trees were moved to another side of the river for decoration . The bridge stood for two months before being dismantled . As part of the clean @-@ up , the cut @-@ down trees and parts of the bridge were sent to a recycling plant , while other portions of the bridge were sent to the studio for close @-@ ups shot against bluescreen .
Part of the battle was shot at Ústí nad Labem in the Czech Republic . Only the entrance to Aslan 's How was built on location . Adamson wanted Peter and Miraz 's duel to feel unique and not like a controlled , overly choreographed fencing match : Moseley and Castellitto began training for the scene in November 2006 . The stunt coordinator Allan Poppleton doubled for Castellitto in some shots because they are similar in size . For claustrophobic shots , cameras were built into their shields . The main camera was placed on a 360 degree track surrounding the ruin it takes place on . The filmmakers dug a large hole in the ground for the scene where the Narnians cause the pillars supporting the growth near Aslan 's How to collapse on the Telmarines . The earth was then restored following completion of the scene . They also had to restore the grass after filming numerous cavalry charges . 18 @,@ 000 fern plants were imported to the Czech Republic to create a forest . A scene shot in Poland , which involved building a cliff face , also had to leave no trace behind . Filming finished by September 8 , 2007 .
= = = Effects = = =
Prince Caspian has over 1 @,@ 500 special effects shots , more than The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe 's 800 effects shots , yet the film had less time to complete them . The scale of special effects led Andrew Adamson to base production in the UK , to take advantage of new tax credits . Therefore , it legally qualifies as a British film . This also meant the director only had to walk five minutes from the editing room to supervise the effects . British visual effects companies the Moving Picture Company and Framestore CFC were hired to create the visual effects alongside Weta Digital . Framestore worked on Aslan , Trufflehunter and the door in the air ; Scanline did the River @-@ god ; Weta created the werewolf , the wild bear and Miraz 's castle ; MPC and Escape Studios did the main battle , the tunnel scene , the castle assault , the council scenes and all the other creatures .
Alex Funke , who worked on The Lord of the Rings , directed the film 's miniatures unit . These include 1 / 24th and 1 / 100th scale miniatures of Miraz 's castle . A scale model was built of the Narnians ' cave hideouts during the climactic battle , which the actor playing the giant Wimbleweather was filmed against . One of the improvements made over the previous film was to make the centaurs walk during dialogue scenes , so Cornell John as Glenstorm wore Power Risers ( mechanical stilts with springs ) , to mimic a horse 's canter and height . The animatronic Minotaur heads were also improved to properly lip sync , although this was not as successful as hoped and had to be revamped digitally .
In the climactic battle , 150 extras stood in for the Narnians , while 300 extras were used for the Telmarines . These were digitally duplicated until there were 1 @,@ 000 Narnians and 5 @,@ 000 Telmarines onscreen . The animators found it easier to create entirely digital centaurs and fauns , rather than mix digital legs with real actors . The dryads were entirely computer @-@ generated , whereas in the first film digital petals had been composited over actors . However , Adamson had chosen to make the centaurs not wear armour , meaning the animators had to make the human – horse join behave more cohesively . Combining digital characters with actors , such as when Lucy hugs Aslan , had become easier since the first film , as lighting had improved . To achieve Lucy hugging Aslan , Framestore even replaced Georgie Henley 's arm with a digital version . For the gryphons , a motion control rig was created for the actors to ride on . The rig could simulate subtle movements such as wing beats for realism . Adamson cited the river @-@ god as the character he was most proud of . " It was a really masterful effect : to control water like that is incredibly difficult " , he said . " The [ visual effects company ] told us they 'd been waiting to do a shot like that for ten years . "
The film features catapults resembling windmills , that can fire rapidly , and a ballista that can fire three projectiles at a time . The practical versions of these were metal with fibreglass painted and aged to resemble wood on top . Weta created props of the missiles thrown by the Telmarine equipment . The practical version of the catapult had its upper half painted blue , to composite a digital version programmed for rapid firing movement .
= = = Music = = =
The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe composer Harry Gregson @-@ Williams began composing the sequel in December 2007 . Recording began at Abbey Road Studios the following month , and finished by April 2008 . The Crouch End Festival Chorus , Regina Spektor 's song , " The Call " , Oren Lavie 's song , " Dance ' Round The Memory Tree " and Switchfoot 's song , " This Is Home " , are featured on the soundtrack . Imogen Heap , who sang " Can 't Take It In " for the first film , wrote a new song which Gregson @-@ Williams considered too dark .
Gregson @-@ Williams ' score is darker to follow suit with the film . Gregson @-@ Williams wanted Caspian 's theme to convey a vulnerability , which would sound more vibrant as he became more heroic . It originally used a 3 / 4 time signature , but the opening scene required a 4 / 4 and thus it was changed . To represent Miraz 's cunning , the heroic theme from the first film was inverted . For Reepicheep , a muted trumpet was used to present his militaristic and organised character . Gregson @-@ Williams considered arranging his theme for a small pennywhistle , but found that it sounded too cute and broke the tension of the night raid .
= = Release = =
During pre @-@ production , Disney announced a December 14 , 2007 release date , but pushed it back to May 16 , 2008 , because Disney opted to not release it in competition with The Water Horse , another Walden Media production . Disney also felt the Harry Potter films comfortably changed their release dates from ( Northern Hemisphere ) winters to summers , and Narnia could likewise do the same because the film was darker and more like an action film . The world premiere was held at the Ziegfeld Theatre in New York City on May 7 , 2008 . The British premiere was held at the O2 Arena on June 19 , the first time the dome has hosted a film screening . Around 10 @,@ 000 people attended the event , the proceeds of which went to Great Ormond Street Hospital .
The film opened in 3 @,@ 929 theaters in the United States and Canada on May 16 , 2008 . The Motion Picture Association of America gave the film a PG . To earn this rating , which the filmmakers were contractually bound by Disney to do , Adamson altered a shot of a fallen helmet to make clear that it did not contain a severed head . Adamson made numerous edits to the film beforehand after showing the film to a young audience , explaining " When you sit down and you 're watching it , and you see the kids ' faces while making the film , you 're just making an attempt , you 're making it exciting , you 're doing all of these things because you 're essentially making the film for yourself . When you start showing it to an audience , that then influences how you feel about the film . "
= = = Marketing = = =
Adding to the film 's $ 225 million budget ( almost $ 100 million of which were spent on the effects ) , Disney also spent $ 175 million on promoting the film . Play Along Toys created a playset of Miraz 's castle , a series of 3 ¾ -inch and 7 @-@ inch action figures , and roleplaying costumes . Weta Workshop 's Collectibles unit also created statues , busts and helmets based on their props for the film , and there was also a Monopoly edition based on the film . In the UK , Damaris Trust was commissioned to produce resources relating to the film for churches and schools , which are available from the official UK Narnia website . In June 2008 , the Journey into Narnia : Prince Caspian Attraction opened at Disney 's Hollywood Studios , featuring a recreation of the Stone Table , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage , concept art , storyboards , props and costumes from the film . The tone of the film 's marketing focused on the film 's action , and unlike The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe Disney and Walden did not screen the film for pastors or give Bible @-@ based study guides in North America .
= = = Home media = = =
Prince Caspian was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc in the UK on 17 November 2008 , and on 2 December 2008 in North America . It was the top selling DVD of its release week in the U.S. taking in $ 54 @.@ 7 million . The film was released in Australia on 27 November 2008 . There were one @-@ disc and three @-@ disc DVD editions ( two @-@ disc only in the UK ) , and two @-@ disc and three @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray Disc editions ( two @-@ disc only in the UK ) . The first two discs contain an audio commentary by Adamson , blooper reel , deleted scenes and documentaries , while the third disc contains a digital copy of the film . For the Blu @-@ ray Disc , Circle @-@ Vision 360 ° was used to allow viewers to watch the night raid from different angles . An additional disc of special features was only made available in Japan and Zavvi stores in the UK , while a separate version containing a disc of electronic press kit material was exclusive to Sanity stores in Australia . By the end of 2008 , the film earned almost $ 71 million in DVD sales .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The film received generally positive reviews . The review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 67 % of critics gave the film positive reviews , based on 188 reviews . Metacritic reported the film had an average score of 62 out of 100 , based on 34 reviews . Audience members polled by CinemaScore mostly gave it an A − . Film critic Leonard Maltin gave the film 3 out of 4 stars ( as he did with The Lion , The Witch , and The Wardrobe ) , calling the performances " strong " , the storytelling " solid " , and the scenery " breathtaking " , though he also said , " it 's a dark tale , and the climactic battle scenes go on at length . "
Two film industry trade journals gave the film positive reviews . Todd McCarthy of Variety felt Adamson 's direction had a " surer sense of cinematic values " and praised the improved special effects , the " timeless " locations and production design . On the performances , he felt " the four kids overall have more character and are therefore more interesting to watch than they were before , and Italian actor Castellitto registers strongly with evil that 's implacable but not overplayed . " Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter noted the film was darker than its predecessor , with " the loss of innocence theme ... significantly deepened " . He highlighted Peter Dinklage 's performance , which " outmaneuver [ ed ] the title character as Narnia 's most colorful new inhabitant " ; .
A number of critics took issue with what they interpreted as the film 's underlying messages . San Francisco Chronicle critic Mick Lasalle wrote in his parental advisory that " basically , this is a movie about kids who go into another world and dimension and spend the whole time killing people . " MSNBC reviewer Alonso Duralde noted that " all the heroes have British accents while the Telmarines are all decidedly Mediterranean in appearance and inflection " . An Anglican Journal review described the movie as reasonably faithful to the adventure elements of the book , much lighter on the religious faith aspects , which they found integral to the novel , and deficient on character and emotion .
The Visual Effects Society nominated it for Best Visual Effects and Best Compositing . It was nominated for Best Fantasy Film , Best Costumes , Best Make @-@ up , and Best Special Effects at the Saturn Awards . Keynes and Henley received nominations at the Young Artist Awards .
In 2010 , Mark Johnson , a producer from all of the Narnia movies , admitted that " We made some mistakes with Prince Caspian and I don 't want to make them again . " He also said Caspian lacked some of the " wonder and magic of Narnia , " was " a little bit too rough " for families , and too much of a " boys ' action movie . "
= = = Box office = = =
When released on May 16 in the United States and Canada , the film grossed $ 55 million from 8 @,@ 400 screens at 3 @,@ 929 theaters in its opening weekend , ranking # 1 at the box office . Disney said it was happy with the film 's performance , although the opening fell short of industry expectations of $ 80 million and was also behind The Lion , The Witch and the Wardrobe 's opening gross of $ 65 @.@ 6 million . By June 1 it grossed $ 115 million , while the first film had grossed $ 153 million in the same amount of time . Disney CEO Robert Iger attributed the film 's underperformance to being released between two of the year 's biggest hits , Iron Man and Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull .
On May 16 , the film also opened at number one in twelve other countries , grossing $ 22 @.@ 1 million , and bringing the worldwide opening total to about $ 77 million . The film opened in Russia with $ 6 @.@ 7 million , the biggest opening of the year ; it earned $ 6 @.@ 3 million ( 15 % more than the first ) in Mexico ; $ 4 million in South Korea , making it in the third most successful Disney film there ; $ 2 million from India , which was triple the gross of the first ; and it earned $ 1 @.@ 1 million in Malaysia , making it the country 's third most popular Disney film after the Pirates of the Caribbean sequels . The film also opened with $ 1 million in Argentina on June 13 , which was Disney 's third biggest opening in the country and the biggest of 2008 at that time . Prince Caspian made $ 141 @,@ 621 @,@ 490 in the United States and Canada while the worldwide total stands at $ 419 @,@ 651 @,@ 413 . The movie was the tenth highest @-@ grossing film of 2008 worldwide , and was Disney 's second highest @-@ grossing film of 2008 after WALL @-@ E.
= = = Accolades = = =
|
= Aboriginal title statutes in the Thirteen Colonies =
Aboriginal title statutes in the Thirteen Colonies were one of the principal subjects of legislation by the colonial assemblies in the Thirteen Colonies . With the exception of Delaware , every colony codified a general prohibition on private purchases of Native American lands without the consent of the government . Disputes were generally resolved by special interest legislation or war . Mohegan Indians v. Connecticut ( 1705 – 73 ) , a lawsuit that proceeded for 70 years under special royal enabling acts only to be dismissed on non @-@ substantive grounds , was the first and only judicial test of indigenous tenure .
Aboriginal title remained a central political and economic issue and was listed as one of the enumerated grievances in the Declaration of Independence . Regardless , colonial land law relating to indigenous peoples became the foundation for aboriginal title in the United States during the Articles of Confederation @-@ era and after the ratification of the United States Constitution . The colonial @-@ law prohibition was codified at the federal level by the Confederation Congress Proclamation of 1783 and the Nonintercourse Acts of 1790 , 1793 , 1796 , 1799 , 1802 , and 1834 .
Pre @-@ Revolutionary land transactions remained the subject of political and legal disputes well after Independence . However , in sharp contrast to post @-@ 1790 transactions , no Indian tribe has yet succeeded in litigating or receiving compensation for a pre @-@ 1790 transaction . The prevailing view remains that the colonial governments , and the state governments that succeeded them during the Confederation era , had the power to authorize the alienation of indigenous lands within their borders .
= = British law = =
The British monarchy made two attempts to regulate aboriginal land transactions in British North America by Royal Proclamation : first , the Royal Proclamation of 1622 ; second , the Royal Proclamation of 1763 .
= = Statutes by colony = =
= = = Connecticut = = =
The Connecticut Colony ( est . 1636 ) and the New Haven Colony ( est . 1637 ) merged in 1662 .
= = = = Connecticut Colony = = = =
In 1637 , the Connecticut Colony authorized a military expedition to Pequot lands to “ maynteine our right that God by Conquest hath given to us . ” Soon after , the colony decided to hold sachem 's liable for the trespass of any Indian . The conquered Pequot land 's were “ dispose [ d ] . . . with lest prejudice to others that may hereafter succeed them . ”
The first prohibitions on transactions prohibited leases , either to or from Indians . The first prohibition on taking Indian property did not arise until 1660 . This was explicitly extended to land acquisitions in 1663 . The prohibition was strengthened in 1680 . The penalties were increased again in 1687 .
" Gold Hill " was the first Indian reservation in the colony , established in 1659 and confirmed in 1678 . Indians were also explicitly permitted to use public lands for hunting . In other instances , the colony resolved land disputes between competing Indians . Other reservations were established for the Mohegans in New London in 1718 and others in 1726 ( which were exempted from the application of adverse possession ) , including the Pequot 's before 1731 .
The power to purchase Indian lands was delegated to townships in 1702 . In 1706 , the colony offered amnesty for those who had purchased in violation of previous prohibitions as long as they provided a " true account . " In 1717 , the colony declared “ all lands in this government are holden of the King of Great Britain as the lord of the fee , ” barred the introduction of private purchases as evidence , and established a committee to " settle this whole affair . " Noting that the prohibition was among the most " ancient laws " of the colony , the fine was increased in 1722 , and treble damages were imposed . No compensation was provided in the case of eminent domain .
= = = = New Haven = = = =
Prior to merging with the Connecticut Colony , the New Haven Colony also prohibited private purchases of Indian lands unless " in the name and for the use of the whole plantation . ”
= = = Delaware = = =
Delaware appears to have passed no laws concerning Indian lands .
= = = Georgia = = =
In 1758 , Georgia passed a prohibition of private purchases of Indian lands :
[ I ] f any person or persons whosoever shall attempt to purchase or contract for , or cause to be purchased or contracted for , or shall take or acept of a grant or conveyance of any lands or tracts of lands from any Indian , or body of Indians , upon any prtence whatsoever , ( except for the use of the crown and that by permission for this purpose first had and obtained from his majesty , his heirs or successors , or his or their governor or commander in chief of the said province for the time being ) every such purchase , grant , contract and conveyance , shall be , and is and are hereby declared to be null and void , to all intentts an purposes whatsoever . . . .
= = = Maryland = = =
In 1639 Maryland codified separate prohibitions on land purchases from Indians and non @-@ English Europeans , set to expire at the end of the next session of the general assembly ; the latter provided :
Neither Shall [ a subject of the King ] obteine procure or accept of any Land within this Province from any Indian to his own or the use of any other than the Lord Proprietarie or his heirs [ , ] nor shall hold or possess and land . . . and upon pain that every person offending . . . Shall forfeit and lose to the Lord Proprietarie and his heirs all Such Lands so accepted or held without Grant of the Lord Proprietarie under him .
This forfeiture provision was renewed in 1649 . Indian reservations were established in 1666 . Their boundaries were modified in 1698 , and enlarged in 1711 . Indian reservation boundaries were re @-@ surveyed in 1721 . The Nanticoke reservation was extinguished in 1768 .
Unlike many colonies , Maryland provided limited legal remedies for the violation of Indian property rights . In 1704 , the colony provided that non @-@ Indians who took timber from Indian lands would be “ lyable to Action or Actions of trespass [ , ] And the persons grieved shall and may recover their Damages accordingly . ” It later authorized specific proceedings for " Indian @-@ English " disputes ; in the third such authorization , jurisdiction was extended to “ punishing Trespasses committed on their Lands , ” claims arising from the renting of Indian lands , and “ Trespasses and Wastes on such of the said Indian Lands , which have not been granted to any of the Inhabitants of this Province . "
= = = Massachusetts = = =
The Plymouth Colony ( est . 1620 ) and the Massachusetts Bay Colony ( est . 1628 ) merged in 1691 . After the combination of the two colonies , in 1701 , a new prohibition was codified :
[ A ] ll deeds of bargain , sale , lease , release , or quitclaim , titles and conveyances whatsoever , of any lands . . . within this province . . . had , made , gotten , procured or obtained from any Indian or Indians by any person or persons whatsoever at any time [ since 1633 ] without the license or approbation of the respective general courts of the said late colonys [ or the current colony for purchases after 1701 ] shall be deemed and adjuded in the law to be null , void and of none effect .
The law validated all titles in Martha 's Vineyard and the Island of Nantuckett and all other titles preceded by a grant from the colony . Henceforth , any violator would be subject to a fine of twice the value of the land and 6 months in prison . In 1719 , the Mashpee 's lands were exempted , and their sale was authorized in 1777 .
In 1723 , the Hassanimscoe were exempted from property tax . In 1736 , they were granted a 6 miles square reservation , whose borders were amended several times in 1737 and 1739 . Indian lands within the township of Edgartown on Chappaquiddick were protected for 3 years in 1774 .
= = = = Plymouth = = = =
A 1643 Plymouth statute acknowledged the “ constant custome from our first beginning That no person or persons have or ever did purchase Rent or hire any lands . . . of the Natives but by the Majestrates consent ” and proscribed :
[ I ] f any person or persons do hereafter purchase or rent or hyre and lands . . . of any of the Natives in any place within this government with the consent and assent of the Court Every such person or persons shall forfait [ fives times the value plus five pounds for every acre ] .
In 1652 , the colony legislated an exception to this prohibition , for those who had failed to satisfy the conditions of their land grants resulting in the lands being re @-@ granted to other non @-@ Indians . The exception was only to last for 14 months from the end of the Court session , but was extended until June 1656 . The colony later retroactively validated some purchases made in violation of this prohibition . In 1660 , the prohibition was interpreted to apply to gifts of land . In 1663 , the prohibition was extended to mere use . In 1668 , the prohibition was extended to " mount hope or Cawsumsett necke or any other neckes or tracts of land as there is a body of Indians upon " ; as amended , the lands would be forfeited to the colony if the purchaser could not afford the fine .
In 1674 , the colony established a one @-@ year statute of limitations " concerning Indian claimes that are or shalbe made to any lands within this Government ; which are now orderly possessed by the English those which doe lay claime to them shall orderly comence and prosecute theire claime as farr as hee or they are able ; wihtine one yeare after they be of age ; and noe longer and that care be taken that the Indians have notice of it . "
= = = = Massachusetts Bay = = = =
The Massachusetts Bay colony codified its first prohibition on private purchases of Indian lands in 1634 : “ [ N ] oe person whatsoever shall buy any land of any Indean without leave from the Court . ” The first land recording law , instructed Steven Winthrope to record , inter alia , “ all the purchases of the natives . ”
The Code of 1648 codified the prohibition such : “ It is ordered by Authoritie of this Court ; that no person whatsoever shall henceforth buy land of any Indian , without licence first had and obtained of the General Court : and if any shall offend heerin , such land so bought shall be forfeited to the Countrie . ” A 10 @-@ pounds @-@ per @-@ acre forfeiture was ordered in 1687 .
In 1652 , the colony acknowledged aboriginal title , in a statute that made reference to several biblical verses :
[ W ] hat lande any of the Indians , within this jurissdiction , have by possession or improvement , by subdueing of the same , they have just right thereunto , according to that Gen : 1 : 28 , chap : 9 : 1 , Psa . : 115 , 16 . And … if any of the Indians shalbe brought to civillitie … such Indians shall have allotments … according to the custome of the English in the like case .
Only if the Indians were evicted from “ planting groundes or fishing places , ” were the Indians to " have reliefe in any of the Courts of justice amongst the English , as the English have . "
In 1681 , the Dedham Indians were confined to the towns of Nanticke , Punkapauge. and Wamesti . In 1685 , the colony confirmed 5 @,@ 800 acres of land to Indians in Marlborough and voided all deeds to the contrary .
= = = New Hampshire = = =
New Hampshire codified a rather weak prohibition against private purchases in 1641 : “ [ W ] hoever buys the Indian Ground by way of purchase is to tender it first to the town [ of Exeter ] before they are to make proper use of it in particular to themselves . ” In 1677 , the colony ordered the resettlement of the Piscataqua Indians . The colony 's instructions to Edmund Andros in 1686 included instructions to purchase Indian lands .
New Hampshire codified a more serious prohibition in 1687 :
[ H ] enceforth noe person or persons whatsoever Doe presume to tamper or treat with any Indian or Indians about the purchase sale or Confirmation of any Land or Lands whatseover within this his Majesties Territory and Dominion of the New England NOR from them or any of them take or receive any Deed or Sale Gift Mortgage Conveyance Lease Contract or Confirmation whatsoever without Leave or Lycense first had and obteyned from the Governour for the tyme being under his hand and Seale On peanlty of Forfeiture of [ 20 pounds per acre ] AND that all such … shall be utterly void and null .
In 1719 , penalties were added , retroactive to violations from 1700 : forfeiture , a fine of the value of the land , and 6 months in prison .
= = = New Jersey = = =
In May 1683 , the colony authorized a Commissioner to buy lands from Indians and resell the lands in plots not to exceed 5000 acres each . In September 1683 , the colony codified a prohibition against private purchases :
[ N ] o Person or Persons , shall presume to buy any Tract or Tracts of Land , of , or from the Indians within this Province , without special Order and Authority to him and them given by the Governor and Commissioners , or the major Part of them for the time being .
Any purchase to the contrary would be “ null and void ” and subject to a fine of 5 shillings per acre . The prohibition was included in the colony 's instructions to Lord Cornbury . In 1703 , the prohibition was made more specific , to include “ Gift of Purchase in Fee , take a Mortuage or Lease for Life or number of Years ” ; the authorization method was changed to “ Certificate , under the hand of the Proprietors Recorder ” ; the fine was raised to 40 shillings per acre ; and the forfeiture provision was applied to “ Purchasers , their Heirs and Assigns shall forever hereafter be incapable to hold Plea for the said Land in any Court of Common Law or Equity . ”
In 1758 , the colony appropriated for the Commissions “ such Sum and Sums of Money , as they may find necessary to purchase the Right and Claim of all or any of the Indian Natives of this Colony , to and for the Use of the Freeholders in this Colony , their Heirs and Assigns , for ever ” ; the maximum appropriation was to be 1600 pounds , no more than half of which was to go to the Delawares near Cranbury . As recounted by later , unrelated , judicial opinion :
In 1758 the State of New Jersey purchased the Indian title to lands in that State , and as a consideration for the purchase , bought a tract of land as a residence for the Indians , having previously passed an act declaring that such lands should not be subject thereafter to any tax by the State , any law or usage , or law then existing , to the contrary notwithstanding . The Indians , from the time of purchase , lived upon the land until the year 1801 , when they were authorized , by an act of the Legislature , to sell the land .
= = = New York = = =
The Director and Council of New Netherland passed a law holding citizens liable for damages to Indian crops in 1640 . In 1652 , the colony legislated to " “ hereby dissolve , annul and make void all claimed or occupied purchases , sales , patents and deeds signed . ” Previous purchases were confirmed in 1670 .
The General Assembly of New York codified a prohibition on private purchases of Indian lands in 1684 :
[ H ] enceforward noe Purchase of Lands from the Indians shall bee esteemed a good Title without Leave first had and obtained from the Governour signed by a Warrant under his hand and Seale and entered on Record in the the Secretaries office att New Yorke and Satisfaction for the Purchase acknowliged by the Indians from whome the Purchase was made which is to bee Recorded likewise with purchase soe made and prosecuted and entered on Record in the office aforesaid shall from that time be Vallid to all intents and purposes .
= = = North Carolina = = =
North Carolina defined its boundaries with the Meherrin Indians in 1729 . In 1748 , the colony passed a prohibition on private purchases which applied only to Tuscarora lands , and imposed a fine of 10 pounds for every 100 acres :
[ N ] o Person , for any Consideration whatsoever , shall purchase or buy any Tract or Parcle of Land , claimed , or in Possession of any Indian or Indians , but all such Bargains and Sales shall be , and are hereby declared to be null and void , and of none Effect .
The colony authorized the leases of Tuscarora lands in 1766 .
= = = Pennsylvania = = =
The colony passed its first prohibition on private purchases of Indian lands in 1683 :
[ I ] f anie person shall presume to buy any Land of the Natives in the Limits of this Province or territories thereof , without Leave from the Proprietary and Governor therof , or his desputy , Such person shall Lose the said Land , and pay [ fine of 10 shilings per 100 acres ] .
The statute was abrogated by the crown in 1683 , but re @-@ enacted the same year . A similar law was passed in 1700 and supplemented in 1730 by more specific legislation ( and exempted from any statute of limitations ) .
The colony passed legislation to clear title to all land grants from the colony in 1712 ; the act declared such grants “ free and clear , and freely and clearly acquitted and discharged , or otherwise well and sufficiently saved harmless and indemnified by the said proprietary , his heirs and assigns , of and from all Indian claims , and all other [ claims of non @-@ Indians ] . ”
In 1768 , the colony proscribed violations of the Royal Proclamation of 1763 ; the punishment was to be “ death without the benefit of clergy . ” In 1769 , the punishment was set at a 500 @-@ pound fine , 1 year in prison without bail or mainprise , plus a moiety paid to the poor .
= = = Rhode Island = = =
Early Rhode Island laws restricted Indians from certain areas . Later laws were also passed in this vein .
In 1651 , the colony passed its prohibition on private purchases of Indian lands :
[ N ] o purchase shall be made of any Land of the natives for a plantation without the consent of this State , except it bee for the clearinge of the Indians from some particular planatations already sett down upon ; and if any shall so purchase , they shall forfeit the Land so purchased to the Collonie . . . .
A 20 @-@ pound fine was added in 1658 . The wording of the prohibition was broadened and a 100 @-@ pound fine was added in 1727 . The colony repealed its prohibition on private purchases of Indian lands in 1759 . Certain sachems were prohibited from selling land in 1763 .
A 1663 law purported to commemorate the “ surrender of [ the Narragansetts ] , their subjects and their lands ” to the protection of the King . The colony authorized the acquisition of certain Narragansett lands in 1672 . In 1696 and 1713 , laws were passed to void the purchases of various Narragansett lands . Leases were permitted in 1718 and extended in 1738 .
= = = South Carolina = = =
The colony established the Palawanee Island as a reservation for the " Cusaboe " Indians in 1712 . In contrast , the colony appropriated Yamasee lands in 1716 .
In 1739 , the colony passed its prohibition on private purchases of Indian lands :
[ N ] o person or persons whatever shall buy , bargain or treat for , or by any way or means whatever , procure , hold , obtain , or get any lands . . . from any Indian or Indians whatever .
= = = Virginia = = =
Early colonial laws removed or permitted settlers on Indian lands on an ad hoc basis . The first Indian reservations were established in 1649 . A Totopotomoi reservation was confirmed in 1653 ; a " Wiccomocco " reservation in 1659 ; an " Accomack " reservation in 1660 ; a " Chickaominy " reservation in 1661 and 1662 .
Prohibitions on private purchases of Indian lands were passed in 1649 , 1652 , and 1656 . A new prohibition was passed in 1752 . The right of pre @-@ emption was delegated to Northampton County in 1654 .
Title clearing acts were passed in 1660 and 1676 . Reservation boundaries were tightened in 1705 . Various sales ad leases were authorized or retroactively confirmed in the 1720s through 1770s .
|
= Bezhin Meadow =
Bezhin Meadow ( Бежин луг , Bezhin lug ) is a 1937 Soviet film famous for having been suppressed and believed destroyed before its completion . Directed by Sergei Eisenstein , it tells the story of a young farm boy whose father attempts to betray the government for political reasons by sabotaging the year 's harvest and the son 's efforts to stop his own father to protect the Soviet state , culminating in the boy 's murder and a social uprising . The film draws its title from a story by Ivan Turgenev , but is based on the life of Pavlik Morozov , a young Russian boy who became a political martyr following his death in 1932 , after he denounced his father to Soviet government authorities and subsequently died at the hands of his family . Pavlik Morozov was immortalized in school programs , poetry , music , and in film .
Commissioned by a communist youth group , the film 's production ran from 1935 to 1937 , until it was halted by the central Soviet government , which said it contained artistic , social , and political failures . Some , however , blamed the failure of Bezhin Meadow on government interference and policies , extending all the way to Joseph Stalin himself . In the wake of the film 's failure , Eisenstein publicly recanted his work as an error . Individuals were arrested during and after the ensuing debacle .
Bezhin Meadow was long thought lost in the wake of World War II bombings . In the 1960s , however , cuttings and partial prints of the film were found ; from these , a reconstruction of Bezhin Meadow , based on the original script , was undertaken . Rich in religious symbolism , the film and its history became the focus of academic study . The film was extensively discussed both inside and outside of the film industry for its historical nature , the odd circumstances of its production and failure , and its imagery , which is considered some of the greatest in cinema . In spite of the failure of Bezhin Meadow , Eisenstein would rebound to win Soviet acclaim and awards , and become artistic director of a major film studio .
= = Plot = =
Because Bezhin Meadow was repeatedly edited , re @-@ shot , and changed to satisfy the Soviet government authorities , several versions of the film were created .
The most sourced and best @-@ known version focuses on Stepok , a young boy in a collective farming village , who is a member of the local Young Pioneers Communist organization , as are other local children . His father Samokhin , a farmer , plans to sabotage the village harvest for political reasons by burning down the titular meadow , but Stepok organizes the other Young Pioneer children to guard the crops . Samokhin grows progressively more frustrated by his son 's actions and success . Eventually , Stepok reports Samokhin 's crimes to the Soviet government authorities , and is in turn slain by his own father for betraying his family . The other Young Pioneers break into the local church , singing songs , and desecrate it in response to Stepok 's death . The visuals of the film shift during the destruction of the church , with the villagers becoming that which they are destroying — the angry villagers , by the end of the set piece , are depicted as Christ @-@ like , angelic , and prophetic figures .
A later re @-@ editing of the film opens with images of orchards and blue sky , showing a stone obelisk with Turgenev 's name on it . It is next revealed that Stepok 's mother has been beaten to death by his father . In a dark hut , Samokhin complains that his son has a greater loyalty to the Soviet than his own family , as Stepok enters from the bright day outside . His father quotes from the Bible : " If the son betrays his father , kill him like a dog ! " Samokhin is arrested for arson , and Stepok leaves with a Communist functionary . The other arsonists take refuge in the local church , and are soon arrested . The arsonists are nearly lynched , but are saved from the villagers ' wrath by Stepok . The villagers transform the church into a clubhouse , symbolically ridiculing religion or the clergy .
In some versions , the destruction of the church was replaced with a scene of villagers fighting the arsonist 's fire . In the film , the fire was started when the arsonists threw dried sunflowers and lit matches into the community 's fuel storage area . In some cuts , Stepok overhears his father 's planning and sneaks out in the night to inform on him ; in others , the local Communist Party functionary breastfeeds Stepok 's young sister ; in still others , Stepok 's father says after shooting his son , " They took you from me , but I did not give you to them . I did not give my own flesh and blood . " After Stepok 's death , the same aforementioned Communist official carries him off , joined by other children , in a funeral march that was said to evolve into a victory march .
The film , as mentioned by Shumyatsky and Eisenstein , is rich in religious iconography and the symbolic struggle between good and evil . Additionally , Birgit Beumers writes , " The peasants here are grey @-@ bearded prophets ; the young men are broad @-@ shouldered Renaissance apostles ; the fleshy girls are earthly Madonnas ; the peasant wrecking the iconostasis is a biblical Samson ; the chubby young boy in the shirt , raised high under the cupola towards the slanting sun @-@ ray which turns his locks golden , is the young Jesus Christ ascending to the Heavenly Throne . " Bezhin Meadow , in its various unreleased versions , was " Dedicated to the bright memory of Pavlik Morozov , a small hero of our time " ( cf . A Hero of Our Time ) .
= = Original Turgenev story and Pavlik Morozov = =
The film was based in part on a story by Ivan Turgenev , a 19th @-@ century Russian scholar and novelist , but was adapted to incorporate the folk story of Pavlik Morozov , a supposed Young Pioneer glorified by Soviet Union propaganda as a martyr . Turgenev 's original short fiction titled " Bezhin Meadow " or " Bezhin Lea " was a story about peasant boys in the 1850s , in the Oryol region , discussing supernatural signs of death , while they spend the night in the Bezhin Meadow with a lost hunter . Eisenstein would later remove any direct references to Turgenev 's fiction , aside from the title , from the film . It is a part of A Sportsman 's Sketches , a collection of short stories .
Morozov 's life and death in the village of Gerasimovka in the Ural Mountains , has no connection with Turgenev 's literary work . Morozov was a 13 @-@ year @-@ old boy who denounced his father , a kulak , to the Soviet government authorities , and was in turn killed by his family . It was a Soviet morality tale : opposing the state was selfish and reactionary , and the state was more important than family . The most popular account of the Morozov story is as follows : born to poor peasants in Gerasimovka , a small village 350 kilometres ( 220 mi ) north @-@ east of Sverdlovsk , Morozov was a dedicated communist who led the Young Pioneers at his school , and supported Stalin 's collectivization of farms . In 1932 , at age 13 , Morozov reported his father to the political police ( GPU ) . Morozov 's father , the Chairman of the Village Soviet or Selsoviet , was alleged to have been " forging documents and selling them to the bandits and enemies of the Soviet State " ( as his sentence read ) . The elder Morozov , Trofim , was sentenced to 10 years in a labor camp , and later executed . However , Pavlik 's family did not approve of the young boy 's actions . On September 3 of that year , his uncle , grandfather , grandmother and a cousin murdered him , along with his younger brother . All of them except the uncle were rounded up by the GPU , convicted , and sentenced to " the highest measure of social defense " , execution by a firing squad .
The Morozov story was developed into compulsory children 's readings , songs , plays , a symphonic poem , a full @-@ length opera and six biographies . There is very little original evidence related to the story ; much of it is hearsay provided by second @-@ hand witnesses . In Bezhin Meadow , the child is named Stepok , departing from the original historical lore and information . Among the ironies of Bezhin Meadow 's history were that Pavlik Morozov may not have even been a member of the Young Pioneers . Morozov had been called a " disturbed young boy " who was unaware of the consequences of what he was doing and turned his father in to the authorities for having abandoned his mother for a younger woman , rather than for political reasons .
= = Production = =
Herbert Marshall argued that by 1931 , government interference in Soviet artistic work was already well established , in various forms : from peers of the artists , guided by ' above ' ; from " the different circles competent to judge it " ; and ultimately from the Communist Party and Stalin himself . This all led to the failed production of Bezhin Meadow .
Before production of the film began , the script by Aleksandr Rzheshevsky was well received by Eisenstein , but there were initial concerns about the quality of the plot and characterization involved . The commission for the production was issued by the Communist Youth League , or Komsomol , to honor their efforts in supporting collective farm work , and was to focus on " the socialist reconstruction of the countryside " . Filming began in the middle of 1935 , and in October 1935 the first developed film was presented to the Mosfilm Studio , which was producing Bezhin Meadow . The studio requested changes , and production continued . In August 1936 , with most of the principal filming done , Boris Shumyatsky , the then @-@ head of the Soviet GUK ( Principal Directorate for the Cinema ) ordered a halt in production and directed that the film be re @-@ written . The script was again revised , with Eisenstein acknowledging errors in his production after a further version was rejected by the studio . During the creation of Bezhin Meadow , Eisenstein did not widely screen footage of the film for review .
Production on the unreleased film cost 2 million rubles , and spanned two years . When casting the production , Eisenstein had preferred to not use professional actors , instead using people who represented " types " to play a given role . Two thousand young boys were auditioned during the search for the ideal young actor to play the part of Stepok , the renamed Morozov character . Filming took place in many locations , primarily in Moscow studios , and remote locations in the Ukraine and the Caucasus . During production , Eisenstein had the foresight to save the edited @-@ out frames from every shot in the film , which allowed for the later reconstruction of Bezhin Meadows in the 1960s , even though the original prints were destroyed .
The Central Executive Committee of the Communist Party required that it screen and approve Bezhin Meadow before its release . Multiple versions of the film were banned by the Committee , which cited them as " inartistic and politically bankrupt " , and claimed that Eisenstein " confused the class struggle with the struggle between good and evil " . By an order from the Chief Directorate of Soviet Cinema , production of the film was stopped permanently on March 17 , 1937 . Shumyatsky complained that Eisenstein had presented the conflicts of the film in somewhat Biblical terms , rather than placing the conflicts of the film in the context of the socialist class struggle . Eisenstein himself would later say that the murder of Stepok by his father was " reminiscent of Abraham 's sacrifice of Isaac " .
After the film 's final rejection , Shumyatsky took responsibility for the failure in the Soviet media , with an essay detailing the film 's history in Pravda . According to Shumyatsky , Bezhin Meadow was a slander against the Soviet countryside , and an example of Formalism that needed to be eliminated . Shumyatsky went on to say , " [ Eisenstein was ] making Bezhin Meadow only because it offered him an opportunity to indulge in formalistic exercises . Instead of creating a strong , clear , direct work , Eisenstein detached his work from reality , from the colors and heroism of reality . He consciously reduced the work 's ideological content . " Shumyatsky would lose his government position two years later , when he was charged with being an English spy , arrested , and shot . One of the reasons Shumyatsky gave for shutting down production of Bezhin Meadow was that Eisenstein was wasting money and resources in producing it ; conversely , before his execution , Shumyatsky himself was charged with wasting money and resources by cancelling films such as Bezhin Meadow . The suppression of Bezhin Meadow was also said to be part of an ongoing campaign against the artistic avant @-@ garde in Joseph Stalin 's Russia .
Following the order to stop production of the film from the Soviet government and Shumyatsky , Eisenstein contracted smallpox , followed afterwards by influenza , and the film was destined to remain unfinished . He worked further on the story with the Soviet author Isaac Babel , but no material was ever published or released from their collaboration , and the production of Bezhin Meadow came to an end . The unfinished and unreleased film reels were destroyed during a World War II bombing raid in 1941 . In a later published response to Shumyatsky titled " The Mistakes of Bezhin Meadow " , Eisenstein pledged he would " rid myself of the last anarchistic traits of individualism in my outlook and creative method " . Eisenstein finally wrote , " What caused catastrophe to overtake the picture I had worked on for two years ? What was the mistaken viewpoint which , despite honesty of feelings and devotion to work , brought the production to a perversion of reality , making it politically insubstantial and consequently inartistic ? "
= = Reactions and legacy = =
Eisenstein 's Bezhin Meadow has had a rich legacy of responses and criticism since its original production . In the wake of Shumyatsky 's statements in Pravda , which diminished Eisenstein 's reputation in the Soviet Union to the lowest point in his career , others soon weighed in . Some criticism of the film was that it was too abstract or formalist , echoing Shumyatsky 's views . Ilya Vaisfeld called the film and Eisenstein 's methods " profoundly hostile to socialism " , and faulted Eisenstein for presenting enemies in a possibly favorable light . According to Nikolai Otten , Eisenstein 's failure was due to filming an emotional scenario , thinking it freed him from studio control . Boris Babitsky , the chief of Mosfilm Studio ( the producers of the film ) , took responsibility for the production 's failure , and for not controlling Eisenstein 's work or halting filming earlier ; Babitsky was later arrested for this . Ivan Pyryev felt that Eisenstein did not want to be a " Soviet person " , giving this as a reason for the failure of the film . David Maryan , another director , blamed Eisenstein for looking down on others , taking no pleasure in the achievements of others , and for being a loner . Eisenstein 's political status came under attack as well due to the film . G. Zeldovich , of the Principal Directorate for the Cinema , questioned whether Eisenstein should be free to work with film students due to his political unreliability .
Not all of the commentary and examination of Bezhin Meadow was overtly negative , however . In the years after the film closed its production , studios and film organizations in major Russian cities including Moscow , Leningrad , and Kiev held seminars to examine the lessons of the film , with some of the sessions lasting days . A former student of Eisenstein , Peotr Pavlenko , defended Eisenstein 's work in the wake of Bezhin Meadow . Grigori Alexandrov , a filmmaker Eisenstein with whom had worked previously , was denounced for " raising himself above the community " because he did not speak out against his associate . Esfir Shub suggested that as Eisenstein was not present in the USSR during the First Five @-@ Year Plan , he was unable to correctly present modern political lessons . The set @-@ piece in Bezhin Meadow where the villagers desecrate the village church in response to Stepok 's death , which was removed in later versions of the film , has been called " one of the great set @-@ pieces in cinema " , and a further demonstration of the Biblical imagery featured in the film . Among such visuals from the desecration sequence were an image of a girl in a mirror , framed as the Virgin Mary , and a statue of a crucified Christ held as if it were in a pietà . Ivor Montagu likened Eisenstein 's struggles with the film to Galileo 's conflict with the Inquisition . In spite of the heavy criticisms he faced , Eisenstein was allowed by the politburo to continue his career , and he created and released the film Alexander Nevsky in 1938 .
In the 1960s , it was learned that Eisenstein 's wife , Pera Attasheva , had saved splices of film from the editing table that was used for Bezhin Meadow . Starting in 1964 , a reconstruction of the film was created and set to a musical score by Sergei Prokofiev by Russian film director Sergei Yutkevich with Eisenstein scholar Naum Kleiman . The film was edited to the original script , to preserve the original cutting continuity ; new intertitles were also created from the script , and a new spoken introduction was added . The film now exists as a 35 @-@ minute " silent film slide show " . In 1988 , the filming of Bezhin Meadow was the focus of a retrospective at the Tisch School of the Arts in New York City . Entitled " Jay Leyda : A Life 's Work " , it focused on Leyda , a professor at the school and the lone American to have studied with Eisenstein at the Moscow State Film Institute ; Leyda had been apprentice director and still photographer on the set . Of the Soviet films from the 1920s and 1930s , Bezhin Meadow is the one that may be most cited in academic works related to film study .
Though production of Bezhin Meadow was never completed , and a full version was never distributed , the film was later considered a celebration of Soviet political purposes and informants . In spite of the problems that Bezhin Meadow faced , Eisenstein would receive the Order of Lenin in 1939 due to the wild success of Alexander Nevsky . In 1941 , he became the artistic director of Mosfilm Studios .
|
= Modern Cookery for Private Families =
Modern Cookery for Private Families is an English cookery book by Eliza Acton ( 1799 – 1859 ) . It was first published by Longmans in 1845 , and was a best @-@ seller , running through 13 editions by 1853 , though its sales were later eclipsed by Mrs Beeton . On the strength of the book , Delia Smith called Acton " the best writer of recipes in the English language " , and in the same vein Elizabeth David called Modern Cookery " the greatest cookery book in our language " .
It was one of the first cookery books to provide lists of ingredients , exact quantities , and cooking times , and to include Eastern recipes for chutneys . Its first edition was the first book to refer to Christmas pudding .
Acton 's recipes and writing style have been admired by cooks including Elizabeth David , Delia Smith and Jane Grigson ; Clarissa Dickson Wright praises her writing but criticises her increasing conformity to Victorian dullness .
= = Book = =
The book was the result of several years of research , prompted by Longman , who had published Acton 's Poems . Many of the recipes came from her friends . Modern Cookery quickly became a bestselling work , appearing in several editions and remaining a standard cookery book throughout the rest of the century . The book was immensely influential , establishing the format for modern cookery book writing , by listing the exact ingredients required for each recipe , the time needed , and potential problems that might arise . This was a major departure from previous cookbooks , which were less precise .
The book was one of the first to list recipes for Eastern " chatneys " , both fresh , like her " Mauritian shrimp chatney " with lemon and oil , and preserved , like her " Bengal chatney " with raisins , crab apples , garlic , and ginger . The first known mention of Christmas pudding , too , is in the first edition of 1845 ; the dish had earlier been known simply as plum pudding . Her recipe for mincemeat ( as in mince pies ) still contained meat – she suggests ox tongue or beef sirloin – which she combined with lemons " boiled quite tender and chopped up entirely with the exception of the pips " .
The book remained in print for over 50 years through most of the Victorian era , but it is Mrs Beeton 's book , first published in 1861 , which is now remembered from that period .
The title varied somewhat over the years ; the 1845 edition 's full title was
Modern Cookery , In All Its Branches : Reduced to a System of Easy Practice , for the Use of Private Families . In a Series of Practical Receipts , Which Have Been Strictly Tested , And are Given with the Most Minute exactness .
By 1860 , the title had become
Modern Cookery , For Private Families , Reduced to a System of Easy Practice , In a Series of Carefully Tested Receipts , In Which the Principles of Baron Liebig and Other Eminent Writers Have Been as Much as Possible Applied and Explained .
= = = Contents = = =
The following list refers to the 1860 edition .
= = = Approach = = =
Acton 's book is divided into chapters with brief , often single word titles such as " Fish " . In a marked departure from eighteenth century English cookery books like Hannah Glasse 's The Art of Cookery , these are written as connected wholes . The chapter on fish begins with an essay on how to choose fish for freshness ; there follows some advice on how to bake fish , and on the kinds of fat best used for frying fish . Suitable pans are illustrated . The recipes follow ; these too are written as stories rather than simply as instructions . Where appropriate , recipes end with a list of ingredients , as well as the cooking time , in marked change from eighteenth century practice . Recipes are grouped , in the case of fish by species , and they form a connected story . Acton adds comments where she sees fit , indicating anything from when the food is in season to where a recipe came from , and how much she likes it . For example , she begins her account of the John Dory with a recipe which is more of an introductory essay than a set of instructions , though given the simplicity of the recipe , it says all that a cook would need to know on the matter :
TO BOIL A JOHN DORY .
[ In best season from Michaelmas to Christmas , but good all the year ]
The John Dory , though of uninviting appearance , is considered by some persons as the most delicious fish that appears at table ; in the general estimation , however , it ranks next to the turbot , but it is far less abundant in our waters , and is not commonly to be procured of sufficient size for a handsome dish , except in some few parts of our coast which are celebrated for it . It may easily be known by its yellow gray colour , its one large dark spot on either side , the long filaments on the back , a general thickness of form , and its very ugly head . It is dressed in the same manner , and served usually with the same sauces as a turbot , but requires less time to boil it . The fins should be cut off before it is cooked .
Acton follows this with an actual recipe , again characteristically simple , and with one of her brief parenthetical asides , at once modestly claiming ownership and praising the dish :
SMALL JOHN DORIES BAKED .
( Author 's Receipt — good . )
We have found these fish when they were too small to be worth cooking in the usual way , excellent when quite simply baked in the following manner , the flesh being remarkably sweet and tender , much more so than it becomes by frying or broiling . After they have been cleaned , dry them in a cloth , season the insides slightly with fine salt , dredge a little flour on the fish , and stick a few very small bits of butter on them , but only just sufficient to prevent their becoming dry in the oven ; lay them singly on a flat dish , and bake them very gently from fourteen to sixteen minutes . Serve them with the same sauce as baked soles .
When extremely fresh , as it usually is in the markets of the coast , fish thus simply dressed au four is preferable to that more elaborately prepared by adding various condiments to it after it is placed in a deep dish , and covering it with a thick layer of bread crumbs , moistened with clarified butter .
The appearance of the John Dories is improved by taking off the heads , and cutting away not only the fins but the filaments of the back .
= = = Illustrations = = =
The book was from the first edition onwards illustrated with a large number of small woodcuts . Some show cookware , like the pot used to serve Bouillon or the " Mackerel Kettle " , a deep oval saucepan with a lid , used to cook fish ; some illustrate produce as the housekeeper would see it in the market , like the engravings of poultry and fish — educating the reader in the recognition of gurnard , sea bream , plaice , grey mullet , garfish , and sand @-@ eel ; others show finished dishes , like the Lady 's Tourte or a moulded jelly , " tastefully garnished with preserved , or with fresh fruit . "
= = Reception = =
Delia Smith called Acton " the best writer of recipes in the English language " . Elizabeth David similarly called Modern Cookery " the greatest cookery book in our language " . Bee Wilson , writing in The Telegraph , agrees that it is " the greatest British cookbook of all time " , adding that Acton deserves to be a household name :
Elizabeth David , asking why " this peerless writer " was eclipsed by " imitators so limited in experience , and in capacity of expression so inferior ? " She answers her own question with the suggestion that Acton , born in 1799 , was " in taste and in spirit , a child of the eighteenth century . " David notes that the year after Modern Cookery was first published , Bird 's Custard Powder was launched : " What we know as modern cookery , and it had little to do with Eliza Acton 's version , was on its way . " And she points out that manuals like Mrs Beeton 's , which in later editions were edited and re @-@ written by other hands , existed to allow cooks to look up recipes , rather than to read cookery books . She concludes that " A book such as Miss Acton 's , written as a coherent whole , is essentially one to be read , as it is written , with intelligence and understanding and application . "
She dispenses her sly wit sparingly , like truffles . ' The Publisher 's Pudding ' , we are told , ' can scarcely be made too rich ' ( it is studded with Jordan almonds and muscatel raisins ) in contrast to ' The Poor Author 's Pudding ' , a modest bread @-@ and @-@ butter affair .
Bee Wilson argues that the greatness of the book comes from " Acton 's very British sensibility . She calls a spade a spade , noting that some of the coffee served on the newfangled railway lines was a ' commercial disgrace ' . " Wilson adds that Acton has both honesty and reticence : she does not " gush " when she really likes something , " but puts it in brackets , as if holding her emotions in . ' Lemon Dumplings ( Light and Good ) ' , for example . Or ' Mushrooms Au Beurre ( Delicious ) ' ... that makes her Eliza Acton ( The Best ) . "
Elizabeth Ray , editor of The Best of Eliza Acton — a selection of recipes from Modern Cookery with an introduction by Elizabeth David , notes that Acton began her writing career with poetry , only to be told by her publishers that a cookery book would be better , and that " an unmistakable literary talent appears even in her receipts , in the style itself , and in the engaging titles she bestows on some of her dishes " , which include " The Elegant Economist 's Pudding " as well as those of publishers and authors .
Clarissa Dickson Wright , in her A History of English Food , calls Acton " the best cookery writer of the period " , noting that she paid " considerable attention " to curry in the book . Dickson Wright comments that Acton knew about " her countrymen " ' s lack of understanding of curry and " lamented ' the great superiority of the oriental curries over those generally prepared in England ' " . She further notes that Acton suggested practical improvements , such as grating coconut into the gravy , and using tamarind , acid apples and cucumber to simulate the " piquancy you get with bitter gourds , mango , and so on " , which she comments was certainly better than lazily adding lemon juice , but still nothing like " anything prepared by my grandmother 's Indian cook . "
Dickson Wright also comments on the early signs in Modern Cookery of what she considers the increasing dullness of Victorian cookery . Although she finds Acton " in most respects an admirable cookery writer " , she observes that between the first and the third editions Acton has gone from using garlic sparingly to avoiding it entirely . She is equally scathing about Acton 's " Burlington Whimsey " which she calls " basically a dish of brawn " ; she argues that the Victorians were too fond of it , and that Acton 's recipe is " the epitome of dull food dressed up to look whimsical . "
Sue Dyson and Roger McShane , reviewing the book on FoodTourist , call it the " very antithesis " of the elaborate haute cuisine of Marie @-@ Antoine Carême , and note that it was one of the first cookery books to provide quantities , timings , and lists of ingredients . They find the recipe for Mulligatawny soup " wonderful " , the oyster sausages " very tasty " , and the " Potato Boulettes " like a French equivalent of gnocchi . But " the section that really caught our interest " was puddings and desserts . They conclude that " this is an inspirational book with an Aladdin 's Cave of recipes and wonderful , timeless writing " and an " absolutely essential part of any serious cookbook collection . "
Kathryn Hughes , writing in The Guardian , observes that Acton has been set up as " the saint to Mrs Beeton 's sinner " , " an Austenish heroine : a stylish Regency spinster , a poet rather than a journalist , a committed cookery writer rather than an opportunistic hack . " She notes that Elizabeth David created this image , supported by Jane Grigson , and Delia Smith : " in short , anyone who wants to be in the kitchen cool gang knows that the name to drop is Acton 's . " She agrees that Mrs Beeton " pinched " Acton 's recipes , along with those of other authors , because they were " rather good " . She notes the " elegant tilt of Acton 's writing " and its " sly humour " , as well as the accuracy of the recipes , very unlike eighteenth @-@ century vagueness , and calls Acton " an admirable pioneer " .
Natalie Whittle , writing in the Financial Times in 2011 , describes how recipes such as " Water Souchy " ( a clear fish soup ) from Modern Cookery and other books of the period are being revived at English restaurants .
Simon Hopkinson , writing in The Independent in 2000 , praises Acton 's Christmas pudding : " It was to the cookery writing of the legendary Eliza Acton where Joyce Molyneux [ of the Carved Angel ] went to find her perfect pudding recipe . And , as far as I remember , the particular reason why she liked the result of Acton 's recipe above all others was because it had this unusual lightness to it , yet also seemed to offer up the required richness too . "
The Tonbridge Historical Society note that " by 1827 Eliza was living in Tonbridge at No. 1 Bordyke ... Not surprisingly there are many references to Kent and some to Tonbridge in Eliza 's recipes . There is ' Kentish ' sausage meat , suet pudding and cherry jam , ' Tonbridge ' brawn , and ‘ Bordyke ’ Veal cake , preserved ham and bread . "
= = Editions = =
The book appeared in the following editions during the Victorian era .
|
= Against All Odds ( 2005 ) =
Against All Odds ( 2005 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event produced by Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) , which took place on February 13 , 2005 at the TNA Impact ! Zone in Orlando , Florida . It was the first event under the Against All Odds chronology . Eight matches were featured on the event 's card .
The main event was for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship between the champion , Jeff Jarrett , and the challenger , Kevin Nash , in which Jarrett won to retain the championship . Another featured match was an Iron Man match for the TNA X Division Championship , in which the wrestler with the most scoring conditions after thirty minutes would win . The champion , A.J. Styles , defeated the challenger , Christopher Daniels , to retain the championship in this match . Multiple bouts were scheduled on the undercard . One saw Abyss defeat Jeff Hardy in a match where the competitors had to climb a ladder and retrieve an envelope to become number one contender to the NWA World Heavyweight Championship , in what is called a Full Metal Mayhem match . The other being for the NWA World Tag Team Championship between the champions , America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) ( AMW ) , and Kid Kash and Lance Hoyt ; AMW claimed victory in the match .
The event marked the debut of the Full Metal Mayhem match , which later became one of TNA 's most successful match types . The professional wrestling section of the Canadian Online Explorer website rated the entire event a 7 out of 10 stars , which was the same rating as the 2006 event .
= = Background = =
The event featured eight professional wrestling matches that involved different wrestlers from pre @-@ existing scripted feuds , plots , and storylines . Wrestlers were portrayed as either villains or heroes in the scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches .
The main event at Against All Odds was a standard wrestling match for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship , in which Jeff Jarrett defended the championship against his on @-@ screen rival Kevin Nash . The bout was announced on the January 21 episode of TNA 's primary television program , TNA Impact ! , during a pre @-@ taped press conference . On the February 11 episode of Impact ! , authority figure Dusty Rhodes added the stipulation that if Jarrett used a guitar ( a weapon he often used to win his matches ) during the match , he would be automatically disqualified and would lose the NWA World Heavyweight Championship to Nash even if the referee did not see him use it .
Another storyline rivalry heading into Against All Odds was for the TNA X Division Championship between the champion , A.J. Styles , and the challenger , Christopher Daniels , in a thirty @-@ minute Iron Man match . An Iron Man match involves two competitors fighting for a predetermined amount of time , in this case thirty @-@ minutes , after which whoever gained more pinfalls or submissions is the victor . The rivalry for this match began on the January 21 episode of Impact ! , when Daniels challenged Styles to a match that night , in which if Styles could not defeat him in under ten @-@ minutes then Daniels got a X Division Championship match at Against All Odds . The match ended in a time limit draw , which meant per the pre @-@ match stipulation Daniels gained a championship match at Against All Odds . Dusty Rhodes then entered the arena after the match and announced that the contest would be a thirty @-@ minute Iron Man match .
A featured match heading into Against All Odds was the debuting of Full Metal Mayhem , in which Abyss fought Jeff Hardy , with the winner becoming number one contender to the NWA World Heavyweight Championship . In a Full Metal Mayhem match , two or more competitors fight to either gain a pinfall , submission , or climb a ladder to retrieve an envelope or a championship belt in no disqualification rules . In this particular one there were two envelopes , one with a contract for the championship match , while the other one was empty . At TNA 's previous PPV , Final Resolution , Abyss attacked Hardy after his match with Scott Hall . On the January 21 episode of Impact ! , Abyss attacked Hardy once again and this time by slamming him through a table . On the January 28 episode of Impact ! , TNA advertised the debut of Full Metal Mayhem between Hardy and Abyss at Against All Odds . On the February 4 episode of Impact ! , the second stipulation of the match was announced , that the winner would gain a future championship match on a future edition of Impact ! .
In the tag team division , the reigning NWA World Tag Team Champions America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) defended the championship against the team of Kid Kash and Lance Hoyt . This match was the result of a challenge issued by Kash and Hoyt on the January 21 episode of Impact ! to AMW to defend the championship against them at Against All Odds , which AMW accepted .
= = Event = =
= = = Pre @-@ Show = = =
The thirty @-@ minute pre @-@ show aired before the event began with a match between Phi Delta Slam ( Bruno Sassi and Big Tilly ) and the team of Lex Lovett and Buck Quatermain . Phi Delta Slam won the match by pinfall , after Big Tilly performed a splash from the top rope onto Lovett . The second saw real @-@ life brothers Ron and Don Harris defeat the team of Mikey Batts and Jerelle Clark .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
Against All Odds official began with a standard match between Elix Skipper and Petey Williams , who was accompanied by Coach D 'Amore . The match ended when Skipper performed a move in which he holds his opponent upside @-@ down and around his back . He grabs their head and falls to a seated position to caused their head and neck to be forced into the mat , a move he dubbed the Sudden Death . Skipper followed by covering Williams for the pinfall .
The following bout was a tag team match between the team of B.G. James and Jeff Hammond and Michael Shane and Kazarian . James and Hammond were the victors in the encounter after Hammond dropped onto Kazarian with his elbow cocked to gain the pinfall .
The third contest pitted Raven against Dustin Rhodes in a standard match . After a few minutes of fighting , Raven pinned Rhodes with a roll @-@ up style pin @-@ attempt .
The NWA World Tag Team Championship was on the line in the encounter between the champions , America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) , and Kid Kash and Lance Hoyt . The match ended when America 's Most Wanted performed their finishing maneuver the Death Sentence , which saw Storm wrap his arms around Hoyt and squeeze tightly while Harris jumped off the top turnbuckle and performed a legdrop across his neck and head . America 's Most Wanted followed by covering Hoyt to retain the World Tag Team Championship .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The fifth contest was a Full Metal Mayhem match for a future match on Impact ! for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship . Early in the match , Abyss placed two tables side @-@ by @-@ side and then stacked two more on top of those at ringside . Mid @-@ way through the match , Hardy grabbed Abyss and placed him on a table at the top of the entrance ramp , he then ascended to the roof of the entrance ramp and performed a front @-@ flip , landing on Abyss in a move Hardy calls the Swanton Bomb . In the final minutes of the match , Hardy climbed a ladder and retrieved one of the envelopes , however , it was empty which meant the last one held the future championship match . Hardy then tried to move the ladder and retrieve the second envelope . While he was climbing again , Abyss grabbed him and pulled him down , he then threw Hardy against the ropes . When Hardy connected with the ropes , he flipped over them and crashed through the four tables set up earlier in the match . Abyss followed by climbing the ladder and removing the envelope to win the match .
The next bout was between the team of Diamond Dallas Page ( DDP ) and Monty Brown and Team Canada ( Bobby Roode and Eric Young ) , who were accompanied by Coach D 'Amore and Johnny Devine . DDP and Brown were the winners of the contest after DDP grabbed Young around the head and neck , jumped forward and landed on his back to force Young 's face into the mat and his shoulder . DDP followed by covering Young for the pinfall and the win .
The TNA X Division Championship was contested for in an Iron Man match in the seventh match , as then @-@ champion , A.J. Styles , defended the title against Christopher Daniels . The first fall of the match came when Daniels pinned Styles following bending Styles forward , placing Styles ' head between his legs , tucked Styles ' arms behind Styles ' back , lifted him up , turned 90 ° , and dropped to the mat to force Styles ' face into the mat in what Daniels dubbed the Angel 's Wings . Styles scored the second fall by pinning Daniels with a roll @-@ up , tying the match one fall apiece . Before the deciding fall to break the tie could take place , the thirty @-@ minute time limit ran out . Daniels then demanded the match go into overtime / sudden death , which he was granted by Dusty Rhodes . The deciding pinfall saw Styles grab Daniels , lift him up , hold him upside down , trap Daniels ' arms behind his legs , and jump forward to implant Daniels entire body into the mat in a move Styles dubbed the Styles Clash to retain the X Division Championship .
The main event was for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship , in which defending champion , Jeff Jarrett , fought Kevin Nash . During the match , since Jarrett couldn 't use his trademark guitar , Jarrett used a similar instrument , a cello . Jarrett went to hit Nash with the cello , however it broke before he could swing it . Later , Nash grabbed the broken cello and placed it on the canvass . He then followed by lifting up Jarrett onto his shoulders and dropping him onto the cello to perform what he dubbed the Jackknife Powerbomb . While lifting Jarrett , Nash accidentally knocked out the referee , according to the script . With the referee unconscious , no one could count the pinfall . Monty Sopp then made his debut in TNA and attacked Nash , which led to a fight between the two . After the conclusion to the brawl , referee 's tried to remove Sopp from the ringside area . Sean Waltman then made his debut in TNA and attacked Jarrett , which also led to a fight between them . A while later the match came to an end , when Jarrett hit Nash in the groin , grabbed him , and tripped him , which caused him to fall and force his face into the canvass , which completed Jarrett 's finishing maneuver the Stroke . Jarrett then covered Nash for the pinfall victory and to retain the NWA World Heavyweight Championship .
= = Aftermath = =
After Against All Odds , Jarrett went on to fight Diamond Dallas Page at Destination X in a Ringside Revenge match for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship . The match was announced on the Impact ! following Against All Odds . The match was changed to a Ringside Revenge match on the March 4 episode of Impact ! . Jarrett was victorious and retained the championship at the event .
A.J. Styles went on to Destination X to defend the TNA X Division Championship in an Ultimate X Challenge match . An Ultimate X Challenge match has three stages . Stage one involves the four men being paired up into two tag teams and having a standard tag team match , with the person who is pinned being eliminated from the bout . Then it becomes a standard match involving three people , with the one being pinned in that phase being eliminated from the match . The final two then fight to climb the ropes and retrieve the championship that hangs in the middle . The participants were announced for the match on the March 11 episode of Impact ! , with Elix Skipper and Ron Killings being added to face Styles . The final participant was determined in a match that pitted Christopher Daniels against Chris Sabin , which Daniels won . Styles would lose the championship to Daniels at the event .
Kevin Nash went on to fight Monty Sopp , newly dubbed The Outlaw , in a First Blood match at Destination X , in which the only way to win is to make your opponent bleed . The match was officially announced on the March 11 episode of Impact ! . The Outlaw would claim victory in the match .
Abyss and Jeff Hardy continued their feud at Destination X in a Falls Count Anywhere match , which was announced on the February 18 episode of Impact ! . Hardy went on to win the encounter .
= = = Reception = = =
Canadian Online Explorer writer Jason Clevett rated the entire event 7 out of 10 stars , which was the same rating as the 2006 event . The Iron Man match for the TNA X Division Championship was rated 9 out of 10 stars . The main event match for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship was rated a 7 out of 10 stars , the lesser of the two . When Clevett spoke of the Iron Man match , he said it " met expectations " . His comments on the main event were a bit different as he said it was " entertaining " and a " decent match " overall . The event was released on DVD on November 15 , 2005 by TNA Home Video .
= = Results = =
= = = Iron Man Match = = =
A.J. Styles defeated Christopher Daniels to retain the TNA X Division Championship . It was a draw after 30 minutes , but Director of Authority Dusty Rhodes ordered for sudden death overtime .
|
= King 's Regiment ( Liverpool ) =
See also List of battalions of the King 's Regiment ( Liverpool )
The King 's Regiment ( Liverpool ) was one of the oldest line infantry regiments of the British Army , having been formed in 1685 and numbered as the 8th ( The King 's ) Regiment of Foot in 1751 . Unlike most British Army infantry regiments , which were associated with a county , the King 's represented the city of Liverpool , one of only four regiments affiliated to a city in the British Army . After 273 years of continuous existence , the regiment was amalgamated with the Manchester Regiment in 1958 to form the King 's Regiment ( Liverpool and Manchester ) , which was later amalgamated with the King 's Own Royal Border Regiment and the Queen 's Lancashire Regiment to form the present Duke of Lancaster 's Regiment ( King 's , Lancashire and Border ) .
The King 's notably saw active service in the Second Boer War , the two world wars , and the Korean War . In the First World War , the regiment contributed dozens of battalions to the Western Front , Salonika , and the North West Frontier . More than 13 @,@ 000 men were killed . In the Second World War , the 5th and 8th ( Irish ) battalions landed during Operation Overlord , the 1st and 13th fought as Chindits in the Burma Campaign , and the 2nd Battalion served in Italy and Greece . The King 's later fought in the Korean War , earning the regiment 's last battle honour .
Nine Victoria Crosses were awarded to men of the regiment , the first in 1900 and the last in 1918 . An additional two were awarded to Royal Army Medical Corps officer Noel Godfrey Chavasse , who was attached to the 10th ( Scottish ) Battalion during the Great War .
In peacetime , the regiment 's battalions were based in the United Kingdom and colonies in the British Empire . Duties varied : riots were suppressed in Belfast , England , and the Middle East ; bases were garrisoned in places such as the North @-@ West Frontier Province and West Germany ; and reviews and parades conducted throughout the regiment 's history .
= = Colonial wars ( 1881 – 1914 ) = =
The Cardwell – Childers reforms from the 1860s to the 1880s substantially reorganised the British Army , principally by amalgamating single @-@ battalion regiments to form regiments of multiple battalions . The King 's , which already had two regular battalions , did not amalgamate , but did adopt a new title on the numbering system 's abolition . Thus , on 1 July 1881 , the two battalions of the 8th ( The King 's ) Regiment of Foot became the 1st and 2nd Battalions , The King 's ( Liverpool ) Regiment . The 8th Foot had been associated with Liverpool since 1873 , when it became allocated to the town 's 13th Brigade Depot . Regular regiments gained auxiliary battalions through the integration of the militia and volunteers , of which nine from Lancashire and the Isle of Man transferred to the King 's and ultimately became part of the Special Reserve and Territorial Force .
Under the new system , it was envisaged that one regular battalion would be based in the United Kingdom and one overseas . The 1st Battalion had been in North West England since the late 1870s and had been bombed while based at Salford Barracks in 1881 . The attack had been the first in a dynamite campaign instigated by the Irish Republican Jeremiah O 'Donovan Rossa . The barracks sustained only minor structural damage from the explosion , which killed a child and badly wounded its mother . Soon afterwards , rioting during mineworkers ' strikes in Chowbent , Wigan , and Warrington required the battalion 's intervention to prevent further disorder . In 1882 , the battalion moved to Ireland , based in the Curragh . During the otherwise uneventful posting , the 1st responded to riots in Belfast . The sectarian disorder coincided with the introduction of the 1886 Home Rule Bill in the British Parliament . The battalion returned to England three years later .
The 2nd King 's had been on the Indian subcontinent since 1877 and had fought in the Second Afghan War . The Third Burmese War punctuated the battalion 's overseas service in the 1880s . Intent on deposing Upper Burma 's King Thibaw and imposing imperial rule , Britain issued an ultimatum consisting of demands that were rejected as anticipated . The invasion began in November 1885 in the form of the Burma Field Force , which progressed up the Irrawaddy River via transports , enabling the rapid capture of frontier forts and the capital Mandalay . After the capital 's seizure , the battalion provided an escort that oversaw the exile of Thibaw . A guerrilla campaign against the British followed the completion of Upper Burma 's annexation on 1 January 1886 , lasting for at least five years . For more than a year , the King 's operated in small groups pursuing guerrillas in the Burmese jungle . Casualties numbered 12 officers and 256 men by the time the battalion had returned to India . In early 1900 the 2nd Battalion Liverpool Regiment was stationed at Gibraltar .
Overseas service for the 1st King 's included a two @-@ year residence in Nova Scotia , beginning in 1893 . In January 1895 , the battalion provided a 100 @-@ man guard of honour when the body of Canadian Prime Minister John Thompson was returned from Britain . The battalion subsequently became stationed in the West Indies , then Cape Colony in 1897 . The Second Boer War began two years later . Prior to the outbreak of the war , as the discord between the British and Boer republics escalated , the 1st King 's formed a company of mounted infantry and underwent intensive training at Ladysmith , Natal Colony . War was declared on 11 October and Natal invaded by a Boer force under General Piet Joubert . General George White held authority over 13 @,@ 000 British personnel dispersed throughout Natal . Heavy losses were incurred by the British in the first major engagements of the war , at Talana Hill and Elandslaagte . Retreat to Ladysmith , where the British concentrated its largest contingent , ensued . Having besieged Kimberley and Mafikeng , Boers converged upon Ladysmith and positioned artillery pieces on surrounding hills overlooking the town .
On 30 October , General White ordered an attack on northern Boer positions . White 's plans were described as vague , ambitious , and complicated , and the battle proved a disaster that became known to the British as " Mournful Monday " . The 1st King 's were allocated to Colonel Grimwood 's column , which intended to advance on and secure Long Hill , believed to constitute the Boer 's left flank . Unbeknownst to Grimwood , almost half of the brigade separated from the column during the night march while following a rightward deviation by the artillery batteries , including the oblivious 1st King 's and Royal Dublin Fusiliers . In the morning light , the brigade discovered that its right flank was exposed by the distance of John French 's cavalry and that Long Hill was unoccupied . Grimwood and French 's men became pinned down by heavy rifle and artillery fire . Amidst rumours of an attack against the town being imminent and failure evident , White ordered the column to retreat at noon . The artillery provided cover during the chaos that followed and prevented greater loss of life . At Nicholson 's Nek , to the north @-@ west of Long Hill , the Boers took more than 1 @,@ 000 prisoner .
The Boers enclosed Ladysmith on 2 November , beginning a 118 @-@ day siege . The King 's , commanded by Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Llewelyn Mellor , became assigned to the north @-@ eastern defensive sector under Colonel Knox , a disciplinarian who instituted a programme of fortification development in his area . Construction of the defences occurred mostly at night , although rain , oppressive heat , and cold limited the opportunity to rest . On 6 January , the King 's mounted infantry helped repulse a Boer attempt to penetrate the southern perimeter . By late January , the scarcity of supplies had become particularly acute . Disease pervaded while the town resorted to consuming the garrison 's horses and mules .
Reinforcements began to arrive in South Africa in November under General Redvers Buller . The relief of the three besieged garrisons became the general 's priority . He divided his corps and assumed personal command of the Ladysmith expedition . The relief effort was hindered by three successive defeats in December , termed by the British as " Black Week " , and further reverses in January and early February . The siege of Ladysmith ended on 28 February . The King 's then gained a volunteer company and had its mounted infantry absorbed by an MI battalion .
Britain eventually extended its prosecution of the war into the Orange Free State and Transvaal Republic . On 21 August , at Van Wyk 's Vlei , Sergeant Hampton and Corporal Knight held their positions and evacuated wounded mounted Kingsmen under heavy fire , for which they received the Victoria Cross . Two days later , Boer forces attacked the 1st Battalion while it was at the forefront of an advance south of Dalmanutha . The protracted engagement ended when the King 's were ordered to withdraw , having almost expended their ammunition . Casualties exceeded 70 , while Private Heaton earned the Victoria Cross .
The nominal annexation of the Orange Free State and Transvaal Republic in May and September did not resolve the war . Instead , the Boer commandos transitioned to guerrilla warfare and resisted the British until 1902 . The King 's concentrated in the Eastern Transvaal , where Boers under Botha and Viljoen operated . Detachments occupied networks of blockhouses and provided complements for armoured trains . One such detachment was overwhelmed at Helvetia on 29 December . Situated near the Lydenburg – Machadodorp railway , Helvetia was garrisoned primarily by a contingent of the King 's equipped with a 4 @.@ 7 @-@ in gun nicknamed " Lady Roberts " . The nocturnal attack , conducted in fog , yielded considerable success for the Boers with scores of prisoners taken and the gun captured . Only King 's Kopje withstood the attack . The circumstances were controversial and a general court @-@ martial later sentenced Major Stapleton Cotton , who ordered the surrender , to be cashiered and dismissed from the army . Author Arthur Conan Doyle publicly questioned the decision and contended that the wounds Major Cotton sustained merited " some revision " of the officer 's sentence .
The Boer War provided the first opportunity for the regiment 's volunteer battalions to serve overseas with regular forces , supplying individual detachments and service companies . The militia battalions , numbered the 5th and 6th during the war , contrastingly deployed to South Africa intact late in the conflict . A memorial sculpted by William Goscombe John to commemorate the regiment 's service in Afghanistan , Burma , and South Africa was erected in St John 's Gardens , Liverpool and unveiled by Field Marshal Sir George White on 9 September 1905 .
= = First World War = =
= = = 1914 – 1915 = = =
The regiment fielded at least 49 battalions during the First World War , from a pre @-@ war establishment of two regular , two militia , and six territorial . Of those battalions , 26 served abroad , receiving 58 battle honours and six Victoria Crosses for service on the Western Front , the Balkans , India , and Russia . Some 13 @,@ 795 Kingsmen died during the course of the war , the battalions suffering an average of 615 deaths . Thousands more would be wounded , sick , or taken prisoner . Of specific formations , the four Liverpool Pals battalions had nearly 2 @,@ 800 casualties , while the 55th ( West Lancashire ) Division 's 165th ( Liverpool ) Brigade , composed entirely of battalions from the King 's , incurred 1 @,@ 672 dead , 6 @,@ 056 wounded , and 953 missing during the period of 3 January 1916 and 11 November 1918 .
A vigorous recruiting campaign involving pre @-@ war personalities such as Lord Kitchener and Lord Derby facilitated the rapid expansion of the British Army . Territorial units formed duplicate battalions from August 1914 to May 1915 . To differentiate them , they were , for instance , designated the 2 / 5th and 3 / 5th battalions , respectively . Second @-@ line battalions had been raised for home service and recruit training , but were ultimately dispatched to the Western Front and replaced by the third @-@ line . Driven by a conviction that the war would not be resolved quickly and seeking an alternative to the Territorial Army , Secretary of State for War Lord Kitchener appealed for an initial 100 @,@ 000 volunteers to form a " New Army " . The 17th Earl of Derby proposed forming a battalion of " Pals " for the King 's Regiment , to be recruited from men of the same workplace . His proposal proved successful . Within a week , thousands of Liverpudlians had volunteered for service , to eventually be formed into the 17th , 18th , 19th , and 20th Battalions . Collectively , the battalions became known as the City of Liverpool battalions or " Liverpool Pals " . Lord Derby addressed recruits on 28 August :
Mobilisation began at the onset of the war , in August 1914 , at which time the 1st King 's was based at Aldershot . Under command of Lieutenant @-@ Colonel W.S. Bannatyne , the 1st King 's boarded the SS Irrawaddy at Southampton . The battalion landed at Le Havre on 13 August with the 6th Brigade , 2nd Division , one of the original components of the British Expeditionary Force ( BEF ) . The BEF first engaged the German Army at Mons , Belgium , after which it went into a retreat that was sustained until 5 September , when the Allies resolved to stand at the Marne , a river east of Paris . Having acted as a rearguard to the 2nd Division , the 1st King 's and its brigade prevented a German force cutting off the 4th ( Guards ) Brigade , forming the rearguard at Villers @-@ Cotteréts , and 70th Battery , Royal Field Artillery . The brigade extricated the guns , earning it praise from the 2nd Division 's commanding officer , Major @-@ General Monro .
The Allies halted the German advance in the First Battle of the Marne ; the ensuing retreat , which prompted an Allied counter @-@ offensive , ended at the Aisne . After both battles had been fought , the battalion moved north to Ypres , during the so @-@ called " Race to the Sea " . In an action at Langemarck during the First Battle of Ypres , the battalion captured the small village of Molenaarelstoek , just north @-@ east of Polygon Wood . As the battle progressed , the German command sought a decisive victory against the outnumbered BEF and launched First Ypres ' last major assault on 11 November .
Located to the south of Polygon Wood , the 1st King 's was one of only a few units available to defend British lines . A force of " 12 and a half " divisions , including a composite of the élite Prussian Guard , attacked at 0900 along a 9 miles ( 14 km ) front extending from Messines to Polygon . Some German units breached the front in places but quickly lost momentum and were gradually pushed back by a desperate defence . The Prussian Guard had advanced in dense formations , each guardsman effectively side @-@ by @-@ side and led by sword @-@ wielding officers . In the defence of Polygon Wood , the 1st King 's held on and virtually destroyed the 3rd Prussian Foot Guards with concentrated rapid @-@ fire and artillery support . By battle 's end , the 1st King 's casualties numbered 33 officers and 814 other ranks from an original strength of 27 officers and 991 other ranks . Among the battalion 's dead was Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Bannatyne , killed by a sniper on 24 October .
By the end of March 1915 , the King 's had eight battalions on the Western Front . The 1st and 1 / 5th participated in a " holding " attack at Givenchy designed to support the Allied offensive at Neuve Chapelle . An ineffectual preliminary bombardment failed to destroy much of the barbed wire , fatally impeding the 1st King 's . The withering hail @-@ of @-@ fire inflicted heavy casualties on the King 's , one of whom was the wounded Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Carter . A platoon under Lieutenant Miller managed to reach German lines and blockade itself in a communications trench for over an hour , under fire from Allied artillery , until withdrawing to British lines . The battalion 's casualties amounted to 61 killed , 115 wounded , and 62 missing .
One @-@ month later , on 24 April , a German offensive began Second Ypres , which became the 4th and 1 / 6th King 's first major battle . In the second subsidiary action of the offensive , at Saint @-@ Julien , the 4th King 's sustained more than 400 casualties over a four @-@ day period , the majority , some 374 , while supporting the 1 / 4th Gurkha Rifles on the 27th . The 1 / 6th supported 1st Cheshires in the defence of Hill 60 . After the regiment 's involvement in ' Second Ypres ' receded , four battalions fought at Festubert , collectively incurring in excess of 1 @,@ 200 casualties . Lance Corporal Tombs became the regiment 's first Victoria Cross recipient of the war for assisting wounded soldiers during the battle . The 1 / 10th Battalion fought its first battle on 16 June , in a " local " action at Bellewaarde . Losses for the Liverpool Scottish neared 400 killed , wounded and missing , with just two of 24 officers present surviving unscathed .
The British instigated a new offensive on 25 September , at Loos , to coincide with French offensives in the Champagne and Artois regions . The King 's were represented in the offensive by eight battalions , from standard infantry to pioneers . Some 150 tons of Chlorine gas was used on the first day of the battle , discharged via thousands of cylinders . Strong winds blew the gas backwards , hindering the advance of the 1st King 's and other units having to also contend with partially uncut barbed wire . The advance of the 1 / 9th King 's also stalled , though they took about 300 Germans prisoner . The battalion later assisted in the repulse of a German counter @-@ attack on 8 October . More battalions arrived before the year ended , including the 17th , 18th , 19th , and 20th Liverpool Pals , which formed the 89th Brigade , 30th Division .
= = = 1916 – 1917 = = =
The Liverpool Pals ' first battle came during " The Big Push " on 1 July 1916 , on the first day of the Battle of the Somme , the worst single day for casualties in British military history . The 89th Brigade , under the Earl of Derby 's brother Brigadier F.C. Stanley , still comprised the 17th , 19th , and 20th Pals , but had the 18th reassigned to the 21st Brigade in December . The 30th Division formed part of XIII Corps , which attacked towards Montauban , south of where Britain suffered the majority of its nearly 60 @,@ 000 casualties on the 1st . At 07 : 30 , the 30th Division began its advance on the left of the French Corps de Fer . Meeting limited opposition , the Pals completed their objectives with comparatively minimal casualties . Grievous losses were , however , incurred by the 18th from heavy machine @-@ gun fire during its advance towards the Glatz Redoubt . The battalion 's commanding officer , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel E.H. Trotter , killed by a shell on 8 July , intentionally underestimated the battalion 's casualties of about 500 to avoid the deployment of brigade reserves .
More battalions entered the fray throughout the offensive . Some 14 battalions contributed to five attempts to capture the village of Guillemont between July and September . In the early hours of 8 August , in the third attempt , the 1st , 1 / 5th , and 1 / 8th attacked in conditions that rendered visibility poor . The 1st and 1 / 8th reached the German front @-@ line trenches and entered the village . Their situation deteriorated , however , and the 1 / 8th 's support battalion was driven back by Germans who continued to occupy the first @-@ line trenches . Isolated and contained by counter @-@ attacks , the 1 / 8th and three companies of the 1st were surrounded and mostly captured . The 1 / 8th had been annihilated , with losses amounting to 15 killed , 55 wounded , and 502 missing , while the 1st lost its commanding officer , Colonel Goff , and sustained 239 casualties . The 1st later received a draft of 20 officers and 750 men from the Manchester Regiment .
Wanting to alleviate the pressure on the French to the south and believing there might still be some holding out , high command ordered the 2nd and 55th divisions to resume the battle on the 9th . The attack failed and proved to be ill @-@ prepared and disorganised , with an identical starting time and objectives . For his actions during the battle , Captain Chavasse , attached to the Liverpool Scottish , gained the first of two VCs for attending to and rescuing wounded in no man 's land . The village would not be captured until the final struggle began on 3 September , by which time the 12th was the King 's only contribution , and the regiment had more than 3 @,@ 000 casualties .
After the Somme Offensive ended in November , the Allies began to prepare for a series of combined Allied offensives in April 1917 . These plans would not be significantly disrupted by the German Army 's strategic withdrawal to the " Hindenburg Line " in northern France . The phased withdrawal , conducted from February to April , reduced the German front by 25 miles ( 40 km ) . The regiment 's six second @-@ line battalions arrived on the Western Front with the 57th ( 2nd West Lancashire ) Division in February 1917 .
To support the ill @-@ fated Nivelle Offensive , Britain initiated the Battle of the Scarpe , in the Arras area on 9 April , which involved the regiment 's 11th , 13th , and Liverpool Pals battalions . The 13th moved forward with the 3rd Division at 0530 , near Tilloy @-@ les @-@ Mofflaines , capturing almost 500 men and completing its objectives . To the south , barbed wire obstructed the Pals with varied results . The 18th consolidated in front of the wire until relieved on the 10th , while the 19th and 20th were eventually withdrawn , having suffered heavy losses within about 100 yards ( 91 m ) of the wire . Casualties for the King 's during the initial phase of the Arras Offensive exceeded 700 .
While the battle raged in Arras , the Allies prepared for an offensive in the north , in Flanders . " Third Ypres " ( or Passchendaele ) became notorious for conditions that transformed the terrain of shell holes and trenches into a quagmire of mud . Ten of the regiment 's battalions were active in the first stage , the Battle of Pilkem Ridge ( 31 July – 2 August ) . Six belonged to the 55th Division , situated in the Wieltje sector , north of the Liverpool Pals . The territorial battalions overcame their first and second objectives , but progress was difficult . Confusion prevailed during the 18th King 's and 2nd Wiltshires nocturnal advance through Sanctuary Wood . The Pals battalions had to consolidate in front of the 30th Division 's initial objective . The King 's losses accumulated , surpassing 1 @,@ 800 by the 3rd , with the supporting 1 / 8th 's casualties the heaviest at 18 officers and 304 other ranks . The 10th 's medical officer , Captain Chavasse , received a posthumous , second Victoria Cross for attending to , and recovering , wounded in spite of his own wounds and fatigue during the battle . He succumbed to his wounds on 4 August .
An account by Captain Wurtzburg , 2 / 6th Liverpool Rifles , described the conditions endured by soldiers in the Ypres area :
= = = 1918 = = =
The King 's contributed to the Battle of Cambrai in November 1917 and assisted in defensive actions as the new year neared . Acute manpower shortages in the BEF on the Western Front left many divisions understrength and so it was decided to adopt a nine @-@ battalion system through amalgamations and disbandments . The 5th , 8th , 9th , and 10th King 's integrated with their second @-@ line , while hundreds of their men were distributed to other King 's battalions . The 20th disbanded in February , with its strength dispersed to the other Liverpool Pals .
As the American Expeditionary Forces emboldened the Allies , Germany prepared for a final attempt to achieve a decisive victory before the US contingent on the Western Front surged further . On 21 March , a five @-@ hour artillery and gas shell barrage across a 50 @-@ mile ( 80 km ) front signified the beginning of the Battle of St. Quentin ( Operation Michael ) and the Spring Offensive in the Somme . Although roled as pioneers , the 11th King 's occupied frontline trenches near Urvillers when the attack began . Two of its companies engaged troops at Lambay Wood and Benay and the battalion 's casualties for the day exceeded 160 . The Liverpool Pals , in reserve on the 21st , hurried to the front on the 22nd to undertake localised counter @-@ attacks , with the first and largest conducted by the 19th against the village of Roupy . The battalion advanced in darkness after 0115 , uncertain of German positions , but retook the original frontline trenches unopposed . They later came under sustained attack , holding out without support until Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Peck ordered a withdrawal at about 1600 . The Germans overwhelmed the survivors , capturing the wounded Peck and many others .
The situation became dire , forcing troops to withdraw towards Ham , which itself had to be evacuated . The Third and Fifth Armies went into retreat . The 1st King 's , occupying positions near Vélu Wood during the Battle of Bapaume , came under attack on the 24th but held out until their deteriorating flanks compelled a retreat that was covered by about 30 men from its headquarters . The battalion commander , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Murray @-@ Lyon , had just 60 men at his command when they arrived at Beaulencourt later in the day . On 28 March , the offensive was extended to Arras , which was soon repulsed by the Allies . Having lost its momemtum and suffered about 250 @,@ 000 casualties , comparable to Allied losses , Germany abandoned the operation on 5 April . The German Army did not relent and launched Operation Georgette in Flanders on 9 April . The first @-@ day of the Battle of the Lys involved the three King 's battalions of the 165th Brigade , situated at Estaires . The bombardment against Allied positions began at 0410 and the subsequent infantry attack displaced Portuguese forces by 0800 , exposing the left flank of the 165th . The King 's repulsed the frontal assaults with heavy casualties but continued to be attacked from the flanks . Counter @-@ attacks by the 1 / 7th King 's and 2 / 5th Lancashire Fusiliers took up to 500 prisoners .
German forces made significant gains , capturing Armentières . On 11 April , British Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , General Haig , issued his " backs to the walls " order of the day . Five days later , Private Counter , 1st King 's , volunteered as a messenger , having witnessed five preceding runners killed . He was awarded the regiment 's last Victoria Cross . The 4th King 's experienced heavy fighting near Méteren and by 19 April had at least 489 casualties . Despite relentless battles , the Allies stabilised their front and Georgette was discontinued on 29 April after the Battle of the Scherpenberg . The Liverpool Pals fought in that climax , with the 17th having to withdraw with the loss of " A " Company , while the 18th and 19th repelled their attackers .
The German Army halted its offensives in July . The King 's 11th Battalion disbanded in April , followed in May by the temporary consolidation of the Liverpool Pals as the 17th ( Composite ) Battalion . Their brief unity ended in May when they reduced to form training cadres for the U.S. 137th Regiment . In August , after four months of being on the defensive , the Allies launched an offensive against Amiens , in the Somme area . Meticulous preparation gave them the element of surprise when it began on the 8th . More than 16 @,@ 000 prisoners were taken within two hours and the German frontline mostly collapsed . In the following Battle of Albert , begun on the 21st , the 13th King 's suffered 274 casualties , but captured 150 soldiers and many machine @-@ guns , while the 1st assisted in the taking of Ervillers .
The war 's end in Europe came with the signing of the Armistice of 11 November 1918 . The 9th Battalion 's history illustrated the initial reaction of soldiers :
On 11 December 1918 , the remnants of the 1st King 's marched across the German frontier " at ease " , bayonets fixed and their colours uncased . The battalion would be based at Düren and Berg Neukirchen for about five months as part of the British Army of the Rhine , joined by other battalions such as the 13th . Some , including the 25th ( Reserve ) , served in Egypt and Belgium before the majority disbanded by late 1919 .
= = Inter @-@ war ( 1918 – 1939 ) = =
Hostilities did not end for the 17th King 's on 11 November ; the battalion had sailed for Murmansk , Russia , in October as part of an Allied intervention force assembled to support the " White " forces in their civil war against the Bolsheviks . The battalion was moved to Archangel , where it was based intact for a short period . The battalion 's companies served separately for the duration of their stay in Russia , until the 17th left in September 1919 .
The Territorial Force was disbanded and later reformed as the Territorial Army and the regiment 's battalions were also reformed . However , inter @-@ war reductions and reorganisations reduced the regiment 's territorial battalions from six to just one by 1937 . The 8th disbanded in the early 1920s , the 9th was absorbed by the Royal Engineers , and a restructuring of the Territorial Army 's infantry in the mid @-@ 1930s converted the 6th , 7th , and 10th to new roles . The 6th were transferred to the Royal Engineers and became 38th ( King 's ) Searchlight Regiment , Royal Engineers . The 7th joined the Royal Tank Regiment and became the 40th ( The King 's ) Royal Tank Regiment , and the 10th became a battalion of the Queen 's Own Cameron Highlanders .
= = = 1st King 's = = =
As Britain 's control of Ireland eroded in 1920 during the Irish War of Independence , the 1st Battalion deployed to Bantry , County Cork . The county was a ferment of Republican activity where British forces frequently subjected the movement 's supporters to oppressive measures in an attempt to curtail escalating violence . Compared to other regiments operating in the county , such as the Essex Regiment , the King 's acquired a favourable reputation among its adversaries for their professionalism and humane treatment of prisoners — which reputedly saved the lives of some Kingsmen . Their conduct was described by Tom Barry , a prominent IRA leader , as " exemplary in all the circumstances " . After the establishment of the Irish Free State in the south , the battalion moved to Northern Ireland to be stationed in Derry and Omagh .
After a brief deployment to Turkey as part of the army of occupation , the battalion returned to England in 1924 and resumed overseas service in 1926 with postings to Malta , Sudan , and Egypt . While much of the battalion 's time in Egypt was peaceful and comfortable , they occasionally dealt with rioting , and on one occasion a company had to be deployed to Jerusalem . In October 1931 , Greek Cypriots in Cyprus uprised demanding union with Greece . The battalion reinforced the British garrison with two companies ; C Company arrived via eight Vickers Victoria air transports , followed by the sea @-@ transported " D " . India was the 1st King 's next posting , initially in Jubbulpore . The battalion relocated to Landi Kotal , Khyber Pass , in 1937 . Service in the volatile North @-@ West Frontier Province continued into the Second World War .
= = = 2nd King 's = = =
The 2nd Battalion continued to serve in India following the Armistice and mobilised during the Third Afghan War in 1919 . Leading a " Special Column " , the battalion reached the Toba Plateau , some 8 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 400 m ) high , but the war was concluded before the battalion could engage Afghan forces .
Those personnel who remained after the majority demobilised in 1920 joined the Sudan garrison , where the battalion reformed . Postings to Hong Kong and Canton followed in 1922 , then to India in 1924 , and finally Iraq the next year . Stationed near Baghdad , its residence lasted for two years , uneventful but with the distinction of being the last British battalion to serve there until the Second World War .
Immediately after returning to England , the 2nd King 's became the first battalion of the regiment to undertake public duties at Buckingham Palace . The battalion was based in various parts of the country for nearly a decade until 1938 , when it became part of the Gibraltar garrison .
= = Second World War = =
For the regiment , expansion was on a more modest scale than that of the Great War . Ten battalions ( see List of battalions of the King 's Regiment ( Liverpool ) ) were formed between 1939 and 1940 , including the reconstituted 8th ( Liverpool Irish ) Battalion . Two of the battalions converted to armour and anti @-@ air roles in 1941 : the 11th became the 152nd Regiment in the Royal Armoured Corps , but continued to wear their King 's Regiment cap badge on the black beret of the RAC , as did all infantry units converted in this way , while the 12th transferred to the Royal Artillery as 101st Light Anti @-@ Aircraft Regiment .
By late 1941 , the regiment had three battalions ( 1st , 2nd , and 13th ) stationed abroad with the remainder poised to defend the United Kingdom against a possible German invasion . The 1st and 13th battalions serve in Burma as Chindits , the 2nd in Italy and Greece during the Greek Civil War , and the 5th and 8th in Western Front of World War II . The 9th Battalion , formed as a duplicate of the 5th in 1939 , served with the 164th Brigade , 55th Division , transferring to 165th Brigade in April 1943 . Of the battalions that had switched to other roles , only the 40th RTR ( 7th King 's ) experienced active service . With the 23rd Armoured Brigade , the 40th RTR fought in the North African Campaign , where they acquired the nickname " Monty 's Foxhounds " , Italy , and Greece .
= = = Italy and Greece = = =
Having spent five years in Gibraltar with the 1st Gibraltar Brigade , the 2nd Battalion King 's departed in December 1943 with the 28th Infantry Brigade ( previously 1st Gibraltar Brigade ) to reinforce the 4th Infantry Division in Egypt . The battalion landed in Italy with the 4th when the division joined the campaign in March 1944 . On 11 May , the division conducted an opposed crossing of the Gari River during the final Fourth Battle of Monte Cassino . The 2nd King 's constituted , along with the 2nd Somersets , the main element of 28th Infantry Brigade 's initial assault . Behind schedule by 35 minutes and thus lacking artillery support , the battalion attempted to traverse the Gari under sustained mortar and artillery fire . Many boats capsized because of the strong current with resultant losses . The 4th Division collectively struggled to consolidate its bridgehead and minefields and a determined German defence inflicted casualties on the 2nd King 's and mortally wounded their commanding officer , Lieutenant Colonel Garmons @-@ Williams . Depleted and disorganised , the remnants withdrew from an untenable bridgehead on the 14th . The 2nd King 's by then had 72 men killed or missing and many wounded . After five months and four battles , Monte Cassino was captured on 18 May by the Polish II Corps and the Gustav Line broken .
The Allies captured Rome in June and the 2nd King 's fought in the subsequent advance to the Trasimene Line . The King 's captured Gioiella in a fierce battle that had involved the 2 / 4th Hampshires ( part of 28th Brigade ) , and later secured and defended Tuori against counter @-@ attack , earning the regiment a unique battle honour in the British Army . In about nine months of service , in difficult , mountainous terrain , with heavy casualties , the battalion was awarded four DSOs , nine MCs , three DCMs , four MMs , and six mentioned in despatches . Among the recipients were Sergeant Welsby , who single @-@ handedly secured a fortified farmhouse , and Major J. A. de V. Reynolds , for his leadership and conduct around Casa Arlotti .
In December , the 4th Infantry Division was deployed to Greece to reinforce British forces embroiled in the country 's civil war . Conflict in Greece between government forces and Communist partisans followed the vacuum created by the German withdrawal . The partisans ( ELAS ) sought to establish themselves as the new political authority and confronted the British @-@ supported government @-@ in @-@ exile when ordered to disband and disarm . Within 24 hours of being flown to Piraeus on 12 December , the 2nd King 's had to engage partisans in a brief action , seizing occupied barracks at a cost of 14 casualties . During a seven @-@ week internal security employment , there were many instances of house @-@ to @-@ house and street fighting in Athens . By mid @-@ January 1945 , the city had been cleared of insurgents and a ceasefire agreed upon , followed by the Varkiza Agreement in February . The King 's remained for a year to support a tense peace until they left for Cyprus .
= = = Burma = = =
The 13th Battalion , King 's Regiment , was raised in October 1940 for coastal defence in England and assigned to the 208th Independent Infantry Brigade ( Home ) . The battalion sailed for India in December 1941 , coinciding with Japan 's entrance into the war . Intended for internal security and garrison duties , the 13th 's strength contained many men categorised as old or of a medically downgraded condition with the result that few men were well trained . After Japan occupied Burma in 1942 , the Allies formed a unit intended to penetrate deep behind Japanese lines from India . The 13th King 's provided the majority of the British contingent for the " Chindits " , which was formally designated as the 77th Indian Infantry Brigade and commanded by Brigadier Orde Wingate .
Organised into two groups , the Chindits ' first operation ( codenamed Longcloth ) began on 8 February 1943 . No. 2 Group , commanded by Lieutenant Colonel S.A. Cooke , was formed from the 13th King 's and divided into five independent columns , two of which ( Nos 7 and 8 ) were commanded by majors from the battalion . No Japanese opposition was encountered initially , allowing the Chindits to cross the Chindwin River and advance into Burma unimpeded .
The 1st Battalion also took part in a similar operation in 1944 and formed 81 and 82 Columns . As in the first expedition in 1943 the Chindits again suffered heavy casualties and fought behind the Japanese lines at Kohima and Imphal . After Orde Wingate was killed in a crash in March 1944 , it was decided to break up the remaining Chindit formations and some of them were to be converted into airborne infantry battalions . The 1st King 's was converted to become the 15th ( King 's ) Parachute Battalion of the Parachute Regiment and joined the 77th Indian Parachute Brigade attached to the 44th Indian Airborne Division where it remained for the rest of the war .
= = = Normandy and Germany = = =
In 1943 , the 5th and 8th King 's ( Liverpool Irish ) received specialist training at Ayrshire in preparation for a planned invasion of France . They had been selected to form the nucleus of the 5th and 7th Beach Groups , which would have the objectives of maintaining beach organisation , securing positions , and providing defence against counter @-@ attack .
As invasion neared in mid @-@ 1944 , the two battalions moved from their camps to ports in southern England and embarked aboard troopships and landing ship tanks . Much of the Liverpool Irish embarked aboard the Ulster Monarch , a passenger ship that had served on the Belfast @-@ Liverpool line before the war . Having been delayed , the invasion fleet proceeded to Normandy on 5 June . Both King 's battalions landed on D @-@ Day , the 5th at Sword with the 3rd British Infantry Division and the Liverpool Irish at Juno with the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division .
Two companies of the Liverpool Irish landed in the assault wave with the Royal Winnipeg Rifles . Under intense machine gun and mortar fire , the landing of Major Max Morrison 's " A " Company proceeded well , allowing some to establish a command @-@ post upon reaching the sand dunes . In contrast , in " B " Company 's sector , the late arrival of the reconnaissance party and DD tanks exposed the landing infantry to heavy machine gun fire . The company 's officer commanding , Major O 'Brien , and the second @-@ in @-@ command were among those wounded . At Sword , as the 3rd Division moved inland , the 5th King 's attempted to neutralise hostile positions and snipers . Casualties included Lieutenant @-@ Colonel D. H. V. Board , killed by a sniper , and the OC of 9 Platoon , Lieutenant Scarfe , mortally wounded in an attack on a German position that captured 16 soldiers .
Under fire , the beach groups collected the wounded and dead , located and marked minefields , attempted to maintain organisation , and directed vehicles and troops inland . The two battalions operated with the beach groups for a further six weeks . While the depleted Liverpool Irish disbanded in August , much of its strength having been transferred to other units as reinforcements , the 5th King 's survived as a reduced cadre . Disbandment had only been avoided through the determination of Lieutenant Colonel G.D. Wreford @-@ Brown , who argued that the 5th Battalion was nearly the most senior unit active in the Territorial Army .
Before the Allies advanced into Nazi Germany in February 1945 , the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force ( SHAEF ) began to form dedicated units to secure important objectives — equipment , installations , intelligence , and personnel . The 5th King 's provided the nucleus for No. 2 T ( Target ) Force . Elements of the 5th reached the naval port of Kiel in May 1945 , securing the cruiser Admiral Hipper and taking 7 @,@ 000 sailors prisoner . The battalion continued to conduct intelligence operations until disbandment in July 1946 during the demoblisation process . Reconstitution into the Territorial Army followed in 1947 under the command of Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Edward Stanley .
= = Post @-@ Second World War ( 1945 – 1958 ) = =
The 1st King 's , still roled as 15th ( King 's ) Parachute Battalion , remained in India with responsibility for the area around Meerut , north @-@ east of New Delhi . After reconverting to standard infantry , the battalion departed for Liverpool in late 1947 . In April 1948 , the 2nd King 's deployed to the British Mandate of Palestine for two weeks . The battalion carried out internal security duties in the prelude to Israel 's establishment for two weeks before its return to Cyprus . When the army reduced its strength , the 2nd King 's chose to be absorbed by the 1st rather than have its lineage terminated . On 6 September 1948 , the two battalions amalgamated in a ceremonial parade attended by honorary Colonel of the Regiment , Major @-@ General Dudley Ward . The battalion was posted to West Germany shortly afterwards and moved to West Berlin in February 1951 .
= = = Korean War = = =
The battalion was ordered to Korea in June 1952 . By then , the Korean War had entered a period of stalemate , with trench warfare prevailing . At Liverpool , the King 's embarked aboard the troopship Devonshire for Hong Kong , where it underwent training before landing at Pusan , Korea , in September . Replacing the 1st Royal Norfolk Regiment in the 29th Infantry Brigade , 1st Commonwealth Division , the 1st King 's took up defensive positions on moving to the frontline , about 45 miles ( 72 km ) from Seoul .
While much of the battalion 's time at the front proved uneventful , its night patrols often clashed with Chinese troops . In 1953 , the battalion withdrew to reserve for three months . A tactically important feature known as " The Hook " , a crescent shaped ridge , was the scene of intense fighting between Commonwealth forces and the Chinese in May . On the night of 20 May , Chinese forces commenced a sustained bombardment of the Hook , defended by the Duke of Wellington 's Regiment . Two days later , a company from the King 's conducted a nighttime diversionary raid on Chinese positions known as " Pheasant " . During the raid , Second @-@ Lieutenant Caws ' 5 Platoon , intended to execute the actual attack , inadvertently stumbled upon an uncharted minefield , suffering 10 wounded from a strength of 16 . The attack had to be abandoned , forcing the company to withdraw with its wounded back to British lines under the protection of artillery .
The King 's moved to the right sector of the Hook on 27 May , excepting " D " Company 's 10 Platoon and " B " Company ( as reserve ) , which became attached to the Dukes . At 1953 hours , on 28 May , the battle began when a heavy artillery barrage targeted the Dukes ' positions . Within minutes , the first of four successive Chinese waves attacked . Two King 's platoons had to be moved forward to reinforce the Point 121 position , which soon after came under attack by two infantry companies . After the attack was repulsed with the assistance of Commonwealth artillery , the Chinese directed their attention to the King 's on Point 146 . As their troops assembled at Pheasant at around 2305 , 1st King 's Lieutenant @-@ Colonel A.J. Snodgrass called in artillery , Centurion tank , and machine @-@ gun fire that effectively destroyed the battalion @-@ sized formation . Fighting continued until the British cleared the remaining troops from the Hook at approximately 0330 . British casualties numbered 149 , including 28 killed , while Chinese losses were estimated to be 250 killed and 800 wounded .
The 1st King 's left Korea for Hong Kong in October , by which time the battalion had suffered 28 dead and 200 wounded . Of some 1 @,@ 500 men that served with the King 's in Korea , 350 were regular soldiers , the rest being conscripts on national service . The King 's moved to Britain in 1955 , were posted to West Germany the following year , and made its final return home in May 1958 .
= = = Amalgamation = = =
The 1957 Defence White Paper ( known as the " Sandys Review " after Secretary of State for War Duncan Sandys ) announced the government 's intention to reduce the army 's overseas responsibilities and abolish national service . Regiments and other units were rationalised through amalgamation or disbandment . The decision to merge the King 's and Manchesters dismayed many serving and retired personnel . The regiments did , however , share an historical connection through the 63rd ( West Suffolk ) Regiment of Foot , constituted as the 8th Foot 's second battalion in 1756 and redesignated the 1st Battalion , Manchester Regiment in 1881 .
In June , at Brentwood , the colours of the two regiments were paraded for the last time in the presence of Queen Elizabeth , The Queen Mother . The King 's Regiment ( Manchester and Liverpool ) formally came into being on 1 September 1958 . On 1 July 2006 , the successor regiment amalgamated , joining with two others to form the Duke of Lancaster 's Regiment .
The surviving territorial battalion of the King 's ( Liverpool ) , the 5th , retained its identity until reduced to " B " Company , Lancastrian Volunteers in 1967 . The lineage of 5th King 's later became perpetuated by " A " Company on its formation in 1992 . The company became an integral component of the 4th Battalion , Duke of Lancaster 's Regiment in 2006 and contained the Liverpool Scottish Platoon .
= = Victoria Cross recipients = =
= = Battle honours = =
The regiment 's battle honours were as follows :
Blenheim , Ramillies , Oudenarde , Malplaquet , Dettingen , Martinique 1809 , Niagara , Delhi 1857 , Lucknow , Peiwar Kotal , Afghanistan 1878 – 80 , Burma 1885 – 87 , Defence of Ladysmith , South Africa 1899 – 1902
The Great War : Mons , Retreat from Mons , Marne 1914 , Aisne 1914 , Ypres 1914 ' 15 ' 17 , Langemarck 1914 ' 17 , Gheluvelt , Nonne Boschen , Neuve Chapelle , Gravenstafel , St Julien , Frezenberg , Bellewaarde , Aubers , Festubert 1915 , Loos , Somme 1916 ' 18 , Albert 1916 ' 18 , Bazentin , Deville Wood , Guillemont , Ginchy , Flers – Courcelette , Morval , Le Transloy , Ancre 1916 , Bapaume 1917 ' 18 , Arras 1917 ' 18 , Scarpe 1917 ' 18 , Arleux , Pilckem , Menin Road , Polygon Wood , Poelcappelle , Passchendaele , Cambrai 1917 ' 18 , St. Quentin , Rosières , Avre , Lys , Estaires , Messines 1918 , Bailleul , Kemmel , Bethune , Scherpenberg , Drocourt @-@ Queant , Hindenburg Line , Épehy , Canal du Nord , St Quentin Canal , Selle , Sambre , France and Flanders 1914 – 18 , Doiran 1917 , Macedonia 1915 – 18 , NW Frontier , India 1915
Archangel 1918 – 19 , Afghanistan 1919
The Second World War : Normandy Landing . North @-@ West Europe 1944 , Cassino II , Trasimene Line , Tuori , Capture of Forli , Rimini Line , Italy 1944 – 45 , Athens , Greece 1944 – 45 , Chindits 1943 , Chindits 1944 , Burma 1943 – 44
The Hook 1953 , Korea 1952 – 53
= = Colonels of the Regiment = =
The colonels of the regiment were :
= = = The Kings ( Liverpool ) Regiment = = =
1881 – 1889 : Gen. John Longfield , CB
1889 – 1891 : Gen. Lord Alexander Russell , GCB
1891 – 1899 : Gen. George William Powlett Bingham , CB
1899 – 1902 : Lt @-@ Gen. Robert Stuart Baynes
1902 – 1906 : Lt @-@ Gen. George Edward Baynes
1906 – 1916 : Gen. Edward Henry Clive
1916 – 1923 : Gen. Sir William Henry Mackinnon , GCB , KCVO
= = = The King 's Regiment ( Liverpool ) = = =
1923 – 1940 : Gen. Sir Charles Harington Harington , GCB , GBE , DSO
1940 – 1947 : Maj @-@ Gen. Clifton Edward Rawdon Grant Alban , CBE , DSO
1947 @-@ 1957 : Gen. Sir Dudley Ward , GCB , KBE , DSO
1957 @-@ 1958 : Brig. Richard Nicholson Murray Jones , CBE
= = = General = = =
|
= Dolbadarn Castle =
Dolbadarn Castle is a fortification built by the Welsh prince Llywelyn the Great during the early 13th century , at the base of the Llanberis Pass , in North Wales . The castle was important both militarily and as a symbol of Llywelyn 's power and authority . The castle features a large stone keep , which historian Richard Avent considers " the finest surviving example of a Welsh round tower " . In 1284 Dolbadarn was taken by Edward I , who removed some of its timbers to build his new castle at Caernarfon . The castle was used as a manor house for some years , before falling into ruin . In the 18th and 19th century it was a popular destination for painters interested in Sublime and Picturesque landscapes . It is now owned by Cadw and managed as a tourist attraction , and is protected as a grade I listed building .
= = History = =
= = = 1220 – 40 = = =
Dolbadarn Castle was built in either the 1220s or the 1230s by Llywelyn the Great , at the base of the Llanberis Pass , overlooking the lake of Llyn Padarn in North Wales . Traditionally the Welsh princes had not constructed castles , instead using undefended palaces called llysoedd , or courts . From the late 11th century onwards , the Normans had advanced into Wales , taking lands in the north and establishing a band of occupied territory in the south called the Welsh Marches . During the 12th century some timber and earthwork castles began to be built , but in small numbers .
Llywelyn the Great initially controlled the princedom of Gwynedd , but grew more powerful over the course of his reign , extending his influence over much of Wales during the early years of the 13th century . Llywelyn was faced by several challenges , including dealing with the threat from the kings of England , and maintaining his authority over the native Welsh . As part of this strategy , Llywelyn built Castell y Bere , an innovative stone Welsh castle , in the 1220s . Shortly afterwards he began the first phases of Dolbadarn Castle , constructing the initial stone fortifications on the site , including two square stone towers .
The location of the castle was important both because it controlled an important mountain pass , and possibly because Llywelyn claimed authority as the lord of the mountains and coasts of Wales : several of his castles appear to have been located with such political symbolism in mind . It is also possible that Llywelyn may have built his castle on top of the remains of a previous fortification constructed by Maelgwn Gwynedd , a king of Gwynedd in the 6th century , although no such remains have been found .
As part of his strategy for dealing with the Marcher Lords , Llywelyn married his eldest son , Dafydd , to Isabella , the daughter of William de Braose , a powerful lord in Brecon , Builth and Abergavenny . The Marcher Lords had adopted a style of stone castle that included circular keeps and an integrated system of curtain walls . Following Dafydd 's marriage , Llywelyn appears to have started a second phase of building at Dolbadarn , probably in the 1240s , adding these elements to the existing castle . The prince was probably aiming not only to incorporate the latest military technology , but also to create a castle of equal prestige to those of his new allies in the south . Traditionally the surrounding district of Is Gwyrfai had been run from the town of Llanbeblig ; after the 1240s , this role was transferred to Dolbadarn .
= = = 1240 – 1300 = = =
Following Llywelyn 's death in 1240 , Gwynedd 's power declined and many of its eastern lands were taken by Henry III of England in 1247 . Llywelyn 's grandson , Llywelyn ap Gruffudd , took power in 1255 and imprisoned his brother Owain ap Gruffudd before extending his power across Wales . Owain was eventually released in 1277 and there has been much historical debate over which castle he was held in . Hywel Foel ap Griffri wrote a famous poem describing Owain 's long imprisonment in a round tower ; historians believe that this refers to the keep at Dolbardarn .
The conflict between the Welsh princes and the English kings continued in the reign of Edward I. In 1282 Llywelyn fought a final campaign against Edward , ending in the prince 's death near Builth that December . His brother , Dafydd ap Gruffydd , assumed power but during 1283 was forced south into Snowdonia and by May his government was based from Dolbadarn Castle . Edward deployed 7 @,@ 000 troops to detain Dafydd who was finally captured and executed in October ; Dolbadarn was occupied by Norman forces .
Edward was determined to prevent any further rebellion in North Wales and set about building a sequence of new castles and walled towns , replacing the old Welsh administrative system with a new principality governed from Caernarfon . Dolbadarn was no longer relevant and within two years timber from the castle was being used by the Normans for the construction of Caernarfon Castle . This was both a practical and a symbolic action , demonstrating Norman power over one of the most important possessions of the Welsh princes .
= = = 14th – 21st centuries = = =
The remaining parts of the castle continued to be used as a manor house into the 14th century . By the 18th century , however , Dolbadarn Castle was ruined and uninhabited . From the 1760s onwards , however , it became a popular topic for painters interested in the then fashionable landscape styles of the Sublime and the Picturesque . Typically the castle was painted in the middle ground , allowing the viewer 's eye to contrast its ruined outline with the lakes and mountains of Snowdonia ; frequently the landscape was misrepresented by the artist , to create a more striking or dramatic effect . J. M. W. Turner 's 1800 work Dolbadarn Castle depicted the back @-@ lit castle looming over the landscape and became particularly famous , but the paintings of the castle by Richard Wilson and Paul Sandby also represent important artistic works of the period .
In 1941 the castle was given to the State by Sir Michael Duff . It is now maintained by Cadw and is protected as a Grade I listed building and as a scheduled monument . In the light of Welsh devolution and other political changes , the history of Dolbadarn Castle and similar Welsh castles has become increasing prominent . In response , Cadw have noted that they intend to give an increased priority to communicating the history of these castles and the Welsh princes .
= = Architecture = =
Dolbadarn Castle comprises a courtyard , surrounded by a number of towers and a round keep . The castle is built from purple and green slate stone , mainly constructed in a dry stone fashion without mortar , with the exception of the keep . The courtyard follows the natural shape of the hill and is protected by a curtain wall ; originally perhaps 15 feet ( 5 m ) high , it is now only at most 3 feet ( 1 m ) high . Of the castle buildings , only the keep remains to any significant height .
The keep today is 46 feet ( 14 m ) high and is modelled on early 13th @-@ century English round towers built in the south of the Welsh Marches . As with other Welsh @-@ constructed towers , the entrance is on the first storey , not at ground level ; it may originally have been protected by a porch . The keep had a portcullis which would have been drawn up past the window on the second storey of the tower . While the castle 's flooring has long since disappeared , its interior staircase to the upper storey may still be climbed . This second storey would have formed the main chamber in the keep and had a large fireplace and a latrine . Originally the keep would have had a parapet and battlements , since destroyed . Historian Richard Avent considers it " the finest surviving example of a Welsh round tower " .
The rectangular west tower was a relatively short defensive structure , designed to protect the more vulnerable western slope of the ridge . A similar tower in the south overlooks the entrance to the castle . At the north end of the castle is the hall , stretching across the courtyard ; in the east corner is an additional building , probably built by the English at the end of the 13th century . Although the hall is relatively large , 50 by 27 feet ( 15 by 8 m ) , these buildings follow a simpler design to those current in England at the time , where a combination of a hall , chamber and a service block in castles was becoming more common .
|
= USS Nicholson ( DD @-@ 52 ) =
USS Nicholson ( Destroyer No. 52 / DD @-@ 52 ) was an O 'Brien @-@ class destroyer built for the United States Navy before the American entry into World War I. The ship was the second U.S. Navy vessel named in honor of five members of the Nicholson family who gave distinguished service in the American Revolutionary War , the War of 1812 , and the American Civil War : brothers James , Samuel , and John Nicholson ; William Nicholson , son of John ; and James W. Nicholson , grandson of Samuel .
Nicholson was laid down by William Cramp and Sons of Philadelphia in September 1913 and launched in August 1914 . The ship was a little more than 305 ft ( 93 m ) in length , just over 31 feet ( 9 @.@ 4 m ) abeam , and had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 050 long tons ( 1 @,@ 070 t ) . She was armed with four 4 in ( 100 mm ) guns and had eight 21 in ( 530 mm ) torpedo tubes . Nicholson was powered by a pair of steam turbines that propelled her at up to 29 kn ( 33 mph ; 54 km / h ) .
After her April 1915 commissioning , Nicholson sailed off the east coast and in the Caribbean . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , Nicholson was sent overseas to patrol the Irish Sea out of Queenstown , Ireland . In October 1917 , Nicholson steamed to the rescue of J. L. Luckenbach , driving off German submarine U @-@ 62 , which had shelled the American cargo ship for over three hours . In November , Nicholson and another US destroyer , Fanning , were responsible for sinking German submarine U @-@ 58 , the first submarine taken by US forces during the war . In September 1918 , Nicholson helped drive off U @-@ 82 after that U @-@ boat had torpedoed the American troopship Mount Vernon off the coast of France .
Upon returning to the United States after the war , Nicholson was placed in reduced commission in November 1919 . She was decommissioned at Philadelphia in May 1922 . She was struck from the Naval Vessel Register in January 1936 and sold for scrapping in June .
= = Design and construction = =
Nicholson was authorized in March 1913 as the second of six ships of the O 'Brien class , which was an improved version of the Cassin @-@ class destroyers authorized in 1911 . Construction of the vessel was awarded to William Cramp and Sons of Philadelphia which laid down her keel on 8 September 1913 , the same date as of sister ship O 'Brien . On 19 August 1914 , Nicholson was launched by sponsor Mrs. Charles T. Taylor . The ship was the second US Navy ship named after five members of the Nicholson family who gave distinguished service in the American Revolutionary War , the War of 1812 , and the American Civil War . They were brothers James Nicholson , the senior Continental Navy Captain ; Samuel Nicholson , the first captain of USS Constitution ; and John Nicholson ; Also honored were William Nicholson , son of John ; and James W. Nicholson , grandson of Samuel .
As built , the destroyer was 305 ft 3 in ( 93 @.@ 04 m ) in length , 31 ft 1 in ( 9 @.@ 47 m ) abeam , and drew 10 ft 4 @.@ 5 in ( 3 @.@ 162 m ) . The ship had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 050 long tons ( 1 @,@ 070 t ) and displaced 1 @,@ 171 long tons ( 1 @,@ 190 t ) when fully loaded .
Nicholson had two Zoelly steam turbines that drove her two screw propellers , and an additional pair triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each connected to one of the propeller shafts , for cruising purposes . Four oil @-@ burning White @-@ Forster boilers powered the engines , which could generate 17 @,@ 000 shp ( 13 @,@ 000 kW ) , moving the ship at up to 29 kn ( 33 mph ; 54 km / h ) . Nicholson reached an average speed of 29 @.@ 084 kn ( 33 @.@ 469 mph ; 53 @.@ 864 km / h ) over a 4 @-@ hour run during sea trials on 23 March 1915 .
Nicholson 's main battery consisted of four 4 in ( 102 mm ) / 50 caliber Mark 9 guns , with each gun weighing in excess of 6 @,@ 100 lb ( 2 @,@ 800 kg ) . The guns fired 33 lb ( 15 kg ) armor @-@ piercing projectiles at 2 @,@ 900 ft / s ( 880 m / s ) . At an elevation of 20 ° , the guns had a range of 15 @,@ 920 yd ( 14 @,@ 560 m ) .
Nicholson was also equipped with eight 21 in ( 530 mm ) torpedo tubes . The General Board of the United States Navy had called for two anti @-@ aircraft guns for the O 'Brien @-@ class ships , as well as provisions for laying up to 36 floating mines . From sources , it is unclear if these recommendations were followed for Nicholson or any of the other ships of the class .
= = World War I = =
Nicholson was commissioned into the United States Navy on 30 April 1915 under the command of Lieutenant Commander A. E. Watson in command . After a shakedown cruise in the North Atlantic , Nicholson operated in the Caribbean and along the east coast until early 1917 .
After the United States declared war on Germany on 6 April 1917 entering World War I , Nicholson was put to sea from New York on 15 May with Cummings , Cushing , O 'Brien , and Sampson . The destroyers arrived at Queenstown , Ireland , 24 May for duty in the war zone .
In mid @-@ October , Nicholson was part of the destroyer escort , for the eastbound convoy HS 14 . At 0850 , an SOS was received from SS J. L. Luckenbach , traveling independently some 90 nmi ( 100 mi ; 170 km ) ahead of the convoy . Commander Alfred W. Johnson on USS Conyngham ( DD @-@ 58 ) , the commander of the escorting destroyer unit , dispatched Nicholson to steam ahead to assist J. L. Luckenbach , which was being shelled by a German submarine . J. L. Luckenbach was equipped with guns of her own , but they were outranged by the pair of 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) deck guns on her attacker , U @-@ 62 . By the time Nicholson arrived on the scene at about 1230 , U @-@ 62 had been shelling J. L. Luckenbach for over three hours . Despite many rounds fired , only about a dozen had hit the American steamer ; some of the hits , however , had ignited J. L. Luckenbach 's cargo of cotton . Nicholson trained her 4 in ( 100 mm ) guns on the U @-@ boat and , by the time her gunners had fired a second round , U @-@ 62 submerged and disappeared . The destroyer transferred a damage control party aboard J. L. Luckenbach which helped extinguish the fire and repair some of the damages to the ship . A few hours later , J. L. Luckenbach and Nicholson joined and rejoined the convoy , respectively .
= = = Sinking of U @-@ 58 = = =
The following month , Nicholson had a more successful encounter with a U @-@ boat . Operating as the destroyer division 's flagship , Nicholson - under the command of Lieutenant Commander Frank D. Berrien - and her group had joined the eastbound convoy OQ 20 on the afternoon of 17 November . At about 1615 , Fanning was steaming to her position at the rear of the eight @-@ ship convoy when her lookouts spotted a periscope just ahead . The periscope belonged to U @-@ 58 under the command of Kapitänleutnant Gustav Amberger , who was lining up a torpedo shot on the British steamer SS Welshman .
While Fanning circled around and dropped a depth charge on the spot where the periscope had been seen , Nicholson , which had raced through the convoy , dropped another in nearly the same location ; both were to good effect . The two depth charges knocked out the electric motor that powered U @-@ 58 's diving planes , making the vessel unmanageable . U @-@ 58 broached the surface momentarily and Fanning dropped another trio of depth charges over the submarine . These three knocked out all electrical power and the manual diving plane controls , which caused the submarine to descend through a depth of 164 ft ( 50 m ) . Amberger ordered the ballast tanks blown and the submarine slowly rose to the surface , stabilizing on the surface with her bow pointing down . The submarines four officers and 35 men evacuated U @-@ 58 and surrendered to Fanning at 16 : 28 , but not before opening the sea valves to allow the U @-@ boat to sink . One of U @-@ 58 's crewmen drowned before reaching Fanning , while another died of a heart attack after he was brought aboard the destroyer .
An official account of the sinking was released to the press on 29 December , and Fanning and Nicholson shared credit for what The Washington Post in a contemporary news account called the " first U @-@ Boat prize of the U.S. " during the war ; later works still credit the pair of destroyers with the US Navy 's first U @-@ Boat kill .
In February 1918 , Nicholson transferred to Brest where she escorted convoys along the French coast . In early September 1918 , Nicholson was one of six destroyers escorting a westbound pair of US Navy transports , Agamemnon and Mount Vernon . On the morning of 5 September , about 250 nmi ( 290 mi ; 460 km ) west of Brest , German submarine U @-@ 82 torpedoed Mount Vernon , knocking out half of the troopship 's boilers . Nicholson , Conner , Winslow , and Wainwright , all depth charged the U @-@ boat without success , but , combined with defensive efforts from Mount Vernon herself , helped prevent the submarine from launching a coup de grâce against the former German liner . Mount Vernon safely made it back to Brest with the loss of 37 crewmen out of the 1 @,@ 450 passengers and crew on board .
= = Postwar period = =
Following the signing of the Armistice on 11 November , which ended all fighting , Nicholson remained in French waters . After arriving at New York on 10 January 1919 , Nicholson resumed operations along the east coast until placed in reserve at Philadelphia on 27 November .
In July 1920 , she was assigned the hull code of DD @-@ 52 under the US Navy 's alphanumeric classification system . In May 1921 , Nicholson was reactivated with a reduced complement . She remained active for about a year , until she was decommissioned at Philadelphia on 26 May 1922 . The ship was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 7 January 1936 , and on 30 June was sold for scrapping .
|
= Poison ( Nicole Scherzinger song ) =
" Poison " is a song recorded by American singer @-@ songwriter Nicole Scherzinger for her debut solo studio album , Killer Love ( 2011 ) . Released on October 25 , 2010 , it is the first single from the album . It was produced by RedOne , BeatGeek and Jimmy Joker , and is distinctively different from Scherzinger 's previous attempts at releasing solo material . " Poison " is backed with powerful synthesizers and a pulsing dance @-@ pop beat . The single was released as a two @-@ track digital download and as a seven @-@ track remixes extended play ( EP ) .
" Poison " has received mostly positive reviews from most music critics who praised her new sound and the energy on the record but some criticized the song for being too generic . Scherzinger performed " Poison " live for the first time on seventh series of The X Factor on November 28 , 2010 , to coincide with the song 's UK release . Both the show 's judges and studio audiences gave her a standing ovation , with the media later praising her energy , choreography and live vocals .
An accompanying music video , directed by Joseph Kahn , sees Scherzinger take on the role of a female superhero and switches between a good @-@ girl and bad @-@ girl persona . It was noted for its similarities to another Kahn @-@ directed video , " Toxic " by Britney Spears . " Poison " peaked at number three on the UK Singles Chart becoming Scherzinger 's second most successful single as a solo artist , in addition to peaking at number seven in Ireland , where it also became one of her highest charting releases . The single reached number one in Scotland , which was Scherzinger 's first solo number one worldwide .
= = Background = =
In 2007 , Scherzinger was planning to launch her debut album under the title Her Name is Nicole , however the release of four singles , including " Whatever U Like " ( featuring T.I. ) and " Baby Love " ( featuring will.i.am ) all failed to significantly impact on US charts . " Baby Love " was moderately successful reaching top @-@ twenty in Europe . After a number of pushbacks the entire project was scrapped at the request of Scherzinger . In May 2010 , Rap @-@ Up reported that Scherzinger was relaunching her solo career with an " empowering " ballad called " Nobody Can Change Me " . The song was recorded in a nighttime studio session while she was competing on season 10 of the U.S. reality competition , Dancing with the Stars , and was mastered on May 23 , 2010 , ready for its premiere on Ryan Seacrest 's KIIS FM radio show the following day . Idolator was unimpressed with the " treacly pop tune " saying that the lack of sexiness , " uninspiring message " and " squeaky vocals " did Scherzinger no favors . However , Amos Barshad of New York magazine actually liked the song , stating that " there ’ s none of the Pussycat Doll ’ s forced sexiness here ; instead , it sounds like something that could have just missed the final cut on a Kelly Clarkson album ( that is sort of supposed to be a compliment , yeah ) . "
Then in August 2010 , Moroccan producer RedOne was interviewed by the BBC . In the interview he revealed he had been working on Scherzinger 's album . " I just finished her album . Her last one never came out because it was collecting hamburgers , like fast food . One from McDonalds , one from Burger King , and so on . It tasted good , but it wasn 't consistent . Her new record – people are really going to go crazy about it because it 's the real her . " Scherzinger 's boyfriend Lewis Hamilton selected " Poison " as the album 's first single . It debuted on her official YouTube account on October 14 , 2010 .
= = Composition = =
" Poison " is an up @-@ tempo electropop and dance @-@ pop song produced by RedOne , BeatGeek and Jimmy Joker . It was written by Scherzinger , Bilal Hajji , Kinda Hamid , Novel Jannusi , Achraf Jannusi , RedOne in the musical key of A @-@ minor . With a guitar @-@ driven melody , " Poison " uses a pulsating and toxic beat throughout , which is similar to that used in the Britney Spears song , " Toxic " . The lyrics were also compared to " Toxic " and said to have similar themes , according to BBC Music blogger , Fraser McAlpine . A reviewer from Rap @-@ Up spoke of the song 's overall theme . " The lead Pussycat Doll has thoughts of using a deadly elixir on the dance floor , singing through a fuzzy filter over bombastic synthesizers . " They described the song as a " toxic pop gem " . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , the song has a time signature set in common time , with a tempo of 124 beats per minute . The melody is mainly composed with piano and guitar instruments .
= = Critical reception = =
Bridget Daley of Hollyscoop was impressed with the song saying , " It ’ s super beat , and now we understand what RedOne meant when he told Hollyscoop how much we were going to love Nicole ’ s ' new ' sound ! " However , Becky Bain of Idolator thought the " pulsating dance song " was underwhelming . " We have to admit , we ’ re not bowled over by this one , which pretty much follows a standard , predictable dance @-@ pop formula from the double shout @-@ out at the start to the ' woosh 'ing fade @-@ out finish " . However Bain also pointed out that current trends on the US Billboard Hot 100 were unpredictable , " then again , since when has the Hot 100 shyed away from generic pop tunes we ’ ve heard over and over again ? This one could go either way , folks . "
Fraser McAlpine of BBC Music stated that he thought the song was not as good as " Toxic " by Britney Spears , but was incredibly similar . After dubbing it a weaker version of " Toxic " , he said , " And that just leaves us here with a song [ ' Poison ' ] which is all stomp and huff , a dramatic bang of a thing , which seeks to drag all the bad girls to the dancefloor so they can holler their evil intentions to into the faces of nervous men . It 's a song which makes the most of Nicole 's unwholesome sexiness – as opposed to wholesome , you understand , I 'm not saying there 's anything gross about her – and has drama and fury on its side . " Nick Levine of Digital Spy agreed saying that " Scherzinger has managed to bag herself a banger of an ( ahem ) debut single " . He described the song 's busy production as " having a whiff of the Berline " teknoklub " that is a " racket in the best possible way " . Levine also praised Scherzinger for her conviction on the song , awarding it five out of five stars . He gave " Poison " a better reception than he awarded Scherzinger 's previous attempt , " Baby Love " ( 2007 ) , which he only awarded three out of five stars , stating that it was the wrong single to launch the career of a world @-@ class superstar .
= = Chart performance = =
Following Scherzinger 's performance on series seven of The X Factor , The Official Charts Company tipped " Poison " as a contender for number one on the UK Singles Chart . Then on December 11 , 2010 , the single debuted at number one on the Scottish Singles Chart . Additionally " Poison " made its UK chart debut at number three with first @-@ week sales of 67 @,@ 425 , thus becoming her first top ten single in the UK , as a solo artist . It also peaked at number two on the UK Digital Singles chart . The song has been certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipments of 200 @,@ 000 copies of the single . In Ireland , the single debuted at number seven . " Poison " also charted at number nineteen on the Slovakian Airplay Chart .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Poison " was filmed over one day in an empty warehouse in Los Angeles , with Joseph Khan serving as the director and Rich & Tone as the choreographers. the music video for " Poison " features Scherzinger " sporting a skintight ninja outfit as she dance @-@ fights with baddies . " The video 's superhero theme has been compared to Kahn 's " Toxic " music video for Britney Spears .
The video begins on a city sidewalk where Scherzinger walks into a telephone booth as several men in black suits pass by the booth . As Scherzinger begins to undress , the men stop to stare as she begins taking of her glasses and shaking her hair back . The video then moves to Scherzinger in a dress walking past four men mopping the floor to a supply closet where she enters and reappears moments later , dressed in a black body suit with a cape . As the chorus begins , the situation rapidly switches back @-@ and @-@ forth from Scherzinger in her good @-@ girl persona shown fighting escaped jail prisoners dressed in striped suits ( and Beagle Boys masks ) to Scherzinger in her bad @-@ girl persona fighting with police . As the song progresses , Scherzinger is shown in a classic looking automobile and riding a BMW motorcycle , with a streaking white and black background . Several shots of her bad @-@ girl persona alone in a room with two prisoners are then shown . As the bridge begins , she is shown in her good @-@ girl ego standing by a podium , talking to a group of reporters while waving her hands in the air . As the bridge ends , she brings her hands down , blowing back all of the reporters , who then begin dancing and pumping their arms to the song . The video moves to Scherzinger dancing with the police and prisoners before ending with her blowing away the two men who were in the room with her and walking away .
MTV 's Gil Kaufman called the video " slinky " . Robbie Daw from Idolator , said that " [ we were ] unsure about [ ... ] ' Poison ' when it first surfaced . But now that it ’ s been fitted with a somewhat stylish Joseph Kahn video , it ’ s all sort of starting to fall into place . ' Poison ' video is super hot trash on a budget . .. But giving people with this much guilty pleasure in four minutes is just plain priceless . " French magazine Musique Mag , said that " [ ... ] varying scenes , and fighting against thugs become [ a ] frenzied choreography . "
= = Live performances = =
Scherzinger performed " Poison " , live for the first time , on November 28 , 2010 , during the week eight results show on series seven of The X Factor UK . She wore a red catsuit and long black trenchcoat for the performance . The Sun said " Scherzinger stole the show last night " with her display of " live vocals " . The judges gave the performance a standing ovation . On The Xtra Factor following the live performances , Louis Walsh and Simon Cowell praised Scherzinger 's performance , respectively calling it " one of the best live guest performances we 've ever had " and " if you want an example of how you do it right ... its Nicole . It was focus , performance , vocals ... " . The Daily Mail followed suit , saying " Scherzinger put on a spectacle for her first live performance , complete with pyrotechnic lighting , full size cage and a stage full of scantily @-@ clad dancers ... The former guest judge brought the house down with her energetic routine " . Elena Gorgan of Softpedia agreed saying that Scherzinger wowed the " explosive " performance , earning her a standing ovation from the judges and audience . The following day , she reprised the performance on ITV 's breakfast show , Daybreak before heading to London 's Westfield Shopping Centre where she appeared on live screens to promote sports brand Reebok . She stayed in the UK until December 5 , 2010 , promoting the single .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from Killer Love booklet liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
|
= The Wanderers ( 1979 film ) =
The Wanderers is a 1979 American drama film ; it was written and directed by Philip Kaufman , and stars Ken Wahl , John Friedrich , Karen Allen and Toni Kalem . Set in the Bronx in 1963 , the film follows a gang of Italian @-@ American teenagers known as the Wanderers and their ongoing power struggles with a rival gangs such as the Del Bombers .
The film is based on the novel of the same name by Richard Price ; its screenplay was written by Philip Kaufman and his wife Rose . The film had a troubled development stage ; after unsuccessfully trying to obtain finance for The Wanderers from Alberto Grimaldi , Kaufman directed other films . After filming the remake of Invasion of the Body Snatchers , Kaufman went to New York and successfully pitched The Wanderers to Martin Ransohoff . The film 's budget is unknown , but Kaufman said it was relatively low .
After an advance screening , The Wanderers premiered on July 13 , 1979 , to mostly positive reviews . The film was a financial success , grossing $ 23 million at the worldwide box office . On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes , the film has a rating of 89 percent . Peter Stack of the San Francisco Chronicle praised Kaufman 's directing and the performances of Wahl and Tony Ganios .
The film 's increasing popularity and cult status led to The Wanderers being given a theatrical re @-@ release in the U.S. by Warner Bros. in 1996 . According to Kaufman , " it took a long time for [ the film ] to find [ an ] audience " .
= = Plot = =
Joey and Turkey are members of the Wanderers , an all @-@ Italian street gang . In the Bronx , Joey tries to dissuade Turkey from joining a rival gang , the Fordham Baldies . Before Turkey can ask , Terror 's girlfriend Peewee overhears Joey insulting the Baldies , calling them a " bunch of pricks with ears " . Joey and Turkey flee and the Baldies chase them . Richie — the leader of the Wanderers — and Buddy come to help but they also flee from the Baldies . After being cornered , the Wanderers are helped by a tough stranger named Perry , who has recently moved to the Bronx from New Jersey . After much persuasion , Perry joins the Wanderers .
In school , the Wanderers get into a racial dispute with another gang , the Del Bombers who are all African @-@ American . Both gangs agree to settle their dispute , seemingly a street fight , but the Wanderers struggle to find a gang willing to back them . With no other options , Richie asks his girlfriend 's father , local mafia boss Chubby Galasso , who agrees to help solve the gangs ' dispute .
During a game of " elbow @-@ tit " , Richie gropes a woman called Nina . He feels ashamed of himself , apologizes for his actions and persuades Nina to accept Joey 's telephone number . The Wanderers then decide to follow Nina in Perry 's car .
After Perry becomes lost , the Wanderers are attacked by a gang from Long Island called the Ducky Boys . They escape after Perry 's arm is broken .
While drunk , the Baldies are tricked into joining the Marines . Before reporting for training , they decide to crash Despie 's party , where Turkey — who has recently joined the Baldies — is told to draw the Wanderers outside . After drawing them out , Turkey realizes the Baldies have abandoned him . He tries to chase them but fails . Upset , Turkey visits a nearby Catholic church . After being spotted by a member of the Ducky Boys attending mass , Turkey is chased down the street and beaten to death .
In school , while the Wanderers are mourning Turkey 's death , the rest of the gang oust Richie for sleeping with Joey 's date Nina . After the assassination of President John F. Kennedy , Richie rekindles his relationship with Despie . When Chubby discovers his daughter is pregnant , he accosts Richie into marrying her .
In the climax , we discover the Wanderers and the Del Bombers are settling their dispute not with a street fight but with a football match organized by Chubby . Richie uses the opportunity to make amends with Joey . A member of the Ducky Boys interrupts the match , as the Wanderers momentarily turn their heads , hundreds of Ducky Boys invade the field . Many of the Wanderers and the Del Bombers flee , but some stand their ground . The remaining players join forces with spectator gangs in the stands , including once called the Wongs and even Emelio . After a long and bloody battle , the Ducky Boys flee .
After being physically abused by his father Emilio , Joey decides to spend the night at Perry 's apartment . Perry tells Joey he is planning to leave the Bronx and move back to New Jersey . Joey asks Perry if he can go with him ; after an initially skeptical response , Perry agrees . Emilio , drunk , enters Perry 's apartment and fights with him ; Joey knocks Emilio unconscious with a glass bottle . Joey and Perry quickly leave the apartment and head to Richie 's engagement party . They say an emotional goodbye to Richie ; when they leave , Richie realizes things will not be the same . At Richie 's party , members of the Wanderers , the Del Bombers and the Wongs embrace one another while singing " The Wanderer " . The movie ends with Joey and Perry traveling to California .
= = Cast = =
Additional actors include Olympia Dukakis as Joey 's mother ; the novel 's author Richard Price as a hustler ; and Wayne Knight ( uncredited ) as a waiter .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Philip Kaufman and Richard Price unsuccessfully tried to pitch the project to Alberto Grimaldi . Because of this , Kaufman signed on to direct what would have been the first motion picture based on Star Trek : The Original Series ; called Star Trek : Planet of the Titans . Allan Scott and Chris Bryant were hired to write the film 's screenplay , but their attempt was rejected and Kaufman tried to write the screenplay himself . Before he could finish the screenplay , Paramount Pictures abandoned the project , saying there was no market for science @-@ fiction movies . After the Star Trek project was shelved , Kaufman directed the remake of Invasion of the Body Snatchers . When filming finished , he went to New York and successfully pitched The Wanderers to Martin Ransohoff . According to Kaufman , " the pieces somehow fell together " , partly because of the increasing popularity of gang movies .
= = = Writing = = =
Kaufman 's wife Rose wrote the screenplay 's first draft . It took her several years to complete ; she found adapting the entire novel difficult . Some of the characters and stories from the novel were either changed or given retroactive continuity . Despite the differences , Richard Price approved of Kaufman 's adaptation , saying , " I love that picture . It 's not my book , and I don 't care . The spirit is right , and the way Phil Kaufman directed it showed me another way of looking at my own book . "
= = = Casting = = =
The casting process , which Kaufman described as " arduous " , began in New York City . He said teenagers from across the city wanted to audition . Academy Award @-@ winning producer Scott Rudin was the film 's casting director who found Erland van Lidth and Linda Manz . There was no character named Peewee in the novel . Rudin had organized an interview with Manz . Kaufman and Price were present ; they all thought she had " great character " . Manz was so convincing that everyone assumed she was a real member of a street gang . Because of this , the character Peewee was specifically written for her .
Many of the film 's actors were unknown at the time of casting . The film was the acting debut of four cast members ; Ken Wahl , Tony Ganios , Erland van Lidth and Michael Wright . It was also the feature film debut of Toni Kalem , who had previously acted on television . Kaufman intentionally cast unknown actors ; Wahl was on his way to a job in a pizza parlor when someone sent a photograph of him to Rudin , thinking he could play one of the smaller roles in the film . Kaufman felt Wahl was talented so he cast him in the lead role instead .
To cast the role of Perry LaGuardia , Kaufman telephoned every gymnasium around New York asking for a " six @-@ foot , four inch , 18 year @-@ old kid " . He was put into contact with Ganios , who he cast in the role . Ganios said :
After a mysterious phone call , [ my uncle ] politely asked me to stop training and get dressed . He ' insisted ' that I accompany him downtown to what was supposed to be a commercial audition , [ but it later ] turned out to be an interview for The Wanderers . I thought acting was for sissies , but I went anyway .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming of The Wanderers began in September 1978 , most of which occurred in the Bronx . Kaufman said that during filming , " [ This ] Puerto Rican motorcycle gang came pushing its way through the crowd ; wanting to see what was going on " , and " they pushed everyone aside " . They walked away after bumping into van Lidth . The crew also encountered trouble from former members of the " real " Baldies , who complained the film portrayed the Baldies incorrectly , saying : " [ The movie ] is a lie ! This was not a bad neighborhood . There was no crime , no robbery . Murder , yes , but no crime ! " Rose Kaufman eventually told them to " fuck off " , which nearly resulted in a brawl between the former gang members , Wahl and several other actors .
The final battle with the Ducky Boys , which takes place during a football game , was filmed in Van Cortlandt Park . Kaufman compared this scene to a " brutal British soccer brawl " ; Ganios compared it to the Battle of Mons Graupius . When asked further about this scene , Ganios said :
The final fight with the Ducky Boys was absolutely wild , [ and ] for all practical purposes it was real . For an entire week hundreds of screaming , stunted madmen — armed with real baseball bats , axe handles , and chains — hurled themselves at us in wave after wave of unabated Celtic fury . It got totally out of hand , with the mayhem sometimes continuing for a full five minutes after [ the director ] yelled cut . Some of the actors and camera crew were seriously injured and had to be hospitalized . "
= = = Editing = = =
During editing , Kaufman removed six minutes of footage from the film .
= = Release = =
The Wanderers was released theatrically on July 13 , 1979 , by Warner Bros. Kaufman said the film initially had a " very small , limited " release . The director 's cut premiered at the Telluride Film Festival in 1995 . This was followed by a 1996 theatrical re @-@ release in the U.S. due to the film 's popularity . In 2012 , the director 's cut of The Wanderers was screened to the Film Society at the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The film 's initial reception was mixed . After an advance screening on December 31 , 1978 , Variety magazine praised it , saying that " despite " the " uneasy blend of nostalgia and violence " , The Wanderers " is a well @-@ made and impressive film " . The Kaufmans were also complimented for their script , which was described as " accurately " capturing the " urban angst " of growing up in the early 1960s . Janet Maslin , of the New York Times criticized the film in her 1979 review , saying " the movie never attempts to tell a single story " and instead " settles for a string of boisterous vignettes , which are heaped carelessly atop one another without any consistent scheme " .
A number of critics praised the film , including Peter Stack of the San Francisco Chronicle , after its 1996 theatrical re @-@ release . Stack noted Kaufman 's talent for effectively changing the film 's tone and praised the acting abilities of Wahl and Ganios . He also complimented the film 's soundtrack .
As of August 2015 , the film has a rating of 89 percent on Rotten Tomatoes ( based on 18 reviews ; 16 " fresh " and two " rotten " — with an average rating of 6 @.@ 8 out of ten ) , indicating mainly positive reviews . Time Out magazine praised the film , saying it " deliver [ s ] some great , gross , comic book capers . And rock history gets its most intelligent illustration since Mean Streets . "
= = = Box office performance = = =
The Wanderers made $ 5 million at the U.S. box office and $ 18 million overseas , for a worldwide gross of $ 23 million . When asked about the financial success , Kaufman said the film had done " very well " .
= = = Legacy = = =
Since its initial release , The Wanderers has gained a significant cult following . In 1988 , Danny Peary said the film 's " sensitive depiction " of teenagers coming @-@ of @-@ age was partly responsible for its cult status . Placing The Wanderers seventh in his list of " lesser @-@ known " cult films , Neil Evans describing the film as a " lost masterpiece " . Another writer described the film as a " near masterpiece " and called it " one of the best coming @-@ of @-@ age [ films ] ever made " . On the film 's popularity and cult status , Kaufman said :
It took a long time for [ the film ] to find [ an ] audience . It 's great to see that now — however many years later — [ that ] it went to a brief re @-@ release by Warner Bros. [ in 1996 ] because of the cult following . Bravo says it 's the most popular film they 've shown in the New York area . [ The film was also shown ] at the Telluride Film Festival . All [ of ] the people who run the festival are members of The Wanderers fan club , all wear Wanderers jackets , and [ they ] know every line in the film . They show the film at least twice a year up there [ in Colorado ] . There were about 1000 people outside , under the mountains and watching the film . It was a great night .
= = Soundtrack = =
Kaufman and Price compiled the soundtrack themselves . The film features Bob Dylan performing " The Times They Are a @-@ Changin ' " , but the song was not included on the soundtrack album .
|
= Hurricane Lili ( 1984 ) =
Hurricane Lili was one of only five Atlantic tropical cyclones on record to reach hurricane status in the month of December . The final of thirteen tropical storms in the 1984 Atlantic hurricane season , Lili developed as a subtropical cyclone which originated from a frontal trough to the south of Bermuda on December 12 . It tracked southeastward , then northward , slowly attaining tropical characteristics and becoming a hurricane on December 20 . Lili turned to the south and southwest , briefly threatening the northern Caribbean islands before weakening and dissipating near the coast of the Dominican Republic . The storm produced light rainfall but no damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
In the second week of December , a frontal trough stalled south of Bermuda . An upper level disturbance moved over the area on December 9 , and produced widespread convection along the frontal wave . The system moved to the northeast , and based on a developing circulation within the convection , the National Hurricane Center classified the system as a subtropical storm on December 12 while located 275 miles ( 440 km ) northeast of Bermuda .
With winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) and strengthening , the subtropical storm initially drifted northeastward . On December 13 , a ridge of high pressure to its north forced the storm southeastward , and the following day the storm turned to the south after an upper @-@ level cold @-@ core low developed over the system . A break in the ridge resulted in the storm turning to the northeast , with its forward motion accelerating to nearly 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . After turning to the northwest on December 17 , the high pressure system again halted its northward movement , leaving the storm drifting south @-@ southeastward . Conditions favored further strengthening , and the subtropical storm reached 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) winds on December 18 . Satellite imagery estimated the storm attained hurricane status on December 19 , and a day later ship near the center reported winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . Based on the wind report , as well as a minimum central pressure of 980 mbar and a well @-@ defined eye , the storm was classified as Hurricane Lili while located 730 miles ( 1 @,@ 180 km ) east of Bermuda .
Lili continued generally southward , reaching its peak intensity of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Higher pressures developed to its northeast , resulting in the hurricane to accelerate to the southwest . On December 22 , Lili finished executing its large cyclonic loop by passing over the same location it passed one week prior . The combination of its increased forward speed , as well as increased levels of vertical wind shear , created an unfavorable environment which caused steady weakening . On December 23 , Lili weakened to a tropical storm while located 430 miles ( 690 km ) northeast of Antigua . It rapidly lost organization as it approached the Leeward Islands , and dissipated just off the coast of the Dominican Republic on December 24 .
= = Impact and records = =
When Lili reached hurricane status on December 20 , it became one of only four Atlantic tropical cyclones to reach hurricane strength in the month of December . The other three were an unnamed hurricane in the 1887 season , Hurricane Alice in 1954 , and Hurricane Epsilon in 2005 . In addition , Hurricane Nicole lasted as a hurricane from late November to early December 1998 .
Because of its rapid movement , a hurricane watch was issued for Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands on December 22 . As the storm weakened , the watches were discontinued . In response to the threat of the hurricane , officials posted a small craft advisory along the coastline of northern Puerto Rico . There , the weakening tropical cyclone produced light rainfall , though there was no reported damage . Lili moved through Hispaniola as an area of squally weather , but damage , if any , is unknown .
|
= Economy of Ohio =
The economy of Ohio nominally would be the 25th largest global economy behind Sweden and ahead of Nigeria according to the 2013 World Bank projections , and the 24th largest global economy behind Sweden and ahead of Norway according to the 2013 International Monetary Fund projections . The state had a projected GDP of $ 526 @.@ 1 billion in 2013 , up from 517 @.@ 1 in 2012 , and up from 501 @.@ 3 in 2011 , according to the Bureau of Economic Analysis . In 2013 , Ohio was ranked in the top ten states for best business climate by Site Selection magazine , based on a business @-@ activity database . The state was edged out only by Texas and Nebraska for the 2013 Governor 's Cup award from the magazine , based on business growth and economic development . A new report by the Quantitative Economics and Statistics Practices ( QUEST ) of Ernst & Young in conjunction with the Council On State Taxation ( COST ) , ranks Ohio as third in the nation for friendliest tax environment . The study , " Competitiveness of state and local business taxes on new investment , " provides a state @-@ by @-@ state comparison of tax liabilities . The top five states ranked with the lowest effective tax rate on new investment are : ( 1 ) Maine ( 3 @.@ 0 % ) ; ( 2 ) Oregon ( 3 @.@ 8 % ) ; ( 3 ) Ohio ( 4 @.@ 4 % ) ; ( 4 ) Wisconsin ( 4 @.@ 5 % ) ; and ( 5 ) Illinois ( 4 @.@ 6 % ) .
Ohio is commonly noted as the Nation 's Industrial Capital , dating to its roots in the Rust Belt and Ohio 's present @-@ day intelligence and scientific dominance . Ohio was one of four states in the U.S. to have areas make the Intelligent Community Forum 's list of global Smart 21 Communities for 2014 , with Columbus , Ohio receiving the honors . The state has 5 of the top 115 colleges in the nation , according to U.S. News and World Report 's 2010 rankings , while the Ohio State University was ranked # 10 by the same magazine for awarding degrees to Fortune 500 CEOs . The state was ranked # 8 by the same magazine in 2008 for best high schools , while overall , in 2010 the state 's schools were ranked # 5 in the country by Education Week . It was second only to Texas in having the most U.S. cities in the top 30 best places for new college graduates , according to BusinessWeek in 2010 .
Ohio is considered a center of science and industry , with museums dedicated to such in Columbus , COSI , the Great Lakes Science Center in Cleveland , the Imagination Station in Toledo , and the Boonshoft Museum of Discovery in Dayton . The state includes many historically strong industries , such as banking and insurance , which accounts for 8 % of the gross state product , motor vehicle manufacturing , research and development , and steel production , accounting for 14 @-@ 17 % of the nation 's raw output . More traditional industries include agriculture , employing one out of seven Ohioans , and new and developing sectors include bioscience , green , information , and food processing industries . Ohio is the biggest manufacturer of plastics and rubber in the country , has the largest bioscience sector in the Midwest , and ranked fourth in the country for green economic growth through 2007 .
The state is recognized internationally as the " Fuel Cell Corridor " , while Toledo is recognized as a national solar center , Cleveland a regenerative medicine research hub , Dayton an aerospace and defense hub , Akron the rubber capital of the world , Columbus a technological research and development hub , and Cincinnati a mercantile hub .
Wal @-@ Mart is the largest private sector employer in Ohio with approximately 49 @,@ 700 employees as of April 2014 . The largest Ohio employer with headquarters in Ohio is the Cleveland Clinic , with approximately 41 @,@ 400 employees and headquarters in Cleveland . The largest employer at a single location in Ohio is Wright Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton . 70 % of the nation 's electrometallurgical ferroalloy manufacturing employees are located in Ohio .
= = Overview = =
The economy of Ohio nominally would be the 25th largest global economy behind Sweden and ahead of Nigeria according to the 2013 World Bank projections , and the 24th largest global economy behind Sweden and ahead of Norway according to the 2013 International Monetary Fund projections . The state had a projected GDP of $ 526 @.@ 1 billion in 2013 , up from 517 @.@ 1 in 2012 , and up from 501 @.@ 3 in 2011 , according to the Bureau of Economic Analysis .
A new report by the Quantitative Economics and Statistics Practices ( QUEST ) of Ernst & Young in conjunction with the Council On State Taxation ( COST ) , ranks Ohio as third in the nation for friendliest tax environment . The study , " Competitiveness of state and local business taxes on new investment , " provides a state @-@ by @-@ state comparison of tax liabilities . The top five states ranked with the lowest effective tax rate on new investment are : ( 1 ) Maine ( 3 @.@ 0 % ) ; ( 2 ) Oregon ( 3 @.@ 8 % ) ; ( 3 ) Ohio ( 4 @.@ 4 % ) ; ( 4 ) Wisconsin ( 4 @.@ 5 % ) ; and ( 5 ) Illinois ( 4 @.@ 6 % ) . In 2013 , Ohio was ranked in the top ten states for best business climate by Site Selection magazine , based on a business @-@ activity database . The state was edged out by Texas and Nebraska for the 2013 Governor 's Cup award from the magazine , based on business growth and economic development . Ohio was ranked # 11 by the council for best friendly @-@ policy states according to their Small Business Survival Index 2009 . The Directorship 's Boardroom Guide ranked the state # 13 overall for best business climate , including # 7 for best litigation climate . Forbes ranked the state # 8 for best regulatory environment in 2009 . Ohio has 5 of the top 115 colleges in the nation , according to U.S. News and World Report 's 2010 rankings , and was ranked # 8 by the same magazine in 2008 for best high schools . Overall , the state 's schools were ranked # 5 in the country in 2010 . The year ending July 2011 saw the state ranked fourth in the nation in job creation behind Texas , California , and New York .
Ohio 's private sector is composed of 921 @,@ 000 employers , which hire around 50 @.@ 4 % of Ohio 's non @-@ farm private workforce . Ohio has a developing technology sector and is home to over 28 @,@ 000 employers that employ nearly 820 @,@ 000 people ; its rate of technology operations is 14 % higher than the US average . Between 2006 and 2014 , Ohio 's employment is expected to grow by 290 @,@ 700 jobs , or approximately 5 @.@ 0 % . Personal income grew an average of 3 @.@ 1 % in 2008 . About 659 @,@ 900 people are employed in Ohio 's manufacturing sector . Major manufacturing employers include AK Steel , Timken , and Honda . In 2007 , foreign @-@ based companies employed 229 @,@ 500 Ohioans , led by Japan , United Kingdom , Germany , France , and Switzerland .
Ohio 's exports constituted 3 @.@ 2 % of total U.S. exports in 2009 , with top destinations being Canada at $ 14 @.@ 2 billion , followed by Mexico , China , United Kingdom , Greece , Brazil , Japan , Germany , France , and Australia . In 2009 the state was the nation 's 7th largest exporter with $ 34 @.@ 1 billion . 13 , 092 companies exported in 2009 , with transportation equipment accounting for $ 9 @.@ 9 billion , machinery $ 4 @.@ 9 billion , chemicals $ 4 @.@ 4 billion , and computer and electronics products $ 2 @.@ 4 billion .
As of 2010 , Ohio was # 6 in the country for Fortune 500 companies with 23 . They include Cardinal Health at # 17 , Procter & Gamble at # 22 , Kroger at # 23 , Macy 's at # 103 , Nationwide Insurance at # 118 , Goodyear Tire and Rubber at # 141 , Progressive Insurance at # 161 , American Electric Power at # 172 , Eaton Corporation at # 194 , and Owens Corning at # 432 .
= = Major employers = =
The following is a list of the top ten employers with headquarters in Ohio , as of April 2014 .
The following is a list of the top Ohioan employers anywhere in the world , as of 2013 .
= = Industries = =
= = = Aerospace and defense = = =
Dayton is designated as the state 's aerospace hub due to its high concentration of aerospace and aviation technology . In 2009 , Governor Ted Strickland designated Dayton as Ohio 's aerospace innovation hub , the first such technology hub in the state . Aircraft engine manufacturing accounts for nearly 75 % of Ohio 's aerospace and defense industry workforce .
The aerospace and defense industry employs 16 @,@ 000 Ohioans . Employment has been increasing after 2003 , despite an overall decrease in employment since the industry 's peak at 37 @,@ 000 employees in 1990 . In 2005 , Ohio ranked fifth among US states in the production of aerospace products and parts , and eighth in the number of aerospace industry workers . Recently the states ' employees have ranked # 1 in value produced per worker . Ohioan workers in the aerospace industry made an annual average salary of $ 75 @,@ 765 in 2005 , compared to $ 48 @,@ 208 in for workers in the manufacturing sector generally . Nearly 75 % of the state 's aerospace and defense employees work in the aircraft engine manufacturing sub @-@ sector ; only Connecticut has larger aircraft engine workforce .
Notable aerospace and defense companies in Ohio include GE Aviation , Timken , Goodrich Corporation , GE Honda Aero Engines , CFM International , and Aircraft Braking Systems . France @-@ based CIRCOR Aerospace , Inc . , which develops systems for aerospace fluid control , has a commercial unit located in the state . Boeing 's Central Ohio Aerospace and Technology Center in Heath is a venture amongst five of the top 10 U.S. defense contractors , including Atlantic Inertial Systems , Honeywell , Kearfott , Northrop @-@ Grumman , L3 Communications , and Raytheon , which is also the headquarters of the Air Force Metrology and Calibration Program Office . RTI International Metals 's location in Niles produces titanium used in every France @-@ based Airbus aircraft . RTI was originally headquartered in Niles before moving to Pittsburgh in the 21st century , while Airbus has invested $ 4 @.@ 3 billion in the state . Makino 's Global Titanium Research and Development Center is located in Mason . Nextant Aerospace has manufacturing facilities at the Cuyahoga County Airport .
Defense systems play a smaller role in the industry . Ohio corporations were awarded around $ 5 @.@ 5 billion of United States Department of Defense procurements . Notable defense contractors include Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company in Akron , Lockheed Martin in Akron , which won a contract to develop a space @-@ ship in 2003 and produces the vertical launch ASROC missile , and Armor Holdings Aerospace and Defense Group in Fairfield . United Kingdom @-@ based BAE Systems has a large facility in West Chester producing armored vehicles , armor kits , and ballistic glass .
The Joint Systems Manufacturing Center in Lima , in cooperation with General Dynamics , assembles armored combat vehicles , including the Expeditionary Fighting Vehicle and M1A2 Abrams tank . Columbus @-@ based Zyvex Performance Materials develops the Piranha Unmanned Surface Vessel . Gravitational Energy Corporation , located in Cuyahoga Falls , proliferates Gravity Assisted Power ( GAP ) machines in cooperation with DriPowder , LLC to the military .
The United States Department of Defense currently maintains a large Supply Center in Whitehall , a suburb of Columbus .
Wright @-@ Patterson Air Force Base , located in Dayton , and partially named for the Wright Brothers from Ohio who are generally credited with inventing the airplane , employs 27 @,@ 400 residents . The Air Force estimates that Wright @-@ Patterson ’ s annual economic impact on the Dayton region is $ 5 @.@ 1 billion .
= = = Bioscience = = =
In 2008 , Ohio was ranked # 1 in the Midwest and 4th in the nation for biotech industry strength by Business Facilities magazine . As of 2008 , there were over 1 @,@ 100 biotech related firms operating in the state , employing 1 @.@ 4 million residents overall in direct or indirect related fields , including healthcare , with $ 2 @.@ 5 billion in investment in 2007 , making it an international leader . Ohio had three city @-@ regions in the top 30 biotech locations in the country , with Cleveland @-@ Akron ranked # 20 , Columbus # 22 , and Cincinnati # 28 .
The overall economic impact of the bioscience industry in Ohio , including healthcare , amounted to $ 148 @.@ 2 billion in 2007 , representing 15 @.@ 7 % of Ohio 's economic output . Half of the biotech industry is located in northeast Ohio , with 574 firms , while central and southern Ohio are home to around 200 each . 635 companies are FDA @-@ certified to manufacture medical devices . Biotech research and development employs directly 12 @,@ 415 residents , while agricultural bioscience contributed the largest economic impact , at $ 10 @.@ 7 billion . Medical device manufacturers employ 9 @,@ 757 residents .
= = = Healthcare = = =
Major hospital employers include the Cleveland Clinic Health System with 41 @,@ 400 employees , Catholic Healthcare Partners in Cincinnati with 28 @,@ 200 , University Hospitals of Cleveland with 21 @,@ 800 , OhioHealth in Columbus with 15 @,@ 300 , ProMedica in Toledo with 14 @,@ 500 , and Premier Health Partners in Dayton with 14 @,@ 000 . Healthcare REIT , Inc . , an S & P 500 company headquartered in Toledo , is a major healthcare real estate firm . VRI , one of the nation 's largest in @-@ home medical health monitoring solutions companies , recently announced the relocation of their headquarters to Franklin .
In 2011 , Dayton was ranked the # 3 city in the United States for excellence in health care . The ranking is from HealthGrade 's list of America ’ s Top 50 Cities for Hospital Care . Other Ohio cities listed include Cincinnati at # 6 and Cleveland at # 16 . Also in 2011 , the cities of Cincinnati and Dayton were ranked # 1 and # 4 in the nation for emergency room care . Then in 2013 , HealthGrades ranked the Dayton region number one in the nation for the lowest hospital mortality rate .
Ohio is home to world class medical facilities , led by the Cleveland Clinic , which has locations throughout the world . In 2009 , U.S. News and World Report ranked the clinic as the fourth best hospital in the country , and the # 1 heart center in the country for the 15th year in a row . The Ohio State University Medical Center was ranked # 21 . Overall , the magazine ranked 16 Ohio hospitals among the best hospitals in the nation , making the state # 3 in the country in total . The Cincinnati Children 's Hospital Medical Center ranked # 6 in the nation for pediatric hospitals , and overall , four children 's hospitals in Ohio ranked among the best .
Apart from U.S. News and World Report , in 2010 , HealthGrades ranked nine Ohio hospitals in the top 50 in the United States and 27 of Ohio 's hospitals as Distinguished Hospitals for Clinical Excellence , with the majority of these hospitals in the Cleveland and Dayton areas . They also ranked 37 Ohio hospitals in the 5 % of the country for emergency care service .
Child magazine ranked Cincinnati Children 's # 4 , Nationwide Children 's Hospital in Columbus # 6 , including # 1 for emergency care , and Rainbow Babies & Children 's Hospital in Cleveland # 9 . University Hospitals Case Medical Center in Cleveland was named in the top 15 for major teaching hospitals , while Riverside Methodist Hospital in Columbus and Hillcrest Hospital in Mayfield Heights ranked in the top 16 for minor teaching hospitals . Southwest General Health Center in Middleburg Heights was ranked in the top 15 for large community hospitals , and Mercy Hospital Clermont in Batavia Union Hospital in Dover Sycamore Medical Center in Miamisburg and Wooster Community Hospital in Wooster ranked in the top 16 for medium @-@ sized community hospitals .
In 2009 , Thomson @-@ Reuters named the Kettering Medical Center in Kettering , The Ohio State University Medical Center in Columbus , Good Samaritan Hospital in Cincinnati , and Grandview Medical Center in Dayton to their top 30 list of teaching hospitals with cardiovascular programs . Thomson @-@ Reuters also rated the Kettering Health Network of Kettering , Ohio as one of the top 10 hospital networks for clinical excellence in the United States for 2009 and 2010 .
= = = = Pharmacies = = = =
Ohio is home to pharmacy chains including Discount Drug Mart in Medina , and previously Phar @-@ Mor , which was headquartered in Youngstown , and Revco , which was headquartered in Twinsburg .
= = = Education = = =
Ohio 's medical colleges are sixth in the nation in terms of economic impact , resulting in 425 @,@ 000 direct or indirect positions and $ 37 @.@ 2 billion .
The University System of Ohio is the nation 's largest comprehensive public system of higher education . Member universities include the University of Cincinnati , which has a $ 3 + billion annual economic impact and is the largest employer in Cincinnati , Kent State University , which contributes a $ 1 @.@ 9 billion economic impact in Northeast Ohio , and the University of Toledo , which contributes a $ 1 @.@ 1 billion economic impact in Northwest Ohio .
= = = Agriculture = = =
Ohio 's agricultural industries represent $ 93 billion of the state 's economic output , employing one in seven Ohioans directly or indirectly . Ohio 's agricultural market exports many different products . Ohio ranks 1st in the production of Swiss cheese out of all 50 states , 2nd in eggs , 3rd in tomatoes , 6th in soybeans , and 9th in corn for grain . The agriculture and food processing and eatery industries are heavily intertwined in Ohio . For example , Ohio being the 3rd largest producer of tomatoes in the United States in turn has the world 's largest ketchup processing plant in Fremont . They are # 16 in the nation for beef production , and # 5 in flower production .
The number of farms in Ohio stood at 75 @,@ 700 , as of 2007 , covering 14 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 acres ( 57 @,@ 000 km2 ) of land . 47 @.@ 5 % of all farms are operated by residents aged 35 – 54 . The average farm size was 188 acres ( 0 @.@ 76 km2 ) . However , the number of farms slowly decreased from 2006 , where the number of farms in Ohio stood at 76 @,@ 200 . The amount of land used for farms in Ohio also decreased from 2006 , where 14 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 acres ( 58 @,@ 000 km2 ) of land were used for agriculture . However , the dairy sector of Ohio 's agriculture industry is growing . The estimated number of dairy cows in Ohio increased from 274 @,@ 000 in 2006 to 276 @,@ 000 in 2007 . Estimated dairy production in Ohio increased from 4 @,@ 860 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 pounds in 2006 to 4 @,@ 980 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 pounds in 2007 . There a total of 1 @,@ 270 @,@ 000 cattle , 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 hogs , and 141 @,@ 000 sheep in the state .
In October 2010 , the Kinsman neighborhood in Cleveland was designated to be the location of the largest urban agriculture district in the United States , roughly 28 acres , where cultivation and entrepreneurial operations will exist .
= = = = Horticulture and floriculture = = = =
Ohio is a lead producer of horticulture products , from greenhouse and nursery plants to bulbs . The state is a producer of white ash trees for landscaping , totalling 25 @,@ 000 annually . California , Florida , Texas , Michigan , and Ohio accounted for 42 % of the nation 's production of bedding plants in 2002 . Oberer 's Flowers , headquartered in Dayton , is the nation 's fifth @-@ largest florist , while Aris Horticulture , headquartered in Barberton , is a world leader in research and breeding . Lake County Nursery offers over 1 @,@ 000 varieties of plants and California @-@ based Monrovia Nursery Company , a global leader , operates nurseries in Springfield .
= = = Energy = = =
The energy sector of Ohio is composed of thousands of companies and cities representing the oil , natural gas , coal , solar , wind energy , fuel cell , biofuel , geothermal , hydroelectric , and other related industries . Oil and natural gas accounts for $ 3 @.@ 1 billion annually in sales while ethanol generates $ 750 million . The state is second nationally in solar energy industry manufacturing as Toledo is considered a national solar hub , nicknamed " Solar Valley . " It is recognized internationally as the " Fuel Cell Corridor " , and Hamilton is poised to become the biggest municipal provider of renewable energy in the Midwest , and one of the largest in the country , with over 70 % . In 2008 , the state led the country in alternative energy manufacturing according to Site Selection Magazine , while the natural gas industry has experienced growth due to the Great Shale Gas Rush .
Several notable energy companies are headquartered in the state , including American Electric Power , Columbia Gas of Ohio , DPL Inc . , Marathon Petroleum Company , American Municipal Power , Inc . , Cliffs Natural Resources , Murray Energy , FirstEnergy , Oxford Resource Partners LP , AB Resources , American Hydrogen Corporation , and IGS Energy . Rolls @-@ Royce North America 's Energy Systems Inc . , a subsidiary of United Kingdom @-@ based Rolls @-@ Royce plc , is headquartered in Mt . Vernon , specializing in gas compression , power generation , and pipeline technologies . Ultra Premium Oilfield Services and V & M Star Steel operate steel production facilities in the state , which cater to energy exploration .
Ohio consumed 160 @.@ 176 TWh of electricity in 2005 , fourth among U.S. states , and has a storied history in the sector , including the first offshore oil drilling platform in the world , and a modern , renewable energy economy along with the traditional nuclear , oil , coal , and gas industries .
= = = Research and development = = =
Ohio is a major research and development center , home to many institutions . In 2008 , institutions and companies in the state won 10 R & D 100 Awards , given annually to the top 100 innovations recognized by R & D Magazine , finishing second behind California . The Ohio State University is among the country 's top public research institutions at # 7 . Ohio is ranked in the top eight for states conducting clinical trials , including conducting the most clinical trials per capita .
In 2006 , the state had a high @-@ tech payroll of $ 9 @.@ 8 billion , with 155 @,@ 174 high @-@ tech employees at 10 @,@ 756 high tech locations . In 2005 , industry in Ohio spent $ 5 @.@ 9 billion on research and development , with colleges spending $ 1 @.@ 5 billion , but by 2009 , $ 8 @.@ 2 billion in R & D contracts were identified , ranking 13th nationally . Ohio receives around $ 2 @.@ 7 billion annually in federal R & D funds , ranking # 9 .
= = = Insurance = = =
Ohio is a major center for insurance corporations , ranking 6th out of all 50 states in the insurance industry , based on overall employment , and Ohio ranks 4th in casualty insurance out of all 50 states . As far as gross state product , from the period of 1990 – 1999 Ohio insurance contribution to Ohio 's gross state product grew about 161 % from $ 2 @.@ 6 billion to $ 6 @.@ 8 billion , despite population growth from 1990 to 2000 of only about 4 @.@ 67 % , from 10 @,@ 847 @,@ 115 to 11 @,@ 353 @,@ 140 . Ohio 's insurance employment is expected to grow continuously at a rate of 9 @.@ 8 % . Ohio is home to the 3rd most claim examiners in the United States , out of all 50 states .
Five Fortune 500 companies are Ohio @-@ based insurance companies . These companies are :
Nationwide Insurance , in Columbus
Progressive Corporation , in Mayfield
American Financial Group , in Cincinnati
Cincinnati Financial , in Cincinnati
Ohio Casualty , a subsidiary of Liberty Mutual , in Fairfield .
Safelite Group , Inc . , a subsidiary of the world 's largest vehicle glass replacement and repair company Belron SA of South Africa , is headquartered in Columbus and provides solutions to insurance companies for vehicle glass replacement and repair . Medical Mutual of Ohio is headquartered in Cleveland and the largest medical insurance company in Ohio .
= = = Financial services = = =
Ohio is home to three commercial banks that rank among the largest commercial banks in the United States as measured by asset size . Up until 2008 , Ohio had four banks among the Top 25 , however the acquisition of Cleveland @-@ based National City Corp. by Pittsburgh @-@ based PNC Financial Services eliminated the fourth .
KeyBank , headquartered in the Key Tower in Cleveland
Fifth Third Bank , the bank holding company for Fifth Third Bank N.A. headquartered in Cincinnati . Currently second to PNC in market share in the state , and tops among Ohio @-@ based banks in the state .
Huntington Bancshares , the bank holding company for The Huntington National Bank headquartered in the Huntington Center in Columbus
Wright @-@ Patt Credit Union , headquartered in Dayton , has 23 member centers , nearly $ 2 billion in assets , and serves over 202 @,@ 000 member @-@ owners .
The Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland is located in the state . Other notable institutions headquartered in the state include FirstMerit Corporation , Commerce National Bank , First Federal Bank of the Midwest , Liberty Savings Bank , and Park National Bank .
Germany @-@ based BMW operates a financial subsidiary in Dublin .
= = = Automobile manufacturing = = =
Ohio @-@ native Charles Kettering invented the self @-@ starter for the automobile , an advancement which contributed to the mainstreaming of the transport .
The current state of the motor vehicle industry in Ohio is mixed and dotted . In 2002 , the Ohio motor vehicle industry produced about $ 16 billion of items . This is about 14 % of the automobile production of the United States , and Ohio outputs every state in production of motor vehicles except for Michigan . These $ 16 billion account for approximately 4 @.@ 1 % of Ohio 's gross state product ; however , the motor vehicle industry only accounts for 1 @.@ 1 % of the United States ' output . In 2003 , Ohio was able to produce about 1 @,@ 885 @,@ 000 motor vehicles , accounting for 15 @.@ 6 % of the United States ' production , and , again , more than any state except for Michigan , in which 928 @,@ 000 of these were automobiles .
The Ohio Department of Development estimates that there are 555 motor vehicle production establishments in Ohio , and that by employing around 138 @,@ 000 people , Ohio motor vehicle production employees account for 12 @.@ 7 % of the United States ' motor vehicle production employees . Despite sharp losses since 1999 , the motor vehicle production industry was able to recover in 2001 , producing a net gain of 148 @,@ 000 vehicles . General Motors produced the plurality of motor vehicles in Ohio , with 36 @.@ 5 % of the production of motor vehicles in Ohio , followed closely by Honda with 35 @.@ 9 % . Other major motor vehicle producers in Ohio include DaimlerChrysler ( with 17 @.@ 5 % of production ) and Ford ( with 10 @.@ 5 % of production ) . However , despite the growth listed above , employment statistics and outlooks are much more grim .
In 2004 , the number of people employed in the motor vehicle assembly industry in Ohio was reported to be around 31 @,@ 000 , down from about 40 @,@ 000 throughout the 1990s , while in the motor vehicle parts production industry in Ohio , in December 1997 , employment stood at approximately 122 @,@ 000 employees ; however , that number dropped by about 26 % to 90 @,@ 000 employees by 2004 . Despite the growth facts above , the loss of employment is more likely to directly affect Ohio 's economy . The Ohio Bureau of Labor Market Information estimates that there will be 3 @,@ 300 less assembly employees and 2 @,@ 400 less parts manufacturing employees in 2012 than 2002 . Major firms operating in the state include Ford , Honda , and General Motors . Some major motor vehicle assembly production plants in the state include the Toledo Complex , Lordstown Assembly , Marysville Auto Plant , East Liberty Auto Plant , Ohio Assembly , and Toledo North Assembly . France @-@ based Faurecia Group operates a division in Toledo .
In June 2010 , auto parts manufacturer Sanoh America , located in Streetsboro , announced a $ 3 @.@ 5 million , 35 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 300 m2 ) expansion of their North American headquarters , while Austria @-@ based automotive part manufacturer Miba announced $ 30 million in new investments at production sites around the state . In September of that year , the new 87 @,@ 100 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 8 @,@ 090 m2 ) R & D facility of Amtex , Inc . , a subsidiary of Japan @-@ based Hayashi Telempu Co. based in Lebanon , became operational in Plymouth .
= = = Iron and steel = = =
Ohio is considered the historical center of steel production in the U.S. The state produces annually around 14 million tons , with a $ 7 @.@ 2 billion state economic impact . The largest steel foundry in North America is located in Columbus , Columbus Castings . It was formerly part of Buckeye Steel Castings , which traces its root back to the 19th century .
Ohio produces between 14 % and 17 % of the United States ' raw steel . The sector of objects made from purchased steel in Ohio ranks 2nd out of all 50 states , and 3rd in the sector of iron , steel , and ferroalloys .
Seventy percent of the United States ' electrometallurgical ferroalloy manufacturing employees are located in Ohio . The entire industry as a whole , although not as concentrated as the electrometallurgical ferroalloy manufacturing sector , employs 34 @,@ 000 paid workers at 234 individual workplaces . Ohio 's 234 workplaces make up 9 @.@ 5 % of the United States industry 's workplaces , and the 34 @,@ 000 paid workers make up 13 @.@ 6 % of the United States industry 's workers . Of these workers and workplaces , the sector of iron , steel , and ferroalloys make up the largest sector in Ohio 's industry , with 17 @,@ 000 paid workers in 73 workplaces .
However , despite Ohio 's large presence in the iron and steel market , employment rates have declined in Ohio , generally attributed to weakening national economy . Between 1998 and 2005 , the number of Ohio iron and steel industry workers decreased from 52 @,@ 700 to 34 @,@ 000 . The Ohio Department of Development predicts the decreases will continue in coming years . The average annual salary for iron and steel industry workers in Ohio was $ 59 @,@ 686 , compared the national industry average of $ 53 @,@ 352 .
There are three Fortune 500 iron and steel manufacturers with world headquarters in Ohio : AK Steel , located in Westchester , Timken Company , located in Canton , and Worthington Industries , located in Columbus . Other notable companies include Russia @-@ based Severstal , which has facilities located in Warren and Steubenville , Luxembourg @-@ based Mittal Steel USA , which has facilities in Columbus and Cleveland , United States Steel Corporation in Lorain , Cliffs Natural Resources in Cleveland , and Republic Engineered Products , North America 's largest supplier of specialty bar quality steel , located in Canton . V & M Star Steel , a subsidiary of France @-@ based Vallourec , broke ground on a $ 650 million production facility in Youngstown in June 2010 .
In August 2010 Arizona @-@ based International Technical Coatings announced plans to construct a 667 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 62 @,@ 000 m2 ) , $ 15 million production facility in Columbus , while Pro @-@ Tec , a joint venture between U. S. Steel and Japan @-@ based Kobe Steel headquartered in Leipsic , announced in September 2010 a $ 290 million , 415 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 38 @,@ 600 m2 ) expansion of existing facilities .
= = = Rubber and plastics = = =
One of Ohio 's historically strong industries is the rubber and plastics industry . Ohio ranks 1st of all 50 states in rubber and plastics production , producing around $ 17 @.@ 4 billion of rubber and plastics shipments annually . Eight Fortune 1000 rubber and / or plastics corporations are located in Ohio :
Goodyear Tire & Rubber , Akron
Parker Hannifin , Cleveland
Owens @-@ Illinois , Perrysburg , Ohio
Owens Corning , Toledo
Cooper Tire & Rubber , Findlay
PolyOne , Avon Lake
Ferro Corporation , Cleveland
A. Schulman , Akron
Ohio ranks 1st in the gross state product of the rubber and plastics industry of any state . For the 5 @-@ year period of 2000 – 2004 , inflation @-@ adjusted production increased around 10 % . In addition , in this period , the US rubber and plastics industry only grew 6 % .
Ohio exported around $ 1 @.@ 3 billion worth of rubber and plastics shipments in 2006 . Rubber and plastics exports make up for 7 @.@ 3 % of total sales . Canada is the largest importer of Ohio 's $ 1 @.@ 3 billion worth of exports , accounting for 46 % of this amount . The Census Bureau expects that an addition $ 1 @.@ 1 billion worth of material is indirectly exported , through the means of other goods that are made from rubbers and plastics , including motor vehicles and machinery .
However , despite increased production , employment has been decreasing in Ohio 's rubber and plastic industry . In 2000 , Ohio employed around 92 @,@ 000 rubber and plastics industry workers . By 2006 , those rates have declined by about 26 % to about 69 @,@ 000 workers . The Ohio Bureau of Labor Market Information predicts that , from 2004 to 2014 , there will be 11 @,@ 200 less workers in Ohio 's industry . They also predict that plastics employment in Ohio will decrease by 13 @.@ 7 % , and that rubber products employment will decrease by 20 @.@ 7 % . The industry currently employs about 73 @,@ 000 Ohio workers , and employs about 12 @.@ 3 % of the United States ' rubber employees , and 7 @.@ 8 % of the United States ' plastics employees .
In October 2010 , Sweden @-@ based Hexpol AB announced the acquisition of Solon @-@ based Excel Polymers for $ 215 million .
In August 2011 , China @-@ based A3T L.L.C broke ground on their North American headquarters in Akron and signed an R & D agreement with the University of Akron .
= = = Other manufacturing = = =
= = = = History = = = =
In 1837 , William Procter and James Gamble founded a candle and soapmaking business in Cincinnati called Procter & Gamble . In the 1880s , the company introduced the product Ivory , a bar of soap . Eventually they began manufacturing Crisco , and sponsored radio dramas , which led to the name " soap operas " . Today Procter & Gamble is the 8th largest company in the world by market capitalization fully diversified in household products , and has 135 @,@ 000 employees worldwide , with manufacturing operations located throughout the state , and their headquarters still based in Cincinnati .
In 1866 , Henry Sherwin and Edward Williams founded Sherwin @-@ Williams , a general building supplies company , in Cleveland . Their first factory was opened on the Cuyahoga River in 1873 , and today the company has four manufacturing and distribution facilities in Ohio , located in Columbus , Cincinnati , Grove City , and Bedford Heights , and numerous locations throughout the country and world , with their world headquarters maintained in Cleveland . The company employs 3 @,@ 394 residents alone just in the Cleveland @-@ area .
In 1879 , James Ritty , a saloon owner , invented a mechanical cash register , paving way for its production through the National Cash Register Company , based in Dayton . The company prospered through the 21st century , producing automated teller machines , barcode scanners , and other related products , employing thousands . It was eventually relocated to Georgia in 2009 .
In 1886 Ohio @-@ native Charles Martin Hall helped pioneer the Hall – Héroult process , which made aluminum inexpensive to produce . He sold his share in 1888 to the Pittsburgh Reduction Company , known today as Alcoa . Alcoa has operations in the state , including facilities in Cleveland which manufacture aluminum wheels for Automobili Lamborghini .
In 1907 , a janitor named James Spangler working for the Hoover family invented the first electronically portable vacuum cleaner . Production of the device began at a factory in New Berlin ( later renamed North Canton ) , and today the company is known as The Hoover Company , with its headquarters still located in North Canton .
In 1918 , the Parker Appliance Company was founded in Cleveland , later becoming the Parker Hannifin Corporation . They manufacture motion and control technologies , with locations throughout Ohio , the country , and the world . Their headquarters is maintained in Cleveland , employing 2 @,@ 201 residents in the local area .
= = = = Present = = = =
Overall , Ohio is home to 21 @,@ 250 manufacturing operations . Cincinnati is ranked # 6 , Cleveland # 10 , and Columbus # 19 respectively in the nation for manufacturing jobs . Ohio leads the nation in general @-@ purpose machinery production and is # 2 in metalworking machinery production . In 2004 , Ohio was third in the nation for major industrial operations , and second in the nation for total manufacturing payroll . Ohio was third in the nation in manufacturing GDP in 2008 , but has lost 106 @,@ 629 manufacturing jobs and over 1 @,@ 000 manufacturers since 2007 .
Crown Equipment Corporation , headquartered in New Bremen , employs 8 @,@ 300 residents in the state and is the 7th largest manufacturer of heavy @-@ duty equipment in the world . They recently unveiled 20 new fork @-@ lift models employing fuel cell technology , bringing that total product @-@ specific inventory to 29 models . Ametek Technical and Industrial Products is headquartered in Kent and a manufacturer of industrial products with sales of $ 950 million in 2009 . Headquartered in Toledo , Libbey , Inc. is the leading producer of glass tableware products in the Western Hemisphere .
Miamisburg @-@ based NewPage Corporation is the largest producer of coated paper in North America , with sales of $ 3 @.@ 1 billion . Verantis Corporation , headquartered in Middleburg Heights , is a leading global environmental engineering company .
Germany @-@ based ThyssenKrupp has several operations in the state , including AIN Plastics in Columbus , Ken @-@ Mac Metals in Cleveland , Copper and Brass sales divisions in Toledo , Cleveland , and Dayton , a ThyssenKrupp Industrial Services division in Toledo , and a ThyssenKrupp Bilstein of America sales division in Hamilton . ThyssenKrupp Krause is located in Cleveland , Vertical System Elevators in Cincinnati as well as other ThyssenKrupp Elevator divisions in Cincinnati , Westerville , Northwood , and Broadview Heights , and Rotek Incorporated is located in Aurora , which underwent an $ 82 million facility expansion in 2008 .
United Kingdom @-@ based Mondi Group has facilities in Lancaster . Brush Wellman is headquartered Mayfield Heights and is a global supplier of alloy , precious metals , electronic , and engineered material systems and products , with a major facility in Elmore . Liebert is a manufacturer of environmental , power , and monitoring systems located in Columbus .
Headquartered in Cleveland and founded in 1932 , MTD Products employs 6 @,@ 800 residents in the state and is a major manufacturer of heavy duty lawn equipment . Advanced Drainage Systems headquartered in Hilliard employs 3 @,@ 900 residents and specializes in manufacturing industrial components and equipment . Aleris International , headquartered in Beachwood , employs 8 @,@ 500 residents and is one of the world 's largest recyclers of aluminum and zinc , manufacturing alloy sheet metal . Park @-@ Ohio , Inc . , located in Cleveland , operates in 16 countries with over 3 @,@ 000 employees . Mallory Marine is a manufacturer of aquatic travel components and located in Cleveland . Cincinnati @-@ based Michelman , Inc. is a global leader in developing water @-@ based barrier and functional coating .
Newark @-@ based The Longaberger Company is a manufacturer of home and lifestyle products , and Brooklyn is home to the American Greetings Corporation , the world 's largest publicly traded greeting card manufacturer .
Sweden @-@ based Trelleborg AB recently announced they were moving their Wheel Systems Americas headquarters from Hartville to Fairlawn . Westlake @-@ based Nordson Corporation is a leading global manufacturer of precision equipment . Parma @-@ based GrafTech International Limited is a leading global manufacturer of carbon and graphite products with facilities on four continents .
ESCORT is a lead manufacturer of radar detection devices and navigational services headquartered in West Chester .
New Jersey @-@ based Hartz Mountain Corporation , a pets @-@ product manufacturer , announced an expansion of their existing operations in the state in 2010 . Little Tikes is a toy manufacturer headquartered in Hudson with global operations .
In August 2010 , Switzerland @-@ based WICOR announced plans for a manufacturing operation in Urbana , while in September of that year Italian @-@ owned Eurostampa North America announced plans for the construction of a new $ 7 @.@ 2 million , 70 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 6 @,@ 500 m2 ) facility in the Roselawn neighborhood of Cincinnati , which broke ground later month and will also serve as their headquarters .
GE Lighting is headquartered in Cleveland , with manufacturing operations in the state , including Bucyrus , which was awarded $ 60 million for expansion in September 2010 in becoming the Global Center of Excellence for the manufacturing of energy @-@ efficient light bulbs . In October 2010 , West Virginia @-@ based Simonton Windows announced it was moving its headquarters to Columbus . Deceuninck North America , a subsidiary of Belgium @-@ based Deceuninck NV , is headquartered in Monroe and operates one of the largest vinyl window extruders in North America .
Australia @-@ based Blastmaster announced in September 2010 plans to locate their North American headquarters in the Columbus area . In October 2010 , California @-@ based Avery Dennison opened their Customer Innovation Center in Miamisburg to showcase their RFID technology .
= = = = = Chemicals = = = = =
Hexion Specialty Chemicals is headquartered in Columbus employing 6 @,@ 900 residents , and is a lead manufacturer of resins and coatings . Momentive Performance Materials is in the process of moving their global headquarters to Columbus following a recent merger with Hexion . Lubrizol Corporation is a provider of specialty chemicals headquartered in Wickliffe and a Fortune 500 company . Kentucky @-@ based Ashland Performance Materials is located in Dublin . Columbus is home to the world 's largest clearinghouse of chemicals data , CAS , or Chemical Abstracts .
= = = = = Robotics and lasers = = = = =
In June 2010 , Yaskawa America announced the construction of their new North American headquarters in Dayton , a 300 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 28 @,@ 000 m2 ) facility , which broke ground in August . KC Robotics , located in Fairfield , is a major distributor of robots , including Yaskawa 's Motoman .
Robotics Research , located in Cincinnati , is a lead developer of robotic technology . FANUC Robotics America , Inc. has a regional headquarters located in Mason . Other companies include YAC Robot Systems in Hamilton , Bellevue Manufacturing Company in Bellevue , and Adept Technology , which has an office in Cincinnati .
Lockheed Martin in Akron manufacturers laser @-@ enhanced sniper systems for the Department of Defense . AT & F Steel in Cleveland operates the largest Hybrid Laser Arc Welding facility in the United States . Elyria @-@ based RIDGID , a division of Missouri @-@ based Emerson , manufacturers hand @-@ held laser devices .
= = = = = Nanotechnology = = = = =
Kent State University was one of the inventors of the modern liquid crystal display at their Liquid Crystal Institute .
Through 2005 , Ohio was ranked in the top ten for states with the best environment for nanotechnology development . The Center for Multifunctional Polymer Nanomaterials and Devices at the Ohio State University was awarded $ 22 @.@ 5 million from the Third Frontier around the start of the 21st century with a goal of returning $ 78 million in research and commercialization . The University of Dayton Research Institute was also awarded investments from the state . Other major research institutes include the Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology at the University of Cincinnati . The University of Toledo is home to professor Abdul @-@ Majeed Azad , a world @-@ renowned nanotechnologist who won a Nano50 Award from NASA in 2007 for developing a method of converting steel mill waste into nanoscale iron particles , and is also a recent recipient of the Fulbright Distinguished Chair Award .
Nanotek Instruments , a Dayton area company , is a nanomaterial research and development company focused on bringing nanotechnology into consumer applications . Founded in 1997 , Nanotek Instruments currently holds some of the oldest intellectual property on the " wonder material " graphene . Nanotek 's current research focuses on using the properties of graphene in energy storage applications such as Li @-@ ion batteries and supercapacitors . Their research on graphene based supercapacitors was selected as one of the top five nanotechnologies of 2010 .
In 2007 , Nanotek Instruments spun off Angstron Materials for the purpose of mass @-@ producing graphene materials . Angstron Materials , also located in Dayton , is currently the world 's largest producer of nano graphene platelets . Angstron 's graphene platelets are being used in multiple research areas including energy storage , thermal management , nanocomposites , transparent conducting films , sensor , and lithium ion batteries .
Other Ohio companies involved in nanotechnology development include MesoCoat , the winner of three R & D 100 awards ; SRICO in Columbus ; Cleveland Clinic ; Zyvex Performance Materials ( developers of the Piranha Unmanned Surface Vessel ) ; PowderMet , a leading research and development operation and winner of over 80 federal government grants ; General Electric , NanoFilm , Procter & Gamble , Battelle Memorial Institute , NanoSperse , First Solar , Goodyear Tire and Rubber , and Midwest Optoelectronics , among others .
= = = Logistics = = =
The Columbus / Dayton corridor is considered one of two " centroids " in America 's logistics sector . This is evident in the Dayton region , in part , with the expansion of a 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 93 @,@ 000 m2 ) distribution center by Caterpillar Inc. and a major Payless ShoeSource distribution center . Transportation and warehousing employs 183 @,@ 000 Ohioans , amounting to a $ 12 billion industry , or 3 @.@ 6 % of the GSP . Since 2003 , Ohio has added 21 @,@ 500 logistics jobs .
Ohio has the 8th largest highway system , and 4th largest interstate system in the country . Ohio 's trucking industry ranks 4th in the nation with a total economic output of $ 5 @.@ 2 billion . The state ranks third in the country in total value of inbound and outbound shipments at $ 907 billion , and first in value of outbound shipments at $ 244 billion .
Ohio has the fourth largest rail system , and is ranked third in total economic output at $ 1 @.@ 3 billion .
Major employers include BAX Global , now part of Germany @-@ based DB Schenker ; Total Quality Logistics , UPS , FedEx , Roadway Express , CSX Corp , Pacer International , and ABX Air . Parsec Inc . , based in Cincinnati , controls 45 % of the nation 's intermodal transportation business . The logistics headquarters of ThyssenKrupp Industrial Services North America is located in Northwood .
Wooster @-@ based TechniGraphics is leading provider of imagery and geospatial services to the U.S. intelligence community .
In 2009 , CSX began the construction of a $ 175 million intermodal facility in North Baltimore , employing OCR technology from the Saudi Arabia @-@ based Gulf Stevedoring Contracting Company . As part of their " National Gateway " project , it is a rival to Norfolk Southern 's " Heartland Corridor " project . Norfolk Southern operates a large intermodal facility in Columbus as part of their " Heartland Corridor , " which the company recently constructed .
Cleveland Ships in October 2010 announced a bid to take over Northrop Grumman 's shipbuilding operations , and later that month Canada @-@ based Great Lakes Feeder Lines announced the Port of Cleveland was a target for its U.S. international container service headquarters , the first on the Great Lakes .
= = = Food processing = = =
Ohio 's food processing industry produces $ 23 @.@ 5 billion in food shipments annually . The frozen food industry is the largest sub @-@ industry , surpassing even the state of California by $ 700 million in frozen food shipments , in which Ohio ships $ 2 @.@ 4 billion of frozen food shipments annually . Ohio also ranks 1st out of every state in the United States in frozen food shipments and Ohio 's frozen food industry accounts for 20 @.@ 7 % of the United States ' frozen food processing .
Several of the world 's largest food operating plants are operated in Ohio : the world 's largest yogurt processing plant is operated by France @-@ based Groupe Danone in Auglaize County , which announced an $ 88 million expansion of its facilities in 2011 ; Campbell 's operates the world 's largest soup processing plant in Napoleon , Heinz operates the world 's single largest ketchup processing plant in Fremont , and General Mills operates the world 's largest frozen pizza processing plant in Wellston . Pierre 's Ice Cream , headquartered in Cleveland , is undergoing an $ 8 million , 35 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 300 m2 ) facility expansion of their operations .
Major food processing companies in Ohio include Kroger ( Cincinnati ) , T. Marzetti Company ( Columbus ) , The J.M. Smucker Co . ( Orrville ) , The Iams Company ( Cincinnati ) , Sunny Delight Beverages ( Cincinnati ) , and Givaudan ( Cincinnati ) . The Boston Beer Company and Jim Beam Brands has operations in Cincinnati . Other food processing sub @-@ industries that Ohio leads in include pet food ( 8 @.@ 4 % of the nation 's pet food , ranking in 2nd ) , ketchup and dressings ( 7 @.@ 6 % of the nation 's ketchup and dressing production , ranking 2nd ) , cookies and crackers ( 9 @.@ 9 % of the nation 's production , ranking 4th ) , and soft drinks ( 6 @.@ 2 % of the nation 's production , ranking 4th ) . The county with the most food processing facilities is Hamilton County , followed by Franklin County and Stark County .
Alpine Cheese in Winesburg is the exclusive manufacturer in the Western hemisphere of Norwegian Jarlsberg cheese . In October 2010 , Coca Cola announced a $ 120 million expansion of their existing facilities in Columbus .
= = = = Eateries = = = =
Major eateries headquartered in Ohio include Bob Evans Restaurants ( Columbus ) and Wendy 's ( Dublin ) . Buffalo Wild Wings was founded in Columbus in 1982 . The first Arby 's was located in Boardman . Charley 's Grilled Subs is headquartered in Columbus . Perkins Restaurant and Bakery was founded in Cincinnati . TravelCenters of America , which is the second @-@ largest truck stop chain in the country , is headquartered in Westlake . It is also Fortune 500 company .
= = = = Wineries and fine dining = = = =
Through 2008 , the state was home to 124 wineries , up from 75 in 1999 , producing 4108 employment positions . The industry generated $ 458 million in revenues and $ 124 million in wages . 2 @.@ 2 million visitors toured Ohio 's wineries during that year , while the state ranked # 11 nationally in production and # 9 in grape production . Notables include Lake Erie Wineries , Chalet Debonne Vineyards , and Ferrante Winery and Ristorante .
Cameron Mitchell Restaurants is headquartered in Columbus .
= = = Information = = =
Ohio @-@ native Thomas Edison helped contribute to the modern communications world through many of his inventions , including his stock ticker , Kinetoscope , phonograph , and his contributions to the telegraph . Ohio resident Granville Woods invented the telegraphony , which he sold to the American Bell Telephone Company .
Ohio is in the 1st quintile in the information industry , in terms of establishments for the information industry . In 2002 , Ohio had reached 4 @,@ 143 establishments , which are 3 % of the United States ' information establishments . Information establishments include printing and publishing establishments , broadcasting establishments , and telecommunications establishments . The Ohio Supercomputer Center is one of the largest supercomputer facilities in the country .
As of 2002 , there were approximately 106 @,@ 754 workers in Ohio working in the information industry . The total industry ranks 8th out of all 50 states in the number of establishments , and 9th in the number of paid workers , which was 106 @,@ 754 in 2002 .
A prime sector in Ohio 's information industry is the broadcasting sector . The broadcasting sector ranks 9th out of all 50 states in the number of establishments , which is 1 @,@ 954 , 11th in number of paid workers , and 11th to its contribution to Ohio 's gross state product , which is $ 6 @.@ 6 billion .
= = = = Telecommunications , data , and information technology = = = =
In the second half of 2010 , telecommunications companies announced $ 540 million in investments and projects in the state , to result in over 20 @,@ 000 new employment positions .
Major telecommunication employers with headquarters in the state include Cincinnati Bell , Ohio Bell , a subsidiary of AT & T in Cleveland ; Ohio Telecom in Port Clinton , RACO Industries in Blue Ash , First Communications in Akron , and Horizon Telcom , Inc. in Chillicothe . Companies with operations in the state include L @-@ 3 Communications , Time Warner , AT & T , Verizon , Sprint , SBA Networks , Collabera Inc . , Cavalier Telephone , Waveland Communications , Embarq , Open Range Communications , Russell Cellular , and Windstream Communications . Frontier Communications in 2010 announced $ 150 million in investment in the state to upgrade systems and high @-@ speed internet services .
Miamisburg @-@ based Teradata is the world 's largest data warehousing and enterprise analytics company , and Richfield @-@ based OEConnection is the world 's largest online automotive parts exchange , or OPSX . One Call Now , headquartered in Troy , is the nation 's largest information notification service and part of INC Magazine 's fastest @-@ growing companies list three years in a row , while OneCommand , headquartered in Mason , is the nation 's leading integrated and automated , personalized communications firm .
Hyland Software is located in Cleveland and employs 1100 + . India @-@ based Tata Group operates an information center Reno , while a software consultancy subsidiary Tata Consultancy Services located in Milford recently won a Workforce One Investment Board of Southwest Investing in People Award . Virginia @-@ based Computer Sciences Corporation has operations in Dayton , and Zethus Software is located in Youngstown . Razorleaf Corporation , headquartered in Stow , develops software solutions with companies such as Aras and Microsoft . Columbus is home to the Microsoft Heartland District . Bluemile is an award winning firm headquartered in Columbus specializing in data technology solutions . Bryan @-@ based Ruralogic is a subsidiary of Cleveland @-@ based Attevo , a global information technology consulting firm with their European headquarters in London , focused on insourcing solutions .
Convergys Corporation , the largest holder of outsourced SAP licenses in the world , is headquartered in Cincinnati . Dublin @-@ based Glomark @-@ Governan is a world leader in Enterprise Value Creation systems . QC Software is headquartered in Cincinnati and a leading provider of Tier 1 warehouse control systems . Hilliard @-@ based Redemtech , a division of Micro Center , is a world leader in technology change management . Veeam Software is located in Dublin , and TOA Technologies is a global leader in cloud computing @-@ based mobile workforce management and based in Ohio 's " Silicon Suburb " of Beachwood .
In July 2010 , AT & T announced the construction of a $ 120 million data center in Akron , their 9th facility dedicated to such for the eastern seaboard of the United States , which was followed by the announcement in August of the construction of a $ 20 million Involta data facility , also in Akron , which will be constructed to meet LEED certification .
In October 2010 , South Korea @-@ based Nautilus Hyosung , a leading ATM manufacturer , began operating their global software headquarters in Miamisburg . In December 2010 , France @-@ based Alcatel @-@ Lucent announced a $ 20 @.@ 2 million project to move existing operations in Columbus to a new 60 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 5 @,@ 600 m2 ) facility in the city , followed by New Jersey @-@ based Zycus , a software solution company , which announced in January 2011 it was opening offices in the state .
Diebold , the world 's third largest ATM manufacturer , announced in 2011 it would construct a new $ 100 million headquarters in the Akron / Canton area .
= = = = Publishing = = = =
A main sector of the industry is the publishing sector . It ranks 9th out of all states in the number of establishments , which is 1 @,@ 015 , 10th in the number of employees , and 13th in its contribution to the gross state product . McGraw @-@ Hill operates a division in Columbus , Brown Publishing Company distributes over 70 publications throughout the state , and was recently sold to Ohio Community Media ; American Legal Publishing Corporation , headquartered in Cincinnati , codifies ordinances for 1 @,@ 800 cities and counties , and Knight @-@ Ridder has its roots in Akron , although now headquartered in California .
Block Communications , located in Toledo , owns major newspapers such as the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette , as well as numerous television stations and networks from Idaho to Illinois . The E.W. Scripps Company , headquartered in Cincinnati , is a major American media company with newspapers from Florida , Texas , to California , and owns television stations located in markets from Baltimore to Phoenix .
= = = Legal = = =
Ohio is home to some of the world 's leading legal firms , including Jones Day and Squire , Sanders & Dempsey , headquartered in Cleveland . The state is also home to some of the United States ' largest firms , including Baker Hostetler in Cleveland , Taft Stettinius & Hollister , Frost Brown Todd , and Dinsmore & Shohl in Cincinnati , and Vorys , Sater , Seymour and Pease in Columbus .
= = = Retail = = =
Ohio is home to major retailers such as Macy 's , Elder @-@ Beerman , Luxottica , Abercrombie & Fitch Co . , Limited Brands , Victoria 's Secret , Pink ( Victoria 's Secret ) , Bath & Body Works , Express , Big Lots , Inc . , Value City , Tween Brands , Lane Bryant and DSW . Lululemon Athletica , Gap , Inc , Eddie Bauer and JCPenney also have major distribution centers in Columbus .
= = = Tourism = = =
In 2009 voters approved a ballot initiative allowing the construction of four new casinos in the state . Thirty months later Horseshoe Casino Cleveland , developed by Rock Gaming LLC and Caesars Entertainment Corporation , became Ohio ’ s first casino , when it opened on May 14 , 2012 . Hollywood Toledo , developed and operated by Penn National Gaming , opened 2 weeks later on May 29 followed by Hollywood Columbus , which opened on October 8 , 2012 . Horseshoe Cincinnati is expected to be the state ’ s fourth and final full @-@ service casino when it opens on March 4 , 2013 .
Ohio is especially famous for two of the largest amusement parks in North America which draw tourists from around the world : Cedar Point in Sandusky and Kings Island in Mason . Other major attractions include the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland ; the Pro Football Hall of Fame in Canton ; the Bass Islands near Sandusky ; the National Museum of the United States Air Force , the world 's largest and oldest military aviation museum located in Dayton ; The Wilds , one of the world 's largest conservation centers located in Cumberland ; the Columbus Zoo and Aquarium , the nation 's premier zoo ; Lake Erie ; and the annual Arnold Sports Festival in Columbus . Other notable attractions include the Toledo Museum of Art , the National McKinley Birthplace Memorial in Niles , the Egypt Valley Wildlife Area in Belmont County , the Stan Hywet Hall and Gardens in Akron , the Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden , the Great Lakes Science Center in Cleveland , the Center of Science and Industry in Columbus , the Boonshoft Museum of Discovery in Dayton , the 125 historic covered bridges located throughout the state and the Great Serpent Mound in Adams County .
Toledo is the future home of the National Great Lakes Museum , making it the largest Great Lakes Museum , a collaborative project of the Great Lakes Historic Society and Port Authority of Toledo to be opened in 2012 .
Notable hospitality venues include the Ritz @-@ Carlton and InterContinental Suites in Cleveland , Westin 's The Great Southern Hotel and the Hyatt Regency in Columbus , and The Cincinnatian Hotel in Cincinnati .
= = = Film = = =
The motion picture industry has had a steady presence in the state for decades . Production companies include Hemlock Films , Tri @-@ C , Access Video , Creative Technology , Second Story Productions , and Shadetree Films in the Cleveland area ; Media Magic Productions , which includes an Emmy @-@ winning producer , and Classic Worldwide Productions in the Toledo area ; BCB Productions , Mills James , one of the nation 's largest independent production companies , I 'AMedia , Arginate Studios , Media Source , and Ascension 7 Films in the Columbus area ; and Bright Light Productions , J. Cage Productions , and Panoptic Media in the southwestern Ohio area . Studios and sound stages include RISE Studios and CSI Production Concepts in Cincinnati , Cleveland Audio Visual , and Gaiam Inc. in West Chester .
Since the Ohio Film Tax Credit was signed in July 2009 , twelve projects have received approval with a combined budget of $ 76 @.@ 4 million through spring 2011 . The legislation makes eligible projects over $ 300 @,@ 000 in production costs to receive up to 25 % reimbursement up to $ 5 million and 35 % for locally employing . The legislation resulted in 9 movies filmed or planned in northeast Ohio alone in 2010 , resulting $ 9 @.@ 46 million in wages for 3700 local employees , with an economic impact of $ 24 @.@ 3 million for local businesses . In 2010 expenditures on film in the state were estimated to total over $ 31 million , filming in locations that include Akron and Cincinnati also . In 2011 , Marvel Studios announced it would be filming portions of " The Avengers " in the Cleveland area , the largest film production in state history .
Other films that went into production in 2011 included " Boot Tracks " starring Stephen Dorff , " Confession " starring Danny Glover and Melissa Leo , " The Yank " starring Fred Willard , and the film adaptation of " I , Alex Cross " . The video game Galaxy Command is also slated for production . These productions will contribute to a further $ 17 @.@ 1 million economic impact on the state .
Academy Award @-@ winning films with production occurring in Ohio have included Terms of Endearment , The Silence of the Lambs , The Deer Hunter , Rain Man , and Traffic . Other notable films include Air Force One , Men in Black , Shawshank Redemption , The Rainmaker , The Soloist , Eight Men Out , Tango and Cash , Major League , Spider @-@ Man 3 , A Christmas Story , and Happy Gilmore .
= = = Oil and natural gas = = =
Ohio is in the early stages of the development and exploration of the Utica @-@ Point Pleasant deposits in Ohio with more than 1 @,@ 000 wells drilled . The hydraulic fracturing process enables energy companies to tap into shale deposits to extract oil , natural gas , natural gas liquids , and condensate .
= = Personal income = =
Ohio was # 8 in the U.S. for personal income earned in 2005 , at $ 373 billion . The average income for the top 5 % in the state was $ 174 @,@ 026 in 2008 . Over two decades , the bottom 20 % average income bracket increased 11 @.@ 6 % to $ 18 @,@ 337 , while the middle 20 % increased by 8 @.@ 9 % to $ 49 @,@ 051 .
According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics in 2008 , the average annual salary for Ohioans was $ 39 @,@ 820 . The highest paid professionals in the state were concentrated in the medical fields . Anesthesiologists , with average annual income of $ 211 @,@ 060 , were the highest paid , followed by oral and maxillofacial surgeons at $ 206 @,@ 670 , surgeons at $ 206 @,@ 570 , orthodontists at $ 200 @,@ 770 , obstetricians and gynecologists at $ 186 @,@ 740 , physicians at $ 170 @,@ 730 , and dentists at $ 165 @,@ 400 . Average annual income for other selected professionals include airline pilots at $ 121 @,@ 330 , computer and information research scientists at $ 99 @,@ 730 , physicists at $ 98 @,@ 150 , chief executives at $ 159 @,@ 730 , financial managers at $ 109 @,@ 740 , aerospace engineers at $ 94 @,@ 530 , biomedical engineers at $ 72 @,@ 150 , art directors at $ 83 @,@ 110 , police officers at $ 49 @,@ 890 , chefs at $ 43 @,@ 230 , housekeepers at $ 19 @,@ 450 , construction laborers at $ 37 @,@ 600 , steel workers at $ 50 @,@ 690 , and elevator repairmen at $ 70 @,@ 270
The state of Ohio 's residents have an overall $ 35 @,@ 511 per capita personal income as of 2009 , up from $ 33 @,@ 338 in 2006 .
Incomes vary by county . The median family income in Cuyahoga County is $ 54 @,@ 506 , where the Cleveland Clinic is the single largest employer . Cleveland also has emerging biotechnology and financial concentrations . It is also worthwhile to note that while some cities in Ohio have declining populations , the overall growth in per capita income in Ohio increased by 4 @.@ 6 % from 2005 to 2006 .
= = Housing = =
According to the United States Census Bureau , there are an estimated 5 @,@ 045 @,@ 356 houses in Ohio , of which 4 @,@ 499 @,@ 506 , or about 89 @.@ 2 % are estimated to be occupied ; this is 0 @.@ 8 % above the national average rate of occupation . Houses with a mortgage are estimated to cost owners about $ 1 @,@ 216 per month , which is $ 186 below the national average . The United States Census Bureau also estimates that 3 @,@ 150 @,@ 239 houses are owner @-@ occupied , or about 70 % , which is 2 @.@ 7 % above the national average , and that an estimated 1 @,@ 349 @,@ 267 houses are renter @-@ occupied . The median house value is $ 135 @,@ 200 , which is a significant $ 50 @,@ 000 below the national average . Also , there are an estimated 545 @,@ 850 unoccupied houses . It is also interesting to note that the plurality of houses in Ohio were built from 1940 to 1959 ( 1 @,@ 175 @,@ 325 houses ) , and that 3 @,@ 058 @,@ 721 houses are in some way dependent on utility gas .
In late 2009 , the average home value in Cleveland was $ 139 @,@ 900 , Cincinnati $ 149 @,@ 900 , and Columbus $ 164 @,@ 900 . Clear Capital 's Home Data Index in July 2009 showed that Cleveland , Columbus and Cincinnati led the nation in home value increases , up 19 @.@ 6 , 15 @.@ 6 and 12 @.@ 9 percent . The top five counties through November 2006 for average listing price were Geauga County at $ 388 @,@ 822 , Ottawa County at $ 314 @,@ 786 , Union County at $ 306 @,@ 872 , Warren County at $ 267 @,@ 236 , and Hamilton County at $ 237 @,@ 965 .
Some historians suggest Ohio is the birthplace of public housing , having submitted the first application for such to the Public Works Administration in 1933 . The state was also the first to establish a local public housing authority . Ernest J. Bohn , a Romanian immigrant to Cleveland , is credited as a pioneer in public housing .
= = Taxation = =
A new report by the Quantitative Economics and Statistics Practices ( QUEST ) of Ernst & Young in conjunction with the Council On State Taxation ( COST ) , ranks Ohio as third in the nation for friendliest tax environment . The study , " Competitiveness of state and local business taxes on new investment , " provides a state @-@ by @-@ state comparison of tax liabilities . The top five states ranked with the lowest effective tax rate on new investment are : ( 1 ) Maine ( 3 @.@ 0 % ) ; ( 2 ) Oregon ( 3 @.@ 8 % ) ; ( 3 ) Ohio ( 4 @.@ 4 % ) ; ( 4 ) Wisconsin ( 4 @.@ 5 % ) ; and ( 5 ) Illinois ( 4 @.@ 6 % ) .
According to the Small Business & Entrepreneurship Council , Ohio 's top personal income tax rate ranks # 25 as of 2014 . The rate has been steadily declining since the 2005 tax reform , dropping from $ 11 @,@ 506 @.@ 20 + 7 @.@ 5 % of excess over $ 200 @,@ 000 in 2004 to $ 8 @,@ 671 @.@ 63 + 5 @.@ 421 % of excess over $ 208 @,@ 500 in 2013 . Ohio has replaced its corporate income tax with a gross receipts tax called the Commercial Activity Tax ( CAT ) . Businesses with annual taxable gross receipts of more than $ 150 @,@ 000 are subject to an annual minimum CAT of $ 150 . Businesses with annual taxable gross receipts in excess of $ 1 million are subject to the annual minimum CAT of $ 150 plus apply a CAT effective rate of .26 % on receipts above $ 1 million on a quarterly basis ( with a $ 250 @,@ 000 quarterly exclusion ) . Ohio is # 24 in average property taxes at 3 @.@ 016 % of personal income , but the taxes vary by city and district . The state is # 19 in overall average percentage of income used for sales , excise , and gross receipt taxes at 2 @.@ 927 % .
Below are the simple personal income tax rates for Ohio :
|
= The Singles Collection ( Britney Spears album ) =
The Singles Collection ( also known as Britney : The Singles Collection ) is the second greatest hits album of American singer Britney Spears . It was released on November 10 , 2009 , by JIVE Records , to commemorate her ten @-@ year anniversary since entering the music industry . The compilation was released in many different formats , including a one @-@ disc edition , a CD + DVD edition and a box set , which contained twenty @-@ nine singles , each packaged in its own slip case with original cover art . The CD + DVD edition , as well as the box set , contains a DVD with Spears 's music videos . The album includes one new track , " 3 " , produced by Max Martin and Shellback .
The Singles Collection was praised by contemporary critics , who noted Spears 's impact and influence on pop music during her first decade in the music industry . The album entered the top forty in Australia , Japan , Mexico , New Zealand and the United States as well as in a number of European countries . " 3 " was released as the only single from the album . In the United States , it debuted at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming her first song to do so .
= = Background = =
On July 12 , 2009 , Spears confirmed through her Twitter account that she had begun recording new material , stating she was going into the studio with Swedish songwriter and producer Max Martin . On September 23 , 2009 , JIVE Records officially announced the release of a greatest hits titled The Singles Collection through Spears 's official website , in celebration of Spears 's ten @-@ year anniversary in the music industry . The album followed her previous compilation , Greatest Hits : My Prerogative , released in 2004 . The release date was confirmed to be November 24 , 2009 and the album included a new song titled " 3 " , produced by Martin . The compilation was available in two main editions , a standard version as well as a boxset . The standard version contained a single CD with seventeen tracks , including " 3 " . The boxset contained her twenty @-@ nine singles including " 3 " , with each single packaged in its own slip case with original cover art , accompanied by an original b @-@ side or remix . It also included a booklet featuring iconic images and facts about each track as well as a DVD featuring all of Spears 's music videos to date in chronological order .
On October 14 , 2009 , JIVE Records announced in a new press release that the date for the standard version was moved up to November 10 , 2009 . The date for the release of the boxset remained the same . The following day , a CD + DVD version was announced to be released on November 10 , 2009 in all countries except in North America . This version included the standard version tracklist as well as the single " I 'm Not a Girl , Not Yet a Woman " .
= = Singles = =
" 3 " was confirmed as the only single from the album , released on September 29 , 2009 along with the announcement of The Singles Collection . It was released to radio stations on September 29 , 2009 . The song received positive reviews from critics , and debuted at number one on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 , breaking many chart records . It made Spears the first artist in over three years to debut at the top position and the only non @-@ American Idol artist in eleven years to do so . It was the sixteenth song in the chart history to debut at the top position and also the shortest title for a song reaching the top of the chart . " 3 " also debuted at number one in Canada and reached top ten positions in Australia and the European nations of Belgium ( Wallonia ) , Czech Republic , Finland , France , Ireland , Norway , Sweden and the United Kingdom .
= = Critical reception = =
The compilation album received universal critical acclaim from music critics . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic gave the collection five stars and compared it to Greatest Hits : My Prerogative , saying that although they had the same length , they were " different listening experiences " . He also noted that the more recent tracks " help push The Singles away from teen pop and toward pure dance @-@ pop bliss . [ ... ] It does result in a stronger overall listen , since there are no slow patches here , just a parade of relentless hooks and rhythms that wound up defining the sound of a decade " . Mayer Nissim of Digital Spy also gave the album five stars stating that " [ it ] perfectly captures the career of one of the best singles artists of the last ten years . Running from ' ... Baby One More Time ' to ' Radar ' , you get a single @-@ disc timeline that shows a progression in style and substance from school uniform @-@ wearing pop ingénue to sultry motorik saucepot . [ ... ] The only arguable weak link is the Madonna @-@ featuring ' Me Against the Music ' , but in this context what once looked like a respectful passing of the baton now seems like an unconditional surrender of pop Queendom to its rightful heir . " The reviewer also noted the impact on popular culture and pop music of Spears , highlighting " Oops ! ... I Did It Again " , " Toxic " and " Stronger " .
Brian Linder of IGN commented " 2004 's Greatest Hits : My Prerogative [ ... ] captured the highlights from Britney 's heyday , but lacks the more mature club @-@ oriented material that she 's churned out in recent years . That helps make this collection a justifiable fan purchase " . Mike Diver of BBC Online called it " the definitive Britney album " and added that " these songs don 't just make a mark , lingering in the memory – they are essential pieces of the past ten years of pop history , and deserve better than dismissal by so @-@ called discerning listeners " . Evan Sawdey of PopMatters called the album " a high @-@ gloss collection of tunes that selectively sums up the career of one of the biggest female pop singers of the past decade . It 's a disc that 's light on filler [ ... ] and heavy on Spears ' more high @-@ energy cuts , which , without question , play to her strengths as a performer " . Sputnikmusic stated " This is Britney 's second greatest hits , and it 's incredibly strong . It focuses mainly on her more upbeat , danceable numbers , with a few slower ones thrown in to change things up without disrupting the constant stream of quality pop songs " and summarized the review adding " As one of the most successful artists of the decade , is it any wonder this compilation is so good ? " .
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , The Singles Collection debuted at number twenty @-@ two in the Billboard 200 , selling 26 @,@ 800 copies in its first week . The album has sold over 250 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . In Canada , the album was certified gold by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) for sales over 40 @,@ 000 copies . The album debuted at number fifteen in Mexico and was certified gold by the Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas ( AMPROFON ) for shipments over 30 @,@ 000 units . On November 23 , 2009 , the album debuted in the Australian Albums Chart at number twenty @-@ three . The same week , it debuted at number twenty @-@ two in New Zealand . The album reached the top forty in Belgium ( Wallonia ) , Denmark , Greece , New Zealand and Norway , and also charted in Belgium ( Flanders ) , Finland , Spain and the Netherlands . In January 2011 , The Singles Collection re @-@ entered the charts in Ireland and the United Kingdom , at number fifty @-@ one and forty @-@ seven , respectively .
= = Track listings = =
= = = Box set = = =
Notes
^ a signifies a co @-@ producer
^ b signifies a vocal producer
^ c signifies a remixer
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
|
= SMS Kaiser Barbarossa =
SMS Kaiser Barbarossa ( His Majesty 's Ship Emperor Barbarossa ) was a German pre @-@ dreadnought battleship of the Kaiser Friedrich III class . The ship was built for the Imperial Navy , which had begun a program of expansion at the direction of Kaiser Wilhelm II . She was constructed at Schichau , in Danzig . Kaiser Barbarossa was laid down in August 1898 , launched on 24 April 1900 , and commissioned in June 1901 , at the cost of 20 @,@ 301 @,@ 000 Marks . The ship was armed with a main battery of four 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns in two twin gun turrets .
Kaiser Barbarossa served with the German navy from her commissioning in 1901 , though her active career was limited by two lengthy stays in dry @-@ dock . The first was for repairs following damage to her rudder in 1903 , which lasted until early 1905 , and the second for a major modernization , which began immediately after the conclusion of repair work in 1905 and lasted until late 1907 . She returned to service for another two years , before being decommissioned in 1909 and placed in the reserve division . She continued to participate in fleet training exercises for the next three years .
Following the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Kaiser Barbarossa and her sisters were mobilized as coastal defense ships in the V Battle Squadron and assigned to the North and Baltic Seas . She saw no combat during the war , and due to a shortage of crews , the ships were withdrawn from active duty in February 1915 and relegated to secondary duties . Kaiser Barbarossa was briefly used as a torpedo target ship for most of 1915 and thereafter spent the remainder of the war as a prison ship in Wilhelmshaven . Following the end of the war in 1918 , Kaiser Barbarossa was decommissioned and sold for scrap metal . The ship was broken up in 1919 – 20 .
= = Design = =
Kaiser Barbarossa was 125 @.@ 3 m ( 411 ft 1 in ) long overall and had a beam of 20 @.@ 4 m ( 66 ft 11 in ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 89 m ( 25 ft 11 in ) forward and 8 @.@ 25 m ( 27 ft 1 in ) aft . She displaced up to 11 @,@ 785 metric tons ( 11 @,@ 599 long tons ) at full load . The ship was powered by three 3 @-@ cylinder vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one screw propeller . Steam was provided by four Thornycroft boilers and eight cylindrical boilers , all of which burned coal . Kaiser Barbarossa 's powerplant was rated at 13 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 12 @,@ 820 ihp ; 9 @,@ 560 kW ) , which generated a top speed of 17 @.@ 5 knots ( 32 @.@ 4 km / h ; 20 @.@ 1 mph ) . The ship had a cruising radius of 3 @,@ 420 nmi ( 6 @,@ 330 km ; 3 @,@ 940 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a normal crew of 39 officers and 612 enlisted men .
The ship 's armament consisted of a main battery of four 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) SK L / 40 guns in twin gun turrets , one fore and one aft of the central superstructure . Her secondary armament consisted of eighteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 inch ) SK L / 40 guns , twelve 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 45 in ) SK L / 30 quick @-@ firing guns all mounted in casemates , and twelve 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) machine cannon in single mounts . The armament suite was rounded out with six 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , all in above @-@ water swivel mounts . The ship 's belt armor was 300 mm ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) thick , and the deck was 65 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) thick . The conning tower and main battery turrets were protected with 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) of armor plating , and the secondary casemates received 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) of armor protection .
= = Service history = =
Kaiser Wilhelm II , the Emperor of Germany , believed that a strong navy was necessary for the country to expand its influence outside continental Europe . As a result , he initiated a program of naval expansion in the late 1880s ; the first battleships built under this program were the four Brandenburg @-@ class ships . These were immediately followed by the five Kaiser Friedrich III @-@ class battleships , of which Kaiser Barbarossa was a member . Kaiser Barbarossa 's keel was laid down on 3 August 1898 , at the Schichau @-@ Werke in Danzig , under construction number 640 . She was ordered under the contract name " A " as an addition to the fleet . Kaiser Barbarossa was launched on 21 April 1900 . The then @-@ Vizeadmiral ( Vice Admiral ) Alfred von Tirpitz , the State Secretary of the Reichsmarineamt ( RMA — Imperial Navy Office ) , gave the launching speech , and the new battleship was christened by Princess Luise Sofie of Prussia , Wilhelm II 's sister @-@ in @-@ law . Sea trials began on 4 May 1901 , during which two tests were recorded : a 50 @-@ hour endurance test and a 6 @-@ hour speed test . The former produced a sustained speed of 15 @.@ 5 knots ( 28 @.@ 7 km / h ; 17 @.@ 8 mph ) , while the latter saw a maximum speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) , and on 10 June she was commissioned into the fleet in Kiel . The final cost of the vessel was 20 @,@ 301 @,@ 000 marks .
Following her commissioning , Kaiser Barbarossa was assigned to the I Squadron of the Heimatflotte ( Home Fleet ) , which shortly thereafter went on a cruise to Spain . While moored in Cadiz , the ships met the four Brandenburg @-@ class ships , which were returning from their expedition to suppress the Boxer Rebellion in China . From 22 August to 21 September , Kaiser Barbarossa participated in the annual autumn maneuvers of the entire fleet . While in the Danzig Bay , the fleet conducted a naval review for the visiting Tsar Nicholas II of Russia . The winter cruise in December went to southern Norway . In April and May 1902 , the squadron went on a training cruise to Britain , followed by a tour of the Kiel Week sailing regatta in late June . The ships then took part in another training cruise to Norway in July and then the autumn maneuvers , which began in the Baltic and concluded in the North Sea with a fleet review in the Jade . During the exercise , which lasted from 17 August to 18 September , Kaiser Barbarossa and the rest of I Squadron were assigned to play the roles of both the German fleet and hostile forces . The usual winter cruise went to Bergen , Norway , that year .
In 1903 , the fleet , which was composed of only one squadron of modern battleships , was reorganized as the " Active Battle Fleet . " Kaiser Barbarossa remained in the I Squadron along with her sister ships and the newest Wittelsbach @-@ class battleships , while the older Brandenburg @-@ class ships were placed in reserve in order to be rebuilt . The first quarter of 1903 followed the usual pattern of training exercises . The squadron went on a training cruise in the Baltic , followed by a voyage to Spain that lasted from 7 May to 10 June . The ship suffered some damage to her rudder , which necessitated temporary repairs at the Kaiserliche Werft ( Imperial Shipyard ) in Kiel from the end of July to 21 August . She thereafter took part in the autumn maneuvers and the winter cruise in the eastern Baltic and the Skagerrak . The autumn maneuvers consisted of a blockade exercise in the North Sea , a cruise of the entire fleet first to Norwegian waters and then to Kiel in early September , and finally a mock attack on Kiel . The exercises concluded on 12 September . The winter training cruise began on 23 November in the eastern Baltic and continued into the Skagerrak in early December . On 15 December , Kaiser Barbarossa was decommissioned for permanent repairs to her rudder , which lasted until January 1905 . She did not return to service , however , and instead began a major reconstruction .
During the modernization , four of her 15 cm guns were removed and two 8 @.@ 8 cm guns were added . All twelve 1 @-@ pounder guns were removed , as was the ship 's stern @-@ mounted torpedo tube . Kaiser Barbarossa 's superstructure was also cut down to reduce the ship 's tendency to roll excessively and her military masts were replaced with lighter pole masts . The ship 's funnels were also lengthened . Kaiser Barbarossa 's modernization was completed by 1 October 1907 , when she was recommissioned for service . By that time , the newest Deutschland @-@ class battleships were coming into service ; along with the Braunschweig @-@ class battleships , these provided enough modern battleships to create two full battle squadrons . Consequently , the Heimatflotte was renamed the Hochseeflotte ( High Seas Fleet ) . Kaiser Barbarossa returned to her place in the I Squadron and she participated in the normal routine of divisional , squadron , and fleet maneuvers and cruises without incident over the next year . The summer fleet cruise in May that year went to the Azores and returned to Kiel on 13 August . The autumn maneuvers lasted from 27 August to 7 September . Divisional exercises in the Baltic immediately followed from 7 to 13 September .
On 17 September 1909 , Kaiser Barbarossa was decommissioned and assigned to the Reserve Division in the Baltic Sea . By that time , the new dreadnought battleships , which rendered Kaiser Barbarossa and her sister ships thoroughly obsolete , were beginning to come into service with the fleet . In early 1910 , Kaiser Barbarossa was assigned to the Training Squadron , which operated in the Baltic in April . She was reactivated to participate in the autumn maneuvers that year in the provisional III Squadron ; after the conclusion of the exercises on 10 September , she was placed back in reserve . More modernization work was done at the Kaiserliche Werft in Kiel . From 31 July to 15 September , she was reactivated again to take part in the autumn maneuvers in the III Squadron . She thereafter returned to the Reserve Division in early 1912 .
= = = World War I = = =
As a result of the outbreak of World War I , Kaiser Barbarossa and her sisters were brought out of reserve and mobilized as the V Battle Squadron on 5 August 1914 . The ships were prepared for war very slowly , and they were not ready for service in the North Sea until the end of August . They were initially tasked with coastal defense , though they served in this capacity for a very short time . In mid @-@ September , the V Squadron was transferred to the Baltic , under the command of Prince Heinrich . He initially planned to launch a major amphibious assault on Windau , but a shortage of transports forced a revision of the plan . Instead , the V Squadron was to carry the landing force , but this too was cancelled after Heinrich received false reports of British warships having entered the Baltic on 25 September . Kaiser Barbarossa and her sisters returned to Kiel the following day , disembarked the landing force , and then proceeded to the North Sea , where they resumed guard ship duties . Before the end of the year , the V Squadron was once again transferred to the Baltic .
After returning to the Baltic , Prince Heinrich ordered a foray toward Gotland . On 26 December 1914 , the battleships rendezvoused with the Baltic cruiser division in the Bay of Pomerania and then departed on the sortie . Two days later , the fleet arrived off Gotland to show the German flag , and was back in Kiel by 30 December . The squadron returned to the North Sea for guard duties , but was withdrawn from frontline service in February 1915 . Shortages of trained crews in the High Seas Fleet , coupled with the risk of operating older ships in wartime , necessitated the deactivation of Kaiser Barbarossa and her sisters . Her crew was reduced on 5 March , only to be replaced on 11 April so the ship could be used as a torpedo target ship ; this service lasted until 9 November . Ten days later , she was decommissioned for the last time , and in 1916 she was disarmed . Kaiser Barbarossa was thereafter employed as a floating prison for prisoners of war in Wilhelmshaven . In November 1918 , Germany sought an end to the war and signed the First Armistice at Compiègne , which temporarily ended hostilities so a peace treaty could be negotiated . Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles , which formally ended the war and was signed on 28 June 1919 , Germany was permitted to retain only six battleships of the " Deutschland or Lothringen types . " Accordingly , the ship was struck from the naval list on 6 December 1919 and sold to ship @-@ breakers . Kaiser Barbarossa was broken up for scrap metal in Rüstringen in 1919 and 1920 .
|
= Acer pseudoplatanus =
Acer pseudoplatanus , known as the sycamore in the United Kingdom and the sycamore maple in the United States , is a flowering plant species in the soapberry and lychee family Sapindaceae . It is a large deciduous , broad @-@ leaved tree , tolerant of wind and coastal exposure . It is native to Central Europe and Western Asia , from France eastwards to Ukraine , northern Turkey and the Caucasus and southwards in the mountains of northern Spain and Italy .
The sycamore establishes itself easily from seed and was introduced to the British Isles by 1500 , and is now naturalised there and in other parts of Europe , North America , Australia and New Zealand where it may become an invasive species .
The sycamore can grow to a height of about 35 m ( 115 ft ) and the branches form a broad , rounded crown . The bark is grey , smooth when young and later flaking in irregular patches . The leaves grow on long leafstalks and are large and palmate , with 5 large radiating lobes . The flowers are greenish @-@ yellow and hang in dangling flowerheads called panicles . They produce copious amounts of pollen and nectar that are attractive to insects . The winged seeds or samaras are borne in pairs and twirl to the ground when ripe . They germinate freely in the following spring .
In its native range , the sycamore is associated with a biodiverse range of invertebrates and fungi , but these are not always present in areas to which it has been introduced . It is sometimes planted in urban areas for its value as an amenity tree and produces a hard @-@ wearing , creamy @-@ white close @-@ grained timber that is used for making musical instruments , furniture , joinery , wood flooring and kitchen utensils . It also makes good firewood . The rising sap in spring has been used to extract sugar and make alcoholic and non @-@ alcoholic drinks , and honey is made by bees collecting the nectar .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
Acer pseudoplatanus was first described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in his Species Plantarum in 1753 . It is the type species in the maple genus Acer . Many forms and varieties have been proposed , including natural varieties such as var. macrocarpum Spach , var. microcarpum Spach , and var. tomentosum Tausch , and forms such as f. erythrocarpum ( Carrière ) Pax , f. purpureum ( Loudon ) Rehder , and f. variegatum ( Weston ) Rehder . These are all now considered to be synonyms of Acer pseudoplatanus L.
The specific name pseudoplatanus refers to the superficial similarity of the leaves and bark of the sycamore to those of plane trees in the genus Platanus , the prefix pseudo- ( from Ancient Greek ) meaning " false " . However , the two genera are in different families that are only distantly related . Acer and Platanus differ in the position in which leaves are attached to the stem ( alternate in Platanus , paired or opposite in Acer ) and in their fruit , which are spherical clusters in Platanus and paired samaras ( winged fruit ) in Acer .
The common name " sycamore " originally applied to the fig species Ficus sycomorus , the sycamore or sycomore referred to in the Bible , that is native to southwest Asia . Other common names for the tree include false plane @-@ tree , great maple , Scottish maple , mount maple , mock @-@ plane , or Celtic maple .
= = Description = =
The sycamore is a large , broadleaved deciduous tree that reaches 20 – 35 m ( 66 – 115 ft ) tall at maturity , the branches forming a broad , domed crown . The bark of young trees is smooth and grey but becomes rougher with age and breaks up into scales , exposing the pale @-@ brown @-@ to @-@ pinkish inner bark .
The buds are produced in opposite pairs , ovoid ( approximately oval in shape ) and pointed , with the bud scales ( the modified leaves that enclose and protect the bud ) green , edged in dark brown and with dark brown tips , 0 @.@ 5 – 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 @-@ 0 @.@ 4 in ) . When the leaves are shed they leave horseshoe shaped marks called leaf scars on the stem . The leaves are opposite , large , 10 to 25 cm ( 4 to 10 in ) long and broad , palmate with 5 pointed lobes that are coarsely toothed or serrated . They have a leathery texture with thick veins protruding on the underside . They are dark green in colour with a paler underside . Some cultivars have purple @-@ tinged or yellowish leaves . The leaf stalk or petiole is 5 to 15 cm ( 2 to 6 in ) long , is often tinged red with no stipules or leaf @-@ like structures at the base .
The monoecious ( or bisexual ) yellow @-@ green flowers are produced after the leaves in early summer , in May or June in the British Isles , on pendulous panicles 10 to 20 cm ( 4 to 8 in ) long with about 60 – 100 flowers on each stalk . The fruits are paired winged seeds or samaras , the seeds 5 to 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 4 in ) in diameter , each with a wing 20 to 40 mm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 6 in ) long developed as an extension of the ovary wall . The wings are held at about right angles to each other , distinguishing them from those of A. platanoides and A. campestre , in which the wings are almost opposite , and from those of A. saccharum , in which they are almost parallel . When shed , the wing of the samara catches the wind and rotates the fruit as it falls , slowing its descent and enabling the wind to disperse it further from the parent tree . The seeds are mature in autumn about four months after pollination .
The sycamore is tetraploid ( each cell having four sets of chromosomes , 2n = 52 ) , whereas A. campestre and A. platanoides are diploid ( with 2 sets of chromosomes , 2n = 26 ) .
= = Botany = =
Sycamore trees produce their flowers in hanging branched clusters known as panicles that contain a variety of different flower types . Most are morphologically bisexual , with both male and female organs , but function as if they were unisexual . Some are both morphologically and functionally male , others morphologically bisexual but function as males , and still others are morphologically bisexual but function as females . All of the flower types can produce pollen , but the pollen from functionally female flowers does not germinate . All flowers produce nectar , the functionally female flowers producing it in greater volume and with a higher sugar content .
Sycamore trees are very variable across their wide range and have strategies to prevent self @-@ pollination , which is undesirable because it limits the genetic variation of the progeny and may depress their vigour . Most inflorescences are formed of a mixture of functionally male and functionally female flowers . On any one tree , one or other of these flower types opens first and the other type opens later . Some trees may be male @-@ starters in one year and female @-@ starters in another . The change from one sex to the other may take place on different dates in different parts of the crown , and different trees in any one population may come into bloom over the course of several weeks , so that cross @-@ pollination is encouraged , although self @-@ pollination may not be completely prevented .
The sycamore may hybridise with other species in Acer section Acer , including with A. heldreichii where their natural ranges overlap and with A.velutinum. Intersectional hybrids with A. griseum ( Acer section Trifoliata ) are also known , in which the basal lobes of the leaf are reduced in size , making the leaves appear almost three @-@ lobed ( trifoliate ) .
= = Distribution = =
The sycamore is native to central and eastern Europe and western Asia . Its natural range includes Albania , Austria , Belgium , Bulgaria , Czech Republic , Georgia , Germany , Greece , Hungary , Italy , Lithuania , Poland , Romania , southern Russia , Switzerland and the former Yugoslavia . Reports of it occurring in eastern Turkey have been found to refer to A. heldreichii subsp. trautvetteri . It was probably introduced into Britain in the Tudor period by 1500 and was first recorded in the wild in 1632 in Kent . The date of its first introduction into Ireland is unclear , but the oldest specimen in Ireland is in County Cavan and dates from the seventeenth century . It was introduced into Sweden around 1770 with seeds obtained from Holland .
The lack of old native names for it has been used to demonstrate its absence in Britain before introduction in around 1487 , but this is challenged by the presence of an old Scottish Gaelic name for the tree , fior chrann which suggests a longer presence in Scotland at least as far back as the Gaelic settlement at Dál Riata in the late 6th and early 7th centuries . This would make it either an archaeophyte ( a naturalised tree introduced by humans before 1500 ) or perhaps native if it can be seen to have reached Scotland without human intervention . At the moment it is usually classified as a neophyte , a plant that is naturalised but arrived with humans on or after the year 1500 . Today , the sycamore is present in 3 @,@ 461 ( 89 @.@ 7 % ) of hectads in Britain , more than any native tree species .
The sycamore has been introduced to suitable locations outside Europe as an attractive tree for park , street or garden . These include the United States , Canada , Australia ( Victoria and Tasmania ) , Chile and New Zealand , Patagonia and the laurel forests of Madeira and the Azores . At the time of its introduction it was probably not appreciated that its prolific production of seeds might one day cause a problem to the landscape as it spread and out @-@ competed native species . The tree is now considered to be an environmental weed in some parts of Australia ( Yarra Ranges , Victoria ) and also Mount Macedon , near Daylesford , parts of the Dandenong Ranges and Tasmania , where it is naturalised in the eucalypt forests . It is also considered to be an invasive species in New Zealand , Norway , and environmentally sensitive locations in the United Kingdom .
In about 1870 , the sycamore was introduced into the United States , and was planted in New York and New Jersey . It was later cultivated as a park or street tree in New England and the Mid @-@ Atlantic states . By the early part of the 21st century , it was naturalised in fourteen states ( Connecticut , Delaware , Illinois , Kentucky , Maine , Michigan , North Carolina , New Jersey , New York , Pennsylvania , Rhode Island and Washington , D.C. ) , and in the Canadian provinces of British Columbia , New Brunswick , Nova Scotia and Ontario . The United States Department of Agriculture considers it an invasive species .
= = Ecology = =
In its native range , the sycamore is a natural component of birch ( Betula sp . ) , beech ( Fagus sp . ) and fir ( Abies sp . ) forests . It readily invades disturbed habitats such as forest plantations , abandoned farmland and brownfield land , railway lines and roadsides verges , hedgerows , native and semi @-@ natural woodland and , in New Zealand , high country tussock grassland . As an introduced , invasive species it may degrade the laurel forest in Madeira and Portugal and is a potential threat to the rare endemic Madeiran orchid , Dactylorhiza foliosa .
It is tolerant of a wide range of soil types and pH , except heavy clay and is at its best on nutrient @-@ rich slightly calcareous soils . The roots of the sycamore form highly specific beneficial mycorrhizal associations with the fungus Glomus hoi which promotes phosphorus uptake from the soil . Sycamore mycorrhizas are of the internal arbuscular mycorrhizal type , in which the fungus grows within the tissues of the root and forms branched , tree @-@ like structures within the cells of the root cortex .
The larvae of a number of species of moth use the leaves as a food source . These include the sycamore moth ( Acronicta aceris ) , the maple prominent ( Ptilodon cucullina ) and the plumed prominent ( Ptilophora plumigera ) . The horse @-@ chestnut leaf miner ( Cameraria ohridella ) occasionally lays its eggs on the sycamore , although 70 % of the larvae do not survive beyond the second instar . The leaves attract aphids , and also the ladybirds and hoverflies that feed on them . The flowers produce copious amounts of nectar and pollen and are attractive to bees and other insects , and the seeds are eaten by small mammals such as voles and birds . As an introduced plant , in Britain the sycamore has a relatively small associated insect fauna of about 15 species , but it does have a larger range of leafhoppers than does the native field maple .
The tree may also be attacked by the horse chestnut scale insect ( Pulvinaria regalis ) which sucks sap from the trunk and branches , but does not cause serious damage to the tree . Sometimes squirrels will strip the bark off branches , girdling the stem ; as a result whole branches may die , leaving brown , wilted leaves .
The sycamore gall mite Eriophyes macrorhynchus produces small red galls , similar to those of the nail gall mite Eriophyes tiliae , on leaves of sycamore and field maple , Acer campestris from April onwards . Another mite , Aceria pseudoplatani causes a ' sycamore felt gall ' on the underside of leaves of both sycamore and Norway maple ( Acer platanoides ) . The sycamore aphid Drepanosiphum platanoidis sucks sap from buds and foliage , producing large quantities of sticky honeydew that contaminate foliage , cars and garden furniture beneath .
The sycamore is susceptible to sooty bark disease , caused by the fungus Cryptostroma corticale . This causes wilting of the crown and the death of branches . Rectangular patches of bark become detached exposing thick layers of black fungal spores . The fungus may be present in the heartwood without symptoms for many years , working its way towards the bark following long , hot summers . The spores are hyper @-@ allergenic and cause a condition called maple bark stripper ’ s disease , a hypersensitivity pneumonitis . Less serious is the fungus Rhytisma acerinum which often forms the disease known as tar spot , in which black spots with yellow margins form on the foliage . The leaves may fall prematurely but the vigour of the tree is little affected . Sycamore leaf spot , caused by the fungus Cristulariella depraedans , results in pale blotches on leaves which later dry up and fall . This disease can cause moderate leaf loss but trees are little affected in the long run .
= = Cultivation = =
Sycamore self @-@ seeds very vigorously , the seeds germinating en masse in the spring so that there is little , or no , seed bank in the soil . It is readily propagated from seed in cultivation , but varieties cannot be relied on to breed true . Special cultivars such A. pseudoplatanus ' Brilliantissimum ' may be propagated by grafting . This variety is notable for the bright salmon @-@ pink colour of the young foliage and is the only sycamore cultivar to have gained the Royal Horticultural Society 's Award of Garden Merit . A rare weeping form with dangling branches , A. pseudoplatanus var. pendulum , was first sold by Knight & Perry 's exotic nursery in Chelsea , England before 1850 when the name was published by W.H. Baxter in the Supplement to Loudon 's Hortus Brittanicus , but no specimens of this cultivar are known to survive .
The sycamore is noted for its tolerance of wind , urban pollution , salt spray , and low summer temperatures , which makes it a popular tree for planting in cities , along roads treated with salt in winter , and in coastal localities . It is cultivated and widely naturalised north of its native range in Northern Europe , notably in the British Isles and Scandinavia north to Tromsø , Norway ( seeds can ripen as far north as Vesterålen ) ; Reykjavík , Iceland ; and Tórshavn on the Faroe Islands . It now occurs throughout the British Isles , having been introduced in the 16th century .
Sycamores make new growth from the stump or roots if cut down and can therefore be coppiced to produce poles and other types of small timber . Its coppice stools grow comparatively rapidly , reaching up to 10 feet in diameter in 450 years . It is grown as a species for medium to large bonsai in many areas of Europe where some fine specimens can be found .
= = Uses = =
Sycamore is planted in parks for ornamental purposes , and sometimes as a street tree , since its tolerance of air pollution makes it suitable for use in urban plantings . Because of its tolerance to wind , it has often been planted in coastal and exposed areas as a windbreak .
It produces a hard @-@ wearing , white or cream close @-@ grained timber that turns golden with age . The wood can be worked and sawn in any direction and is used for making musical instruments , furniture , joinery , wood flooring and parquetry . Because it is non @-@ staining , is used for kitchen utensils , wooden spoons , bowls , rolling pins and chopping boards . In Scotland it has traditionally been used for making fine boxes , sometimes in association with contrasting , dark @-@ coloured laburnum wood . The reference to the " white maple " in the English Christmas carol , " Wassail , Wassail All Over the Town " , in " Our bowl , it is made of the white maple tree " presumably refers not to the silver or white maple ( A. saccharinum ) , which does not occur naturally in Europe , but to the white wood of the sycamore or the field maple , Acer campestre .
Occasionally , trees produce wood with a wavy grain , greatly increasing the value for decorative veneers . The wood is a medium weight for a hardwood , weighing 630 kg per cubic metre . It is a traditional wood for use in making the backs , necks and scrolls of violins . The wood is often marketed as rippled sycamore . Whistles can be made from straight twigs when the rising sap allows the bark to be separated , and these , and sycamore branches , are used in customs associated with early May in Cornwall . The wood is used for fuel , being easy to saw and to split with an axe , producing a hot flame and good embers when burnt .
In Scotland , sycamores were once a favoured tree for hangings , because their lower branches rarely broke under the strain . Both male and female flowers produce abundant nectar , which makes a fragrant , delicately flavoured and pale @-@ coloured honey . The nectar and copious dull yellow ochre pollen are collected by honeybees as food sources . The sap rises vigorously in the spring and like that of sugar maple can be tapped to provide a refreshing drink , as a source of sugar and to make beer .
= = Notable specimens = =
= = = The Tolpuddle Martyrs ' Tree = = =
Under this sycamore tree at Tolpuddle in Dorset , England , six agricultural labourers , known as the Tolpuddle Martyrs , formed an early trades union in 1834 . They were found to have breached the Incitement to Mutiny Act 1797 and were transported to Australia . The subsequent public outcry led to their release and return . The tree now has a girth of 5 @.@ 9 metres ( 19 feet , 4 inches ) and a 2005 study dated the tree to 1680 . The tree is cared for by the National Trust , who have pollarded the tree in 2002 and 2014 .
= = = The Corstorphine Sycamore Tree = = =
An ancient sycamore ( sometimes described as a " plane " ) with distinctive yellow foliage formerly stood in the village of Corstorphine , now a suburb of Edinburgh , Scotland . The tree was reputedly planted in the 15th century and is named as the form Acer pseudoplatanus f. corstorphinense Schwer . Not only was it claimed to be the " largest sycamore in Scotland " but also the scene of James Lord Forrester 's murder in 1679 . The tree was blown down in a storm on Boxing Day 1998 , but a replacement , grown from a cutting , now stands in the churchyard of Corstorphine Kirk . The tree is commemorated in the badge of the Corstorphine Bowling Club of Edinburgh , designed in 1950 to feature the Corstorphine sycamore tree and a single horn , and redesigned in 1991 for the club ’ s centenary .
= = = The Newbattle Abbey sycamore = = =
The Newbattle Abbey sycamore near Dalkeith , planted in 1550 , was the specimen with the earliest known planting date in Scotland . It had achieved a girth of 5 m ( 16 ft ) and a height of 26 m ( 85 ft ) by the time it was toppled by a gale in May 2006 at the age of 456 years .
= = = The Money Tree = = =
Saint Fintan founded a monastery at Clonenagh , Ireland , in the sixth century and it had a spring beside it . This was considered holy and was visited by pilgrims . In the nineteenth century , a Protestant land owner , annoyed at people visiting the site , filled the well in , whereupon the water started to flow into the hollow interior of a sycamore tree on the other side of the road . Filled with amazement , people hung rags on the tree and pressed coins into its trunk as votive offerings and it became known as the " Money Tree " . Some years later , it fell down , but new shoots appeared from its base , and the water still welled up . It remains a place of veneration on St Fintan 's day , February 17 .
|
= Tropical Storm Larry ( 2003 ) =
Tropical Storm Larry was the twelfth tropical storm in the 2003 Atlantic hurricane season . It was one of eight storms to impact Mexico from either the Pacific or Atlantic Oceans in the season , a near @-@ record . Larry formed in early October from an extratropical storm in the Bay of Campeche , and reached a peak intensity of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . Due to weak steering currents , the storm moved southward , which resulted in the storm hitting the Tabasco coastline . The storm was the first Tabascan landfall since Tropical Storm Brenda in 1973 .
Larry drifted across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec , dropping heavy rainfall of over 9 in ( 229 mm ) in places . The rainfall led to flooding and mudslides , causing damage to thousands of houses . The flooding killed five people and resulted in $ 53 @.@ 6 million ( 2003 USD ) in damage . Larry was one of three tropical cyclones to hit Mexico in a short period of time , including Tropical Depression Nora and Tropical Storm Olaf in the eastern Pacific Ocean .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on September 17 . It moved across the shear @-@ ridden Atlantic Ocean without development , and remained disorganized until reaching the western Caribbean Sea on September 26 . There , the wave situated itself beneath an upper @-@ level anticyclone , allowing for favorable upper @-@ level outflow and for deep convection to develop . On the September 27 , a low pressure area developed while the system was located a few hundred miles to the east of the Yucatán Peninsula . The system continued to organize , and nearly developed into a tropical depression before moving ashore on the Yucatán Peninsula on September 29 .
Dry air and land weakened the tropical wave , and when it entered the area of the Bay of Campeche , it merged with a stationary frontal boundary . Cool , dry air around the system caused the system to develop a cold core , and the area organized into an extratropical low on September 30 . A large high pressure system over the northern Gulf of Mexico forced the system southward , where it developed significant convection . The system developed a warm core , and on October 1 the storm organized into Tropical Storm Larry while located 300 mi ( 483 km ) east @-@ southeast of Tampico , Mexico .
Weak steering currents allowed for Larry to drift westward at about two mph ( 3 km / h ) while marginally favorable conditions allowed the storm to strengthen to a peak of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) on October 3 . A mid @-@ level ridge forced the storm more to the south @-@ southeast , where after remaining a 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) storm for three days , Larry made landfall on Paraíso in the Mexican state of Tabasco on October 5 . It steadily weakened over land , and degenerated into a remnant low on October 6 while mid @-@ way through the Isthmus of Tehuantepec . The remnant low turned to the southwest , and reached the eastern Pacific Ocean on the October 7 . The remnants of Larry re @-@ organized in the eastern Pacific , with the National Hurricane Center indicating for the possibility of redevelopment into a tropical depression on October 9 . However , the convection diminished , and further development was no longer anticipated .
= = Preparations = =
Due to its erratic motion , the Mexican government issued a Tropical Storm Warning and a Hurricane Watch early in Larry 's lifetime from Veracruz to Campeche . The watches and warnings were extended westward to Tuxpan on the 4th and extended eastward to Ciudad del Carmen on October 5 . Due to the threat of the storm , officials closed three Pemex oil ports . The company used its reserves to make sure profits weren 't disrupted . In addition , the storm closed shipping ports in Dos Bocas in Tabasco , Coatzacoalcos in Veracruz , and Cayo Arcas in Campeche . The Mexican government placed six coastal states on maximum alert , while authorities set up 75 evacuation shelters for around 1 @,@ 500 people . Because of the storm , the government declared much of eastern Mexico a state of emergency .
= = Impact = =
Tropical Storm Larry was one of eight storms to hit Mexico from either the Atlantic Ocean or the Pacific Ocean , the highest since the record of nine in 1971 . The National Hurricane Center expected the storm to produce a storm surge of 3 to 5 feet ( .9 to 1 @.@ 5 m ) , with high waves on top , though no official surge readings were reported . The highest recorded winds on land were 59 mph ( 95 km / h ) in El Alacrán in Tabasco . The worst of Larry 's effects came from its rainfall , peaking at 24 @.@ 77 inches ( 629 @.@ 2 mm ) in Upper Juarez in southeastern Mexico . The highest 24 @-@ hour rainfall total was 9 @.@ 6 inches ( 245 @.@ 5 mm ) in Tortuguero , Chiapas , while several other locations reported over 4 inches ( 102 mm ) in 24 hours .
The flooding damaged more than 21 @,@ 000 houses across Mexico , in combination with the damage from Eastern Pacific Hurricanes Nora and Olaf . Damage was greatest around the Chiapas capital of Tuxtla Gutiérrez , where over 9 @,@ 000 houses were affected . The rainfall caused mudslides across the country , hospitalizing two individuals in central Hidalgo . The flooding also caused severe crop damage along Larry 's path . Strong wind gusts caused outages to telephone and power services . In all , Larry caused five deaths and $ 53 @.@ 6 million in damage ( 2003 USD , $ 59 million 2005 USD ) .
In El Salvador , rainfall from the remnants of Larry — combined with previous rainfall — caused mudslides and flooding , forcing several thousand people to evacuate in San Salvador . The flooding destroyed or damaged hundreds of houses .
= = Aftermath = =
Tropical Storm Larry hit Mexico at around the same time as two other tropical storms . The Mexican Red Cross provided aid for 6 @,@ 587 families throughout the country , while the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies launched an international appeal for aid . The appeal raised $ 284 @,@ 472 @.@ 8 ( 2003 USD ) . The Mexican Red Cross distributed 4 @,@ 000 food and hygiene packets to various places , and delivered 2 @,@ 750 family packets and over 4 @,@ 300 mattresses to citizens in Chiapas , as well as 5 @,@ 000 school kits . A total of 38 @,@ 750 people benefited from the operation .
|
= Canterbury =
Canterbury ( / ˈkæntərbri / , / -bəri / , or / -bɛri / ) is a historic English cathedral city and UNESCO World Heritage Site , which lies at the heart of the City of Canterbury , a local government district of Kent , England . It lies on the River Stour .
The Archbishop of Canterbury is the primate of the Church of England and the worldwide Anglican Communion owing to the importance of St Augustine , who served as the apostle to the pagan Kingdom of Kent around the turn of the 7th century . The city 's cathedral became a major focus of pilgrimage following the 1170 martyrdom of Thomas Becket . A journey of pilgrims to his shrine served as the frame for Geoffrey Chaucer 's 14th century classic The Canterbury Tales .
Canterbury is a popular tourist destination : consistently one of the most @-@ visited cities in the United Kingdom , the city 's economy is heavily reliant upon tourism . The city has been occupied since Paleolithic times and served as the capital of the Celtic Cantiaci and Jute Kingdom of Kent . Many historical structures fill the area , including a city wall founded in Roman times and rebuilt in the 14th century , the ruins of St Augustine 's Abbey and a Norman castle , and the oldest extant school in the world , the King 's School . Modern additions include the Marlowe Theatre and the St Lawrence Ground , home of the Kent County Cricket Club . There is also a substantial student population , brought about by the presence of the University of Kent , Canterbury Christ Church University , the University for the Creative Arts , and the Girne American University Canterbury campus . Canterbury remains , however , a relatively small city in terms of geographical size , when compared with other British cities .
= = Name = =
The Roman settlement of Durovernum Cantiacorum ( " Kentish Durovernum " ) occupied the location of an earlier British town whose ancient British name has been reconstructed as * Durou ̯ ernon ( " Stronghold by the Alder Grove " ) , although the name is sometimes supposed to have derived from various British names for the Stour . ( Medieval variants of the Roman name include Dorobernia and Dorovernia . ) In Sub @-@ Roman Britain , it was known in Old Welsh as Cair Ceint ( " Fortress of Kent " ) . Occupied by the Jutes , it became known in Old English as Cantwareburh ( " Kentish Stronghold " ) , which developed into its present name .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The Canterbury area has been inhabited since prehistoric times . Lower Paleolithic axes , and Neolithic and Bronze Age pots have been found in the area . Canterbury was first recorded as the main settlement of the Celtic tribe of the Cantiaci , which inhabited most of modern @-@ day Kent . In the 1st century AD , the Romans captured the settlement and named it Durovernum Cantiacorum . The Romans rebuilt the city , with new streets in a grid pattern , a theatre , a temple , a forum , and public baths . Although they did not maintain a major military garrison , its position on Watling Street relative to the major Kentish ports of Rutupiae ( Richborough ) , Dubrae ( Dover ) , and Lemanae ( Lymne ) gave it considerable strategic importance . In the late 3rd century , to defend against attack from barbarians , the Romans built an earth bank around the city and a wall with seven gates , which enclosed an area of 130 acres ( 53 ha ) .
Despite being counted as one of the 28 cities of Sub @-@ Roman Britain , it seems that after the Romans left Britain in 410 Durovernum Cantiacorum was abandoned except by a few farmers and gradually decayed . Over the next 100 years , an Anglo @-@ Saxon community formed within the city walls , as Jutish refugees arrived , possibly intermarrying with the locals . In 597 , Pope Gregory the Great sent Augustine to convert its King Æthelberht to Christianity . After the conversion , Canterbury , being a Roman town , was chosen by Augustine as the centre for his episcopal see in Kent , and an abbey and cathedral were built . Augustine thus became the first Archbishop of Canterbury . The town 's new importance led to its revival , and trades developed in pottery , textiles , and leather . By 630 , gold coins were being struck at the Canterbury mint . In 672 , the Synod of Hertford gave the see of Canterbury authority over the entire English Church .
In 842 and 851 , Canterbury suffered great loss of life during Danish raids . In 978 , Archbishop Dunstan refounded the abbey built by Augustine , and named it St Augustine 's Abbey . A second wave of Danish attacks began in 991 , and in 1011 the cathedral was burnt and Archbishop Alphege was killed in 1012 . Remembering the destruction caused by the Danes , the inhabitants of Canterbury did not resist William the Conqueror 's invasion in 1066 . William immediately ordered a wooden motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castle to be built by the Roman city wall . In the early 12th century , the castle was rebuilt with stone .
After the murder of Archbishop Thomas Becket at the cathedral in 1170 , Canterbury became one of the most notable towns in Europe , as pilgrims from all parts of Christendom came to visit his shrine . This pilgrimage provided the framework for Geoffrey Chaucer 's 14th @-@ century collection of stories , The Canterbury Tales . Canterbury Castle was captured by the French Prince Louis during his 1215 invasion of England , before the death of John caused his English supporters to desert his cause and support the young Henry III .
Canterbury is associated with several saints from this period who lived in Canterbury :
Saint Augustine of Canterbury
Saint Anselm of Canterbury
Saint Thomas Becket
Saint Mellitus
Saint Theodore of Tarsus
Saint Dunstan
Saint Adrian of Canterbury
Saint Alphege
Saint Æthelberht of Kent
= = = 14th – 17th centuries = = =
The Black Death hit Canterbury in 1348 . At 10 @,@ 000 , Canterbury had the 10th largest population in England ; by the early 16th century , the population had fallen to 3 @,@ 000 . In 1363 , during the Hundred Years ' War , a Commission of Inquiry found that disrepair , stone @-@ robbing and ditch @-@ filling had led to the Roman wall becoming eroded . Between 1378 and 1402 , the wall was virtually rebuilt , and new wall towers were added . In 1381 , during Wat Tyler 's Peasants ' Revolt , the castle and Archbishop 's Palace were sacked , and Archbishop Sudbury was beheaded in London . Sudbury is still remembered annually by the Christmas mayoral procession to his tomb at Canterbury Cathedral . In 1413 Henry IV became the only sovereign to be buried at the cathedral . In 1448 Canterbury was granted a City Charter , which gave it a mayor and a high sheriff ; the city still has a Lord Mayor and Sheriff . In 1504 the cathedral 's main tower , the Bell Harry Tower , was completed , ending 400 years of building .
During the Dissolution of the Monasteries , the city 's priory , nunnery and three friaries were closed . St Augustine 's Abbey , the 14th richest in England at the time , was surrendered to the Crown , and its church and cloister were levelled . The rest of the abbey was dismantled over the next 15 years , although part of the site was converted to a palace . Thomas Becket 's shrine in the Cathedral was demolished and all the gold , silver and jewels were removed to the Tower of London , and Becket 's images , name and feasts were obliterated throughout the kingdom , ending the pilgrimages .
By the 17th century , Canterbury 's population was 5 @,@ 000 ; of whom 2 @,@ 000 were French @-@ speaking Protestant Huguenots , who had begun fleeing persecution and war in the Spanish Netherlands in the mid @-@ 16th century . The Huguenots introduced silk weaving into the city , which by 1676 had outstripped wool weaving .
In 1620 Robert Cushman negotiated the lease of the Mayflower at 59 Palace Street for the purpose of transporting the Pilgrims to America .
In 1647 , during the English Civil War , riots broke out when Canterbury 's puritan mayor banned church services on Christmas Day . The rioters ' trial the following year led to a Kent revolt against the Parliamentarian forces , contributing to the start of the second phase of the war . However , Canterbury surrendered peacefully to the Parliamentarians after their victory at the Battle of Maidstone .
= = = 18th century – present = = =
The city 's first newspaper , the Kentish Post , was founded in 1717 . It merged with the newly founded Kentish Gazette in 1768 .
By 1770 , the castle had fallen into disrepair , and many parts of it were demolished during the late 18th century and early 19th century . In 1787 all the gates in the city wall , except for Westgate — the city jail — were demolished as a result of a commission that found them impeding to new coach travel . Canterbury Prison was opened in 1808 just outside the city boundary . By 1820 the city 's silk industry had been killed by imported Indian muslins ; its trade was thereafter mostly limited to hops and wheat . The Canterbury and Whitstable Railway , the world 's first passenger railway , was opened in 1830 ; bankrupt by 1844 , it was purchased by the South Eastern Railway , which connected the town to its larger network in 1846 . The London , Chatham , and Dover arrived in 1860 ; the competition and cost @-@ cutting between the lines was resolved by merging them as the South Eastern and Chatham in 1899 . In 1848 , St Augustine 's Abbey was refurbished for use as a missionary college for the Church of England 's representatives in the British colonies . Between 1830 and 1900 , the city 's population grew from 15 @,@ 000 to 24 @,@ 000 .
During the First World War , a number of barracks and voluntary hospitals were set up around the city , and in 1917 a German bomber crash @-@ landed near Broad Oak Road . During the Second World War , 10 @,@ 445 bombs dropped during 135 separate raids destroyed 731 homes and 296 other buildings in the city , including the missionary college and Simon Langton Girls ' Grammar Schools , and 115 people were killed . The most devastating raid was on 1 June 1942 during the Baedeker Blitz .
Before the end of the war , architect Charles Holden drew up plans to redevelop the city centre , but locals were so opposed that the Citizens ' Defence Association was formed and swept to power in the 1945 municipal elections . Rebuilding of the city centre eventually began 10 years after the war . A ring road was constructed in stages outside the city walls some time afterwards to alleviate growing traffic problems in the city centre , which was later pedestrianised . The biggest expansion of the city occurred in the 1960s , with the arrival of the University of Kent at Canterbury and Christ Church College .
The 1980s saw visits from Pope John Paul II and Queen Elizabeth II , and the beginning of the annual Canterbury Festival . Canterbury received its own radio station in CTFM , now KMFM Canterbury , in 1997 . Between 1999 and 2005 , the Whitefriars Shopping Centre underwent major redevelopment . In 2000 , during the redevelopment , a major archaeological project was undertaken by the Canterbury Archaeological Trust , known as the Big Dig , which was supported by Channel Four 's Time Team .
Another famous visitor was Mahatma Gandhi , who came to the city in October 1931 ; he met Hewlett Johnson , then Dean of Canterbury .
= = Governance = =
Since 1987 , the Member of Parliament for the Canterbury constituency , which includes Whitstable , has been the Conservative Julian Brazier . At the 2005 general election , the Conservatives won a majority of 7 @,@ 471 and 44 @.@ 4 % of the vote in the Canterbury constituency . Labour won 28 @.@ 7 % of the vote , Liberal Democrats 21 @.@ 1 % , the Green Party 3 @.@ 2 % , United Kingdom Independence Party 1 @.@ 9 % , and the Legalise Cannabis Alliance 0 @.@ 7 % .
Canterbury , along with Whitstable and Herne Bay , is in the City of Canterbury local government district . The city 's urban area consists of the six electoral wards of Barton , Blean Forest , Northgate , St Stephens , Westgate , and Wincheap . These wards have eleven of the fifty seats on the Canterbury City Council . Six of these seats are held by the Liberal Democrats , four by the Conservatives and one by Labour .
The city became a county corporate in 1461 , and later a county borough under the Local Government Act 1888 . In 1974 it lost its status as the smallest county borough in England , after the Local Government Act 1972 , and came under the control of Kent County Council .
= = Geography = =
Canterbury is located at 51 ° 16 ′ 30 ″ N 1 ° 05 ′ 13 ″ E ( 51 @.@ 275 , 1 @.@ 087 ) in east Kent , about 55 miles ( 89 km ) east @-@ southeast of London . The coastal towns of Herne Bay and Whitstable are 6 miles ( 10 km ) to the north , and Faversham is 8 miles ( 13 km ) to the northwest . Nearby villages include Rough Common , Sturry and Tyler Hill . The civil parish of Thanington Without is to the southwest ; the rest of the city is unparished . Harbledown , Wincheap and Hales Place are suburbs of the city .
The city is on the River Stour or Great Stour , flowing from its source at Lenham north @-@ east through Ashford to the English Channel at Sandwich . The river divides south east of the city , one branch flowing though the city , the other around the position of the former walls . The two branches rejoin or are linked several times , but finally recombine around the town of Fordwich , on the edge of the marshland north east of the city . The Stour is navigable on the tidal section to Fordwich , although above this point canoes and other small craft can be used . Punts and rowed river boats are available for hire in Canterbury . The geology of the area consists mainly of brickearth overlying chalk . Tertiary sands overlain by London clay form St. Thomas 's Hill and St. Stephen 's Hill about a mile northwest of the city centre .
= = Demography = =
At the 2001 UK census , the total population of the city 's urban area wards was 43 @,@ 432 .
Residents of the city had an average age of 37 @.@ 1 years , younger than the 40 @.@ 2 average of the district and the 38 @.@ 6 average for England . Of the 17 @,@ 536 households , 35 % were one @-@ person households , 39 % were couples , 10 % were lone parents , and 15 % other . Of those aged 16 – 74 in the city , 27 % had a higher education qualification , higher than the 20 % national average .
Compared with the rest of England , the city had an above @-@ average proportion of foreign @-@ born residents , at around 12 % . Ninety @-@ five percent of residents were recorded as white ; the largest minority group was recorded as Asian , at 1 @.@ 8 % of the population . Religion was recorded as 68 @.@ 2 % Christian , 1 @.@ 1 % Muslim , 0 @.@ 5 % Buddhist , 0 @.@ 8 % Hindu , 0 @.@ 2 % Jewish , and 0 @.@ 1 % Sikh . The rest either had no religion , an alternative religion , or did not state their religion .
= = Economy = =
Canterbury district retains approximately 4 @,@ 761 businesses , up to 60 @,@ 000 full and part @-@ time employees and was worth £ 1 @.@ 3 billion in 2001 . This makes the district the second largest economy in Kent . Unemployment in the city has dropped significantly since 2001 owing to the opening of the Whitefriars shopping complex which introduced thousands of job opportunities . In April 2008 , the Archbishop of Canterbury , Dr. Rowan Williams , controversially made a strong speech arguing that salary caps should be implemented to curb the pay of the rich in an attempt to manage the growth of the economy . The city 's economy benefits mainly from significant economic projects such as the Canterbury Enterprise Hub , Lakesview International Business Park and the Whitefriars retail development . Tourism contributes £ 258m to the Canterbury economy and has been a " cornerstone of the local economy " for a number of years ; Canterbury Cathedral alone generates over one million visitors a year . Canterbury has a high per capita GDP , it is higher than the Kent average of $ 42 @,@ 500 at $ 51 @,@ 900 making it one of the wealthiest towns in the South East . The registered unemployment rate as of September 2011 stands at 5 @.@ 7 % .
= = Culture = =
= = = Landmarks = = =
Canterbury Cathedral is the Mother Church of the Anglican Communion and seat of the Archbishop of Canterbury . Founded in 597 AD by Augustine , it forms a World Heritage Site , along with the Saxon St. Martin 's Church and the ruins of St Augustine 's Abbey . With one million visitors per year , it is one of the most visited places in the country . Services are held at the cathedral three or more times a day .
The Roman Museum houses an in situ mosaic pavement dating from around 300 AD . Surviving structures from the Roman times include Queningate , a blocked gate in the city wall , and the Dane John Mound , once part of a Roman cemetery . The Dane John Gardens were built beside the mound in the 18th century , and a memorial was placed on the mound 's summit . A windmill was on the mound between 1731 and 1839 .
The ruins of the Norman Canterbury Castle and St Augustine 's Abbey are both open to the public . The medieval St Margaret 's Church now houses the " The Canterbury Tales " , in which life @-@ sized character models reconstruct Geoffrey Chaucer 's stories . The Westgate is now a museum relating to its history as a jail . The medieval church of St Alphege became redundant in 1982 but had a new lease of life as the Canterbury Urban Studies Centre , later renamed the Canterbury Environment Centre ; the building is used by the King 's School . The Old Synagogue , now the King 's School Music Room , is one of only two Egyptian Revival synagogues still standing . The city centre contains many timber @-@ framed 16th and 17th century houses , however there are far fewer than there were before the Second World War , as many were damaged during the Baedecker Blitz . Many are still standing , including the " Old Weaver 's House " used by the Huguenots . St Martin 's Mill is the only surviving mill out of the six known to have stood in Canterbury . It was built in 1817 and worked until 1890 ; it is now a house conversion . St Thomas of Canterbury Church is the only Roman Catholic church in the city and contains relics of Thomas Becket .
Canterbury Heritage Museum houses many exhibits - including the Rupert Bear Museum . The Herne Bay Times has reported that the Heritage at Risk Register includes 19 listed buildings in Canterbury which need urgent repair but for which the council has insufficient funds .
= = = Theatres = = =
The city 's theatre and concert hall is the Marlowe Theatre named after Christopher Marlowe , who was born in the city in Elizabethan times . He was baptised in the city 's St George 's Church , which was destroyed during the Second World War . The old Marlowe Theatre was located in St Margaret 's Street and housed a repertory theatre . The Gulbenkian Theatre , at the University of Kent , also serves the city , housing also a cinema and café . The Marlowe Theatre was completely rebuilt and reopened in October 2011 .
Besides the two theatres , theatrical performances take place at several areas of the city , for instance the cathedral and St Augustine 's Abbey . The premiere of Murder in the Cathedral by T. S. Eliot took place at Canterbury Cathedral .
The oldest surviving Tudor theatre in Canterbury is now the Shakespeare , formerly known as Casey 's . There are several theatre groups based in Canterbury , including the University of Kent Students ' Union 's T24 Drama Society , The Canterbury Players and Kent Youth Theatre .
= = = = Marlowe Theatre = = = =
The redeveloped Marlowe Theatre is ( at the time of writing ) the largest theatre in the region , offering touring productions and concerts . The programme includes musicals , drama , ballet , contemporary dance , classical orchestras , opera , children 's shows , pantomime , stand @-@ up comedy and concerts . There is also a second performance space called the Marlowe Studio , dedicated to creative activity and the programming of new work . The Marlowe Theatre can be seen from many points throughout the city centre , considering it is the only modern and tall structure .
= = = Music = = =
= = = = The cathedral = = = =
= = = = = Medieval = = = = =
Polyphonic music written for the monks of Christ Church Priory ( the cathedral ) survives from the 13th century . The cathedral may have had an organ as early as the 12th century , though the names of organists are only recorded from the early 15th century . One of the earliest named composers associated with Canterbury Cathedral was Leonel Power , who was appointed master of the new Lady Chapel choir formed in 1438 .
= = = = = Post @-@ Reformation = = = = =
The Reformation brought a period of decline in the cathedral 's music which was revived under Dean Thomas Neville in the early 17th century . Neville introduced instrumentalists into the cathedral 's music who played cornett and sackbut , probably members of the city 's band of waits . The cathedral acquired sets of recorders , lutes and viols for the use of the choir boys and lay @-@ clerks .
= = = = The city = = = =
= = = = = Early modern = = = = =
As was common in English cities in the Middle Ages , Canterbury employed a town band known as the Waits . There are records of payments to the Waits starting from 1402 , though they probably existed earlier than this . The Waits were disbanded by the city authorities in 1641 for ' misdemeanors ' but were reinstated in 1660 when they played for the visit of King Charles II on his return from exile . Waits were eventually abolished nationally by the Municipal Corporations Act of 1835 . A modern early music group called The Canterbury Waits has revived the name .
The Canterbury Catch Club was a musical and social club which met in the city between 1779 and 1865 . The club ( male only ) met weekly in the winter . It employed an orchestra to assist in performances in the first half of the evening . After the interval , the members sang catches and glees from the club 's extensive music library ( now deposited at the Cathedral Archives in Canterbury ) .
= = = = = Contemporary = = = = =
The city gave its name to a musical genre known as the Canterbury Sound or Canterbury Scene , a group of progressive rock , avant @-@ garde and jazz musicians established within the city during the late 1960s and early 1970s . Some very notable Canterbury bands were Soft Machine , Caravan , Matching Mole , Egg , Hatfield and the North , National Health , Gilgamesh , Soft Heap , Khan , Camel and In Cahoots . Over the years , with band membership changes and new bands evolving , the term has been used to describe a musical style or subgenre , rather than a regional group of musicians . During the 1970 @-@ 80 's the Canterbury ' Odeon ' now the site of the ' New Marlow ' played host to many of the Punk and new wave bands of the era including , The Clash , The Ramones , Blondie , Sham69 , Magazine , XTC , Dr Feelgood , Elvis Costello and The Attractions , and The Stranglers .
The University of Kent has hosted concerts by bands including Led Zeppelin and The Who . During the late seventies and early eighties the Canterbury Odeon hosted a number of major acts , including The Cure and Joy Division . The Marlowe Theatre is also used for many musical performances , such as Don McLean in 2007 , and Fairport Convention in 2008 . A regular music and dance venue is the Westgate Hall .
The Canterbury Choral Society gives regular concerts in Canterbury Cathedral , specialising in the large @-@ scale choral works of the classical repertory . The Canterbury Orchestra , founded in 1953 , is a thriving group of enthusiastic players who regularly tackle major works from the symphonic repertoire . Other musical groups include the Canterbury Singers ( also founded in 1953 ) , Cantemus , and the City of Canterbury Chamber Choir . The University of Kent has a Symphony Orchestra , a University Choir , a Chamber Choir , and a University Concert Band and Big Band .
The Canterbury Festival takes place over two weeks in October each year in Canterbury and the surrounding towns . It includes a wide range of musical events ranging from opera and symphony concerts to world music , jazz , folk , etc . , with a Festival Club , a Fringe and Umbrella events . Canterbury also hosts the annual Lounge On The Farm festival in July , which mainly sees performances from rock , indie and dance artists .
The reggae / ska musician Judge Dread played his last gig at the Penny Theatre . His final words were " Let 's hear it for the band . " He then went offstage , suffered a major heart attack and died , despite help from both ambulance crews and the audience .
= = = = Composers = = = =
Composers with an association with Canterbury include
Thomas Tallis ( c . 1505 – 1585 ) , became a lay clerk ( singing man ) at Canterbury Cathedral c . 1540 and was subsequently appointed a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal in 1543 .
John Ward ( 1571 – 1638 ) , born in Canterbury , a chorister at Canterbury Cathedral , composed madrigals , works for viol consort , services , and anthems .
Orlando Gibbons ( 1583 – 1625 ) , organist , composer and Gentleman of the Chapel Royal , who died in Canterbury and was buried in the cathedral .
William Flackton ( 1709 – 1798 ) , born in Canterbury , a chorister at Canterbury Cathedral , was an organist , viola player and composer .
John Marsh ( 1752 – 1828 ) , lawyer , amateur composer and concert organiser , wrote two symphonies for the Canterbury Orchestra before moving to Chichester in 1784 .
Thomas Clark ( 1775 – 1859 ) , shoemaker and organist at the Methodist church in Canterbury , composer of ' West Gallery ' hymns and psalm tunes .
Sir George Job Elvey ( 1816 – 1893 ) , organist and composer , was born in Canterbury and trained as a chorister at the cathedral .
Alan Ridout ( 1934 – 1996 ) educator and broadcaster , composer of church , orchestral and chamber music .
Sir Peter Maxwell Davies was appointed an Honorary Fellow of Canterbury Christ Church University at a ceremony in Canterbury Cathedral .
Many Canterbury Cathedral organists composed services , anthems , hymns , etc .
Stray Ghost ( 1987- ) , British Neo @-@ Classical Composer Anthony Saggers ; lived in the city for a period of years , finishing numerous albums including ' Nothing , but Death ' .
= = = Sport = = =
St Lawrence Ground is notable as one of the two grounds used regularly for first @-@ class cricket that have a tree within the boundary ( the other is the City Oval in Pietermaritzburg , South Africa ) . It is the home ground of Kent County Cricket Club and has hosted several One Day Internationals , including one England match during the 1999 Cricket World Cup .
Canterbury City F.C. reformed in 2007 as a community interest company and currently compete in the Southern Counties East Football League . The previous incarnation of the club folded in 2001 . Canterbury RFC were founded in 1926 and became the first East Kent club to achieve National League status and currently play in the fourth tier , National League 2 South .
The Tour de France has visited the city twice . In 1994 the tour passed through , and in 2007 it held the finish for Stage 1 .
Canterbury Hockey Club is one of the largest clubs in the country and both men 's 1st XI and women 's 1st XI compete in the England Hockey League . Former Olympic gold medal winner Sean Kerly also a member of the club .
Sporting activities for the public are provided at the Kingsmead Leisure Centre , which has a 33 @-@ metre ( 108 ft ) swimming pool and a sports hall for football , basketball , and badminton .
= = Public transport = =
= = = Railway = = =
Canterbury was the terminus of the Canterbury and Whitstable Railway ( known locally as the Crab and Winkle line ) which was a pioneer line , opened on 3 May 1830 , and closed in 1953 . The Canterbury and Whitstable was the first regular passenger steam railway in the world . The first station in Canterbury was at North Lane .
Canterbury has two railway stations , called Canterbury West and Canterbury East ( despite both stations being west of the city centre : Canterbury West is to the northwest and Canterbury East is to the southwest ) . Both stations are operated by Southeastern . Canterbury West station , on the South Eastern Railway from Ashford , was opened on 6 February 1846 , and on 13 April the line to Ramsgate was completed . Canterbury West is served by high speed ( 56 minutes ) trains to London St. Pancras , slower stopping services to London Charing Cross and London Victoria as well as by trains to Ramsgate and Margate . Canterbury East , the more central of the two stations , was opened by the London , Chatham and Dover Railway on 9 July 1860 . Services from London Victoria stop at Canterbury East ( journey time around 88 minutes ) and continue to Dover .
Canterbury used to be served by two other stations . North Lane Station was the southern terminus of the Canterbury and Whitstable Railway between 1830 and 1846 . Canterbury South was on the Elham Valley Railway , which opened in 1890 and closed in 1947 . A high @-@ speed train service to London St Pancras via Ashford International started on 13 December 2009 .
= = = Road = = =
Canterbury is by @-@ passed by the A2 London to Dover Road . It is about 45 miles ( 72 km ) from the M25 London orbital motorway , and 61 miles ( 98 km ) from central London by road . The other main road through Canterbury is the A28 from Ashford to Ramsgate and Margate . The City Council has invested heavily in Park and Ride systems around the City 's outskirts and there are three sites : at Wincheap , New Dover Road and Sturry Road . There are plans to build direct access sliproads to and from the London directions of the A2 where it meets the congested Wincheap ( at present there are only slips from the A28 to and from the direction of Dover ) to allow more direct access to Canterbury from the A2 , but these are currently subject to local discussion . In 2011 a third junction was constructed , linking the A28 to the northbound A2 ; this leaves just the A2 southbound exit missing , but since this would cut across the Park & Ride car park and meet the A28 at an already complicated junction , it is not expected to be added in the near term .
The hourly National Express 007 coach service to and from Victoria Coach Station , which leaves from the main bus station , is typically scheduled to take two hours . Eurolines coaches run from the bus station to London and Paris .
Stagecoach in East Kent is a bus company in Canterbury . The company run local routes in the city as well as long distance services . The group runs a special ' Unibus ' service , with the buses running on 100 % bio fuel from the city centre to the University of Kent .
= = Education = =
= = = Universities and colleges = = =
The city has an estimated 31 @,@ 000 students ( the highest student / permanent resident ratio in the UK ) as it is home to four universities , together with several other higher education institutions and colleges ; at the 2001 census , 22 % of the population aged 16 – 74 were full @-@ time students , compared with 7 % throughout England .
The city is host to four universities : The University of Kent , Canterbury Christ Church University , the University for the Creative Arts and most recently the American University - Canterbury , a branch of GAU - Girne American University .
The University of Kent 's main campus is situated over 600 acres ( 243 ha ) on St. Stephen 's Hill , a mile north of Canterbury city centre . Formerly called the University of Kent at Canterbury , it was founded in 1965 , with a smaller campus opened in 2000 in the town of Chatham . As of 2014 , it had around 20 @,@ 000 students .
Canterbury Christ Church University was founded as a teacher training college in 1962 by the Church of England . In 1978 its range of courses began to expand into other subjects , and in 1995 it was given the power to become a University college . In 2005 it was granted full university status , and as of 2007 it had around 15 @,@ 000 students .
The University for the Creative Arts is the oldest higher education institution in the city , having been founded in 1882 by Thomas Sidney Cooper as the Sidney Cooper School of Art . Near the University of Kent is the Franciscan International Study Centre , a place of study for the worldwide Franciscan Order . Chaucer College is an independent college for Japanese and other students within the campus of the University of Kent . Canterbury College , formerly Canterbury College of Technology , offers a mixture of vocation , further and higher education courses for school leavers and adults .
= = = Primary and secondary schools = = =
Independent secondary schools include Kent College , St Edmund 's School and , what is the oldest school in England , the King 's School . St. Augustine established a school shortly after his arrival in Canterbury in 597 , and it is from this that the King ’ s School grew . The documented history of the school only began after the Dissolution of the Monasteries in the 16th century , when the school acquired its present name , referring to Henry VIII . The Kings School in Canterbury is one of the top public schools in the United Kingdom , regularly featuring in the top ten most expensive school fees lists .
The city 's secondary grammar schools are Barton Court Grammar School , Simon Langton Grammar School for Boys and Simon Langton Girls ' Grammar School ; all of which in 2008 had over 93 % of their pupils gain five or more GCSEs at grades A * to C , including English and maths . The non @-@ selective state secondary schools are The Canterbury High School , St Anselm 's Catholic School and the Church of England 's Archbishop 's School ; all of which in 2008 had more than 30 % of their pupils gain five or more GCSEs at grades A * to C including English and maths .
= = = Weekend education = = =
The Kent Japanese School ( ケント日本語補習校 Kento Nihongo Hoshū Kō ) , a weekend Japanese educational programme , is held on Saturday mornings on the campus of St. Edmund 's School , Canterbury CT2 8HU .
= = Local media = =
= = = Newspapers = = =
Canterbury 's first newspaper was the Kentish Post , founded in 1717 . It changed its name to the Kentish Gazette in 1768 and is still being published , claiming to be the country 's second oldest surviving newspaper . It is currently produced as a paid @-@ for newspaper produced by the KM Group , based in nearby Whitstable . This newspaper covers the East Kent area and has a circulation of about 25 @,@ 000 .
Three free weekly newspapers provide news on the Canterbury district : yourcanterbury , the Canterbury Times and Canterbury Extra . The Canterbury Times is owned by the Daily Mail and General Trust and has a circulation of about 55 @,@ 000 . The Canterbury Extra is owned by the KM Group and also has a circulation of about 55 @,@ 000 @.@ yourcanterbury is published by KOS Media , which also prints the popular county paper Kent on Sunday . It also runs a website giving daily updated news and events for the city .
= = = Radio and television = = =
Canterbury is served by 2 local radio stations , KMFM Canterbury and CSR 97.4FM.
KMFM Canterbury broadcasts on 106FM . It was formerly known as KMFM106 , and before the KM Group took control it was known as CTFM , based on the local postcode being CT . Previously based in the city , the station 's studios and presenters were moved to Ashford in 2008 .
CSR 97.4FM , an acronym for " Community Student Radio " , broadcasts on 97.4FM from studios at both the University of Kent and Canterbury Christ Church University . The station is run by a collaboration of education establishments in the city including the two universities . The transmitter is based at the University of Kent , offering a good coverage of the city . CSR replaced two existing radio stations : C4 Radio , which served Canterbury Christ Church University , and UKC Radio , which served the University of Kent .
There are 2 other stations that cover parts of the city . Canterbury Hospital Radio ( CHR ) serves the patients of the Kent and Canterbury Hospital , and Simon Langton Boys School has a radio station , SLBSLive , which can only be picked up on the school grounds . The City receives BBC One South East and ITV Meridian from the main transmitter at Dover , and a local relay situated at Chartham .
= = Notable people = =
People born in Canterbury include the detective Edmund Reid , Christopher Marlowe , TV presenter Fiona Phillips , actor Thomas James Longley , BBC Radio 6 Music presenter Gideon Coe , former ITV News journalist , television presenter and BBC Radio 3 presenter Katie Derham , airline entrepreneur Sir Freddie Laker , boy singer and actor Joseph McManners , comic book artist Jack Lawrence , and actor Orlando Bloom . Mary Tourtel , the creator of Rupert Bear , and the Victorian animal painter who taught her , Thomas Sidney Cooper. were both born and lived in the city . The cricketer David Gower , physician William Harvey , actress and singer Aruhan Galieva , writer W. Somerset Maugham and film director Michael Powell are among the former pupils of The King 's School , Canterbury .
Notable alumni of the University of Kent include comedian Alan Davies , singer Ellie Goulding , newspaper editor Rosie Boycott , actor Tom Wilkinson , and Booker Prize winning novelist Kazuo Ishiguro , and actor Chris Simmons . In November 2012 , Rowan Williams was awarded Freedom of the City for his work as Archbishop of Canterbury between 2003 and 2012 .
The grave of author Joseph Conrad , in Canterbury Cemetery at 32 Clifton Gardens , is a Grade II listed building .
= = International relations = =
Canterbury is twinned with the following cities :
Reims , France
City to City Partnership
Esztergom , Hungary
Protocol D 'accord
Saint @-@ Omer , France , since 1995
Wimereux , France , since 1995
Certaldo , Italy , since 1997
Vladimir , Russia , since 1997
Mölndal , Sweden , since 1997
Tournai , Belgium , since 1999
|
= Cavalera Conspiracy =
Cavalera Conspiracy is an American heavy metal band founded by Brazilian brothers Max ( vocals , guitar ) and Igor Cavalera ( drums ) , currently performing along with American musicians Marc Rizzo ( guitar ) and Johny Chow ( bass ) . The band originally formed in 2007 as Inflikted but changed its name for legal reasons . The group 's creation marked the end of a 10 @-@ year feud between the Cavalera brothers who founded Sepultura in the early 1980s .
Following the brothers ' falling out , Max had formed a new band , Soulfly , and Igor had recorded four studio albums with Sepultura before leaving the band in January 2006 . In July 2006 , Max received an unexpected call from his brother , and by the end of the conversation , Max had invited Igor to visit him in Phoenix , Arizona , to perform in a Soulfly show . Igor joined Soulfly in concert and performed two Sepultura songs . After the show , Max suggested they begin a new project , and Igor accepted . To complete the band , Max chose Soulfly guitarist Marc Rizzo and the Gojira frontman Joe Duplantier to play bass guitar . The group then recorded their debut album at Undercity Studios in Los Angeles with engineer and co @-@ producer Logan Mader in July 2007 . Named after the band 's original moniker , Inflikted was released through Roadrunner Records on 25 March 2008 .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
On 16 August 1996 at 1 : 43 a.m. , Max Cavalera 's stepson Dana Wells , was killed in a car accident at the age of 21 in Phoenix , Arizona . At the time , Cavalera was the lead vocalist for Sepultura which was on tour promoting its sixth studio album , Roots , in England with Ozzy Osbourne . After hearing the news , Ozzy and his wife Sharon Osbourne hired a private plane to take Cavalera and his wife , manager and mother of Dana , Gloria , back home . After the funeral , Max returned his focus to Sepultura , and the band resumed its European tour . Then , following a sold @-@ out show at London 's Brixton Academy on 16 December — later documented on the live album Under a Pale Grey Sky — drummer Igor Cavalera , guitarist Andreas Kisser , and bassist Paulo Jr. told Max they wanted to replace numerous members of the band 's staff , including Gloria . Andreas , Paulo and Igor proposed ending the contract with Gloria and hiring a new manager for Sepultura , saying that she paid more attention to Max than the band . The trio suggested that she could continue as Max 's personal manager but that someone else should manage the band . Gloria refused . Max felt betrayed by his mates , especially his brother .
Max decided to leave Sepultura , as he felt that his band mates were " biting the hands that feeds " . In an interview with Revolver magazine 's May 2008 issue , Max explained that Gloria had worked for Sepultura for two years without earning one dollar , just for the passion of the music . Disagreeing with the other Sepultura members , Max said , " If this is how it 's going down , I 'm out . I quit . I can 't just put a mask on and backstab a bunch of people that trust me . " Later , Max stated that it was the hardest decision he had to make in his life .
His departure from Sepultura caused a 10 @-@ year feud between the Cavalera brothers . During this period , Max formed a new band , Soulfly , which has released nine studio albums . Igor continued as Sepultura 's drummer , appearing on the group 's next four studio records before leaving in January 2006 to work on his DJ project , Mixhell , and to spend more time with his family .
In July 2006 , while Soulfly was on tour , Max received a call from his brother , and by the end of the conversation , Max had invited Igor to visit him in Phoenix for the tenth anniversary of D @-@ Low , an annual memorial show for Dana . At the concert , Igor joined Soulfly and performed two Sepultura songs , " Roots Bloody Roots " and " Attitude , " for which Dana had written the lyrics . In an interview with Chad Bowar for About.com , Max stated that performance was " the birth of Cavalera Conspiracy " . After the show , Max suggested they begin a new project after Soulfly finished touring . Max confessed to Bowar that he had lied to Igor when he said all the songs were ready when he had only finished one . He added , " It was one of those good lies . Everything rolled from there . What I like about the Conspiracy is that nothing is really planned . One thing leads to another . There 's no pressure and it feels like a different project than anything I 've done . "
= = = = Name = = = =
Before talking with his brother , Max wrote a song entitled " Inflikted , " inspired by Sepultura 's visit in 1992 to Indonesia where they saw a " crazy ritual " . Describing what he saw , Max said , " There was self @-@ inflicted pain , knives , blood , fire . It was insane . It stuck in my head . " Max stated that " Inflikted " was supposed to go towards Soulfly 's sixth studio album Conquer , but he wanted to do the song with Igor . For legal reasons , they could not use Inflikted as the band name . According to Max , " A lot of people had used it before , so he had to come up with something else . " When trying to find a name , he " blurted out " Cavalera Conspiracy , and Igor liked it . Max added , " I think I like it better than Inflikted . It has a ring to it that connects me and Igor as two brothers back together . "
= = = Inflikted ( 2007 – 2009 ) = = =
To complete the band , Max chose Soulfly guitarist Marc Rizzo and vocalist Joe Duplantier of Gojira . Rizzo was his choice because , according to Max , he and Rizzo " play together in Soulfly and musically we are like twin brothers " . Max also said that he talked to Rizzo about going back to the roots of the mid @-@ 1980s thrash metal , which he did with Sepultura . Max continues , " Marc was completely into it and he did great . He surpassed what I asked him to do . " Max stated that Duplantier was Gloria 's idea , as he did not know him at all . He added , " We had no idea who the guy is , he 's from a different continent and we don 't speak French . I did know the Gojira CD . But I like the element of surprise and danger Joe brought . "
In July 2007 , the band recorded their debut album at Undercity Studios in Los Angeles with engineer and co @-@ producer Logan Mader ( who played in Soulfly for a year after leaving Machine Head in 1999 ) and Lucas Banker of the Dirty Icon production team . The album included guest appearances of bassist Rex Brown on the song " Ultra @-@ Violent " , and Max 's stepson Ritchie Cavalera singing on " Black Ark " . The band made their debut live performance on August 31 , 2007 at the 11th Annual D @-@ Low Memorial Concert in Tempe , AZ . Inflikted , named after the band 's original moniker , was released through Roadrunner Records on 25 March 2008 . Commercially , Inflikted did not have great sales , reaching moderate positions on the charts . The album reached the top 30 on Austria , Finland and Germany , and the top 40 on Australia and Belgium . Having sold more than 9 @,@ 000 copies during its first week , Inflikted peaked at number 72 on the Billboard 200 chart .
The Infliktour supporting the debut album began on 30 May 2008 , when Cavalera Conspiracy played its first official concert at the Electric Weekend festival in Madrid , Spain . However , for this live performance and the subsequent European tour , the band had to replace Duplantier , who was unable to join Cavalera Conspiracy on the road as he was recording Gojira 's fourth studio album , The Way of All Flesh . He was replaced by Johny Chow of Fireball Ministry . Between June and mid @-@ July 2008 , the band performed in several festivals , including appearances at the Pinkpop Festival , Rock am Ring and Rock im Park , Download Festival , Graspop Metal Meeting , Eurockéennes , among others .
The band then returned to the United States for a North American tour from mid @-@ July to August 2008 , featuring headling dates with The Dillinger Escape Plan , Throwdown , Bury Your Dead , and Incite . Cavalera Conspiracy also performed at the Monsters of Rock festival , which was held on 26 July at McMahon Stadium in Calgary , Canada , and the one @-@ day Ozzfest at the Pizza Hut Park on 9 August . During its tour , Cavalera Conspiracy performed on several dates with Judas Priest at the Priest Feast throughout Eastern Europe , but both bands cancelled their shows in Australia and New Zealand , which were scheduled for September 2008 . In a press release , promoters claimed the cancellation was due to " logistic and freight issues " , but Max Cavalera wrote on the band 's website that they were " banned " from performing in New Zealand and Australia because someone — whom he did not specify — " deemed " them an " inappropriate " band and " too inflammatory " .
Due to commitments of Max with Soulfly and Igor with Mixhell , Cavalera Conspiracy was put on hold until August 2009 , when the band regrouped to touring in Europe and Japan , including shows at the Ankkarock , Summer Sonic , Pukkelpop , and Trutnov festivals , and two September 2009 dates in Austria and Russia .
= = = Blunt Force Trauma ( 2009 – 2012 ) = = =
In October 2009 , Max told Noisecreep that he and his brother Igor have plans to work on a second Cavalera Conspiracy album together . The following month , Noisecreep spoke with Igor about a new Cavalera Conspiracy album . Igor said that he and Max are both busy with their main commitments , but " We have some ideas of maybe doing a remix album of [ Inflikted ] and have people like Justice or Soulwax — even some dub artists that my brother likes — remix the whole album , " he says . " But that 's just an idea . It 's nothing confirmed . But me and Max are talking about doing a new album in the future , but there 's no pressure . There 's nobody from the label or the agents trying to push us to do it as quick as possible . "
Cavalera Conspiracy entered the studio in April 2010 to begin recording the follow @-@ up to their 2008 debut album , Inflikted . In May 2010 , the band finished recording with producer Logan Mader in co @-@ production with Max . Cavalera Conspiracy recruited their touring bassist Johny Chow to play bass on the album , as former member Joe Duplantier was busy with Gojira 's next album . Upon finished recordings , Roadrunner Records confirmed that the band 's new album would not be released until early 2011 .
On 16 November 2010 , in an article on blabbermouth.net it was revealed that the band 's second album would be titled Blunt Force Trauma , and would be released on 29 March 2011 . A tracklist for the album was also revealed .
Prior to the album 's release , two songs were published by the band . The song " Killing inside " was released via the homepage of the band 's label Roadrunner Records and the Cavalera Conspiracy newsletter . The download was only available from 7 February 2011 until 9 February 2011 . The title track " Blunt Force Trauma " was released on 17 February 2011 as a stream via the Roadrunner Records homepage .
In a November 2012 concert in Belo Horizonte , original Sepultura lead guitarist Jairo Guedz joined the band ( performing with Tony Campos on bass ) to perform Troops of Doom .
= = = Pandemonium ( 2013 – present ) = = =
In September 2013 Max Cavalera stated his intent to begin work on a new Cavalera Conspiracy album in 2014 , which will be predominantly grindcore . Igor then implied on October 1 that the album could consist solely of the two brothers , without involvement from Marc Rizzo or Johnny Chow , with the album produced by James Murphy . However this was proven false when Max 's wife Gloria announced the trio of Max , Igor and Marc entering the studio with producer John Gray in late December 2013 , along with the announcement on 31 December of Nate Newton of Converge as the band 's new bassist .
In August 2014 , a new song titled " Banzai Kamikaze " was uploaded to Napalm 's Soundcloud account . The new Cavalera Conspiracy album Pandemonium was released on 31 October 2014 in Europe and on 4 November 2014 in North America . 2015 saw Johnny Chow return to Cavalera Conspiracy on bass for live shows , however the group 's Facebook page lists Chow , Newton and Campos as rotating live duties on bass .
= = Style , lyrics and reception = =
Revolver 's Jon Wiederhorn , pointed out that although the songs were arranged and recorded quickly , Inflikted sounds neither hastily executed nor incomplete . There 's a connection between Max 's riffing and Igor 's drumming ; a chemistry that comes only from musicians who learned to play together and honed their craft through years of studio sessions and live shows . Wiederhorn described Inflikted as an " explosive flashback to the remorseless thrash and primal groove @-@ metal Sepultura created between 1991 's Arise and 1993 's Chaos A.D. [ ... ] The songs are raw and simple , yet graced with syncopated drum runs , experimental guitar flourishes , and sonic frills inspired by Max 's love of reggae and Igor 's fascination with DJ culture . The vocals are primal and savage , emboldened by a sense of urgency that 's equal parts desperation , rage , and celebration . "
On Inflikted , Max was the group 's songwriter and lyricist . At the time of the album recording , he was watching the same four movies almost every day : Apocalypse Now , City of God , A Clockwork Orange , and La Haine . Max revealed to Revolver that he wanted to do something different , and it gave him a lot of ideas . He said , " What came out of this album was more than enough to fill the void of not working together for so long . It 's pretty intense . From the first moment , it 's war . "
Allmusic 's Eduardo Rivadavia , said that release of Inflikted " brings to fruition one of the most anticipated yet most improbable reunions in heavy metal history . " Rivadavia expressed that Duplantier " generally just keeps a low sonic profile and his nose out of trouble , but Rizzo 's contributions really can 't be overstated . [ ... ] His otherworldly soloing and inventive melodic lines often serve as the creative catalysts responsible for the most inspired moments . " Keith Carman of Exclaim ! praised the group 's musicianship on Inflikted , saying that " it wouldn 't be a stretch to proclaim that Inflikted , with its detuned grunt , bombastic lyrics and hyperactive drumming , is the album that should have succeeded Sepultura 's widely @-@ acclaimed 1996 powerhouse Roots . " Like the former , Adrien Begrand of PopMatters wrote enthusiastically for both Cavalera Conspiracy and Inflikted .
Sure , it 's not a Sepultura reunion , but having Max and Igor performing on record for the first time in a dozen years is as close as we 'll ever get , and not only does Cavalera Conspiracy 's Inflikted revisit the post @-@ thrash sounds of 1993 's Chaos A.D. , but it manages to outshine anything Sepultura has put out in the last dozen years . Rounded out by Soulfly lead guitarist Marc Rizzo and , most impressively , Gojira frontman Joe Duplantier on bass and rhythm guitar , the band is as solid a metal supergroup as you 'll ever come across , and the album 's eleven tracks benefit hugely from the chemistry between the four musicians .
Joel McIver of Record Collector wrote : " Inflikted is gobsmackingly violent . The 11 tracks combine hardcore punk ( without the crappy production ) and thrash metal ( without the clichés ) to produce an insanely fast record loaded with references to their best work : Sepultura ’ s Beneath the Remains and Arise . It ’ s too modern to sound close to those records , of course , but in terms of attitude and riff weight it matches them beat @-@ for @-@ beat and riff @-@ for @-@ riff . Those thousands praying for the Max @-@ era Sepultura line @-@ up to reform can get off their knees : the key reunion has happened . "
= = Band members = =
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
= = = Music videos = = =
|
= Eva Green =
Eva Gaëlle Green ( French : [ ɡʁin ] ; Swedish : [ ˈɡʁeːn ] ; born 6 July 1980 ) is a French actress and model . She started her career in theatre before making her film debut in 2003 in Bernardo Bertolucci 's controversial film The Dreamers . She achieved international recognition when she appeared as Sibylla , Queen of Jerusalem in Ridley Scott 's historical epic Kingdom of Heaven ( 2005 ) , and portrayed Bond girl Vesper Lynd in the James Bond film Casino Royale ( 2006 ) . In 2006 , Green was awarded the BAFTA Rising Star Award .
Since 2006 , Green has starred in independent films Cracks ( 2009 ) , Womb ( 2010 ) , and Perfect Sense ( 2011 ) . She has also appeared in the television series Camelot ( 2011 ) , and played Angelique Bouchard in Tim Burton 's big @-@ screen adaptation of Dark Shadows ( 2012 ) . In 2014 , she played Artemisia in the 300 sequel , 300 : Rise of an Empire , and Ava Lord in Frank Miller 's and Robert Rodriguez 's Sin City sequel , Sin City : A Dame to Kill For . She also starred as Vanessa Ives in Showtime 's horror drama Penny Dreadful . Her performance in the series earned her a nomination for Best Actress in a Television Series - Drama at the 73rd Golden Globe Awards .
= = Early life and education = =
Green was born in Paris , France , two minutes earlier than her fraternal twin sister , Joy ( Johanne ) . She is the daughter of Marlène Jobert , an actress , and Walter Green , a dentist . ( Her father Walter has acted in film , appearing in Robert Bresson 's film Au Hasard Balthazar . ) Her father is of Swedish and French descent , and through him she is the great @-@ granddaughter of the French composer Paul Le Flem . Her mother , a native of French Algeria , later moved to Metropolitan France . Green is Jewish , as is her mother ( of Sephardi Jewish heritage ) . However , she was not raised religious at all ; she has said " I feel like a citizen of the world . Life and cinema don 't have borders . " Green has described her family as " bourgeois " , and has said that her sister is very different from her . Green is a natural dark blonde ; she has dyed her hair black since she was 15 years old . The French @-@ Swedish actress Marika Green is her aunt . The 1980s pop @-@ star Elsa Lunghini is her first cousin , through their mothers .
Green was raised in France and attended the American University of Paris , an English @-@ speaking institution . She also spent time between Ramsgate , London and Ireland growing up . Green was quiet in school , and developed an interest in Egyptology when she visited the Louvre at age seven . At age 14 , after seeing Isabelle Adjani in The Story of Adele H. , Green decided to become an actress . Her mother initially feared that an acting career would be too much for her sensitive daughter , but later came to support young Eva 's ambitions . Green continued her studies at St. Paul Drama School in Paris , and took an acting course at Webber Douglas Academy of Dramatic Art in London . Around this time , Green returned to Paris , where she performed in several plays . Green stated that in drama school , " I always picked the really evil roles . It 's a great way to deal with your everyday emotions . "
= = Career = =
Green appeared on stage in Jalousie en Trois Fax ( 2001 ) for which she was nominated for a Molière Award . She also appeared in Turcaret ( 2002 ) .
In 2002 , Green had her film debut , when director Bernardo Bertolucci cast her for the role of Isabelle in The Dreamers ( 2003 ) , which involved her in extensive full frontal nude scenes and graphic sex scenes . Green told The Guardian that her agent and her parents begged her not to take the role , concerned that the film would cause her career to " have the same destiny as Maria Schneider " , because of Schneider 's traumatic experience during the filming of Bertolucci 's Last Tango in Paris . Green said that with Bertolucci 's guidance she felt comfortable during the filming of the nude and sex scenes but was embarrassed when her family saw the film . Her performance was well @-@ received , and some compared her to Liv Tyler . Green expressed surprise when a minute was cut from the film for the American market , stating , " [ T ] here is so much violence , both on the streets and on the screen . They think nothing of it . Yet I think they are frightened by sex . " Her next film was Arsène Lupin ( 2004 ) , in which she portrayed Lupin 's love interest . She enjoyed the light @-@ hearted role , although she has stated that she generally prefers more complex characters .
Her performance in The Dreamers led Ridley Scott to cast Green in Kingdom of Heaven ( 2005 ) , a film about the Crusades where she played Sibylla of Jerusalem . Green performed six screen tests and was hired only a week before principal photography began . Green found the atmosphere of coming onto a film so late tense and exciting , and she liked the film 's ambiguity in approaching its subject matter . To her disappointment , much of her screen time was cut . Stephanie Zacharek of Salon.com praised her performance : " She doesn 't quite know what to do with her character 's stilted dialogue , but she carries herself so regally that you barely notice . " Nev Pierce of the BBC , however , called her character " limp " . Green was satisfied when her character 's complex subplot was restored in the director 's cut . Total Film said the new scenes completed her performance : " In the theatrical cut , Princess Sibylla sleeps with Balian and then , more or less , loses her mind . Now we understand why . Not only does Sibylla have a young son , but when she realizes he 's afflicted with leprosy just like her brother Baldwin , she decides to take his life shortly after he 's been crowned king . "
Green was considered for roles in The Constant Gardener ( a role that went to Rachel Weisz ) and The Black Dahlia . She was cast at the last minute for the role of Vesper Lynd in the James Bond film Casino Royale ( 2006 ) . Green was approached in mid @-@ 2005 but turned it down . Principal photography was already underway , and director Martin Campbell said casting the role was difficult because " we didn 't have the final script and a Bond girl always had the connotation of tits ' n ' ass . " Campbell saw Green 's performance in the director 's cut of Kingdom of Heaven , and approached Green again . She read the script , and found the character of Vesper far deeper than most Bond girls . Green 's performance was well received : Entertainment Weekly called her the fourth @-@ best Bond girl of all time ; IGN named her the best femme fatale , stating , " This is the girl that broke – and therefore made – James Bond " ; and she won a BAFTA and an Empire award for her performance . Both awards were voted for by the British public .
Green portrayed the witch Serafina Pekkala in the 2007 film adaptation of The Golden Compass . She found it difficult being flown on a harness because of her fear of heights , which led her to refuse to reshoot a scene on her last day of filming . Green hoped the religious themes of the book would be preserved , but references to Catholicism were removed from the film . Green next appeared in Franklyn , as Emilia , a woman whose multiple personalities are split between tormented artist ( which Green compared to real @-@ life figures Sophie Calle and Tracey Emin ) and another , which she described as , " full of life , very witty , big sense of humor " . She also filmed Cracks , the directorial debut of Jordan Scott , Ridley Scott 's daughter , where she plays a mysterious teacher at a girls ' school named Miss G , who falls in love with one of her pupils . In March 2009 , she appeared in Womb , where she plays a woman who clones her dead boyfriend . It is a collaboration between actor Matt Smith and director Benedek Fliegauf .
She was considered for the role eventually played by Cécile de France in Un Secret ( 2007 ) . Additionally , she was initially approached for the female lead in Lars von Trier 's controversial film Antichrist ( 2009 ) . According to Trier , Green was positive about appearing in the film , but her agents refused to allow her . The unsuccessful casting attempt took two months of the film 's pre @-@ production process . Anglo @-@ French actress Charlotte Gainsbourg was subsequently cast in the role . Green later told she got along well with Trier , " but then we started talking about nudity and sex and so on . It got a bit too far ... It was my dream to work with him , but it ’ s a shame it was on that film that it nearly happened . I ’ m sure I would have been trashed doing that film " .
Green starred in the first season of Starz 's series , Camelot , as the sorceress Morgan le Fay . Green stated , " This is such an iconic story and you have 10 episodes to explore a character . It 's not a girlfriend role that you could have in a movie . It 's a real ballsy character . She has some guts . " In 2012 , Green played a vengeful witch Angelique Bouchard who curses Johnny Depp 's character into a vampire in Tim Burton 's Dark Shadows . In 2014 , she played Artemisia in the 300 sequel , 300 : Rise of an Empire . Since May 2014 , Green starred in the Showtime series Penny Dreadful as Vanessa Ives . She played the titular role Ava Lord in the Sin City sequel , Sin City : A Dame to Kill For ( 2014 ) .
= = = Promotional work = = =
In addition to her acting career , Green did endorsements for Montblanc , Breil , Emporio Armani , Lancôme , Heineken , and Christian Dior 's " Midnight Poison " perfume , in an advert directed by Wong Kar @-@ wai .
= = In media = =
In 2007 , Green was voted the sixth sexiest movie star of all @-@ time by Empire magazine . Empire also listed her character Vesper Lynd as the ninth sexiest female character in cinema history . In 2011 , Los Angeles Times Magazine listed Green at No. 18 for their 50 most beautiful women in film . In 2012 , she was listed number 57 in AfterEllen Hot 100 . In April 2012 , Shalom Life ranked her Number 2 on its list of " the 50 most talented , intelligent , funny , and gorgeous Jewish women in the world " .
= = Personal life = =
Green considers herself nerdy : " When people first meet me , they find me very cold ... I keep myself at a distance , and I think that 's why I 'm so drawn to acting . It allows me to wear a mask " . She lives alone and , by her own account , leads a low @-@ key life when she 's not working . When asked in an interview what people would be surprised to find out about her , she responded " I guess people would be surprised to find out that I am a bit of a homebody . I do not like clubbing or going to wild parties . After a day of shooting , I love to come home and relax by the fire with a glass of wine and a good book . Boring , huh ? "
Green has expressed interest in returning to the theatre . She says she has no plans to work in Hollywood full @-@ time because , " The problem with Hollywood is that the studios are super powerful , they have far more power than the directors . My ambition at this moment is just to find a good script " . She added that in Hollywood she would probably get typecast as a femme fatale . Green supports UNICEF . She has expressed interest in taxidermy and entomology . She collects preserved skulls and insects .
In 2014 , after playing a spiritualist in the TV series Penny Dreadful , she talked about her spiritual side . Green said while she is not religious , she does believe in the supernatural . " There are forces , yes – I ’ m not religious but I believe there is something other , " she commented to press .
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
|
= Umbrella ( song ) =
" Umbrella " is a song by Barbadian singer Rihanna from her third studio album Good Girl Gone Bad ( 2007 ) . It features American rapper Jay Z , who co @-@ wrote the song with its producers Tricky Stewart and Kuk Harrell , with additional writing from The @-@ Dream . The song was originally written with Britney Spears in mind , but her label rejected it . " Umbrella " is a pop and R & B song referring to a romantic and platonic relationship and the strength of that relationship .
Entertainment Weekly ranked the song number one on the 10 Best Singles of 2007 , while Rolling Stone and Time listed the song at number three on the 100 Best Songs of 2007 . The song has earned Rihanna several awards and nominations . In 2007 , the song won two awards at the MTV Video Music Awards , when it was nominated for four . At the 2008 Grammy Awards , " Umbrella " also earned Rihanna and Jay Z a Grammy Award for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration in addition to receiving nominations for Record of the Year and Song of the Year . The song is also listed on Rolling Stone 's The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time at 412 .
The song serves as the lead single to the album , and was released worldwide on March 29 , 2007 through Def Jam Recordings . " Umbrella " was a commercial success , topping the charts in Australia , Canada , Germany , Spain , the Republic of Ireland , Sweden , Switzerland , the United Kingdom , and the United States . In the United Kingdom , where the song 's chart performance generated controversy when the country was experiencing excessive flooding and large amounts of rain at the time , it was one of the most played songs on radio in the 2000s ( decade ) . It managed to stay at number one on the UK Singles Chart for 10 consecutive weeks , the longest run at number one for any single of that decade , and is also one of the few songs to top the chart for at least 10 weeks . The single was one of the highest digital debuts in the United States and remained at the top of the US Billboard Hot 100 for seven consecutive weeks .
The single 's accompanying music video was directed by Chris Applebaum and features , among all , Rihanna 's nude body covered in silver paint . The video earned Rihanna a Video of the Year at the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards and Most Watched Video on MuchMusic.com at MuchMusic Video Awards . Along with countless amateurs , " Umbrella " has been covered by several notable performers from a variety of musical genres , including Taylor Swift , Manic Street Preachers , Biffy Clyro , All Time Low , McFly , OneRepublic , Mike Shinoda of Linkin Park , Vanilla Sky and The Baseballs . Rihanna performed the song at the 2007 MTV Movie Awards , 2008 BRIT Awards and was the closing song of the " Good Girl Gone Bad Tour " ( 2008 ) , the " Last Girl on Earth " ( 2010 ) , and the " Loud Tour " ( 2011 ) . It was included in the " Diamonds World Tour " ( 2013 ) , and the " Anti World Tour " ( 2016 ) .
= = Background = =
American songwriter and producer Christopher " Tricky " Stewart convened with Terius " The @-@ Dream " Nash and Kuk Harrell in January 2007 at the Atlanta @-@ based Triangle Studios to create new material . In the studio , Stewart was " messing around with a walloping hi @-@ hat sound " , which he found in the free music software GarageBand , which is included in all Mac computers . With his attention caught by the sound , Nash asked Stewart what he was doing : " Oh , my Gosh , what is that beat ? " . When Stewart incorporated chords onto the hi @-@ hat , " immediately the word popped into [ Nash 's ] head " ; he went to the vocal booth and started singing . Nash wrote the first two verses and the chorus over Stewart 's skeleton track . They quickly wrote the lyrics , completing the first verse in 60 seconds . They continued into writing , adding the hook while " [ Stewart ] would put the next chord " . In a matter of hours , they had recorded a demo of the track . The song was written with American pop singer Britney Spears in mind , whom Stewart had previously worked with on her 2003 single " Me Against the Music " . Stewart and Nash thought that Spears , who had " her personal life ... a little out of control " at the time , needed a hit as musical comeback . Spears was working on her fifth album , Blackout , so they sent a copy of the demo to Spears ' management . However , Spears did not hear of the song because her label rejected it , claiming they had enough songs for her to record .
Following the management 's rejection of the track , Stewart and Nash dealt it out to other record labels . It was also given to English singer @-@ songwriter Taio Cruz , who failed to convince his record company to release it . It was then opted by Island Def Jam chairman Antonio " L.A. " Reid , a friend of Stewart who established his first studio . By early February 2007 , the demo was sent to Reid 's right @-@ hand woman , A & R executive Karen Kwak , who passed it along to Reid with a message confirming that they had found a song suited for Rihanna , who was working on her third studio album , Good Girl Gone Bad , at the time . Reid immediately sent the demo to Rihanna , who was also positive of it : " When the demo first started playing , I was like , This is interesting , this is weird . ... But the song kept getting better . I listened to it over and over . I said , ' I need this record . I want to record it tomorrow . "
However , since it was the Grammy season of 2007 , Stewart and Nash eyed American R & B singer Mary J. Blige for the demo . Upon calling them to set the record aside for Rihanna , Stewart had played it to an associate of Blige , subsequently promising the song to her . Having heard the move of the writers , Kwak began calling Stewart and his manager , Mark Stewart , incessantly . Meanwhile , considering Blige 's nominations at the Grammys , Stewart and Nash agreed to wait for her response . However , Blige failed to hear the song in full due to her obligations to the Grammys at the time and " had to sign off on the record before her reps could accept it " . Finally , Reid " stepped in , trading on his power @-@ broker status and longstanding relationship with Stewart " , and admits , " I made the producers an offer they couldn 't refuse . " By the time Reid had successfully persuaded Stewart 's camp , they " just couldn 't say no " . On giving up the record to Reid 's camp , Mark Stewart comments , " We knew Rihanna 's album would be out in a few months . Mary wasn 't even in an album cycle yet . We made the sensible business decision . "
Rihanna recorded the song , with vocal production by Thaddis " Kuk " Harrell , in a Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles . Initially , Stewart admitted he was still reluctant as to whether Rihanna was the right artist to record the song , but following the recording of the " ella , ella " catch phrase , he felt they were onto " something " . Following Rihanna 's recording , Def Jam CEO @-@ rapper Jay @-@ Z added his rap . However , Jay @-@ Z rewrote his verse without the awareness of Stewart and Nash . Stewart could not understand it , but later realized it made " sense " instead of the first version . Stewart noted that " from a songwriter 's standpoint , he just really made it more about the song , with the metaphors about umbrellas and about the weather versus what he had before " .
" Umbrella " was released worldwide on March 29 , 2007 , debuting on Rihanna 's Def Jam website . The song was released digitally in the United Kingdom on May 14 , 2007 , along with its physical release following two weeks later .
= = Composition = =
" Umbrella " is a pop and R & B song . The song 's musicscape is based on the hi @-@ hat , synthesizers , and a distorted bassline . According to Entertainment Weekly magazine , the song 's beat can be recreated through a drum loop from the Apple music @-@ software program GarageBand ( Vintage Funk Kit 03 ) . The song is written in the key of B ♭ minor . The song 's lyrics are written in the traditional verse @-@ chorus form . They open with a rap verse , and the hook " ella , ella " follows every chorus . A bridge follows the second hook , and the song ends in a fadeout .
= = Critical reception = =
Andy Kellman of AllMusic commented : " ' Umbrella ' is [ Rihanna 's best song ] to date , delivering mammoth if spacious drums , a towering backdrop during the chorus , and vocals that are somehow totally convincing without sounding all that impassioned - an ideal spot between trying too hard and boredom , like she might 've been on her 20th take . " Alex Macpherson of British newspaper The Guardian , " Umbrella " is " evidence " that Rihanna 's " strict work ethic is paying off " , adding that she " delivers [ in the song ] an impassioned declaration of us @-@ against @-@ the @-@ world devotion " . Tom Breihan of Pitchfork Media , though he complimented the production , dismissed Rihanna 's voice which " takes on an unpleasant icepick edge when she tries to fill the space between the slow @-@ tempo beats " , adding that the song is " uncompelling as event @-@ pop , particularly because of the disconnect between Rihanna 's cold , clinical delivery and the comforting warmth of the lyrics " .
Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine wrote " That the song is just plain good , regardless of genre , proves that Jay and Rihanna , who 's already scored hits across several formats with a string of singles that couldn 't be more different from each other , are dedicated to producing quality hits — however frivolous they may be . " Quentin B. Huff of PopMatters.com said that " " Umbrella " is a monster , so much so that I 'll even confess to spending a portion of a rainy afternoon practicing the hook . " Jonah Weiner of Blender magazine called the song the album 's highlight and stated that it " would be far less engrossing if it wasn 't for the way Rihanna disassembles its ungainly title into 11 hypnotic , tongue @-@ flicking syllables " . The New York Times ' Kelefa Sanneh described the song as " a space @-@ age hip @-@ pop song " .
= = = Awards = = =
The song has earned Rihanna several awards and nominations . In 2008 , " Umbrella " earned Rihanna and Jay @-@ Z a Grammy Award for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration in addition to receiving nominations for Record of the Year and Song of the Year . " Umbrella " has also been recognized in various forms of accolades by the music press . The song is listed number three on the 100 Best Songs of 2007 , published by the music magazine Rolling Stone . Time magazine also listed the song number three on their Top 10 Songs of 2007 . " Umbrella " is listed at number two on The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop annual year @-@ end critics ' poll , behind Amy Winehouse 's " Rehab " . The song is listed number one on Entertainment Weekly magazine 's list of the 10 Best Singles of 2007 , while topping the magazine 's poll for the best single of 2007 . Blender magazine awarded the song Song of the Year in their Readers ' Poll 2007 . The music press has considered " Umbrella " as 2007 's Song of the Summer , while The New York Times writer Kelefa Sanneh regarded it as " arguably 2007 's signature slow jam " . In 2009 , Pitchfork ranked the song as the # 25 song on list of The Top 500 Tracks of the decade . Entertainment Weekly put it on its end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ decade , " best @-@ of " list , saying , " In 2007 , Rihanna had us all singin ' in the rain . " On Rolling Stone 's updated version of their The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time , " Umbrella " was listed at number 412 , making Rihanna one of the youngest living artists in that list . In October 2011 , NME placed it at number 63 on its list " 150 Best Tracks of the Past 15 Years " .
= = Chart performance = =
= = = Oceania = = =
" Umbrella " entered the Australian Singles Chart at number one on June 10 , 2007 , becoming Rihanna 's second number one in the country following " SOS " ( 2006 ) . It spent six consecutive weeks at the top , and has since earned earned a 5 × Platinum certification by the Australian Recording Industry Association , denoting sales of 350 @,@ 000 copies . It spent a total of 32 weeks on the chart , ending the year as the country 's third best @-@ selling single of 2007 . " Umbrella " debuted on the New Zealand Singles Chart at number 34 on May 14 , 2007 . Over the following two weeks , it dropped one place , then climbed to a new peak of number 33 . In its fourth week on the chart , it leaped to the top of the chart , becoming Rihanna 's second number one single following " Pon de Replay " ( 2005 ) . It remained atop the chart for six consecutive weeks and on the chart for a total of 24 weeks . The song received a Platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand , denoting sales of 15 @,@ 000 copies , subsequently becoming the country 's best @-@ selling single of 2007 .
= = = North America = = =
" Umbrella " debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 on the chart issue dated April 28 , 2007 , at number 91 . The following week it climbed to number 72 , and to number 63 in its third week . In its fourth , fifth and sixth week on the chart , it progressively ascended to numbers 52 , 44 and 41 . Prior to its physical release , " Umbrella " achieved the biggest debut in the six @-@ year history of iTunes in the United States , breaking a record previously held by Shakira and Wyclef Jean 's " Hips Don 't Lie " . Following its digital release , " Umbrella " soared to number one for the issue dated June 9 , 2007 on its seventh week on the chart . It subsequently debuted atop the Hot Digital Songs chart , with first @-@ week sales of over 277 @,@ 000 units . The single became the highest digital debut in the United States since Nielsen SoundScan began tracking downloads in 2003 , surpassing Justin Timberlake 's " SexyBack " 250 @,@ 000 sales record in 2006 . The single 's rise to the top of the Hot 100 marked Rihanna 's second number one single following " SOS " ( 2006 ) , which was also noted for its huge leap on the Hot 100 to the top spot based on digital sales alone . Significantly sustained by the strong airplay of the single and preventing American rap group Shop Boyz ' " Party Like a Rockstar " from advancing on the chart , " Umbrella " spent seven consecutive weeks at the top of the chart . " Umbrella " eventually became the second best @-@ performing single of 2007 on the Hot 100 , only behind Beyoncé 's hit single " Irreplaceable " which topped the chart for ten weeks total .
" Umbrella " entered the top fifty of the US Radio Songs chart on the issue dated April 28 , 2007 , at number 42 . The following week it climbed to number 29 , and reached the top twenty in its fourth week on the chart , at number 17 . It entered the top five of the chart on the chart issue of June 2 , 2007 , at number three . It eventually reached number one on the issue dated July 14 , 2007 , and remained at the top for four consecutive weeks . On the Pop Songs chart , " Umbrella " debuted at number 77 on the chart issue dated April 28 , 2007 . The following week it rose to number 61 , and to 51 in its third week . In its fourth week on the chart , it climbed to number 36 . On the chart issue of June 9 , 2007 , " Umbrella " soared from number 31 to number one in its eighth week on the chart . It spent six consecutive weeks at the top . " Umbrella " debuted at number 69 on the Hot R & B / Hip Hop Songs chart on the issue dated April 21 , 2007 . The following week it rose to number 52 and by the issue dated June 9 , 2007 , it had climbed into the top twenty at number 17 . It reached the top ten for the chart issue of June 16 , 2007 , and rose to number six the following week , earning the ' Greatest Gainer ' in both sales and airplay for the week . It made its peak of number four in the issue of July 14 , 2007 . " Umbrella " entered the Hot Dance Club Songs chart as the ' Hot Shot Debut ' at number 36 , for the issue dated June 9 , 2007 . The following week it leaped to number 25 . It ascended into the top ten of the chart the week after , landing at number nine , and rose to number four in its fourth week on the chart . It topped the chart on the issue dated July 7 , 2007 and remained at number one for a second week .
As of June 2015 , " Umbrella " has sold 4 @,@ 470 @,@ 000 digital copies in the United States , and is Rihanna 's sixth best @-@ selling single in the country . The song debuted at number one in Canada , becoming the first song to top the then recently launched Canadian Hot 100 , a singles chart in Canada issued by Billboard magazine , similar to that of the Billboard Hot 100 .
= = = Europe = = =
The single experienced major success , most notably , in the United Kingdom . The song entered the UK Singles Chart at number one based on digital sales alone , becoming Rihanna 's first chart @-@ topper in the country . During the single 's fourth week on the chart , Rihanna earned her first ' Chart Double ' with both the single and subsequent album ( Good Girl Gone Bad ) topping the UK Singles and Albums charts simultaneously . Having reached nine straight weeks at number one on the chart , it broke the record of American group Gnarls Barkley 's " Crazy " as the longest chart @-@ topper of the decade . " Umbrella " eventually reached a total of ten weeks at number one on the chart , becoming the country 's longest @-@ running number one single of the 21st century . In addition , Rihanna become the seventh artist in history to top the chart for ten consecutive weeks . By the end of 2008 , " Umbrella " had sold over 600 @,@ 000 copies , making it her biggest @-@ selling single at the time , before being succeeded by " Love the Way You Lie " , a collaboration with Eminem two years later in 2010 . It became Britain 's second biggest @-@ selling single of 2007 , only behind Leona Lewis ' " Bleeding Love " . On December 12 , 2008 , it was certified Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry , for sales of 600 @,@ 000 copies . In total , " Umbrella " has amassed 51 weeks in the official Charts , making it the joint 20th longest runner of all time . It has spent a further 20 weeks to tally 71 total weeks inside the Top 100 , in which it has appeared in three consecutive years ; number one in 2007 , 18 in 2008 and number 99 in 2009 .
" Umbrella " had similar success elsewhere in Europe , topping charts for lengthy periods including Switzerland for nine weeks , Norway for seven weeks , Germany for five weeks , Austria for four weeks and Belgium for three weeks . It also reached number one in Denmark and Hungary . In Spain , the song achieved an eight @-@ times platinum certification from PROMUSICAE , denoting sales of over 160 @,@ 000 units . Furthermore , " Umbrella " attained top five positions in the Czech Republic , Finland , Italy , the Netherlands and Sweden . It also reached the top ten of France .
Worldwide the song has sold more than 8 @.@ 0 million copies , making it one of the best selling singles of all time .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and concept = = =
While working on the album , ideas began to circulate concerning Rihanna 's image , extending into her music videos . She asked American music video director Chris Applebaum to send her " something " to work on . Def Jam representatives were expecting Applebaum of the treatment . In response , Applebaum hurriedly made a treatment for the video , one of his first ideas being the silver body paint that Rihanna is seen in . Applebaum was doubtful whether Rihanna would embrace the idea , but her " positive response " following a letter the director sent to the artist ensured its approval . Makeup artist Pamela Neal mixed a silver paint that would give Rihanna such a look . During the session , the paint was re @-@ applied between takes to ensure she was completely covered . The set was closed to Rihanna , Applebaum and a camera assistant . Rihanna also contributed her own ideas towards the video shoot , suggesting to Applebaum that she dance en pointe , an idea which he accepted .
Visual effects at Kroma were supervised by Bert Yukich and produced by Amy Yukich . A key part of the video is a 24 @-@ second visual effects sequence in which Rihanna is surrounded by silvery strands of liquid that crisscross the frame in graceful arcs in response to her movements . Water elements were recorded on a special effects stage using a high @-@ speed 35mm camera . Bert Yukich then composited them into the scene with the singer . He then added lighting effects to the practical water elements to give them the mirror @-@ like texture of mercury .
= = = Release = = =
The music video premiered on April 26 , 2007 at her website . Downloads were made available for those in the U.S. only from the website for a limited time . The video was officially released on the iTunes Store on May 11 , 2007 , peaking at number one for a period of eight weeks . On May 1 , 2007 , " Umbrella " debuted on MTV 's Total Request Live at number 10 , before reaching number one on May 9 where it remained for fifteen days , making it the longest running number one of 2007 . The video was well @-@ played in MTV during the second half of 2007 ; it has reached over 8 @,@ 000 plays , receiving a platinum recognition at the MTV Platinum and Gold Video Awards . Such was the success of the promotional video that it received five nominations at the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards , including " Female Artist of the Year " , " Video of the Year " and " Monster Single of the Year " , going on to win the latter two .
= = Legacy = =
= = = " Rihanna Curse " = = =
The song 's reign at number one in the United Kingdom occurred as the country was hit by extreme rainfall and flooding , which led the British national newspaper The Sun to humorously suggest the two events were related , with the media referring to it as the " Rihanna Curse . " The tabloid also highlighted the date of the single 's video shot which was Friday the 13th ( April 13 , 2007 ) , adding further coincidence of the curse . Before the single 's release on May 14 , the temperature in London was relatively high , reaching 20 ° C. However , just a day after the release , " severe weather warnings hit the headlines " . An article in The Sun urged readers to join the campaign to knock the song off the chart 's top spot , suggesting to readers several other songs to download instead , all of which shared the theme of sunshine or summer .
A similar situation occurred in New Zealand , where the song hit number one in the early winter of 2007 as the country was experiencing some of the worst storms in its history . During the weather conditions , Taranaki , Tauranga , and Auckland had experienced tornadoes and flooding in the Far North of the country . Once the single was replaced on the top spot , weather conditions throughout New Zealand pacified , although Hawke 's Bay was still stormy .
The same happened in Romania where " Umbrella " hit the stations in the nation during the summer . That summer was in its first half the hottest and driest period of time in Romania since 1946 . As the song reached the top ten and then its number @-@ one peak , the country experienced the worst storms and most pouring rains in its history . As the song was losing positions in the charts , the storm ended and the temperatures lowered step @-@ by @-@ step .
= = = Pop culture and gaming = = =
With the record @-@ breaking success of the single and the reported coincidence with the weather , Def Jam 's marketing team collaborated with British umbrella manufacturer Totes . The company produced five types of Rihanna umbrellas , one of which was a two @-@ tone satin umbrella that Rihanna debuted in public during her performance of the song at the 2007 MTV Movie Awards . Although manufactured by a UK @-@ based company , the collection was made available only to US residents online through the company 's website .
Krystal Weedon , one of the central characters in J.K. Rowling 's The Casual Vacancy , was very apt at doing Jay @-@ Z 's rap from " Umbrella " during their rowing competition bus trips . " Umbrella " , to the shock of the attendees , is also played at the church during the funeral service of Barry Fairbrother who used to coach the girls ' rowing team prior to his death . Similarly , the song was also played at the funeral service of another character .
In November 2007 MADtv 's Nicole Parker and Keegan @-@ Michael Key , who were impersonating U.S. Democratic presidential candidates Hillary Rodham Clinton and Barack Obama respectively , performed a parody of " Umbrella " .
" Umbrella " has been featured in the karaoke video games SingStar Pop Volume 2 and Lips , both accompanied by the music video . A cover of the song is also featured in Dance Dance Revolution Hottest Party 2 as a playable track . The original version of the song appears in dance games Just Dance 4 and Dance Central 3 as DLC .
= = Live performances = =
" Umbrella " was performed by Rihanna during the 2007 MTV Movie Awards on June 3 , 2007 . In the United Kingdom , she performed the song on the ITV morning show GMTV and on The Brit Awards in 2008 . She also performed " Umbrella " during her AOL sessions . In France , she performed it on Star Academy . " Umbrella " was added to the setlist of her first headlining Good Girl Gone Bad Tour where it was performed as the final song for the encore . It was also included as the closing act of the Last Girl on Earth Tour and The Loud Tour . Rihanna performed " Umbrella " at Radio 1 's Hackney Weekend on May 24 , 2012 , as the sixteenth song on the set list . The performance featured a giant sphinx on the stage . The song is also performed during the Diamonds World Tour .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Radio and release history = =
= = Cover versions and remixes = =
Then @-@ upcoming singer Marié Digby recorded an acoustic version of " Umbrella " which was released August 3 , 2007 as the debut single from her Hollywood Records Start Here EP and included as the closing track on Digby 's debut album Unfold . Scottish rock group Biffy Clyro also released an acoustic version of the song , just like the Italian singer Neja has done in her cover – album Acousticlub , while Italian band Vanilla Sky went in the opposite direction and released a punk cover of the song , and Norwegian band Bare Egil Band have made a doom metal version of the song .
For her debut album a.K.a. Cassandra , Filipina singer and actress KC Concepcion covered the song in English , while singer Miss Ganda recorded a version in Filipino entitled " Payong " ( which means umbrella in Filipino ) . Singer and actress Mandy Moore sang an acoustic version of the song in 2007 and its video on YouTube has more than 5 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 views by November , 2012
Pop @-@ punk outfit All Time Low covered the song for the Fearless Records compilation album Punk Goes Crunk , and British rock band Manic Street Preachers produced their own version of " Umbrella " , which was originally recorded for the album NME Awards 2008 . Produced in celebration of the Shockwaves NME Awards 2008 and Big Gig , that album was given free with a special souvenir box set of the magazine NME on February 27 . Two additional versions ( acoustic and Grand Slam mix ) were later made available on iTunes , and the trio now comprise an Umbrella EP ; a video for the cover is available on the band 's official website .
British pop rock band McFly performed their own version of " Umbrella " during their Greatest Hits So Far Tour in 2007 , and Finnish melodic death metal band Children of Bodom performed their 2008 cover live at Wacken Open Air . Country @-@ pop singer @-@ songwriter Taylor Swift recorded a live version of the song , which was later included in an iTunes Store exclusive EP titled Live from SoHo – EP ( 2008 ) . Her version of the song peaked at number seventy @-@ nine on Billboard Pop 100 .
There have also been notable mixed versions of the song . American rapper Lil Mama recorded a version of " Umbrella " that replaced Jay @-@ Z 's opening rap verse . An article by Blender magazine , who dismissed Jay @-@ Z 's version , said " Lil Mama actually seems to understand the song 's metaphorical themes of protection and loyalty " . American punk band Blink @-@ 182 drummer Travis Barker remixed the song , adding to the track " quicksilver snare flourishes and ... real @-@ life guitars " .
Singer Chris Brown created an answer song titled " Cinderella " , replacing some of the verses and part of the chorus of " Umbrella " with his own lyrics . This version is the official remix . This version has been performed as a duet between Brown and Rihanna when he joined Rihanna on a late @-@ 2008 tour in the Asia @-@ Pacific region . R & B / hip @-@ hop singer The @-@ Dream , who wrote " Umbrella " , recorded the demo with a slightly different intro and instrumental .
Recently , Korean girl group 2NE1 covered this song on Music Bank . The song 's drum beat is sampled in " Symphonies " by Dan Black . An episode of Glee featured this song performed by Gwyneth Paltrow in a mash @-@ up with " Singin ' in the Rain " . The song has also been covered by Tiffany , an American @-@ Korean singer from the popular girl group Girls ' Generation in their first Asia Tour . In 2009 , Lady Gaga incorporated the " Eh , Eh " hook for her song " Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) " .
At the end of 2007 , Internet mash @-@ up artist DJ Earworm used " Umbrella " as the base track for " United State of Pop " , his breakthrough mix that included the top 25 songs on Billboard 's Hot 100 year @-@ end chart of 2007 ( on which " Umbrella " appeared at # 2 ) . On Friday , August 28 , 2015 , country music duo Maddie and Tae covered it on the Bobby Bones Show .
On October 15 , 2015 , Scott Bradlee 's Postmodern Jukebox released a " Singin ' in the Rain " style cover , featuring Casey Abrams & The Sole Sisters , surpassing 1.8mil views .
= = The Baseballs version = =
" Umbrella " was covered by the rockabilly coverband , The Baseballs , in 2009 . It was certified Platinum in Finland by Musiikkituottajat – IFPI Finland .
Track listings
Release history
Chart performance
Year @-@ end charts
= = Credits = =
|
= Ford Island =
Ford Island ( Hawaiian : Poka ʻAilana ) is an islet in the center of Pearl Harbor , Oahu , in the U.S. state of Hawaii . It has been known as Rabbit Island , Marín 's Island , and Little Goats Island , and its native Hawaiian name is Mokuʻumeʻume . The island had an area of 334 acres ( 135 ha ) when it was surveyed in 1825 , which was increased during the 1930s to 441 acres ( 178 ha ) with fill dredged out of Pearl Harbor by the United States Navy to accommodate battleships .
It was the site of an ancient Hawaiian fertility ritual , which was stopped by Christian missionaries during the 1830s . The island was given by Kamehameha I to Spanish deserter Francisco de Paula Marín , and later returned to the monarchy . After the island was bought at auction by James Isaac Dowsett and sold to Caroline Jackson , it became the property of Dr. Seth Porter Ford by marriage and was renamed Ford Island . After Ford 's death , his son sold the island to the John Papa ʻĪʻī estate and it was converted into a sugarcane plantation .
In 1916 , part of Ford Island was sold to the U.S. Army for use by an aviation division in Hawaii , and by 1939 it was taken over by the U.S. Navy as a station for battleship and submarine maintenance . From the 1910s to the 1940s , the island continued to grow as a strategic center of operations for the U.S. Navy in the Pacific Ocean . Ford Island was at the center of the attack on Pearl Harbor and on the U.S. Pacific Fleet by the Japanese fleet on December 7 , 1941 . It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1964 , and as of 2011 the National Trust for Historic Preservation has listed the island as one of the United States ' most @-@ endangered historic sites .
By the late 1990s , hundreds of millions of dollars had been invested in real estate development and infrastructure , including a new bridge . Ford Island continues to serve an active role in the Pacific , hosting military functions at the Pacific Warfighting Center and civilian functions at NOAA 's Pacific Tsunami Warning Center . The island has been featured in films such as Tora ! Tora ! Tora ! and Pearl Harbor and receives tourists from the U.S. and abroad at the USS Arizona memorial and the USS Missouri museum .
= = Geography = =
Ford Island is located inside Pearl Harbor , South Oʻahu of the Hawaiian Islands . Pearl Harbor is divided into three large bodies of water called the West Loch , Middle Loch and East Loch with Ford Island in the center of the East Loch . It is 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) long and 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) wide , and was enlarged from 334 to 441 acres ( 135 to 178 ha ) between 1930 and 1940 with land fill dredged from the surrounding harbor . The land is a relatively flat plain rising from 5 to 15 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 6 m ) above mean water level , and slopes toward Pearl Harbor . It connects to the larger island of Oʻahu , surrounding Pearl Harbor , via a 4 @,@ 672 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 424 m ) bridge at its northern tip which crosses east to Halawa Landing .
The island 's soil is composed primarily of volcanic material , lagoonal deposits and coralline debris , with silty sand from the dredging . Its volcanic material is Aeolian ash , weathered tuff and basalt . Ford Island proper is a coral outcrop . There are two smaller islets near the island : Mokunui and Mokuiki .
= = = Contamination = = =
In 1991 , the Navy discovered nine metals , two semi @-@ volatile organic compounds and a polychlorinated biphenyl in Ford Island 's soil , groundwater and marine sediment . Suspected sources were nine 225 @,@ 000 @-@ US @-@ gallon ( 850 @,@ 000 l ; 187 @,@ 000 imp gal ) fuel tanks on the east @-@ central side of the island ( from 1924 to 1954 ) , a 4 @.@ 4 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 8 ha ) landfill on the southwestern shore ( from 1930 to 1960 ) and ordnance bunkers on the northeastern side . An investigation suggested covering the contaminated areas with clean soil . In 1994 , the Navy considered removing the contaminated soil and installed six wells to monitor groundwater , but decided to follow the original recommendation in 1995 and capped the contaminated soil with topsoil and erosion @-@ resistant vegetation ( including Bermuda grass ) . The containment system was completed in 1996 .
= = Flora and fauna = =
The wildlife on Ford Island is likely very similar to that on Naval Station Pearl Harbor . Wildlife is sparse and dominated by invasive species such as the house mouse , mongoose , brown rat , black rat , house sparrow , Java sparrow and common mynah . An endangered owl , the endemic pueo ( a subspecies of the short @-@ eared owl ) , has been seen hunting on the island . Nearly all the plant life on the island is non @-@ native , including edible cacti from California introduced in the late 1700s by Francisco de Paula Marín . The island 's harbor was important to ancient Hawaiians for its ample supply of fish , including mullet , milkfish and Hawaiian anchovy . The National Park Service and the United States Fish and Wildlife Service oversee and administer the World War II Valor in the Pacific National Monument battlefields at Pearl Harbor and Ford Island .
= = History = =
= = = Ancient Hawaiians = = =
Ancient Hawaiians called the island Mokuʻumeʻume ( " isle of attraction " or " island of strife " ) , after the ceremony ( ʻume ) held during the Makahiki festival for married couples who were having difficulty conceiving children . In the Hawaiian language the word moku means to cut or sever in two , as well as an island or inlet . The word ʻume means to draw , attract or entice and was used to name the ceremony for the common people . Hawaii historian Herb Kawainui Kāne considered ʻume to be a courtship game . Those selected for ʻume ( never virgins or the unmarried ) would sing around a large bonfire while a tribal leader with a maile ( wand ) chanted , touching individual men and women . Those who were touched would find a secluded part of the island to have sex . Husbands and wives were not paired , and jealousy was discouraged . Children born of these unions were considered children of the husband , not the biological father . By 1830 , this activity was forbidden by Christian missionaries .
The native Hawaiian people of the area were called Ke Awalau o Puʻuloa . They used the island to cultivate watermelon and to harvest pili grass for the construction of thatched roofs . According to Hawaiian legend , the goddess Kaʻahupahau killed a girl on the island ; remorseful , she then proclaimed a law forbidding further killing . Kaʻahupa @-@ hau 's brother Kahiʻuka ( sometimes referred to by historians as her son , Ku @-@ maninini ) was said to live in an underwater cavern off Ford Island with Kanekuaʻana , a giant water lizard which supplied food to the people of ʻEwa Beach .
= = = Kamehamehas and 18th @-@ century settlers = = =
Although no historical records provide an exact date , researchers at the Hawaiian Historical Society believe that the island was given to Francisco de Paula Marín on February 9 , 1818 , and later named after him for his assistance in providing weapons used by Kamehameha I to conquer the island of Oʻahu . However , Marín wrote in an 1809 journal entry that he was given the island and its adjacent fishing waters as early as 1791 . He used the land to raise sheep , hogs , goats and rabbits as provisions for ships , and grew plants and vegetables which he had imported .
In 1825 , Admiral George Byron , the 7th Baron Byron arrived , commanding the HMS Blonde , to return the remains of Kamehameha II and Queen Kamāmalu after their deaths in England of Measles . While on Oahu , he would map the Pearl River ( known today as Pearl Harbor ) . The ship 's naturalist , Andrew Bloxam , spent time on Ford Island hunting rabbits and wild ducks ; its surveyor , Lieutenant Charles Robert Malden , called it Rabbits Island . In 1826 , Hiram Paulding became the first American naval officer to visit the island . Marín 's ownership claim to the island was cloudy ; Hawaiians generally refused to recognize land ownership by foreigners . Kamehameha II believed that the island had been loaned to Marín and by the 1850s the island was split between Kamehameha IV — who purchased 214 acres ( 87 ha ) — and High Chiefess Kekauōnohi , granddaughter of Kamehameha I , who was awarded 147 acres ( 59 ha ) in the Great Māhele . On August 28 , 1865 , the island was bought at public auction for $ 1 @,@ 040 by James I. Dowsett , who sold it to Caroline Jackson for $ 1 on December 28 .
Dr. Seth Porter Ford arrived in 1851 from Boston , and practiced medicine at the U.S. Seamen 's Hospital . Ford married Caroline Jackson in June 1866 , taking control of the island and changing its name from Marín Island to Ford Island . When Ford died in 1866 , it was transferred to his son , Seth Porter Ford , Jr . The island was managed by Sanford B. Dole on behalf of Ford 's minor children until Ford , Jr. came of age and sold the island in 1891 to the John Papa ʻĪʻī land trust .
= = = Sugar reciprocity = = =
Sugar had been a major export from Hawaii since Captain James Cook 's arrival in 1778 . During the 1850s , the U.S. import tariff on sugar from Hawaii was much higher than the import tariffs Hawaiians were charging the U.S. , and Kamehameha III sought reciprocity .
As early as 1873 , a United States military commission recommended attempting to obtain Ford Island in exchange for the tax @-@ free importation of sugar to the U.S. At that time Major General John Schofield , U.S. commander of the military division of the Pacific , and Brevet Brigadier General Burton S. Alexander arrived in Hawaii to ascertain its defensive capabilities . U.S. control of Hawaii was considered vital for the defense of the west coast of the United States , and they were especially interested in Pu 'uloa , Pearl Harbor . The sale of one of Hawaii 's harbors was proposed by Charles Reed Bishop , a foreigner who had married into the Kamehameha family , had risen in the government to be Hawaiian Minister of Foreign Affairs , and owned a country home near Pu 'uloa . He showed the two U.S. officers around the lochs , although his wife , Bernice Pauahi Bishop , privately disapproved of selling Hawaiian lands . As monarch , William Charles Lunalilo , was content to let Bishop run almost all business affairs but the ceding of lands would become unpopular with the native Hawaiians . Many islanders thought that all the islands , rather than just Pearl Harbor , might be lost and opposed any cession of land . By November 1873 , Lunalilo canceled negotiations and returned to drinking , against his doctor 's advice ; his health declined swiftly , and he died on February 3 , 1874 .
Lunalilo left no heirs . The legislature was empowered by the constitution to elect the monarch in these instances and chose David Kalākaua as the next monarch . The new ruler was pressured by the U.S. government to surrender Pearl Harbor to the Navy . Kalākaua was concerned that this would lead to annexation by the U.S. and to the contravening of the traditions of the Hawaiian people , who believed that the land ( ' Āina ) was fertile , sacred , and not for sale to anyone . In 1875 , the United States Congress agreed to an additional seven years of reciprocity in exchange for Ford Island . At the end of the seven @-@ year reciprocity agreement , the United States showed little interest in renewal .
On January 20 , 1887 , the United States began leasing Pearl Harbor . Shortly afterwards , a group of mostly non @-@ Hawaiians calling themselves the Hawaiian Patriotic League began the Rebellion of 1887 . They drafted their own constitution on July 6 , 1887 . The new constitution was written by Lorrin Thurston , the Hawaiian Minister of the Interior who used the Hawaiian militia as threat against Kalākaua . Kalākaua was forced to dismiss his cabinet ministers and sign a new constitution which greatly lessened his power . It would become known as the " Bayonet Constitution " due to the force used .
With support from California ( because the state had profited from the import of sugar ) , Kalākaua again approached Congress . When the United States still seemed uninterested in reciprocity , he threatened to forge more favorable export agreements with Australia or New Zealand . Congress feared that a treaty between Hawaii and Australia or New Zealand would result in annexation by one of those countries instead of the United States . Although Kalākaua was loath to give any foreign country land in Hawaii , he signed the treaty in September 1887 .
The Oahu Sugar Company ( also known as the Oahu Sugar Cane Plantation ) leased about 300 acres ( 120 ha ) from the John Papa ʻĪʻī estate ( after their purchase of the island in 1891 ) to harvest sugar in 1899 . The business was successful , and the company sublet land from Benjamin Dillingham on the Waipi 'o peninsula ( southeast of present Waipio ) to build a 12 @-@ roller mill and railroad . Sugarcane was grown and harvested on Ford Island with a network of aqueducts from freshwater reservoirs , transported to Waipio by barge and then by rail to the mills .
In 1902 , the nearby estate of Bernice Pauahi Bishop lost a crucial lawsuit brought by the United States to purchase land around Pearl Harbor for below its market value . Although the Bishop estate valued the land at $ 600 per acre , the United States was only willing to pay $ 30 per acre . A jury determined that the land would be sold to the United States at $ 75 per acre . Facing a similar lawsuit and interest in its land on Ford Island , the John Papa ʻĪʻī estate settled with the United States to deed twenty @-@ five acres at no cost . In exchange , the U.S. dropped its suit for the entire island .
The military leased sections of the north and south sides of the island — 25 @.@ 83 acres ( 10 @.@ 45 ha ) for $ 3 @,@ 000 — from the John Papa ʻĪʻī estate to build 6 @-@ inch ( 15 cm ) gun batteries : Battery Boyd and Battery Henry Adair . In 1917 , the John Papa ʻĪʻī estate agreed to sell part of the Island to the United States for construction of an airfield , despite the Oahu Sugar Company complaining in court that the sale would hurt their business .
= = = Army Air Service = = =
In 1917 , the 6th Aero Squadron was created in Honolulu , with Captain John F. Currey as its commander . Although 50 were assigned , only 49 arrived ; one deserted en route . Currey chose Ford Island as the location for the new squadron and bought it from the John Papa ʻĪʻī land trust for $ 236 @,@ 000 , citing its access to water and winds as assets . When Currey was transferred to Washington , command of the squadron was given to Captain John B. Brooks and then Major Hugh J. Knerr , who built hangars and a runway . Early soldiers had to level the island , removing hills and boulders .
All housing and major hangars were completed in 1918 , including a large steel @-@ and @-@ wood hangar , two concrete hangars for seaplanes and flying boats , a supply warehouse , a machine shop , a photography laboratory and a powerhouse . In 1919 , the field was named Luke Field after Frank Luke , a World War I ace and Medal of Honor recipient . The U.S. Army 's introduction of aviation to Ford Island triggered expansion throughout Hawaii with the development of civilian airports , the creation of the Hawaii chapter of the National Aeronautic Association , and a national flying code . The army 's aviation division was generally favorably received by the Hawaiians , who took the military 's investment in their land as a compliment .
The Navy decided that a Hawaiian base was a necessity , considering the Army field at Ford Island an ideal candidate . Naval Air Station Pearl Harbor , consisting of nine officers and fifty @-@ five men , was commissioned on December 19 , 1919 . Although the Navy attempted to displace the Army from the island and designate it solely for naval use , U.S. Secretary of War Newton D. Baker divided the island equally between the military branches . The Army received the west side of the island , and the Navy the southeastern side . Lieutenant Commander Robert D. Kirk @-@ Patrick was sent to establish a naval station on the island with four airplanes and fifty @-@ five men . Kirk @-@ Patrick 's men had two Curtiss HS2L flying boats and two N @-@ 9 planes salvaged from World War I , which they stored in two large canvas hangars across the harbor from the island . After the naval hangars were commissioned on January 17 , 1923 , by Lieutenant Commander John Rodgers , the detachment moved onto Ford Island and received Naval Aircraft Factory TS , Felixstowe F5L , Curtiss H @-@ 16 , Keystone PK @-@ 1 and Douglas DT type aircraft . To accommodate ship berthing the Navy built a concrete @-@ and @-@ stone quay around the entire island , and in 1926 , they received Vought FU , Vought VE @-@ 7 and Vought VE @-@ 9 biplanes .
During the 1930s , the Navy contracted a $ 1 @.@ 5 million dredging of Pearl Harbor to allow larger battleships and the fleet 's carriers to enter it . Work began in May 1940 resulting in 13 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 9 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 m3 ) of material dredged from the opening of Pearl Harbor to build a channel to Ford Island as well as to create a turning channel around the island . Material was also dredged to deepen the West Loch , East Loch , and Middle Loch for the mooring of battleships . With dredged material used as land fill , the island 's size was increased from 334 acres ( 135 ha ) to 441 acres ( 178 ha ) .
The Navy replaced its PK , F5L , and H16 aircraft with newer models ( see table below ) . In 1933 VP @-@ 8F arrived on station , and in 1935 the army bombers had become too large to be maintained and stored at Luke Field . Construction began on a new Army airfield , Hickam Army Airfield , named after pioneer U.S. Army Air Corps pilot Lieutenant Colonel Horace Meek Hickam . From 1936 to 1940 Pan American flew its Clipper service into Ford Island , using it as a refueling stop between the United States and Asia . The Navy built a $ 25 @,@ 000 boathouse , spent $ 579 @,@ 565 on a new crew barracks and built a firehouse , water @-@ supply and lighting systems . In June 1936 the Navy lengthened the island 's landing field by 400 feet ( 120 m ) , to 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) . In March 1937 Amelia Earhart , on her second visit to Luke Field , crashed her Lockheed Electra on takeoff .
In 1939 , after three years of construction , Hickam Field opened . The Army transferred its operations there , leaving Luke Field under Navy control . The latter was renamed Naval Air Station Ford Island , and became the headquarters of Patrol Wing 2 ; its former namesake was re @-@ honored with a new base , Luke Air Force Base in Arizona . A September 8 , 1939 , presidential emergency proclamation spurred the rapid construction of new facilities to prepare the island for additional operations . This included additional barracks , a new assembly and repair hangar , an administration building , a dispensary , a control tower , a laundry and a theater . At the height of World War II , over 40 @,@ 000 people lived or worked on the island .
= = = Attack on Pearl Harbor = = =
Beginning in the 1930s , Imperial Japan attempted to expand its territory into China . Opposed to these aggressive actions , the United States , Britain , and the Netherlands froze Japanese assets and imposed economic restrictions which prohibited the exportation of aircraft fuel as well as steel and iron to Japan , affecting 90 % of Japan 's war production needs . Japan was forced to either give up its expansion plans or find alternative raw materials to continue producing equipment for the war . Japan chose to continue with its plans , but decided it needed to neutralize any threat from the United States first .
Ford Island ( in the center of Pearl Harbor ) was the headquarters of Patrol Wing Two , an important target for the first @-@ wave airborne raiders in the December 7 , 1941 , Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor . Before dawn , the U.S. strategic center in the Pacific consisted of the seven battleships moored along Battleship Row and the six pairs of interrupted quays along the east side of Ford Island . Quay F @-@ 2 ( the southernmost ) , which usually berthed an aircraft carrier , was empty . The Pacific Fleet flagship California was moored northeastward , at F @-@ 3 . Side by side with the Maryland was Oklahoma ( outboard ) , followed by Tennessee with West Virginia outboard . Behind Tennessee was Arizona alongside the repair ship Vestal . Closing the row was Nevada , alone at F @-@ 8 . These battleships , from eighteen to twenty @-@ five years old , represented all but two of those available to the Pacific Fleet . Pennsylvania was also in Pearl Harbor , being dry @-@ docked at the Navy Yard . The ninth battleship of the fleet , Colorado , was being overhauled on the West Coast . These nine battleships taken together were one short of equaling Japan 's active battle fleet , although most of the Japanese vessels were newer .
The initial bombs struck the island at 07 : 57 local time , prompting the historic dispatch : " Air Raid , Pearl Harbor — this is no drill . " The battleships ringing Ford Island were the Japanese attackers ' primary targets . Twenty @-@ four of the forty Japanese torpedo planes were assigned to attack Battleship Row , and five more came over to that side of Ford Island after failing to find battleships in other parts of the harbor . The planes carried 29 Type 91 aerial torpedoes , each with a high @-@ explosive payload of 450 pounds ( 200 kg ) , of which 12 are thought to have found their targets : two in California , one in Nevada and a possible total of nine in Oklahoma and West Virginia ; the latter two ships sank within minutes of being hit .
Horizontal bomber aircraft delivering armor @-@ piercing bombs attacked as the last torpedo planes finished , and other horizontal and dive bombers came in later . The aircraft registered many direct hits and damaging near @-@ misses , including two each on California , Maryland and Tennessee and several more on West Virginia .
A bomb meant for the California hit Hangar 6 on the island , igniting it . Additional bombs hit Hangar 38 ( a dud ) , the dispensary courtyard ( leaving a large crater ) and the road outside the repair @-@ and @-@ assembly hangar . Only one man , Theodore Wheeler Croft , was killed on the island while standing guard duty .
The bombers ' most notable success was Arizona . A bomb exploded near the forward magazines , triggering a catastrophic explosion which immediately sank the ship . The island 's freshwater supply was cut off when the Arizona severed the main water line and the auxiliary line was destroyed at the Pearl Harbor end . The Nevada , which eventually got underway while under attack , was hit repeatedly by dive bombers who spotted a ship escaping from Ford Island . So she would not sink between the island and the Navy Yard ( blocking the entire harbor ) , Nevada was run aground .
Several planes from the aircraft carrier Enterprise , near Hawaii after a mission to Wake Island , arrived in the midst of the attack ; four were shot down by American air @-@ defense friendly fire . H. L. Young , commander of Enterprise air group , attempted to man the control tower to provide communications between the island , Enterprise , and the planes . However , he reported that although he attempted to communicate with Enterprise by radio from Ford Island , the communications systems there were inadequate , and he attributed the friendly fire to ineffective radio communications . After attempting to notify as many ships and anti @-@ aircraft batteries as possible , several planes from Enterprise and others from Ford Island 's complement were again airborne within hours to search for the attackers . Some of these search planes were again shot down on their return by friendly fire from the Ford Island defense , which was on high alert .
In addition to Battleship Row and the island 's naval field , the fixed moorings on the western side of Ford Island ( capable of securing battleships or aircraft carriers ) were high @-@ priority targets . Just west of the island , the seaplane tender Curtiss was hit by a crashing dive bomber , a bomb and fragments of another bomb . She was then unsuccessfully attacked by a Japanese midget submarine , which fired a torpedo before being sunk by the destroyer Monaghan . Hangar 6 and several patrol seaplanes and other aircraft on Ford Island ( 33 out of 70 of the island 's planes ) were destroyed .
= = = = Aftermath = = = =
The Japanese disabled all seven battleships on Battleship Row . Maryland , Tennessee and Pennsylvania were repaired in only a few weeks and three others within a year , but Oklahoma and Arizona were total losses . The weakened state of the US Pacific Fleet would allow the Japanese Navy to hold the initiative until the Guadalcanal Campaign eight months later .
Enterprise launched aircraft to patrol Ford Island and search for Japanese carriers . Five American pilots returning from missions to hunt down the Japanese fleet were mistakenly shot down by Ford Island anti @-@ aircraft gunners while attempting to land . The island 's commanding officer said about the friendly @-@ fire losses , " Somebody let fly and I never saw so many bullets in the air in my life and never expect to ... all tracer bullets at night . "
After the attack , ROTC cadets from the University of Hawaii were assigned to active duty guarding strategic buildings . Because of the island 's lack of fresh water and electric power to the dispensary , a temporary hospital had to be set up at the # 2 barracks . The island 's gasoline tank was emptied and refilled with water ; trenches were dug , and buildings camouflaged . Its runway was cleared of over three tons of scrap metal in two hours . The Marines who had picked up rifles for guard duty were tasked with feeding and clothing the soldiers and sailors . Twenty prisoners from the island 's brig were marched to the Marine barracks and put to work without incident ; some received commuted sentences for their efforts . That evening , Hawaiians were instructed to observe an indoor blackout , stay off the telephone , keep extra buckets of water available for fighting fires and keep cars off the streets ( parking them on lawns , if necessary ) .
Sixty concrete revetments were constructed to protect aircraft from another attack , and the Navy laid down a 16 @-@ inch ( 410 mm ) water main from across the harbor . A new control tower was commissioned on May 1 , 1942 , and the Navy built bomb shelters and gas @-@ decontamination chambers . Due to the need for better control of the US Pacific Fleet , its headquarters moved to Ford Island .
During the next few weeks , the Navy set up twenty @-@ one large winches on the island to turn the Oklahoma upright so it could be re @-@ floated and patched before being scrapped . Coral was piled between the ship and the island so the ship would roll upright , instead of sliding toward the shore . Oklahoma sank during a mid @-@ Pacific storm while it was being towed to the scrapyard . Nevada , California , West Virginia and the minelayer USS Oglala were re @-@ floated and salvaged by the Navy . The entire salvage operation took 20 @,@ 000 man @-@ hours underwater and 5 @,@ 000 dives to recover human remains , weapons , ammunition and artifacts of historic or military importance .
= = Naval Auxiliary Landing Field Ford Island = =
The US Pacific Fleet established the Fleet Intelligence Center , Pacific ( FICPAC ) on Ford Island by 1955 as the Vietnam War escalated and an additional intelligence branch was needed in addition to the one in Guam . With little other use of the island , as naval and air operations were moved to facilities on the side of the Pearl Harbor previously owned by the Bishop estate , the Navy decommissioned Naval Air Station Ford Island in 1966 . The island continued to be controlled by the Navy as a sub @-@ component of Naval Air Station Pearl Harbor .
On February 20 , 1970 , the 4 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) runway at NALF Ford Island was opened to civilian flight training operations , primarily local Army , Navy , Air Force and Marine Corps flying clubs . Itinerant military helicopter training activities also continued at NALF Ford Island during this period . Hawaii ( which achieved statehood in 1959 ) contracted with the US Navy to allow touch @-@ and @-@ go landings until 1972 , when the airfield was opened to students making their first solo flights . The island 's use as a training center helped relieve congestion at nearby Honolulu International Airport . After its active @-@ duty commission on February 1 , 1973 the Third Fleet moved its headquarters to Ford Island , where it remained until its 1991 move to San Diego . The island remained home to Navy officers and several naval headquarters .
For the 12 @-@ month period ending March 4 , 1998 , the airport had 39 @,@ 992 aircraft operations , an average of 110 per day : 98 percent general aviation and two percent military . On July 1 , 1999 , all military and civilian general @-@ aviation activity at NALF Ford Island ended when NAS Barbers Point was closed in a BRAC action and became the present civilian Kalaeloa Airport and Coast Guard Air Station Barbers Point . The new airport was open to general aviation and rendered NALF Ford Island redundant .
Before the completion of the Admiral Clarey Bridge , access to Ford Island was by ferry . Two diesel @-@ powered ferries , Waa Hele Honoa ( YFB @-@ 83 ) and Moko Holo Hele ( YFB @-@ 87 ) , served the island . The Waa Hele Honoa ( meaning " canoe go to land " ) was purchased in 1959 for $ 274 @,@ 000 , and pressed into service by the Navy on March 3 , 1961 . It is the older and larger of the two ferries , at 181 feet ( 55 m ) , with a capacity of 750 people and 33 vehicles . The other , Moko Holo Hele ( meaning " boat go back and forth " ) was purchased for $ 1 @.@ 1 million on May 25 , 1970 . At 162 feet ( 49 m ) , its capacity was 750 people and 42 vehicles . Both ferries were operated by US Navy personnel , and access to the island was restricted to US military personnel , their dependents and invited guests . In addition to the two car ferries , there were several smaller " foot ferries " allowing pedestrians to travel between Ford Island and alternate landings around Pearl Harbor .
= = = Rebirth = = =
Initially called " the bridge to nowhere " , the Admiral Clarey Bridge was instrumental in Senator Daniel Inouye 's " rebirth " of Ford Island and enabled over $ 500 million in development with special legislation ( 2814 US Code ) . It connected 45 families and 3 @,@ 000 civilian workers to Kamehameha Highway , and visitor access enabled construction of the $ 50 million 16 @-@ acre ( 6 @.@ 5 ha ) Pacific Aviation Museum . Plans included 500 homes for Navy personnel , a child @-@ development center and a Navy lodge .
In planning the island 's development , the Navy considered its operational needs and the island 's historic value . However , the National Trust for Historic Preservation considered the Navy 's communication style more directive rather than collaborative , restricting the NTHP 's ability to share their concerns , and in 2001 designated Ford Island one of its 11 most @-@ endangered sites . Although the Navy 's plans included preserving important hangars , the control tower and seaplane ramps , they failed to protect the existing runway and 1920s housing and did not address preserving bullet holes on the seaplane ramps . As hoped by the Trust , after the designation the Navy agreed to delay development of some of these items until an agreement could be reached .
To accommodate additional facilities and housing , the Navy needed to upgrade the island 's infrastructure . Its sewage system was upgraded with the 2001 installation of a 6 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) , 20 @-@ inch ( 510 mm ) sewage main from the island to Pearl Harbor and improvements to the sewage @-@ pumping station . Due to the bridge 's unique design , which includes a floating section , it was impossible to use it to transit cable across the loch . In 2005 , the Navy contracted drilling for primary and auxiliary conduits 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) apart and parallel to the bridge from Halawa Landing to the Ford Island golf course . The contractor installed 5 @,@ 045 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 538 m ) -long , 24 @-@ inch ( 610 mm ) -thick carbon @-@ steel high @-@ magnetic casing conduits , and fiber @-@ optic communications cables and 46kV power lines were fed through them .
In June 2013 the Navy planned to install 60 @,@ 000 photovoltaic panels over 28 acres ( 11 ha ) on the Ford Island runway , to comply with Congressional and Defense Department mandates to reduce dependence on fossil fuels and offset the cost of Hawaiian energy ( the highest in the United States ) . This plan deviated from a 2009 proposal ( using the panels to define the runway ) in favor of panels producing twice the power . The Navy offered the Pacific Aviation Museum Pearl Harbor $ 250 @,@ 000 toward renovation of the control tower 's elevator in exchange for its support of the plan . The museum declined , organizing an internet campaign opposing the plan based on the runway 's historic significance and highlighting Ford Island 's role in the attack on Pearl Harbor and Amelia Earhart 's visit . In response , the Navy decided to install the panels on existing structures around Pearl Harbor .
= = = Present use = = =
Ford Island continues to be used by the US Navy . It hosts the 34 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 200 m2 ) Pacific Warfighting Center for exercises , training and battle simulations . The Admiral Clarey Bridge enabled the Navy to develop a $ 331 million Pacific tsunami warning center named after Senator Daniel Inouye , replacing the aging facility on ʻEwa Beach . The center 's location is controversial because of its location in a tsunami @-@ vulnerable area and the Navy 's tsunami @-@ evacuation plan calls for the island 's only access point — the Admiral Clarey Bridge — to be opened for ship evacuation ( making the bridge inaccessible to land vehicles ) . The island also continues to host a military brig .
Nominally based in Alaska , the Sea @-@ based X @-@ band Radar ( SBX @-@ 1 ) arrived on Ford Island in 2006 for maintenance and repairs and has returned several times since . Primarily used as a warhead @-@ detection radar system on a self @-@ propelled floating platform in the Pacific , its presence on the island has been controversial . The platform , with a cost reaching nearly US $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , has never actually made it to Alaska and conspiracy theorists argue that the platform is a mobile version of the High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program .
In 2013 , the Navy unveiled a $ 4 @-@ million training facility , using simulators and virtual reality , at the Naval Undersea Warfare Center Division Keyport on Ford Island . The Fleet Integrated Synthetic Training / Testing Facility ( FIST2FAC ) was developed to save on training costs with a reusable facility which could emulate electronic , mine and anti @-@ air warfare scenarios instead of real @-@ world training requiring fuel , logistics and deployment costs for ships .
= = Memorials and museums = =
Soon after the attack on Pearl Harbor , it was decided that the USS Arizona would remain at the bottom of the harbor as the final resting place for those lost . In 1958 , President Dwight D. Eisenhower approved the construction of a memorial over the vessel and the USS Arizona memorial was dedicated in 1962 . It includes a complex at Halawa Landing ( opposite Ford Island ) and a structure over the Arizona which receives visitors by ferry . Although the ferries are operated by US Navy personnel , the complex is staffed by the National Park Service .
In January 29 , 1964 , the navy facility in Pearl Harbor centering on the Ford Island was designated " United States Naval Base , Pearl Harbor " and became a National Historic Landmark .
The battleship USS Utah , which was actually a test dummy , remains submerged off the island . After salvaging the capsized USS Oklahoma with winching cables , the Navy unsuccessfully tried to recover the Utah using the same technique . In 1972 , the remains of the Utah ( on the northwest side of the island ) were dedicated as a memorial to the fifty @-@ eight men still inside .
Despite concern that it would detract from the Arizona memorial , in 1998 the USS Missouri was transferred from Washington State to Ford Island . After a year of conversion into a museum , the ship opened for visitors on January 29 , 1999 . On December 7 , 2006 , the 65th anniversary of the attack on Pearl Harbor , the aviation museum opened to visitors in Hangar 37 after more than ten years of planning . On December 7 , 2007 , a joint ceremony was held by the National Park Service and the USS Oklahoma memorial committee to dedicate a memorial to the ship just outside the entrance to the USS Missouri museum on the northeast side of the island . The Pacific Aviation Museum Pearl Harbor signed a lease with the US Navy on September 2 , 2010 , for the Ford Island control tower , which sent the first radio alert of the attack , and began its restoration .
= = Film and television = =
A 1965 film , In Harm 's Way starring John Wayne , was filmed on Ford Island . A fictionalized scene before the attack , with officers and their wives at a pool party , was reenacted by island residents on the anniversary of the attacks as late as 2001 . In 1970 , the island 's control tower was repainted for the filming of Tora ! Tora ! Tora ! . A Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress used in the production experienced a landing @-@ gear malfunction and crash @-@ landed on Ford Island , and the crash landing was included in the film .
In April 2000 , filming began on the Michael Bay film Pearl Harbor . Before the filming , the cast and crew gathered on the USS Arizona memorial for a wreath @-@ laying by a representative of Touchstone Pictures , Jerry Bruckheimer and Bay . The producers brought fifteen vintage planes to Ford Island , placing them in one hangar for the filming . In addition , they brought fifteen ships back to Pearl Harbor for live bombardment ( without sinking them ) . The operations room of the control tower was converted into a barracks for the filming . The Pacific Aviation Museum hoped that the film would increase public awareness of the tower and spur support for its restoration . Bay reflected on the historic significance of Ford Island : " I have a vivid memory of showing the crew around Ford Island during pre @-@ production . We came upon a plaque directly across from the sunken Arizona , marking the spot where a torpedo hit nearly six decades ago . My crew stood in silence for three minutes at the sight of this small monument . It was a solemn moment for all of us , and I think it helped the crew appreciate the undertaking were [ sic ] about to begin . " During filming , a Vultee BT @-@ 13 Valiant used as a torpedo bomber crashed on the island .
In 2010 , the television series Hawaii Five @-@ 0 chose Battleship Cove , a housing community just outside the dock of the USS Missouri museum , as the location for an episode . The episode , with police cars racing down Tennessee and Nevada Streets , featured a number of Ford Island homes and some residents appeared as extras . That year , Peter Berg featured the USS Missouri in the film Battleship . The ship , which was towed off Ford Island for maintenance , was brought out to sea between completion of the maintenance and its return to the dock for filming . Michael Carr , president of the Battleship Missouri Memorial , hoped that the film would spike the number of visitors to the Ford Island museum .
|
= Lion @-@ class battlecruiser =
The Lion class were a class of battlecruisers built for the British Royal Navy before World War I. Nicknamed the " Splendid Cats " , the ships were a significant improvement over their predecessors of the Indefatigable class in terms of speed , armament and armour . The Lion @-@ class battlecruisers were 2 knots ( 3 @.@ 7 km / h ; 2 @.@ 3 mph ) faster , exchanged the 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns of the older ships for 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 343 mm ) guns , and had a waterline armour belt 9 inches ( 229 mm ) thick versus the 6 inches ( 152 mm ) of the Indefatigables . These improvements were in response to the German Moltke class , the first German battlecruisers , which were larger and more powerful than the first British battlecruisers of the Invincible class .
Lion served as the flagship of the Grand Fleet 's battlecruisers throughout World War I , except when she was being refitted or under repair . She sank the German light cruiser Cöln during the Battle of Heligoland Bight and served as Vice Admiral Beatty 's flagship at the battles of Dogger Bank and Jutland . She was so badly damaged at the first of these battles that she had to be towed back to port by the battlecruiser Indomitable and was under repair for more than two months . During the Battle of Jutland , Lion suffered a serious propellant fire that could have destroyed the ship if not for the action of Royal Marine Major Francis Harvey , the turret commander , who posthumously received the Victoria Cross for ordering the magazine to be flooded . However , the fire destroyed Harvey 's turret which had to be removed and rebuilt while the ship underwent repairs for several months .
Princess Royal participated in the Battle of Heligoland Bight a month after the war began and then was sent south to the Caribbean to prevent the German East Asia Squadron from using the Panama Canal . After the East Asia Squadron was sunk at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in December 1914 by the Invincible and Inflexible , Princess Royal rejoined the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron ( BCS ) . During the Battle of Dogger Bank she scored only a few hits , although one crippled the German armoured cruiser Blücher which allowed the enemy vessel to be caught and sunk by the concentrated fire of the British battlecruisers . Shortly afterwards , Princess Royal became the flagship of the 1st BCS , under the command of Rear Admiral Osmond Brock . She was then moderately damaged during the Battle of Jutland and required a month and a half of repairs afterwards .
Both ships spent the rest of the war on uneventful patrols in the North Sea , although they did provide distant cover during Second Battle of Heligoland Bight in 1917 . In 1920 they were both put into reserve and sold for scrap a few years later in accordance with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 .
= = Design and description = =
The acceleration of the German naval building programme in 1907 – 08 forced the Government to yield to public pressure and authorize more ships for the 1909 – 10 Construction Programme . Only a single battleship and a battlecruiser had been authorized in the 1908 – 09 Construction Programme , but three battleships and a battlecruiser were authorized in the 1909 – 10 Programme with another three battleships and a battlecruiser planned as " contingency " ships to placate the public and the Admiralty . Continuing pressure forced the Government to announce in July 1909 that the " contingency " ships would also be built . This pressure also allowed the Admiralty to gain approval to improve the size and power of its new ships so as to maintain qualitative superiority over the new German dreadnoughts then under construction .
The Lion @-@ class battlecruisers were designed to be as superior to the new German battlecruisers of the Moltke class as the German ships were to the Invincible class . The increase in speed , armour and gun size forced a 70 % increase in size over the Indefatigable class and made them the largest warships in the world . Their layout was adapted from the design of the first " super @-@ dreadnought " ( or 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch gunned ) class , the Orion @-@ class battleships of 1910 . The ships were the first battlecruisers to be armed with the new model 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch gun ( 343 mm ) by Vickers . The design of the Lions remedied some of the shortcomings of the preceding battlecruisers , which suffered from an inability for the en echelon amidships turrets to safely fire across deck , which limited them to a three turret broadside . This was done , however , because the greater size and weight of the new guns rendered beam turrets impracticable . As such , all four turrets in the Lions were arranged on the centreline , although ' Q ' turret was located amidships and was unable to fire directly aft . The Director of Naval Construction , Sir Philip Watts suggested that a fifth turret , superfiring over the rear turret , could be added if the ship was lengthened by three frames , 12 feet ( 4 m ) in total , and that this would add very little cost other than the £ 175 @,@ 000 for the additional turret , but add 25 % more firepower to the ship . This was not approved , however , possibly because of doubts about its feasibility .
= = = General characteristics = = =
The Lions were significantly larger than their predecessors of the Indefatigable class . They had an overall length of 700 feet ( 213 @.@ 4 m ) , a beam of 88 feet 6 @.@ 75 inches ( 27 @.@ 0 m ) , and a draught of 32 feet 5 inches ( 9 @.@ 9 m ) at deep load . They displaced 26 @,@ 270 long tons ( 26 @,@ 690 t ) at load and 30 @,@ 820 long tons ( 31 @,@ 310 t ) at deep load , over 8 @,@ 000 long tons ( 8 @,@ 100 t ) more than the earlier ships . They had a metacentric height of 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) at deep load .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Lion @-@ class ships had two paired sets of Parsons direct @-@ drive steam turbines , each of which was housed in a separate engine @-@ room . The wing shafts were coupled to high @-@ pressure turbines and these exhausted into low @-@ pressure turbines which drove the inner shafts . A cruising stage was built into the casing of each high @-@ pressure ahead turbine . Their three @-@ bladed propellers were 12 feet 3 inches ( 3 @.@ 73 m ) in diameter on the inner shafts while the outer propellers were 11 feet 8 inches ( 3 @.@ 56 m ) in diameter . The turbines were powered by forty @-@ two Yarrow water @-@ tube boilers in seven boiler rooms . They were designed to produce a total of 70 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 52 @,@ 199 kW ) , but achieved more than 76 @,@ 000 shp ( 56 @,@ 673 kW ) during trials , although Lion did not exceed her designed speed of 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) and Princess Royal only reached 28 @.@ 5 knots .
They carried 3 @,@ 500 long tons ( 3 @,@ 556 t ) of coal , and an additional 1 @,@ 135 long tons ( 1 @,@ 153 t ) of fuel oil that was to be sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . At full capacity , they could steam for 5 @,@ 610 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 390 km ; 6 @,@ 460 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The Lion @-@ class ships mounted eight BL 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Mark V guns in four twin hydraulically powered turrets , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' Q ' and ' Y ' . Unlike the two previous classes of battlecruiser in the Royal Navy , which had turrets fore , aft and on each wing of the ship , the Lion class ships had their main armament mounted in a single line from front to rear , with ' B ' turret superimposed over ' A ' turret , ' Q ' turret mounted amidships , and ' Y ' turret aft . The guns could be depressed to − 3 ° and elevated to + 20 ° , although the rangefinders controlling the turrets were limited to + 15 ° 21 ' until superelevating prisms were installed before the Battle of Jutland in May 1916 to allow full elevation . They fired 1 @,@ 250 @-@ pound ( 567 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 582 ft / s ( 787 m / s ) ; at 14 @.@ 75 ° , this provided a maximum range of 20 @,@ 000 yd ( 18 @,@ 288 m ) with armour @-@ piercing ( AP ) shells . At 20 ° elevation , the range was extended to 23 @,@ 820 yd ( 21 @,@ 781 m ) . The rate of fire of these guns was 1 @.@ 5 – 2 rounds per minute . The ships carried a total of 880 rounds during wartime for 110 shells per gun .
Their secondary armament consisted of sixteen BL 4 @-@ inch Mark VII guns , most of which were mounted in casemates . The guns on their PII * or PIV * mounts had a maximum elevation of 15 ° . They fired 31 @-@ pound ( 14 @.@ 1 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 864 ft / s ( 873 m / s ) ; this gave a maximum range of 11 @,@ 600 yd ( 10 @,@ 607 m ) . Their rate of fire was 6 – 8 rounds per minute . They were provided with 150 rounds per gun .
The Lion @-@ class ships were built without anti @-@ aircraft guns , but a variety of guns were fitted over the course of the war . These included the QF 6 pounder Hotchkiss gun on HA MkIc mounting . This had a maximum depression of 8 ° and a maximum elevation of 60 ° . It fired a 6 @-@ pound ( 2 @.@ 7 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 765 ft / s ( 538 m / s ) at a rate of fire of 20 rounds per minute . It had a maximum ceiling of 10 @,@ 000 ft ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) , but an effective range of only 1 @,@ 200 yards ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) . QF 3 inch 20 cwt AA guns on high @-@ angle MkII mounts were also used . They had a maximum depression of 10 ° and a maximum elevation of 90 ° . They fired a 12 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 5 @.@ 7 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 500 ft / s ( 760 m / s ) at a rate of 12 – 14 rounds per minute . It had a maximum effective ceiling of 23 @,@ 500 ft ( 7 @,@ 200 m ) .
Princess Royal received two 4 @-@ inch Mark VII guns on HA MkII mounts capable of 60 ° of elevation in April 1917 and a pair of single 2 @-@ pdr MK II " pom @-@ poms " were added in April 1919 . They fired 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) shells weighing 2 pounds ( 0 @.@ 9 kg ) at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 920 ft / s ( 590 m / s ) to a maximum effective range of 1 @,@ 200 yards ( 1 @,@ 097 m ) . Their practical rate of fire was between 50 and 75 rounds per minute .
Two 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) submerged torpedo tubes were fitted on the beam . Fourteen Mark II * * * torpedoes were carried which had a warhead of 515 pounds ( 234 kg ) of TNT . They had two speed settings which governed their range ; at 45 knots ( 83 @.@ 3 km / h ; 51 @.@ 8 mph ) they could reach 4 @,@ 500 yards ( 4 @,@ 115 m ) or 10 @,@ 750 yards ( 9 @,@ 830 m ) at 31 knots ( 57 @.@ 4 km / h ; 35 @.@ 7 mph ) .
= = = Fire @-@ control = = =
The main guns of the Lion @-@ class ships were controlled from the conning tower . Data from a 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) Argo rangefinder located on top of the conning tower was input into a Mk I Dreyer Fire Control Table located in the transmitting station ( TS ) below the conning tower where it was converted into range and deflection data for use by the guns . The target 's data was also graphically recorded on a plotting table to assist the gunnery officer in predicting the movement of the target . ' B ' and ' X ' turrets were provided with nine @-@ foot rangefinders and were fitted as secondary control positions .
Fire @-@ control technology advanced quickly during the years immediately preceding World War I and the development of the director firing system was a major advance . This consisted of a fire @-@ control director mounted high in the ship which electrically provided gun data to the turrets via pointers , which the turret crewmen only had to follow . The director officer fired the guns simultaneously which aided in spotting the shell splashes and minimized the effects of the roll on the dispersion of the shells . Lion received her system in early 1915 while undergoing repairs after the Battle of Dogger Bank and Princess Royal got hers in early 1916 . A second director was added to each ship in 1918 .
= = = Armour = = =
The armour protection given to the Lions was heavier than that of the Indefatigables ; their waterline belt of Krupp Cemented Armour measured 9 inches ( 229 mm ) thick amidships in contrast to the 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) belt of their predecessors . It thinned to four inches towards the ships ' ends , but did not reach either the bow or the stern . In addition they were given an upper armour belt with a maximum thickness of six inches over the same length as the thickest part of the waterline armour and thinned to 5 inches ( 127 mm ) abreast the end turrets . Four @-@ inch transverse bulkheads closed off the ends of the armoured citadel . Nickel @-@ steel plating was used for the protective decks . The lower armoured deck was generally only 1 inch ( 25 @.@ 4 mm ) thick except outside the citadel where it was 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) . The upper armoured deck was situated at the top of the upper armour belt and was also only one inch thick . The forecastle deck ranged from 1 @.@ 25 to 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 32 to 38 mm ) .
The gun turrets had 9 @-@ inch front and sides while their roofs were 2 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 25 inches ( 64 to 83 mm ) thick . The barbettes were protected by 9 inches of armour above the deck , but it thinned to 8 inches ( 203 mm ) above the upper armour deck and 3 inches ( 76 mm ) below it . The conning tower sides were 10 inches ( 254 mm ) thick and it had a three @-@ inch roof and communication tube . Nickel @-@ steel torpedo bulkheads 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) thick were fitted abreast the magazines and shell rooms . Her funnel uptakes were protected by nickel @-@ steel splinter armour 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) thick on the sides and one inch on the ends between the upper and forecastle decks . After the Battle of Jutland revealed her vulnerability to plunging shellfire , one inch of additional armour , weighing approximately 130 long tons ( 132 t ) , was added to the magazine crowns and turret roofs .
= = Construction = =
Only Lion was completed to the original design , which had the foremost funnel placed between the forward superstructure and the tripod foremast . This meant that hot clinker and flue gases from the boilers made the spotting top on the foremast completely unworkable when the ships were steaming at high speed , that the upper bridge could easily be rendered uninhabitable , depending on the wind , and that the signal flags and halyards were at risk of burning . Both ships were altered to correct this problem , Lion before she commissioned , and Princess Royal as she was fitting out , at a total cost of £ 68 @,@ 170 . The fore funnel was replaced and moved aft , the original fore and mainmasts exchanged position , although the foremast was now just a pole mast , not a tripod , the spotting tower at the rear of the conning tower was removed , the conning tower enlarged , the 9 @-@ foot Argo rangefinder was moved from the foremast spotting top to the roof of the conning tower , and all the funnels were raised to the same height . The two four @-@ inch guns mounted above the forward group of casemates were enclosed in casemates of their own to protect the gun crews from weather and enemy action as part of these modifications .
Although the standard British practice was to quote the cost without armament , the data available for the Lions includes guns .
*
= estimated cost , including guns
* * =
including guns
= = Wartime modifications = =
The pole foremast was modified to a tripod after 1916 . This was due to the increased weight of masthead fire @-@ control equipment associated with director firing . In 1917 Lion and Princess Royal received searchlight towers on the after funnel and mainmast while losing 1 × 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) gun each from the after battery . In early 1918 , both ships received flying @-@ off platforms on ' Q ' and ' X ' turrets , for Sopwith Pup and Sopwith 1 ½ Strutter aircraft . Lion was fitted with a torpedo control station at the aft end of her aft superstructure .
= = Service = =
= = = Pre @-@ war career = = =
Upon commissioning , both Lion and Princess Royal were assigned to the 1st Cruiser Squadron , which in January 1913 was renamed the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron ( BCS ) , although Lion became the flagship . Rear Admiral Beatty assumed command of the 1st BCS on 1 March 1913 . Lion and Princess Royal , along with the rest of the 1st BCS , made a port visit to Brest in February 1914 and the squadron visited Russia in June , where Lion entertained the Russian Royal Family aboard while in Kronstadt .
= = = World War I = = =
= = = = Battle of Heligoland Bight = = = =
Lion 's first action was as flagship of the battlecruiser force under the command of Admiral Beatty during the Battle of Heligoland Bight on 28 August 1914 . Beatty 's ships had originally been intended as distant support of the British cruisers and destroyers closer to the German coast in case the large ships of the High Seas Fleet sortied in response to the British attacks . They turned south at full speed at 11 : 35 am when the British light forces failed to disengage on schedule and the rising tide meant that German capital ships would be able to clear the bar at the mouth of the Jade Estuary . The brand @-@ new light cruiser Arethusa had been crippled earlier in the battle and was under fire from the German light cruisers Strassburg and Cöln when Beatty 's battlecruisers loomed out of the mist at 12 : 37 pm . Strassburg was able to duck into the mists and evade fire , but Cöln remained visible and was quickly crippled by fire from the squadron . Beatty , however , was distracted from the task of finishing her off by the sudden appearance of the elderly light cruiser Ariadne directly to his front . He turned in pursuit and reduced her to a flaming hulk in only three salvos at close range ( under 6 @,@ 000 yards ( 5 @.@ 5 km ) ) . At 1 : 10 pm Beatty turned north and made a general signal to retire . Beatty 's main body encountered the crippled Cöln shortly after turning north and she was sunk by two salvos from Lion .
Princess Royal was detached from the 1st BCS and sailed from Cromarty on 28 September to rendezvous with a Canadian troop convoy and escort it to the United Kingdom . She rejoined the 1st BCS on 26 October . Shortly afterward she was detached again to reinforce the North Atlantic and Caribbean Squadrons in the search for Admiral Graf Spee 's German East Asia Squadron after it destroyed the West Indies Squadron of Rear Admiral Christopher Cradock during the Battle of Coronel on 1 November 1914 . She arrived at Halifax on 21 November before cruising off New York City for a period and then down to the Caribbean to guard against the possibility of Graf Spee using the Panama Canal . She departed Kingston , Jamaica for the U.K. on 19 December , after the East Asia Squadron had been sunk at the Battle of the Falkland Islands on 7 December .
= = = = Raid on Scarborough = = = =
The German Navy had decided on a strategy of bombarding British towns on the North Sea coast in an attempt to draw out the Royal Navy and destroy elements of it in detail . An earlier Raid on Yarmouth on 3 November had been partially successful , but a larger @-@ scale operation was devised by Admiral Franz von Hipper afterwards . The fast battlecruisers would actually conduct the bombardment while the entire High Seas Fleet was to station itself east of Dogger Bank to provide cover for their return and to destroy any elements of the Royal Navy that responded to the raid . But what the Germans did not know was that the British were reading the German naval codes and were planning to catch the raiding force on its return journey , although they were not aware that the High Seas Fleet would be at sea as well . Admiral Beatty 's 1st BCS , now reduced to four ships , including Lion , as well as the 2nd Battle Squadron with six dreadnoughts , was detached from the Grand Fleet in an attempt to intercept the Germans near Dogger Bank .
Admiral Hipper set sail on 15 December 1914 for another such raid and successfully bombarded several English towns , but British destroyers escorting the 1st BCS had already encountered German destroyers of the High Seas Fleet at 5 : 15 am and fought an inconclusive action with them . Vice Admiral Sir George Warrender , commanding the 2nd Battle Squadron , had received a signal at 5 : 40 that the destroyer Lynx was engaging enemy destroyers although Beatty had not . The destroyer Shark spotted the German armoured cruiser Roon and her escorts at about 7 : 00 , but could not transmit the message until 7 : 25 . Admiral Warrender received the signal , as did the battlecruiser New Zealand , but Beatty did not , despite the fact that New Zealand had been specifically tasked to relay messages between the destroyers and Beatty . Warrender attempted to pass on Shark 's message to Beatty at 7 : 36 , but did not manage to make contact until 7 : 55 . Beatty reversed course when he got the message and dispatched New Zealand to search for Roon . She was being overhauled by New Zealand when Beatty received messages that Scarborough was being shelled at 9 : 00 . Beatty ordered New Zealand to rejoin the squadron and turned west for Scarborough .
The British forces split going around the shallow Southwest Patch of the Dogger Bank ; Beatty 's ships passed to the north while Warrender passed to the south as they headed west to block the main route through the minefields defending the English coast . This left a 15 nautical miles ( 28 km ) gap between them through which the German light forces began to move . At 12 : 25 , the light cruisers of the II Scouting Group began to pass the British forces searching for Hipper . HMS Southampton spotted the light cruiser Stralsund and signalled a report to Beatty . At 12 : 30 Beatty turned his battlecruisers towards the German ships . Beatty presumed that the German cruisers were the advance screen for Hipper 's ships , however , those were some 50 km ( 31 mi ) behind . The 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron , which had been screening for Beatty 's ships , detached to pursue the German cruisers , but a misinterpreted signal from the British battlecruisers sent them back to their screening positions . This confusion allowed the German light cruisers to escape , and alerted Hipper to the location of the British battlecruisers . The German battlecruisers wheeled to the northeast of the British forces and made good their escape .
= = = = Battle of Dogger Bank = = = =
On 23 January 1915 , a force of German battlecruisers under the command of Admiral Franz von Hipper sortied to clear the Dogger Bank of any British fishing boats or small craft that might be there to collect intelligence on German movements . However , the British were reading their coded messages and sailed to intercept them with a larger force of British battlecruisers under the command of Admiral Beatty . Contact was initiated at 7 : 20 am on the 24th when the British light cruiser Arethusa spotted the German light cruiser SMS Kolberg . By 7 : 35 the Germans had spotted Beatty 's force and Hipper ordered a turn to the south at 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) , believing that this would suffice if the ships that he saw to his northwest were British battleships and that he could always increase speed to Blücher 's maximum speed of 23 knots ( 26 mph ; 43 km / h ) if they were British battlecruisers .
Beatty ordered his battlecruisers to make all practicable speed to catch the Germans before they could escape . The leading ships , Lion , Princess Royal and Tiger , were doing 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) in pursuit and Lion opened fire at 8 : 52 at a range of 20 @,@ 000 yards ( 18 @,@ 000 m ) . The other ships followed a few minutes later but , hampered by the extreme range and decreasing visibility , they did not score their first hit on Blücher until 9 : 09 . The German battlecruisers opened fire themselves a few minutes later at 9 : 11 , at a range of 18 @,@ 000 yards ( 16 @,@ 000 m ) , and concentrated their fire on Lion . They first hit her at 9 : 28 on the waterline with a shell that flooded a coal bunker . Shortly afterwards a 21 @-@ centimetre ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) shell from Blücher hit the roof of ' A ' turret , denting it and knocking out the left gun for two hours . At 9 : 35 Beatty signalled ' Engage the corresponding ships in the enemy 's line ' , but Tiger 's captain , believing that Indomitable was already engaging Blücher , fired at Seydlitz , as did Lion , which left Moltke unengaged and able to continue to engage Lion without risk . Moltke and Derfflinger combined their fire to cripple Lion over the next hour even though Princess Royal engaged Derfflinger during this period .
In the meantime Blücher had been heavily damaged by fire from all the other battlecruisers ; her speed had dropped to 17 knots ( 20 mph ; 31 km / h ) and her steering gear had been jammed . Beatty ordered Indomitable to attack her at 10 : 48 am . Six minutes later Beatty spotted what he thought was a submarine periscope on the starboard bow and ordered an immediate 90 ° turn to port to avoid the submarine , although he failed to hoist the ' Submarine Warning ' flag because most of Lion 's signal halyards had been shot away . Almost immediately afterward Lion lost her remaining dynamo to the rising water which knocked out all remaining light and power . He ordered ' Course Northeast ' at 11 : 02 to bring his ships back to their pursuit of Hipper . He also hoisted ' Attack the rear of the enemy ' on the other halyard although there was no connection between the two signals . This caused Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Gordon Moore , temporarily commanding in New Zealand , to think that the signals meant to attack Blücher , which was about 8 @,@ 000 yards ( 7 @,@ 300 m ) to the northeast . So they turned away from the pursuit of Hipper 's main body and engaged Blücher . Beatty tried to correct the mistake , but he was so far behind the leading battlecruisers that his signals could not be read amidst the smoke and haze .
He transferred his flag to the destroyer Attack at 11 : 50 and set off in pursuit of his battlecruisers . He caught up to them shortly before Blücher sank and boarded Princess Royal at 12 : 20 . He ordered the pursuit resumed of the German battlecruisers , but rescinded the order when it became clear that too much time had been wasted sinking Blücher and Hipper 's ships would be able to reach German waters before the British could catch them . Lion was headed home at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) when the rest of the battlecruisers caught up with her around 12 : 45 .
Lion 's starboard engine was temporarily shut down due to contaminated feed water , but it was restarted and Lion headed home at 10 knots ( 12 mph ; 19 km / h ) when the rest of the battlecruisers caught up with her around 12 : 45 . At 2 : 30 the starboard engine began to fail and her speed was reduced to 8 knots ( 9 @.@ 2 mph ; 15 km / h ) . Indomitable was ordered to tow Lion back to port at 3 : 00 , but it took two hours and two tries before she could start to tow Lion , and a further day @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half to reach port at speeds of 7 – 10 knots ( 8 @.@ 1 – 11 @.@ 5 mph ; 13 – 19 km / h ) , even after Lion 's starboard engine was temporarily repaired .
Lion was temporarily repaired at Rosyth with timber and concrete before sailing to Newcastle upon Tyne to be repaired by Palmers as the Admiralty did not wish it known that she was damaged badly enough to require repair at either Portsmouth or Devonport Dockyards lest that be seen as a sign of defeat . She was heeled 8 ° to starboard with four cofferdams in place between 9 February and 28 March to repair about 1 @,@ 500 square feet ( 140 m2 ) of bottom plating and replace five armour plates and their supporting structure . She rejoined the Battlecruiser Fleet , again as Beatty 's flagship , on 7 April . She had fired 243 rounds from her main guns , but had only made four hits : one each on Blücher and Derfflinger , and two on Seydlitz . In return she had been hit by the Germans sixteen times , but only one man was killed and twenty wounded .
Princess Royal hit Derfflinger once , but only forced in a pair of armour plates that flooded a coal bunker . She also hit Blücher at least twice , including the hit that crippled her , but having fired a total of 271 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch shells during the battle this gave the Princess Royal a hit rate of only 0 @.@ 7 % . She also fired two 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch shrapnel shells at the German airship L5 as it attempted to bomb the sinking Blücher , thinking that it was a British ship , despite the fact that the maximum elevation of those guns was only 20 ° . Princess Royal was not damaged during the battle .
= = = = Battle of Jutland = = = =
On 31 May 1916 Princess Royal was the flagship of the 1st BCS , under command of Rear Admiral Osmond Brock , which had put to sea with the rest of the Battlecruiser Fleet , led by Vice @-@ Admiral Beatty in Lion , to intercept a sortie by the High Seas Fleet into the North Sea . The British were able to decode the German radio messages and left their bases before the Germans put to sea . Hipper 's battlecruisers spotted the Battlecruiser Fleet to their west at 3 : 20 pm , but Beatty 's ships did not spot the Germans to their east until 3 : 30 . Almost immediately afterward , at 3 : 32 , he ordered a course change to east south @-@ east to position himself astride the German 's line of retreat and called his ships ' crews to action stations . Hipper ordered his ships to turn to starboard , away from the British , to assume a south @-@ easterly course , and reduced speed to 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) to allow three light cruisers of the 2nd Scouting Group to catch up . With this turn Hipper was falling back on the High Seas Fleet , then about 60 miles ( 97 km ) behind him . Around this time Beatty altered course to the east as it was quickly apparent that he was still too far north to cut off Hipper .
This began what was to be called the ' Run to the South ' as Beatty changed course to steer east south @-@ east at 3 : 45 , paralleling Hipper 's course , now that the range closed to under 18 @,@ 000 yards ( 16 @,@ 000 m ) . The Germans opened fire first at 3 : 48 , followed almost immediately afterward by the British . The British ships were still in the process of making their turn as only the two leading ships , Lion and Princess Royal had steadied on their course when the Germans opened fire . The German fire was accurate from the beginning , but the British overestimated the range as the German ships blended into the haze . Lion and Princess Royal , as the leading British ships , engaged Lützow , the leading ship in the German formation . Lutzow targeted Lion while Derfflinger , the second ship in the German formation engaged Princess Royal , her opposite number . Fire from both German ships was very accurate , and both Lion and Princess Royal had been hit twice within three minutes of the Germans ' opening fire . By 3 : 54 the range was down to 12 @,@ 900 yards ( 11 @,@ 800 m ) , and Beatty ordered a course change two points to starboard to open up the range at 3 : 57 . Lion scored her first hit on Lützow two minutes later , but Lützow returned the favour at 4 : 00 when one of her 305 mm shells hit ' Q ' turret at a range of 16 @,@ 500 yards ( 15 @,@ 100 m ) . The shell penetrated the joint between the nine @-@ inch turret face plate and the 3 @.@ 5 @-@ inch roof and detonated over the center of the left @-@ hand gun . It blew the front roof plate and the center face plate off the turret , killed or wounded everyone in the turret , and started a fire that smouldered , despite efforts to put it out that had been thought to have been successful . Accounts of subsequent events differ , but the magazine doors had been closed and the magazine flooded when the smouldering fire ignited the eight full propellant charges in the turret working room at 4 : 28 . They burnt violently , with the flames reaching as high as the masthead , and killed most of the magazine and shell room crews still in the lower part of the mounting . The gas pressure severely buckled the magazine doors , and it is probable that the magazine would have exploded if it had not already been flooded . Royal Marine Major Francis Harvey , the mortally wounded turret commander , was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross for having ordered the magazine flooded .
At 4 : 11 pm Princess Royal observed the track of a torpedo fired by Moltke , pass underneath her , but it was thought that the torpedo was fired by a U @-@ boat on the disengaged side . This was confirmed when the destroyer Landrail reported having spotted a periscope before the torpedo tracks were seen . The range had grown too far for accurate shooting so Beatty altered course four points to port to close the range again between 4 : 12 and 4 : 15 . This maneuver exposed Lion to the fire of the German battlecruisers and she was hit several times . The smoke and fumes from these hits caused Derfflinger to lose sight of Princess Royal , and she switched her fire to Queen Mary at 4 : 16 . By 4 : 25 the range was down to 14 @,@ 400 yards ( 13 @,@ 200 m ) and Beatty turned two points to starboard to open the range again . However , it was too late for Queen Mary , which was hit multiple times in quick succession about that time , and her forward magazines exploded . At 4 : 30 the light cruiser Southampton , scouting in front of Beatty 's ships , spotted the lead elements of the High Seas Fleet charging north at top speed . Three minutes later she sighted the topmasts of Vice @-@ Admiral Reinhard Scheer 's battleships , but did not transmit a message to Beatty for another five minutes . Beatty continued south for another two minutes to confirm the sighting himself before ordering a sixteen @-@ point turn to starboard in succession . During the ' Run to the South ' Princess Royal was hit a total of six times by Derfflinger , but none of these were serious .
Lion was hit twice more , during what came to be called the ' Run to the North ' , after the German battlecruisers made their own turn north . Beatty 's ships maintained full speed to try and put some separation between them and the High Seas Fleet and gradually moved out of range . They turned north and then northeast to try to rendezvous with the main body of the Grand Fleet . At 5 : 40 pm they opened fire again on the German battlecruisers . The setting sun blinded the German gunners and they could not make out the British ships and turned away to the northeast at 5 : 47 . Beatty gradually turned more towards the east to allow him to cover the deployment of the Grand Fleet into its battle formation and to move ahead of it , but he mistimed his manoeuvre and forced the leading division to fall off towards the east , further away from the Germans . By 6 : 35 Beatty was following the 3rd BCS as they were steering east @-@ southeast , leading the Grand Fleet , and continuing to engage Hipper 's battlecruisers to their southwest . A few minutes earlier Scheer had ordered a simultaneous 180 ° starboard turn and Beatty lost sight of them in the haze . At 6 : 44 Beatty turned his ships southeast and to the south @-@ southeast four minutes later searching for Hipper 's ships . Beatty took this opportunity to recall the two surviving ships of the 3rd BCS to take position astern of New Zealand and then slowed down to eighteen knots and altered course to the south to prevent himself from getting separated from the Grand Fleet . At this moment Lion 's gyrocompass failed and she made a complete circle before her steering was brought under control again . At 6 : 55 Scheer ordered another 180 ° turn which put them on a converging course again with the Grand Fleet , which had altered course itself to the south . This allowed the Grand Fleet to cross Scheer 's T and they badly damaged his leading ships . Scheer ordered yet another 180 ° turn at 7 : 13 in an attempt to extricate the High Seas Fleet from the trap into which he had sent them .
This manoeuvre was successful and the British lost sight of the Germans until 8 : 05 pm when Castor spotted smoke bearing west @-@ northwest . Ten minutes later she 'd closed the range enough to identify German torpedo boats and engaged them . Beatty turned west upon hearing the sounds of gunfire and spotted the German battlecruisers only 8 @,@ 500 yards ( 7 @,@ 800 m ) away . Inflexible opened fire at 8 : 20 , followed almost immediately by the rest of Beatty 's battlecruisers . Shortly after 8 : 30 the pre @-@ dreadnought battleships of Rear Admiral Mauve 's II Battle Squadron were spotted and fire switched to them . The Germans were able to fire only a few rounds at them because of the poor visibility and turned away to the west . The British battlecruisers hit the German ships several times before they blended into the haze around 8 : 40 . After this Beatty changed course to south @-@ southeast and maintained that course , ahead of both the Grand Fleet and the High Seas Fleet , until 2 : 55 the next morning when the order was given to reverse course .
Lion , Princess Royal and the rest of the battlecruisers reached Rosyth on the morning of 2 June 1916 where Lion began repairs that lasted until 19 July . The remains of ' Q ' turret were removed during this period and not replaced until later . She had been hit a total of fourteen times and suffered 99 dead and 51 wounded during the battle . She fired 326 rounds from her main guns , but can only be credited with four hits on Lützow and one on Derfflinger . She also fired seven torpedoes , four at the German battleships , two at Derfflinger and one at the light cruiser Wiesbaden without success .
Upon her arrival at Rosyth , Princess Royal began repairs that lasted until 10 June . She sailed later that day for Plymouth where more permanent repairs were made until 15 July and was back at Rosyth by 21 July . She was hit nine times during the battle , six time by Derfflinger , twice by Markgraf and once by Posen , with 22 of her crew killed and 81 injured . She fired only 230 rounds from her main guns , as her visibility was often impaired by the funnel smoke and fires aboard Lion and can be credited with three hits on Lützow and two on Seydlitz . She also fired one torpedo at the German pre @-@ dreadnoughts without success .
= = = Post @-@ Jutland career = = =
Lion rejoined the Battlecruiser Fleet , again as Beatty 's flagship , on 19 July 1916 without ' Q ' turret , but then had the turret replaced during a visit to Armstrong Whitworth at Elswick that lasted from 6 to 23 September . In the meantime , on the evening of 18 August the Grand Fleet put to sea in response to a message deciphered by Room 40 which indicated that the High Seas Fleet , less the II Squadron , would be leaving harbour that night . The German objective was to bombard Sunderland on the 19th , with extensive reconnaissance provided by airships and submarines . The Grand Fleet sailed with 29 dreadnought battleships and six battlecruisers . Throughout the 19th , Jellicoe and Scheer received conflicting intelligence , with the result that having reached its rendezvous in the North Sea , the Grand Fleet steered north in the erroneous belief that it had entered a minefield before turning south again . Scheer steered south @-@ eastward pursuing a lone British battle squadron reported by an airship , which was in fact the Harwich Force under Commodore Tyrwhitt . Having realised their mistake the Germans then shaped course for home . The only contact came in the evening when Tyrwhitt sighted the High Seas Fleet but was unable to achieve an advantageous attack position before dark , and broke off contact . Both the British and the German fleets returned home , the British having lost two cruisers to submarine attacks and the Germans having a dreadnought battleship damaged by torpedo .
Lion became the flagship of Vice @-@ Admiral W. C. Pakenham in December 1916 when he assumed command of the Battlecruiser Fleet upon Beatty 's promotion to command of the Grand Fleet . Lion had an uneventful time for the rest of the war conducting patrols of the North Sea as the High Seas Fleet was forbidden to risk any more losses . She provided support for British light forces involved in the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight on 17 November 1917 , but never came within range of any German forces . Lion and Princess Royal , along with the rest of the Grand Fleet , sortied on the afternoon of 23 March 1918 after radio transmissions had revealed that the High Seas Fleet was at sea after a failed attempt to intercept the regular British convoy to Norway . However , the Germans were too far ahead of the British and escaped without firing a shot . When the High Seas Fleet sailed for Scapa Flow on 21 November 1918 to be interned , Lion was among the escorting ships . Along with the rest of the 1st BCS , Lion and Princess Royal guarded the interned ships until both ships were assigned to the Atlantic Fleet in April 1919 .
Lion was placed in reserve in March 1920 , paid off on 30 March 1922 , and sold for scrap on 31 January 1924 for £ 77 @,@ 000 . Princess Royal was placed in reserve in 1920 and an attempt to sell her to Chile in mid @-@ 1920 was unsuccessful . She became the flagship of the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Scottish Coast on 22 February 1922 , but was sold for scrap in December 1922 . Both ships were scrapped to meet the tonnage limitations of the Washington Naval Treaty .
|
= Mahamuni Buddha Temple =
The Mahamuni Buddha Temple ( Burmese : မဟာမုနိဘုရားကြီး , Burmese pronunciation : [ məhà mṵnḭ pʰəjádʑí ] ; also called the Mahamuni Pagoda ) is a Buddhist temple and major pilgrimage site , located southwest of Mandalay , Myanmar ( Burma ) ( Myanmar ) . The Mahamuni Buddha image ( literal meaning : The Great Sage ) is deified in this temple , and originally came from Arakan . It is highly venerated in Burma and central to many people 's lives , as it is seen as an expression of representing the Buddha 's life .
Ancient tradition refers to only five likenesses of the Buddha , made during his lifetime ; two were in India , two in paradise , and the fifth is the Mahamuni Buddha image in Myanmar . According to the legend , the Buddha visited the Dhanyawadi city of Arakan in 554 BC . King Sanda Thuriya requested that an image was cast of him . After casting the Great Image , the Buddha breathed upon it , and thereafter the image became the exact likeness of the Mahamuni .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
According to legend , the Gautama Buddha visited Dhanyawadi , the capital city of Arakan during his travels on a Proselytization mission to spread Buddhism . During the 26th anniversary of the King at the time , a devout Buddhist , the Buddha accompanied by Shin Ananda and 500 disciples landed at Salagiri mountain peak near Khaukrah town . The King of Arakan , along with his Chief Queen Sandra Mala ( with her retinue of 1 @,@ 600 ladies in waiting ) , and an entourage of ministers , generals and officials , paid homage to the Buddha . They were deeply moved by his teachings and upon his departure to Thawuthi ( Sravasti ) , the King insisted that he leave his image for people to worship . For this purpose , the Buddha then sat under a Bodhi tree for a week of meditation . During this time Sakka ( in Pāli , the ruler of the Trāyastriṃśa Heaven in Buddhist cosmology , supported by his assistant Vissakamma , moulded a lifelike image of the Buddha using ornaments donated by the king and his people . It is also said that Sakka and Vissakamma ( or Vishvakarman ) created a separate pavilion for the Buddha to live and enjoy during these seven days . After looking at his own lifelike image , believed at the time to have been his only true @-@ likeness , Buddha was pleased and " imbued the image with his spiritual essence " , or " enlivened and consecrated " the image , naming it " Candasara " . He also stated that the image would last for five thousand years as his representative .
Historian Juliane Schober has very succinctly explained this legend and the cult worship that has evolved around the " living " double image of Mahamuni Buddha :
The rich and complex mythology associated with this image includes episodes that parallel other stories about the Buddha ... The rituals and myths of Mahamuni thus accomplish two aims simultaneously : they place local contexts and actors within a universal Buddhist cosmology , and they locate a continuing biography of the Buddha in the Buddhist politics of Arakan and Upper Burma . Theravada politics characteristically extended the biographical mode of recreating the Buddha 's presence and associated with it the power of kings and other patrons of this image . The veneration of this Buddha image is thus informed by local conceptions of religious patronage in sociopolitical domains .
Another legend narrated in the Arakanese chronicle relates to the nine phenomena that occurred when the image was consecrated in the temple and continued to occur after the Buddha had departed . These nine phenomena were : holy water used for washing the image would not overflow the collecting vessels ; the water from the tank that was used for washing the Buddha 's head would retain its quality throughout the year ; six coloured rays appeared when the devotees worshipped the image in the evenings ; the rays faded in the presence of non @-@ believers ; the space in the temple would automatically accommodate any number of devotees ; the leaves of trees would tilt in the direction of the Buddha image ; birds would not fly over the temple ; and the stone guardians at the entrance would sense the presence of evil doers and prevent them from entering the temple .
Another legend narrated is linked to the six Khmer bronze statues ( three lions – with heads substituted later in Burmese style , a three @-@ headed elephant known as Airavata , and two warriors in the form of Shiva ) , which are installed in the temple in the northern end of the courtyard . These statues were originally at the Angkor Wat temple complex in Cambodia . Devotees believe that the statues have healing qualities to rub a particular part of the body against the statues to cure themselves of various ailments and diseases .
= = = Image history = = =
In the ancient history of Arakan , King Anawratha of Pagan ( r . 1044 – 1077 ) attempted to move the image to Pagan , without success . In 1784 , the Burmese under the military leadership of Crown Prince Thado Minsaw of Konbaung dynasty conquered the Kingdom of Mrauk U. The religious relics of the kingdom , including the Mahamuni Buddha image , were confiscated and installed in the Mahamuni temple or Pagoda at Amarapura , on the outskirts of the old capital of Mandalay . As the Mahamuni image was too large to transport as a whole , it was cut into sections and later reassembled and housed in the new temple . Mandalay became the capital under King Mindon ( r . 1853 – 1878 ) . It was also the capital under his son Thibaw ( r . 1878 – 1885 ) of the Konbaung Dynasty ( 1752 – 1885 ) . When the British annexed Upper Burma in 1885 to prevent the French from dominating it , monarchic rule ended . However , veneration of the Mahamuni image has continued , and is visited and idolised by many pilgrims , mainly Rakhine , Mon and Burmans peoples .
Several old bronze statues that line the courtyard of the temple have a long history as war loot . They were originally Khmer statues , found at Angkor Wat in Cambodia , and were taken to Ayutthaya in 1431 by the Siamese . In 1564 , the Burmese king Bayinnaung conquered Ayutthaya and took thirty such statues to Bago ( Pegu ) . In 1599 , King Razagri of Mrauk U invaded Bago and brought the statues to Mrauk U. Finally , Thado Minsaw took them to Amarapura in 1785 . According to local belief , many more of these statues were brought from Arakan . However , King Thibaw melted many of them to cast cannons for fortification of his palace . Of the thirty statues Bayinnaung brought from Siam , only six remain today , and are displayed in the temple complex . They are a major attraction because of their purported healing qualities .
= = = Damage = = =
The Mahamnuni image and its precincts suffered damage from fires in 1879 and 1884 . In the fire that broke out during the reign of King Thibaw , the seven @-@ tiered spire on the brick temple , devotional halls , causeways and others were burnt down , although the Great Image itself was saved . Gold recovered after the fire was made into a robe that currently adorns the image . In 1887 , Minister Kinwun Mingyi U Kaung took charge of the site and in1896 constructed the present temple around the original shrine built by King Bodawpaya .
In 1996 , the military rulers in Burma undertook renovation work on the Mahamuni Pagoda . During this period , the Mahamuni Buddha image was damaged in 1997 when a hole appeared in the belly of the Great Image . It was believed that thieves had drilled the hole in an attempt to steal jewels believed to be secreted within the image . It was reported that a military officer had requested to open the temple in the night , resulting in a meeting of all the senior monks from major monasteries in the area to discuss the matter . Whilst the meeting was in progress , attention was diverted to a purported rape incident committed by a Muslim man on a Buddhist girl . A major riot broke out but it turned out afterward that the Buddhist girl had not been raped at all . It was a coverup to divert attention away from the Buddha so it could be repaired . However , the mystery remains as to whether any jewellery did exist and was actually removed from the Great Image at all .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Main Temple / Pagoda = = =
The Mahamuni Temple or Pagoda is a complex of structures located along a road from Mandalay leading to the southwest . It was originally located on A brick paved road which was constructed from the Royal Palace of King Bodawpaya to the eastern gate of the temple , although only remnants of this road can still be seen . A major teaching monastery of some 400 monks of the Thudhamma Nikaya ( order ) , is one among the many monasteries which are adjacent to the Pagoda . The temple has a central shrine and is framed by an extensive grass lawn . The arcades leading to the main shrine have many kiosks , selling religious paraphernalia such as incense , candles , rosaries , flowers , robes , sandals etc . , and various restaurants and tea shops . The sanctum sanctorum , where the large Mahamuni image is deified , is a small chamber and has a roof covering made up of seven pyatthat meaning tiered roofs ( derivative of the Sanskrit word prasada ) . The ceiling has an ornate mosaic covering . The arcades are supported by 252 gilded and carved columns adorned with fine frescoes .
= = = Mahamuni image = = =
The Mahamuni Buddha image is housed in a small chamber , seated on a throne in a divine posture known as the Bhumisparsa Mudra . This posture or mudra symbolises Buddha 's vanquishing of Mara ) . The legs are crossed with feet turned inwards , and the right hand touches the ground ritualistically , as a witness of his past deeds . The image is cast in bronze and weighs 6 @.@ 5 tonnes and is erected on a 1 @.@ 84 metres ( 6 @.@ 0 ft ) high pedestal and reaches a height of 3 @.@ 82 metres ( 12 @.@ 5 ft ) . Its shoulders measure 1 @.@ 84 metres ( 6 @.@ 0 ft ) and its waist measures 2 @.@ 9 metres ( 9 @.@ 5 ft ) . It is draped in royal costumes with " Brahmanic cords ( salwe ) and regalia crossing his chest " . The image is crowned , bejewelled with diamonds , rubies and sapphires . The left hand appears imprecise , unusually large , and is seen resting in the lap with an upturned palm .
Gold leaves are regularly applied to the face of the Mahamuni Buddha by male devotees . Consequent to the frequent application of gold leaves , the coating of gold ( thickness 15 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) ) has given a shapeless contour to the Mahamuni image . However , it is also noted that the right hand , crown and other iconographic characteristics of royalty are free of gold leaf covering , which gives an impression that these were later additions to the original image of the Mahamuni . In 1884 , when the pagoda was burnt down , 91 kilograms ( 201 lb ) of gold was recovered from the site , which represents the continued historical veneration and perpetuation of the cult of Mahamuni .
= = = Other features = = =
A large number of ' inscription stones ' collected by King Bodawpaya are seen in a long gallery in the southeastern corner of the temple courtyard . These inscriptions , some of which are made from gilded marble and sandstone , have been collected from many regions of the country . There is also a large water tank in the southeast direction of the temple where fish and turtles are fed with rice cakes by the large number of pilgrims who visit the temple every day . Adjacent to the Buddha temple is the Mahamuni Museum , which contains displays of Buddhism throughout Asia .
= = Daily rituals = =
On February 17 , 1988 , the present Ven Sayadaw Buddhanta Panya Vamsa of Htilin Monastery and Pitaka Kyaung initiated the ritual of daily face washing of the deity at dawn . This ritual commences every morning at 4 am or 4 : 30 am when monks wash the face and brush the teeth of the Buddha image . It is an elaborate ritual performed for over an hour by a senior monk dressed in monastic attire , assisted by several lay helpers , dressed in white and wearing formal headdress . As soon as the drums are struck , the senior monk residing in the adjoining monastery enters the sanctum and starts the formal face washing ritual with a succession of fresh towels , offered by devotees . He then performs the act of cleaning the Mahamuni 's teeth with a large brush followed by one more sequence of cleaning with fresh towels . After this , sandalwood paste is applied to the image and it is again cleaned with towels and finally sprinkled with scented water . After the ceremony is completed , the used towels are returned to the devotees who keep these towels with reverence in their home shrines .
On special occasions , such as Uposatha day , an orange stoll is placed around its shoulders by the presiding monk and is fanned . A major congregation of devotees witness the rituals ; some men sit in the front enclosure while others including women and children sit in the middle and rear end of the foyer . Devotees offer food and other items brought by them on a tray to the deity and chant prayers while the rituals are being performed . During the winter season , the image is covered by a cloak of the monastic order .
During the reign of Burmese monarchs , offerings were made daily to the Great Image in a formal way . Food and other offerings , sheltered by a Royal white umbrella , were taken in a procession from the palace , escorted by a Minister , as an honour due to a sovereign head of the state .
= = Festival = =
A major annual pagoda festival known as the ' Mahamuni Paya Pwe ' ( ' pwe ' meaning " festival " ) is held in early February , at the end of the Buddhist Lent to celebrate the history of the pagoda . During this festival , aside from the daily rituals , the Patthana from a " Book of Conditional Relations " is recited . This book is a philosophical text which Buddha recounted to his mother in a sermon in Tavatimsa heaven and is a sacred scripture in the Pali language . The Pattana recitation is a special feature , which continues for several days . Monks recite from the scriptures , in groups of two or three . The festivities also include various forms of entertainment programmes such as dance , music , theatre etc . , and there is also a social event , allowing families and friends gather to greet each other . Given that large crowds of pilgrims are attracted during the festive season , guards are posted near the Great Image and video cameras are placed in many parts of the temple precincts to protect it .
= = Gallery = =
|
= Norsk Forurensningskontroll =
Norsk Forurensningskontroll AS ( literally " Norwegian Pollution Control " ) or NFK was a specialized Norwegian aviation company and aircraft operator , with a fleet of four de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 6 Twin Otter aircraft . The company was founded in 1983 and initially intended to operate the aircraft to apply dispersants on oil spills at sea , as a part of the national oil spill defense system . However , due to oil companies , departemental and government politics the company failed to establish such a service and instead operated the aircraft for charter , before deciding to liquidate the company in the autumn of 1986 . The airline had its main base at Bodø Airport , and was planning to establish oil @-@ spill protection bases at Hammerfest Airport and Kristiansund Airport , Kvernberget . During its existence the company co @-@ operated closely with Widerøe , which was approved by the authorities as the operators maintenance organization .
= = History = =
The airline was established in 1983 with a share capital of NOK 50 @,@ 000 , and with Harald Olsen as managing director . In November 1983 , they announced to the authorities and the general public plans to establish a fleet of four DHC @-@ 6 / 300 Twin Otters , for the application of dispersant on oil spills at sea as part of the national oil spill protection system , as well as providing an airborne radar surveillance and positioning system . The government was initially favorable to the concept , particularly as an element in improving oil spill protection and response at sea , in conjunction with permitting the oil industry to commence exploration north of the 62nd parallel north , but unfortunately government and departmental politics and the oil companies ' unwillingness to contribute to the system , led to the company 's demise .
The company aimed to have two aircraft operative in June 1984 , and be fully operational with 35 to 40 employees and four aircraft by 1985 , when all @-@ year oil drilling would start in the Norwegian Sea . Use of aircraft for oil spill reduction was at the time established in the United Kingdom , and Norsk Forurensningskontroll aimed to create a similar preparedness for Norway in cooperation with the Norwegian Pollution Control Authority . The cost of the four aircraft was stipulated to approximately NOK 35 million . Operation started in May 1984 with an aircraft on dry lease from Widerøe ( LN @-@ BNS ) , which was also used as system development platform . The airline stated that they hoped to have 30 to 50 operations per year .
In September , one of the aircraft was displayed at Farnborough Airshow , and Norsk Forurensningskontroll stated that they hoped to sell the technology abroad . The idea of having an oil spill services of this type was eventually abandoned by the authorities and by the oil industry , and instead NFK started using their aircraft for various charter purposes , such as bird counting for universities and parachuting . In 1986 , the company gained a contract with the French government for supplying a French – Canadian semi @-@ military female expedition , aiming to traverse the polar basin from the northernmost tip of Svalbard to the North Pole on skis . The aircraft was based in Svalbard , and a number of other scientific and exploration expeditions were supported , including electronic mapping of the headrock underneath glaciers , under a contract for the Scott Polar Research Institute at Cambridge University , financed by British Petroleum .
The company filed for bankruptcy in October 1986 . At the time it had NOK 29 million in debt , while its assets were three Twin Otters with an estimated value of NOK 21 million . At the time , one plane was on lease to the national airline of Portugal ( TAP ) , flying scheduled operations on the archipelago of Madeira . The largest creditors were Sparebanken Nord , who was owed 13 million and had collateral in two aircraft , Sparebanken Nordland , who were owed NOK 11 million and had collateral in one aircraft , and Kredittkassen / Fiskernes Bank , who were owed NOK 1 @.@ 9 million . The banks estimated they had lost NOK 8 million on the venture .
= = Organization and aircraft = =
The company had its head office in Bodø and main base at Bodø Airport . It cooperated with Widerøe , also based in Bodø , for crews and maintenance services . The aircraft was planned to be stationed on 24 @-@ hour watch , with a reaction time of 30 minutes during daytime and 60 minutes during night . Tests showed that aircraft could be used for spills up to 5 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 4 @,@ 900 long tons ; 5 @,@ 500 short tons ) , depending on the type of oil . The dispersant should ideally be applied two hours after discharge . The dispersant application system developed for the De Havilland of Canada DHC @-@ 6 / 300 Twin Otter aircraft consisted of two 1 @,@ 550 @-@ liter ( 340 imp gal ; 410 U.S. gal ) aluminumfive- chamber tanks for dispersant . The uniqueness of the system on board the aircraft , as it was developed by the operator NFK and Widerøe 's engineering department , was primarily that it was self @-@ contained and propelled by bleed air tapped from one of the two Pratt & Whitney gas turbines on the aircraft , pressurizing the tanks . The arrangement of the tanks gave no change in Center of Gravity during discharge of the dispersant .
|
= Tang campaign against Kucha =
The Tang campaign against Kucha was a military campaign led by the Tang Dynasty general Ashina She 'er against the Tarim Basin oasis state of Kucha in Xinjiang , which was aligned with the Western Turkic Khaganate . The campaign began in 648 and ended on 19 January 649 , after the surrender of the Kuchan forces following a forty @-@ day siege in Aksu . Kuchean soldiers tried to recapture the kingdom with the assistance of the Western Turkic Khaganate , but were defeated by the Tang army .
= = Background = =
Kucha , a kingdom in the Tarim Basin , was a vassal of the Western Turkic Khaganate . Under the reign of Emperor Gaozu , the king Suvarnapushpa ( Chinese : Sufabushi ) provided the Tang court with tribute in 618 . In 630 , Suvarnapushpa 's successor Suvarnadeva ( Chinese : Sufadie ) submitted to the Tang as a vassal . A Buddhist of the Hinayana sect , Suvarnadeva had hosted the Buddhist monk Xuanzang when he arrived in Kucha during the same year .
Kucha supported Karasahr when the oasis state made a marriage alliance with the Western Turks and ended its tributary relationship with the Tang court in 644 . The king of Kucha , Suvarnadeva , renounced Tang suzerainty and allied with the Western Turks . Emperor Taizong responded by dispatching a military campaign led by the general Guo Xiaoke against Karasahr .
Karasahr was besieged in 644 by Guo . Tang forces defeated the kingdom , captured the king , and a pro @-@ Tang member of the royal family was enthroned as ruler . The new king was deposed by the Western Turks soon afterwards , and the Western Turks regained suzerainty over Karasahr . Suvarnadeva died between 646 and 648 , and his brother Haripushpa ( Chinese : Helibushibi ) inherited the throne as Kucha 's king . Although Haripushpa sent two tribute embassies to the Tang court , Tang Taizong had already decided to punish Kucha 's pro @-@ Turk stance by launching an expedition against the kingdom .
Most of the Tang expeditionary army was made up of 100 @,@ 000 cavalry supplied by the Tang empire 's Tiele allies . The commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Tang expeditionary army , Ashina She 'er , was a member of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate ruling family . He joined the Tang forces after his surrender in 635 , and served as a general leading a campaign against Karakhoja . His familiarity with the region as a former Turkic ruler contributed to his success commanding the campaigns against Kucha and Karasahr . Prior to his recruitment as a Tang general , he reigned for five years between 630 and 635 , governing the city of Beshbalik in the Dzungarian Basin . Ashina She 'er 's deputy commanders were Qibi Heli ( a Tiele chieftain who had also become a Tang general ) and Guo Xiaoke .
= = Campaign = =
Ashina She 'er 's soldiers were organized in five columns . The Tang army bypassed Karasahr and struck at Kucha from the north by moving through the Dzungarian Basin , which was the territory of the Chuyue ( possibly Chigil ) and Chumi , two Turkic tribes allied with the oasis state . The Tang army defeated the Chuyue and Chumi before entering the Tarim Basin , upon which the king of Karasahr fled his capital city and tried to find a defensible position in Kucha 's eastern territories . Ashina She 'er 's forces pursued the Karasahr king , took him captive , and then executed him .
The forces defending Kucha , consisting of 50 @,@ 000 soldiers , were lured and ambushed by Ashina . They chased after a group of 1 @,@ 000 horsemen employed by Ashina as a decoy , but encountered additional Tang forces that mounted a surprise attack . The Kuchean forces were defeated and retreated to Aksu , a nearby kingdom in the Tarim Basin . Ashina captured the king following a forty @-@ day siege , ending with the surrender of the Kucha forces on 19 January 649 . One of Ashina 's officers , acting as a diplomat , persuaded the chieftains of the region to surrender instead of fighting back .
Guo Xiaoke , who had led the first Tang campaign against Karasahr in 644 , was installed in Kucha as protector @-@ general of the Anxi Protectorate , or the Protectorate of the Pacified West . The headquarters of the protector @-@ general was thus moved from its original location in Gaochang to Kucha . While Ashina was in pursuit of the Kuchean king , Nali , a Kuchean lord , traveled to request the help of the Western Turks . Guo was assassinated after the Kuchean soldiers retook the kingdom with the military assistance of the Western Turks . Ashina returned to Kucha , captured five of the kingdom 's cities , and forced the remaining cities to surrender . Tang control was re @-@ established in the oasis state . The brother of the former king , a yabgu or viceroy , was enthroned by the Chinese as a subject of the Tang empire .
The king of Kucha , Haripushpa , was taken to the Tang capital as a prisoner . Execution was the punishment of rebellion in accordance with Tang law . The king was pardoned by Taizong and released after a ritual venerating the emperor 's ancestors . He was also named Great Army Commander for the Militant Guards of the Left , a title he received from the emperor .
= = Aftermath = =
In retribution for the death of Guo Xiaoke , Ashina She 'er ordered the execution of eleven thousand Kuchean inhabitants by decapitation . It was recorded that " he destroyed five great towns and with them many myriads of men and women ... the lands of the west were seized with terror . " After Kucha 's defeat , Ashina dispatched a small force of light cavalry led by the lieutenant Xue Wanbei to Khotan , ruled by the king Yuchi Fushexin . The threat of an invasion persuaded the king to visit the Tang court in person .
The Tang expeditionary army replaced Haripushpa with his younger brother ( the " yabgu " ) , erected an inscribed stele to commemorate its victory , and returned to Chang ’ an with Haripushpa , Nali , and Kucha 's top general as captives . All three men were given sinecures and kept at the imperial court until 650 , when they were sent back to Kucha after it became clear that the vacuum of power created by their absence had reduced the kingdom to a state of civil war and anarchy . The Kucha expedition also killed the pro @-@ Turk king of Karasahr and replaced him with a cousin , but there is no evidence that a Tang military garrison was stationed in Karasahr between 648 and 658 . Likewise , the Khotan king 's coerced trip to Chang 'an does not seem to have resulted in a Tang garrison being sent to Khotan .
It has long been claimed that the conquest of Kucha established Tang rule over the entire Tarim Basin.This is in part due to a number of inaccurate Chinese sources linking the expedition to the establishment of the Four Garrisons of Anxi , which comprised Kucha , Karasahr , Khotan , and Kashgar . However , Zhang Guangda has used excavated texts from Gaochang ( Karakhoja or Turfan ) to show that the Tang abandoned the attempt to move the headquarters of the Protectorate of the Pacified West to Kucha after Guo Xiaoke 's assassination . Instead the headquarters returned to Gaochang until 658 , when it was moved back to Kucha following a Tang army 's suppression of a local pro @-@ Turk revolt against Haripushpa ( who died from an illness during the revolt ) . The Tang only gained a loose suzerainty over the Tarim Basin states in 649 , and did not establish military garrisons in the Tarim Basin . Most of the Tarim Basin states transferred their vassalage to the new Western Turk qaghan , Ashina Helu , in 651 , reflecting the fact that they regarded the Western Turks as their traditional overlords . The establishment of the Four Garrisons , and with them a formal Tang military protectorate over the Tarim Basin , should be dated to 658 ( after Ashina Helu 's defeat ) or even to 660 , since Kashgar remained allied with the Western Turk leader Duman until Duman 's defeat in later 659 .
It has also been claimed that the fall of Kucha led to the decline of Indo @-@ European culture in the Tarim Basin and its replacement by first Chinese and then Turkic culture . In fact , the opposite is true . Kuchean culture flourished during the seventh and eighth centuries and Kuchean music was popular in the Tang capital , in part due to the movement of Kuchean musicians to the Tang court . The Turkicization of the Tarim Basin is a later development that came after the end of the Tang dynasty and had no relation to the earlier Tang protectorate in the Tarim Basin .
After 649 , the Tang Dynasty continued their war against the Western Turks under the reign of Emperor Gaozong , Taizong 's successor . Gaozong conducted a campaign led by general Su Dingfang against the Western Turk qaghan , Ashina Helu in 657 . The qaghan surrendered , the Western Turks were defeated , and the khaganate 's former territories were annexed by the Tang . The Tang retreated from beyond the Pamir Mountains in modern Tajikistan and Afghanistan after a Turkic revolt in 662 , and lost the Tarim Basin to local revolts and Tibetan incursions in 665 @-@ 670 . The Tang regained the Tarim Basin in 692 and again lost it to the Tibetans in the 790s , the Four Garrisons having already been cut off from the rest of the Tang empire by a Tibetan conquest of the Gansu Corridor . Although the Tibetan empire collapsed in the middle of the ninth century , the Tang Dynasty lacked the means to regain dominance in the Tarim Basin and itself ended in 907 with the abdication of Emperor Ai .
|
= Dirrty =
" Dirrty " is a song recorded by American recording artists Christina Aguilera and Redman for the former 's fourth studio album Stripped ( 2002 ) . Despite Aguilera 's first three years of commercial success , she was displeased with the lack of control over her image . In response , she desired to create a song that would represent her authentic persona . She approached hip hop producer Rockwilder and suggested using Redman 's 2001 song " Let 's Get Dirty ( I Can 't Get in da Club ) " as a guide . The final result , " Dirrty " , is an R & B and hip hop song that also features rapping verses from Redman . The song is about sexual activities .
RCA Records sent " Dirrty " to American radio stations in September 2002 as the lead single from Stripped . RCA and Sony Music Entertainment later released the song as a CD single . The single was Aguilera 's first to fail to enter the top twenty of the US Billboard Hot 100 , where it peaked at number 48 . In Europe and Oceania , it reached the top five of charts in countries including Australia , Denmark , Ireland , Netherlands , Switzerland , and the United Kingdom .
The music video for " Dirrty " , directed by David LaChapelle , was intended to publicize Aguilera 's new image . It depicts sexual fetishes such as mud wrestling and muscle worshipping . The controversial video eliminated her image as a bubblegum pop singer . It received criticism from various news publications and other recording artists , and it was banned on Thai television due to its sexual content . Aguilera defended the video , calling it inspirational as it put her to the forefront . " Dirrty " was included on the setlists of Aguilera 's three major concert tours : the Justified and Stripped Tour ( 2003 ) , the Stripped Tour ( 2003 ) , and the Back to Basics Tour ( 2006 – 08 ) .
= = Development = =
American singer Christina Aguilera rose to prominence with the success of her 1999 self @-@ titled debut album . It topped the US Billboard 200 and was certified eight times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . It produced three Billboard Hot 100 number @-@ one singles : " Genie in a Bottle " , " What a Girl Wants " , and " Come On Over Baby ( All I Want Is You ) " . Despite the success , Aguilera was displeased with being marketed as her then @-@ manager Steve Kurtz desired , and felt unable to control her image . She told The Sydney Morning Herald her dissatisfaction with being a part of the late 1990s teen pop trend , " The label [ RCA Records ] wanted to push the cookie @-@ cutter , [ ... ] almost virginal kind of imagery that wasn 't me , " Aguilera said . " I really wanted to squirm away from that , because I really thought it was really fake and superficial and untrue of what I was about . "
" Dirrty " was among the last tracks to be recorded for Aguilera 's 2002 album Stripped . It was recorded at the Enterprise Studios in Burbank and Conway Studios in Hollywood , Los Angeles by Oscar Ramirez , Wassim Zreik , and Dylan " 3 @-@ D " Dresdow . Aguilera desired to create a " down and dirty " song that would announce her new image . She approached hip hop producer Rockwilder , who had worked with her on " Lady Marmalade " , and suggested recording a song in the vein of Redman 's 2001 hip hop song " Let 's Get Dirty ( I Can 't Get in da Club ) " . " Dirrty " ultimately became a " near @-@ remake " of its predecessor , as Entertainment Weekly said . Rapper Redman , who previously appeared on Eminem 's 2001 song " Off the Wall " , in which Eminem disses Aguilera , is featured on the song . Aguilera intended to use a misspelled title to personalize the song , also considering " Dirtee " or " Dirrdy " . The title reflects the music video , which Aguilera describes as " gritty , [ with ] underground , illegal stuff going on . "
= = Music and lyrics = =
" Dirrty " is a hip hop and R & B song . Composed in the key of G minor , it has a moderately fast tempo of 100 beats per minute . The lines in the refrain and Redman 's rapping verses are emphasized by a pair of B ♭ octave dyads . Aguilera 's vocal range on the track spans F3 to D5 . Redman 's original ape @-@ like sounds from " Let 's Get Dirty " are also featured on " Dirrty " . According to Stylus Magazine 's Todd Burns , the song features a bassline which " doesn 't quite mesh with the song in a natural way " and an " effective " overdubbing technique . The song 's lyrics detail sexual activities such as table dancing . Jon Pareles noted that Aguilera was determined to shed her teen pop image that she achieved with her early works , and decided to show her sexuality and aggression in the " self @-@ explanatory " " Dirrty " . Writing for The Guardian , Betty Clarke described the song 's lyrics as " majestically filthy . " A sequel to the song entitled " Still Dirrty " was recorded by Aguilera for her 2006 album Back to Basics .
= = Release and commercial reception = =
" Dirrty " was released as the lead single from Stripped . RCA Records encouraged Aguilera to release the ballad " Beautiful " as the first single from Stripped . Aguilera insisted on releasing " Dirrty " as the lead single , as she felt that it represented her " real " persona . RCA Records sent " Dirrty " to US radio stations in September 2002 . It debuted at number 64 on the Hot 100 Airplay chart on September 21 , 2002 , and rose to number 49 the following week . It dropped one place to number 50 on the chart issue dated October 5 , 2002 . RCA Records released it in the United States as a 12 @-@ inch single on September 24 , 2002 , and as a CD single with " I Will Be " as a B @-@ side on October 14 . Another US CD featuring " Make Over " as its B @-@ side was released on December 10 . " Dirrty " was also released as a CD single in Germany on October 14 , and in the United Kingdom on November 11 by RCA and Sony Music Entertainment .
" Dirrty " was Aguilera 's first single to fail to enter the top twenty of the US Billboard Hot 100 , peaking at number 48 on October 5 , 2002 . It debuted at number 67 on September 21 , 2002 , and rose to number 49 the following week . " Dirrty " additionally charted at number 14 on Top 40 Mainstream , number 20 on Rhythmic Top 40 , and number 22 on Top 40 Tracks .
Outside of the United States , " Dirrty " debuted at number seven on the Canadian Singles Chart on November 30 , 2002 , and later peaked at number five on February 15 , 2003 . In the United Kingdom , the single debuted atop the UK Singles Chart on November 17 , 2002 , remaining on the top spot for two weeks , and was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry . The song reached the top five of record charts of European countries including Ireland ( number one ) , Netherlands ( number two ) , Norway , Spain , and Switzerland ( number three ) , Belgian Flanders , Denmark , and Germany ( number four ) , and Austria and Hungary ( number five ) . Overall , the song peaked at number three on the European Hot 100 Singles chart on December 7 , 2002 . " Dirrty " also peaked at number four on the Australian ARIA Charts and was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association .
= = Critical response = =
Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine called it " the most instantly gratifying " song from Stripped . Todd Burns from Stylus Magazine labeled it " one of the most interesting songs of the year " and compared its styles to Britney Spears ' " image transformation " on " I 'm a Slave 4 U " ( 2001 ) . In a separate review , Burns deemed it the best single of 2002 , writing , " That 's what pop music is all about , appealing to as many people as possible . " Reviewing Aguilera 's 2008 compilation album Keeps Gettin ' Better : A Decade of Hits , Nick Levine from Digital Spy called " Dirrty " the " sluttiest , sweatiest club banger in recent memory . "
Jancee Dunn called the release of " Dirrty " as the lead single " a shame " and opined that it misrepresented the rest of the album . Likewise , Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic was disappointed towards the track 's being released as the lead single and found Aguilera 's vocal range in the song too narrow . He added that the song 's R & B styles " fit [ Aguilera ] poorly " and negatively compared it to the " slinky sexiness " of " I 'm a Slave 4 U " . Michael Paoletta from Billboard called the song " horribly derivative " , while NME 's Jim Wirth said that " Dirrty " was " probably the pick of an inconsistent crop . " Entertainment Weekly critic Seymour Craig gave it a D- , calling Aguilera 's voice " desperate and shrill , " and found it to be an unsuccessful attempt to gain street cred . " Dirrty " won the Best Single award at the 2003 Q Awards . The song also earned a Grammy nomination for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals at the 45th Grammy Awards , but lost to Santana 's " The Game of Love " featuring Michelle Branch .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development and content = = =
The music video for " Dirrty " was directed by David LaChapelle . It was filmed on September 8 and 9 , 2002 , in Los Angeles , at an abandoned newspaper print building . Aguilera took boxing lessons to prepare for the video , and more than 100 dancers auditioned . Aguilera wanted to make sure that she and LaChapelle had the same vision for the video , not wanting it to be " glossy or pretty . " A scene where Aguilera is lowered into a boxing ring in a cage and a dance segment in the ring were filmed on the first day . The following day , a foxy boxing scene , a table dancing segment , a party scene with Redman 's rapping his part , and a shower scene were filmed . The video premiered on September 30 , 2002 , on Making the Video , and was described as " a post @-@ apocalyptic orgy . "
The video opens with Aguilera gearing up and riding a motorcycle into a nightclub . Wearing a bikini and buttocks @-@ bearing chaps , she is lowered from a cage into a boxing ring and dances , accompanied by several back @-@ up dancers . A masked woman is lowered into the ring , and the two engage in foxy boxing . The scene is intercut with sequences of Aguilera dancing in a crop top , which she later removes to reveal a bra , and a microskirt . Redman then proceeds down a hallway , passing people such as mud wrestlers , a contortionist , and furries . The video proceeds to a scene of Aguilera and back @-@ up dancers splashing and dancing while being sprayed with water in a room containing several urinals , as a possible reference to urolagnia . It features several sexual fetishes , from mud wrestling to muscle worshipping .
= = = Reception = = =
The video generated controversy and presented Aguilera 's new public image , eliminating her previous bubblegum pop singer and " girl next door " image . When Aguilera 's collaborator Linda Perry first saw the video , she asked Aguilera : " Are you high ? This is annoying . Why are you doing this ? " Protests also occurred in Thailand over Thai @-@ language posters in the video that translate to " Thailand 's Sex Tourism " and " Young Underage Girls " . LaChapelle stated that he had not known what the posters stated , and Aguilera 's recording company in the country disallowed Thai television stations from playing the video .
Aguilera 's new image was so widely rejected by the public that it began to overshadow her music . Tim Walker from The Independent wrote : " [ Aguilera ] simulated masturbation while wearing little more than a pair of leather chaps . " Entertainment Weekly described Aguilera 's image in the video as " the world 's skeeziest reptile woman , " and The Village Voice captioned her as a xenomorph from the Alien series . Several of Aguilera 's contemporaries , such as Shakira and Jessica Simpson , expressed disapproval of her image and the sexuality of the video . Time magazine commented that " she appeared to have arrived on the set ... direct from an intergalactic hooker convention . " Writer Emma Forrest remarked : " What she 's depicting is subcultures within sexuality , and to say that this is normal young woman 's sexuality is just not fair . ... Even Madonna never did that to girls . " Aguilera told Blender in response to the criticism :
I like to shock — I think it 's inspiring . I love to play and experiment , to be as tame or as outlandish as I happen to heel on any given day . When you are bold and open , artistically speaking , in music and in video , a whole bunch of people automatically feel threatened by you , especially in Middle America ... OK , I may have been the naked @-@ ass girl in the video , but if you look at it carefully , I 'm also at the forefront . I 'm not just some lame chick in a rap video ; I 'm in the power position , in complete command of everything and everybody around me . To be totally balls @-@ out like that is , for me , the measure of a true artist .
Despite the criticism , the video was a number @-@ one video on MTV 's series Total Request Live ( TRL ) in October 2002 . " Dirrty " was picked as the fifth greatest music video throughout TRL history in the final countdown on November 16 , 2008 . LA Weekly selected it as the fourth greatest music video on TRL , writing : " Ass @-@ less chaps : An underutilized pop star accessory . " The video was nominated for Best Female Video , Best Dance Video , Best Pop Video , and Best Choreography at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards . It also earned six nominations at the 2003 Music Video Production Association Awards , and won two : Best Styling and Best Make @-@ Up . The video ranked at number 100 on Slant Magazine 's list of " The 100 Greatest Music Videos of All Time " in 2003 . In late 2008 , the video was voted the ninth " Sexiest Music Video of All Time " by over a quarter of a million FHM readers in a poll the magazine ran worldwide . It also appeared at number two on VH1 list of " Scandalously Sexy Music Videos " in 2013 . The music video is credited as the origin of the slutdrop dance move , which would later become popular among contemporary female artists , such as the Pussycat Dolls and Beyoncé .
= = Live performances and media usage = =
Aguilera first performed " Dirrty " at the 2002 MTV Europe Music Awards in Barcelona , recreating the music video 's scenes and wearing the same chaps in the video for the performance . She later performed the song on UK television shows CD : UK and Top of the Pops in 2002 , and then as part of a medley with " Fighter " at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards in August 2003 , which was backed by guitarist Dave Navarro .
" Dirrty " was included on the setlists of Aguilera 's three major concert shows . For the 2003 Justified & Stripped Tour and Stripped Tour , it was the opening song on the setlists . For the performance , Aguilera appeared in torso @-@ baring black outfit and black hair , which , according to San Francisco Chronicle 's Neva Cholin and MTV 's Christina Fuoco , resembled Cher 's styles . The performance at the Wembley Arena in London was recorded for the 2004 video release Stripped Live in the U.K .. " Dirrty " was also included on the setlist of Aguilera 's 2006 @-@ 08 Back to Basics Tour , as part of the circus segment . The performance incorporated elements of " Cell Block Tango " from the Broadway musical Chicago , and " Entrance of the Gladiators " by Julius Fučík , and featured a carousel hourse . Ben Walsh from The Independent highlighted " Dirrty " as the best song of the concert . However , The Observer 's Kitty Empire called it " blushery . " The performance at the Adelaide Entertainment Centre in Adelaide was recorded for the 2008 video release Back to Basics : Live and Down Under .
Two weeks after its premiere , the video was parodied by actress Sarah Michelle Gellar on Saturday Night Live , who said ( playing Aguilera ) : " When people see this video , they gonna stop thinking of me as some blonde @-@ haired , bubblegum , music @-@ industry ho – and start thinking of me as an actual ho . " Aguilera later commented that she found the parody disappointing and that she " could have made a funnier script out of it . " The song was covered by British Ed Sheeran for a Live Lounge session of BBC Radio 1 in February 2015 . Sheeran 's performance was instrumented by guitar and incorporated soul elements . " Dirrty " was also parodied by Stephen Merchant on the show Lip Sync Battle in May 2015 .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the liner notes of Stripped .
Recording location
Recorded at The Enterprise Studios , Burbank , California and Conway Studios , Hollywood , Los Angeles , California
Personnel
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
|
= Western Wall =
The Western Wall , Wailing Wall or Kotel ( Hebrew : הַכֹּתֶל הַמַּעֲרָבִי , translit . : HaKotel HaMa 'aravi ; Ashkenazic pronunciation : Kosel ; Arabic : حائط البراق , translit . : Ḥā 'iṭ al @-@ Burāq , translat . : the Buraq Wall , or al @-@ Mabka : the Place of Weeping ) is an ancient limestone wall in the Old City of Jerusalem . It is a relatively small segment of a far longer ancient retaining wall , known also in its entirety as the " Western Wall " . The wall was originally erected as part of the expansion of the Second Jewish Temple by Herod the Great , which resulted in the encasement of the natural , steep hill known to Jews and Christians as the Temple Mount , in a large rectangular structure topped by a huge flat platform , thus creating more space for the Temple itself and its auxiliary buildings .
The Western Wall is considered holy due to its connection to the Temple Mount . Because of the status quo policy , the Wall is the holiest place where Jews are permitted to pray , though it is not the holiest site in the Jewish faith , which lies behind it . The original , natural and irregular @-@ shaped Temple Mount was gradually extended to allow for an ever larger Temple compound to be built at its top . This process was finalised by Herod the Great , who enclosed the Mount with an almost rectangular set of retaining walls , built to support extensive substructures and earth fills needed to give the natural hill a geometrically regular shape . On top of this box @-@ like structure Herod built a vast paved esplanade which surrounded the Temple . Of the four retaining walls , the western one is considered to be closest to the former Temple , which makes it the most sacred site recognised by Judaism outside the former Temple Mount esplanade . Just over half the wall 's total height , including its 17 courses located below street level , dates from the end of the Second Temple period , and is commonly believed to have been built around 19 BCE by Herod the Great , although recent excavations indicate that the work was not finished by the time Herod died in 4 BCE . The very large stone blocks of the lower courses are Herodian , the courses of medium @-@ sized stones above them were added during the Umayyad era , while the small stones of the uppermost courses are of more recent date , especially from the Ottoman period .
The term Western Wall and its variations is mostly used in a narrow sense for the section traditionally used by Jews for prayer , and it has also been called the " Wailing Wall " , referring to the practice of Jews weeping at the site over the destruction of the Temples . During the period of Christian Roman rule over Jerusalem ( ca . 324 – 638 ) , Jews were completely barred from Jerusalem except to attend Tisha be @-@ Av , the day of national mourning for the Temples , and on this day the Jews would weep at their holy places . The term " Wailing Wall " was thus almost exclusively used by Christians , and was revived in the period of non @-@ Jewish control between the establishment of British Rule in 1920 and the Six @-@ Day War in 1967 . The term " Wailing Wall " is not used by Jews and increasingly many others who consider it derogatory .
In a broader sense , the Western Wall can refer to the entire 488 meter @-@ long retaining wall on the western side of the Temple Mount . The classic portion now faces a large plaza in the Jewish Quarter , near the southwestern corner of the Temple Mount , while the rest of the wall is concealed behind structures in the Muslim Quarter , with the small exception of a 25 ft ( 8 m ) section , the so @-@ called Little Western Wall . The segment of the Western retaining wall traditionally used for Jewish liturgy known as the " Western Wall " derives its particular importance to it having never been fully obscured by medieval buildings , and displaying much more of the original Herodian stonework than the " Little Western Wall " . In religious terms , the " Little Western Wall " is presumed to be even closer to the Holy of Holies and thus to the " presence of God " ( Shechina ) , and the underground Warren 's Gate , which has been out of reach since the 12th century , even more so .
The wall has been a site for Jewish prayer and pilgrimage for centuries ; the earliest source mentioning this specific site as a place of worship is from the 16th century . The previous sites used by Jews for mourning the destruction of the Temple , during periods when access to the city was prohibited to them , lay to the east , on the Mount of Olives and in the Kidron Valley below it . From the mid @-@ 19th century onwards , attempts to purchase rights to the wall and its immediate area were made by various Jews , but none was successful . With the rise of the Zionist movement in the early 20th century , the wall became a source of friction between the Jewish and Muslim communities , the latter being worried that the wall could be used to further Jewish claims to the Temple Mount and thus Jerusalem . During this period outbreaks of violence at the foot of the wall became commonplace , with a particularly deadly riot in 1929 in which 133 Jews were killed and 339 injured . After the 1948 Arab @-@ Israeli War the Eastern portion of Jerusalem was occupied by Jordan . Under Jordanian control Jews were completely expelled from the Old City including the Jewish quarter , and Jews were barred from entering the Old City for 19 years , effectively banning Jewish prayer at the site of the Western Wall . This period ended on June 10 , 1967 , when Israel gained control of the site following the Six @-@ Day War . Three days after establishing control over the Western Wall site the Moroccan Quarter was bulldozed by Israeli authorities to create space for what is now the Western Wall plaza .
= = Etymology = =
Early Jewish texts referred to a " western wall of the Temple " , but there is doubt whether the texts were referring to the outer , retaining wall called today " the Western Wall " , or to the western wall of the actual Temple . The earliest Jewish use of the Hebrew term " ha @-@ kotel ha @-@ ma 'aravi " , " the Western Wall " , as referring to the wall visible today , was by the 11th @-@ century poet Ahimaaz ben Paltiel . The name " Wailing Wall " , and descriptions such as " wailing place " , appeared regularly in English literature during the 19th century . The name Mur des Lamentations was used in French and Klagemauer in German . This term itself was a translation of the Arabic el @-@ Mabka , or " Place of Weeping " , the traditional Arabic term for the wall . This description stemmed from the Jewish practice of coming to the site to mourn and bemoan the destruction of the Temple .
At some time in the 19th century , the Arabs began referring to the wall as the al @-@ Buraq Wall . This was based on the tradition that inside the wall was the place where Muhammad tethered his miraculous winged steed , al @-@ Buraq . The tradition on which this is based only states that the Prophet , or the angel Jibra 'il ( Gabriel ) , tethered the steed at the gate of the mosque , meaning : at the gate of the Temple Mount . The location of the entry gate identified as the one used by Muhammad varied throughout the centuries , from the eastern and southern walls , to the southwest corner , and finally at the western wall , and specifically at Barclay 's Gate immediately adjacent to the " Wailing Place " of the Jews . Israeli archaeologist Meir Ben @-@ Dov concluded that the Muslim association with Western Wall began in the late nineteenth century in response to renewed Jewish identification with the site .
= = Location and dimensions = =
The Western Wall commonly refers to a 187 @-@ foot ( 57 m ) exposed section of ancient wall situated on the western flank of the Temple Mount . This section faces a large plaza and is set aside for prayer . In its entirety , however , the above @-@ ground portion of the Western Wall stretches for 1 @,@ 600 feet ( 488 m ) , most of which is hidden behind residential structures built along its length . Other revealed sections include the southern part of the Wall which measures approximately 80 metres ( 262 ft ) and another much shorter section known as the Little Western Wall which is located close to the Iron Gate . The wall functions as a retaining wall , supporting and enclosing the ample substructures built by Herod the Great around 19 BCE . Herod 's project was to create an artificial extension to the small quasi @-@ natural plateau on which the First and Second Temples stood , transforming it into the almost rectangular , wide expanse of the Temple Mount visible today .
At the Western Wall Plaza , the total height of the Wall from its foundation is estimated at 105 feet ( 32 m ) , with the exposed section standing approximately 62 feet ( 19 m ) high . The Wall consists of 45 stone courses , 28 of them above ground and 17 underground . The first seven visible layers are from the Herodian period . This section of wall is built from enormous meleke limestone blocks , possibly quarried at either Zedekiah 's Cave situated under the Muslim Quarter of the Old City or at Ramat Shlomo 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) northwest of the Old City . Most of them weigh between 2 and 8 short tons ( 1 @.@ 8 and 7 @.@ 3 t ) each , but others weigh even more , with one extraordinary stone located slightly north of Wilson 's Arch measuring 13 metres ( 43 ft ) and weighing approximately 517 tonnes ( 570 short tons ) . Each of these ashlars is framed by fine @-@ chiseled borders . The margins themselves measure between 5 and 20 centimetres ( 2 and 8 in ) wide , with their depth measuring 1 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) . In the Herodian period , the upper 10 metres ( 33 ft ) of wall were 1 metre ( 39 in ) thick and served as the outer wall of the double colonnade of the Temple platform . This upper section was decorated with pilasters , the remainder of which were destroyed when the Byzantines reconquered Jerusalem from the Persians in 628 .
The next four courses , consisting of smaller plainly dressed stones , date from the Umayyad period ( Muslim , 8th century ) . Above that are 16 – 17 courses of small stones from the Mamluk period ( Muslim , 13 – 16th century ) and later . The well known story that the top layers of the Wall were added by Sir Moses Montefiore is unsubstantiated .
= = Accessibility = =
= = = People with disabilities = = =
The plaza and Wall are accessible to wheelchairs and people with mobility difficulties via either the Dung Gate or Jaffa Gate . Access directly from the Jewish Quarter of the Old City is via " a considerable number of steep steps " . Access for cars is very restricted , " and parking is a nightmare " so disabled visitors are advised to arrive by taxi or public transportation . Guide dogs are permitted .
= = = Transgender individuals = = =
In January 2015 a transgender Jewish woman , Kay Long , was denied access to the Wall , first by the women 's section and then by the men 's section . Long 's presence was prevented by " modesty police " at women ’ s section who are not associated with the rabbi of the Western Wall or the site administration . They are a group of female volunteers who guard the entrance to the women ’ s section preventing entry to visitors who are not dressed to their idea of Orthodox modesty standards for women . The director of Jerusalem ’ s Open House , a community center for the lesbian , gay , bisexual and transgender community , noted that Long ’ s experience was not unique . " Gender separation at the Western Wall is harmful for transgender people . This is not the first story that we know of with transgender religious people that wanted to go to the Western Wall and pray and couldn ’ t , " said Elinor Sidi , who expects that the battle for access to the Western Wall for the GLBTQ community will be a long and difficult one .
= = History = =
= = = Construction 19 BCE = = =
According to the Hebrew Bible , Solomon 's Temple was built atop what is known as the Temple Mount in the 10th century BCE and destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 BCE , and the Second Temple completed and dedicated in 516 BCE . Around 19 BCE Herod the Great began a massive expansion project on the Temple Mount . In addition to fully rebuilding and enlarging the Temple , he artificially expanded the platform on which it stood , doubling it in size . Today 's Western Wall formed part of the retaining perimeter wall of this platform . In 2011 , Israeli archaeologists announced the surprising discovery of Roman coins minted well after Herod 's death , found under the foundation stones of the wall . The excavators came upon the coins inside a ritual bath that predates Herod 's building project , which was filled in to create an even base for the wall and was located under its southern section . This seems to indicate that Herod did not finish building the entire wall by the time of his death in 4 BCE . The find confirms the description by historian Josephus Flavius , which states that construction was finished only during the reign of King Agrippa II , Herod ’ s great @-@ grandson . Given Josephus ' information , the surprise mainly regarded the fact that an unfinished retaining wall in this area could also mean that at least parts of the splendid Royal Stoa and the monumental staircase leading up to it could not have been completed during Herod 's lifetime . Also surprising was the fact that the usually very thorough Herodian builders had cut corners by filling in the ritual bath , rather than placing the foundation course directly onto the much firmer bedrock . Some scholars are doubtful of the interpretation and have offered alternative explanations , such as , for example , later repair work .
Herod 's Temple was destroyed by the Romans , along with the rest of Jerusalem , in 70 CE , during the First Jewish @-@ Roman War .
= = = Roman Empire and rise of Christianity 100 – 500 CE = = =
In the early centuries of the Common Era , after the Roman defeat of the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 CE , Jews were banned from Jerusalem . There is some evidence that Roman emperors in the 2nd and 3rd centuries did permit them to visit the city to worship on the Mount of Olives and sometimes on the Temple Mount itself . When the empire became Christian under Constantine I , they were given permission to enter the city once a year , on the ninth day of the month of Av , to lament the loss of the Temple at the wall . The Bordeaux Pilgrim , written in 333 CE , suggests that it was probably to the perforated stone or the Rock of Moriah , " to which the Jews come every year and anoint it , bewail themselves with groans , rend their garments , and so depart " . This was because an Imperial decree from Rome barred Jews from living in Jerusalem . Just once per year they were permitted to return and bitterly grieve about the fate of their people . Comparable accounts survive , including those by the Church Father , Gregory of Nazianzus and by Jerome in his commentary to Zephaniah written in 392 CE . In the 4th century , Christian sources reveal that the Jews encountered great difficulty in buying the right to pray near the Western Wall , at least on the 9th of Av . In 425 CE , the Jews of the Galilee wrote to Byzantine empress Aelia Eudocia seeking permission to pray by the ruins of the Temple . Permission was granted and they were officially permitted to resettle in Jerusalem .
= = = Middle Ages 500 – 1500 = = =
Several Jewish authors of the 10th and 11th centuries write about the Jews resorting to the Western Wall for devotional purposes . Ahimaaz relates that Rabbi Samuel ben Paltiel ( 980 @-@ 1010 ) gave money for oil at " the sanctuary at the Western Wall . " Benjamin of Tudela ( 1170 ) wrote " In front of this place is the Western Wall , which is one of the walls of the Holy of Holies . This is called the Gate of Mercy , and hither come all the Jews to pray before the Wall in the open court . " The account gave rise to confusion about the actual location of Jewish worship and some suggest that Benjamin in fact referred to the Eastern Wall along with its Gate of Mercy . While Nahmanides ( d . 1270 ) did not mention a synagogue near the Western Wall in his detailed account of the temple site , shortly before the Crusader period a synagogue existed at the site . Obadiah of Bertinoro ( 1488 ) states " the Westen Wall , part of which is still standing , is made of great , thick stones , larger than any I have seen in buildings of antiquity in Rome or in other lands . "
Shortly after the Siege of Jerusalem , in 1193 , Saladin ’ s son and successor al @-@ Afdal established the land adjacent to the wall as a charitable trust . It was named after an important mystic Abu Madyan Shu 'aib and dedicated to Moroccan settlers who had taken up residence there . Houses were built only 4 metres ( 13 ft ) away from the wall . The first mention of the Islamic tradition that Buraq was tethered at the site is from the 14th century . A manuscript by Ibn Furkah , ( d . 1328 ) , refers to Bab al @-@ Nab , an old name for a gate along the southwestern wall of the Haram al @-@ Sharif .
= = = Ottoman period 1517 – 1917 = = =
In 1517 , the Turkish Ottomans conquered Jerusalem from the Mamluks who had held it since 1250 and various folktales relate Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent 's quest to locate the Temple site and his order to have the area " swept and sprinkled , and the Western Wall washed with rosewater " upon its discovery . In the late 16th century , Suleiman ordered the construction of an imposing fortress @-@ wall to be built around the entire city , which still stands today . At the time , Jews received official permission to worship at the site and Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan built an oratory for them there . In 1625 arranged prayers at the Wall are mentioned for the first time .
Over the centuries , land close to the Wall became built up . Public access to the Wall was through the Moroccan Quarter , a labyrinth of narrow alleyways . In May 1840 a firman issued by Ibrahim Pasha forbade the Jews to pave the passageway in front of the Wall . It also cautioned them against “ raising their voices and displaying their books there . ” They were , however , allowed “ to pay visits to it as of old . ”
Rabbi Joseph Schwarz writing in the mid @-@ 19th @-@ century records :
" This wall is visited by all our brothers on every feast and festival ; and the large space at its foot is often so densely filled up , that all cannot perform their devotions here at the same time . It is also visited , though by less numbers , on every Friday afternoon , and by some nearly every day . No one is molested in these visits by the Mahomedans , as we have a very old firman from the Sultan of Constantinople that the approach shall not be denied to us , though the Porte obtains for this privilege a special tax , which is , however , quite insignificant . "
Over time the increased numbers of people gathering at the site resulted in tensions between the Jewish visitors who wanted easier access and more space , and the residents , who complained of the noise . This gave rise to Jewish attempts at gaining ownership of the land adjacent to the Wall .
In the late 1830s a wealthy Jew named Shemarya Luria attempted to purchase houses near the Wall , but was unsuccessful , as was Jewish sage Abdullah of Bombay who tried to purchase the Western Wall in the 1850s . In 1869 Rabbi Hillel Moshe Gelbstein settled in Jerusalem . He arranged that benches and tables be brought to the Wall on a daily basis for the study groups he organised and the minyan which he led there for years . He also formulated a plan whereby some of the courtyards facing the Wall would be acquired , with the intention of establishing three synagogues – one each for the Sephardim , the Hasidim and the Perushim . He also endeavoured to re @-@ establish an ancient practice of " guards of honour " , which according to the mishnah in Middot , were positioned around the Temple Mount . He rented a house near the Wall and paid men to stand guard there and at various other gateways around the mount . However this set @-@ up lasted only for a short time due to lack of funds or because of Arab resentment . In 1874 , Mordechai Rosanes paid for the repaving of the alleyway adjacent to the wall .
In 1887 Baron Rothschild conceived a plan to purchase and demolish the Moroccan Quarter as " a merit and honor to the Jewish People . " The proposed purchase was considered and approved by the Ottoman Governor of Jerusalem , Rauf Pasha , and by the Mufti of Jerusalem , Mohammed Tahir Husseini . Even after permission was obtained from the highest secular and Muslim religious authority to proceed , the transaction was shelved after the authorities insisted that after demolishing the quarter no construction of any type could take place there , only trees could be planted to beautify the area . Additionally the Jews would not have full control over the area . This meant that they would have no power to stop people from using the plaza for various activities , including the driving of mules , which would cause a disturbance to worshippers . Other reports place the scheme 's failure on Jewish infighting as to whether the plan would foster a detrimental Arab reaction .
In 1895 Hebrew linguist and publisher Rabbi Chaim Hirschensohn became entangled in a failed effort to purchase the Western Wall and lost all his assets . Even the attempts of the Palestine Land Development Company to purchase the environs of the Western Wall for the Jews just before the outbreak of World War I never came to fruition . In the first two months following the Ottoman Empire ’ s entry into the First World War , the Turkish governor of Jerusalem , Zakey Bey , offered to sell the Moroccan Quarter , which consisted of about 25 houses , to the Jews in order to enlarge the area available to them for prayer . He requested a sum of £ 20 @,@ 000 which would be used to both rehouse the Muslim families and to create a public garden in front of the Wall . However , the Jews of the city lacked the necessary funds . A few months later , under Muslim Arab pressure on the Turkish authorities in Jerusalem , Jews became forbidden by official decree to place benches and light candles at the Wall . This sour turn in relations was taken up by the Chacham Bashi who managed to get the ban overturned . In 1915 it was reported that Djemal Pasha closed off the wall to visitation as a sanitary measure .
= = = = Firmans issued regarding the Wall = = = =
* These firmans were cited by the Jewish contingent at the International Commission , 1930 , as proof for rights at the Wall . Muslim authorities responded by arguing that historic sanctions of Jewish presence were acts of tolerance shown by Muslims , who , by doing so , did not concede any positive rights .
= = = British rule 1917 – 48 = = =
In December 1917 , British forces under Edmund Allenby captured Jerusalem from the Turks . Allenby pledged " that every sacred building , monument , holy spot , shrine , traditional site , endowment , pious bequest , or customary place of prayer of whatsoever form of the three religions will be maintained and protected according to the existing customs and beliefs of those to whose faith they are sacred " .
In 1919 Zionist leader Chaim Weizmann , anxious to enable Jews to access their sacred site unmolested , approached the British Military Governor of Jerusalem , Colonel Sir Ronald Storrs , and offered between £ 75 @,@ 000 and £ 100 @,@ 000 ( approx . £ 5m in modern terms ) to purchase the area at the foot of the Wall and rehouse the occupants . Storrs was enthusiastic about the idea because he hoped some of the money would be used to improve Muslim education . Although they appeared promising at first , negotiations broke down after strong Muslim opposition . Storrs wrote two decades later :
" The acceptance of the proposals , had it been practicable , would have obviated years of wretched humiliations , including the befouling of the Wall and pavement and the unmannerly braying of the tragi @-@ comic Arab band during Jewish prayer , and culminating in the horrible outrages of 1929 "
In early 1920 , the first Jewish @-@ Arab dispute over the Wall occurred when the Muslim authorities were carrying out minor repair works to the Wall ’ s upper courses . The Jews , while agreeing that the works were necessary , appealed to the British that they be made under supervision of the newly formed Department of Antiquities , because the Wall was an ancient relic .
In 1926 an effort was made to lease the Maghrebi waqf , which included the wall , with the plan of eventually buying it . Negotiations were begun in secret by the Jewish judge Gad Frumkin , with financial backing from American millionaire Nathan Straus . The chairman of the Palestine Zionist Executive , Colonel F. H. Kisch , explained that the aim was " quietly to evacuate the Moroccan occupants of those houses which it would later be necessary to demolish " to create an open space with seats for aged worshippers to sit on . However , Straus withdrew when the price became excessive and the plan came to nothing . The Va 'ad Leumi , against the advice of the Palestine Zionist Executive , demanded that the British expropriate the wall and give it to the Jews , but the British refused .
In 1928 the Zionist Organisation reported that John Chancellor , High Commissioner of Palestine , believed that the Western Wall should come under Jewish control and wondered " why no great Jewish philanthropist had not bought it yet " .
= = = = September 1928 disturbances = = = =
In 1922 , a status quo agreement issued by the mandatory authority forbade the placing of benches or chairs near the Wall . The last occurrence of such a ban was in 1915 , but the Ottoman decree was soon retracted after intervention of the Chacham Bashi . In 1928 the District Commissioner of Jerusalem , Edward Keith @-@ Roach , acceded to an Arab request to implement the ban . This led to a British officer being stationed at the Wall making sure that Jews were prevented from sitting . Nor were Jews permitted to separate the sexes with a screen . In practice , a flexible modus vivendi had emerged and such screens had been put up from time to time when large numbers of people gathered to pray .
On September 24 , 1928 , the Day of Atonement , British police resorted to removing by force a screen used to separate men and women at prayer . Women who tried to prevent the screen being dismantled were beaten by the police , who used pieces of the broken wooden frame as clubs . Chairs were then pulled out from under elderly worshipers . The episode made international news and Jews the world over objected to the British action . The Chief Rabbi of the ultraorthodox Jews in Jerusalem issued a protest letter on behalf of his community , the Edah HaChareidis , and Agudas Yisroel strongly condemning the desecration of the holy site . Various communal leaders called for a general strike . A large rally was held in the Etz Chaim Yeshiva , following which an angry crowd attacked the local police station in which they believed the British officer involved in the fiasco was sheltering .
Commissioner Edward Keith @-@ Roach described the screen as violating the Ottoman status quo that forbade Jews from making any construction in the Western Wall area . He informed the Jewish community that the removal had been carried out under his orders after receiving a complaint from the Supreme Muslim Council . The Arabs were concerned that the Jews were trying to extend their rights at the wall and with this move , ultimately intended to take possession of the Al @-@ Aqsa Mosque . The British government issued an announcement explaining the incident and blaming the Jewish beadle at the Wall . It stressed that the removal of the screen was necessary , but expressed regret over the ensuing events .
A widespread Arab campaign to protest against presumed Jewish intentions and designs to take possession of the Al Aqsa Mosque swept the country and a " Society for the Protection of the Muslim Holy Places " was established . The Vaad Leumi responding to these Arab fears declared in a statement that " We herewith declare emphatically and sincerely that no Jew has ever thought of encroaching upon the rights of Moslems over their own Holy places , but our Arab brethren should also recognise the rights of Jews in regard to the places in Palestine which are holy to them . " The committee also demanded that the British administration expropriate the wall for the Jews .
From October 1928 onward , Mufti Amin al @-@ Husayni organised a series of measures to demonstrate the Arabs ' exclusive claims to the Temple Mount and its environs . He ordered new construction next to and above the Western Wall . The British granted the Arabs permission to convert a building adjoining the Wall into a mosque and to add a minaret . A muezzin was appointed to perform the Islamic call to prayer and Sufi rites directly next to the Wall . These were seen as a provocation by the Jews who prayed at the Wall . The Jews protested and tensions increased .
A British inquiry into the disturbances and investigation regarding the principal issue in the Western Wall dispute , namely the rights of the Jewish worshipers to bring appurtenances to the wall , was convened . The Supreme Muslim Council provided documents dating from the Turkish regime supporting their claims . However , repeated reminders to the Chief Rabbinate to verify which apparatus had been permitted failed to elicit any response . They refused to do so , arguing that Jews had the right to pray at the Wall without restrictions . Subsequently , in November 1928 , the Government issued a White Paper entitled " The Western or Wailing Wall in Jerusalem : Memorandum by the Secretary of State for the Colonies " , which emphasised the maintenance of the status quo and instructed that Jews could only bring " those accessories which had been permitted in Turkish times . "
A few months later , Haj Amin complained to Chancellor that " Jews were bringing benches and tables in increased numbers to the wall and driving nails into the wall and hanging lamps on them . "
= = = = 1929 Palestine riots = = = =
In the summer of 1929 , the Mufti Haj Amin Al Husseinni ordered an opening be made at the southern end of the alleyway which straddled the Wall . The former cul @-@ de @-@ sac became a thoroughfare which led from the Temple Mount into the prayer area at the Wall . Mules were herded through the narrow alley , often dropping excrement . This , together with other construction projects in the vicinity , and restricted access to the Wall , resulted in Jewish protests to the British , who remained indifferent .
On August 14 , 1929 , after attacks on individual Jews praying at the Wall , 6 @,@ 000 Jews demonstrated in Tel Aviv , shouting " The Wall is ours . " The next day , the Jewish fast of Tisha B 'Av , 300 youths raised the Zionist flag and sang Hatikva at the Wall . The day after , on August 16 , an organized mob of 2 @,@ 000 Muslim Arabs descended on the Western Wall , injuring the beadle and burning prayer books , liturgical fixtures and notes of supplication . The rioting spread to the Jewish commercial area of town , and was followed a few days later by the Hebron massacre . 133 Jews were killed and 339 injured in the Arab riots , and in the subsequent process of quelling the riots 110 Arabs were killed by British police . This was by far the deadliest attack on Jews during the period of British Rule over Palestine .
= = = = 1930 international commission = = = =
In 1930 , in response to the 1929 riots , the British Government appointed a commission " to determine the rights and claims of Muslims and Jews in connection with the Western or Wailing Wall " , and to determine the causes of the violence and prevent it in the future . The League of Nations approved the commission on condition that the members were not British .
The Jews requested that the Commission take the following actions :
To give recognition to the immemorial claim that the Wailing Wall is a Holy Place for the Jews , not only for the Jews in Palestine , but also for the Jews of the whole world .
To decree that the Jews shall have the right of access to the Wall for devotion and for prayers in accordance with their ritual without interference or interruption .
To decree that it shall be permissible to continue the Jewish services under the conditions of decency and decorum characteristic of a sacred custom that has been carried on for many centuries without infringement upon the religious rights of others .
To decree that the drawing up of any regulations that may be necessary as to such devotions and prayers , shall be entrusted to the Rabbinate of Palestine , who shall thus re @-@ assume full responsibility in that matter , in discharge of which responsibility they may consult the Rabbinate of the world .
To suggest , if the Commissioners approve of the plan , to the Mandatory Power that it should make the necessary arrangements by which the properties now occupied by the Moghrabi Waqf might be vacated , the Waqf authorities accepting in lieu of them certain new buildings to be erected upon some eligible site in Jerusalem , so that the charitable purpose , for which this Waqf was given , may still be fulfilled .
The Commission noted that ' the Jews do not claim any proprietorship to the Wall or to the Pavement in front of it ( concluding speech of Jewish Counsel , Minutes , page 908 ) .'
David Yellin , Head of the Hebrew Teachers Seminary , member of the Ottoman parliament , and one of the first public figures to join the Zionist movement openly , testified before the Commission . He stated :
" Being judged before you today stands a nation that has been deprived of everything that is dear and sacred to it from its emergence in its own land – the graves of its patriarchs , the graves of its great kings , the graves of its holy prophets and , above all , the site of its glorious Temple . Everything has been taken from it and of all the witnesses to its sanctity , only one vestige remains – one side of a tiny portion of a wall , which , on one side , borders the place of its former Temple . In front of this bare stone wall , that nation stands under the open sky , in the heat of summer and in the rains of winter , and pours out its heart to its God in heaven . "
The Commission concluded that the wall , and the adjacent pavement and Moroccan Quarter , were solely owned by the Muslim waqf . However , Jews had the right to " free access to the Western Wall for the purpose of devotions at all times " , subject to some stipulations that limited which objects could be brought to the Wall and forbade the blowing of the shofar , which was made illegal . Muslims were forbidden to disrupt Jewish devotions by driving animals or other means . Yitzchak Orenstein , who held the position of Rabbi of the Kotel , recorded in April 1930 that " Our master , Rabbi Yosef Chaim Sonnenfeld came to pray this morning by the Kosel and one of those present produced a small chair for the Rav to rest on for a few moments . However , no sooner had the Rav sat down did an Arab officer appear and pull the chair away from under him . " During the 1930s , at the conclusion of Yom Kippur , young Jews persistently flouted the shofar ban each year and blew the shofar resulting in their arrest and prosecution . They were usually fined or sentenced to imprisonment for three to six months . The Shaw commission determined that the violence occurred due to " racial animosity on the part of the Arabs , consequent upon the disappointment of their political and national aspirations and fear for their economic future . "
= = = Jordanian rule 1948 – 67 = = =
During the 1948 Arab @-@ Israeli War the Old City together with the Wall was controlled by Jordan . Article VIII of the 1949 Armistice Agreement provided for Israeli Jewish access to the Western Wall . However , for the following nineteen years , despite numerous requests by Israeli officials and Jewish groups to the United Nations and other international bodies to attempt to enforce the armistice agreement , Jordan refused to abide by this clause . Neither Israeli Arabs nor Israeli Jews could visit their holy places in the Jordanian territories . An exception was made for Christians to participate in Christmas ceremonies in Bethlehem . Some sources claim Jews could only visit the wall if they traveled through Jordan ( which was not an option for Israelis ) and did not have an Israeli visa stamped in their passports . Only Jordanian soldiers and tourists were to be found there . A vantage point on Mount Zion , from which the Wall could be viewed , became the place where Jews gathered to pray . For thousands of pilgrims , the mount , being the closest location to the Wall under Israeli control , became a substitute site for the traditional priestly blessing ceremony which takes place on the Three Pilgrimage Festivals .
= = = = " Al Buraq ( Wailing Wall ) Rd " sign = = = =
During the Jordanian rule of the Old City , a ceramic street sign in Arabic and English was affixed to the stones of the ancient wall . Attached 2 @.@ 1 metres ( 6 ft 11 in ) up , it was made up of eight separate ceramic tiles and said Al Buraq Road in Arabic at the top with the English " Al @-@ Buraq ( Wailing Wall ) Rd " below . When Israeli soldiers arrived at the wall in June 1967 , one attempted to scrawl Hebrew lettering on it . The Jerusalem Post reported that on June 8 , Ben @-@ Gurion went to the wall and " looked with distaste " at the road sign ; " this is not right , it should come down " and he proceeded to dismantle it . This act signaled the climax of the capture of the Old City and the ability of Jews to once again access their holiest sites . Emotional recollections of this event are related by David ben Gurion and Shimon Peres .
= = = Israeli rule 1967 – present = = =
Following Israel 's victory during the 1967 Six @-@ Day War , the Western Wall came under Israeli control . Brigadier Rabbi Shlomo Goren proclaimed after its capture that " Israel would never again relinquish the Wall " , a stance supported by Israeli Minister for Defence Moshe Dayan and Chief of Staff General Yitzhak Rabin . Rabin described the moment Israeli soldiers reached the Wall :
" There was one moment in the Six @-@ Day War which symbolized the great victory : that was the moment in which the first paratroopers — under Gur 's command — reached the stones of the Western Wall , feeling the emotion of the place ; there never was , and never will be , another moment like it . Nobody staged that moment . Nobody planned it in advance . Nobody prepared it and nobody was prepared for it ; it was as if Providence had directed the whole thing : the paratroopers weeping — loudly and in pain — over their comrades who had fallen along the way , the words of the Kaddish prayer heard by Western Wall 's stones after 19 years of silence , tears of mourning , shouts of joy , and the singing of " Hatikvah " " .
Forty @-@ eight hours after capturing the wall , the military , without explicit government order , hastily proceeded to demolish the entire Moroccan Quarter which stood 4 metres ( 13 ft ) from the Wall . The Sheikh Eid Mosque , which was built over one of Jerusalem 's oldest Islamic schools , the Afdiliyeh , named after one of Saladin 's sons , was pulled down to make way for the plaza . It was one of three or four that survived from Saladin 's time . 650 people consisting of 106 Arab families were ordered to leave their homes at night . When they refused , bulldozers began to demolish the structures , causing casualties . One old woman was buried under the houses as the bulldozer razed the area .
According to Eyal Weizman , Chaim Herzog , who later became Israel 's sixth president , took much of the credit for the destruction of the neighbourhood :
When we visited the Wailing Wall we found a toilet attached to it ... we decided to remove it and from this we came to the conclusion that we could evacuate the entire area in front of the Wailing Wall ... a historical opportunity that will never return ... We knew that the following Saturday , June 14 , would be the Jewish festival of Shavuot and that many will want to come to pray ... it all had to be completed by then .
The narrow pavement , which could accommodate a maximum of 12 @,@ 000 per day , was transformed into an enormous plaza which could hold in excess of 400 @,@ 000 .
Several months later , the pavement close to the wall was excavated to a depth of two and half meters , exposing an additional two courses of large stones .
A complex of buildings against the wall at the southern end of the plaza , that included Madrasa Fakhriya and the house that the Abu al @-@ Sa 'ud family had occupied since the 16th century , were spared in the 1967 destruction , but demolished in 1969 . The section of the wall dedicated to prayers was thus extended southwards to double its original length , from 28 to 60 metres ( 92 to 197 ft ) , while the 4 metres ( 13 ft ) space facing the wall grew to 40 metres ( 130 ft ) .
The dusty plaza stretched from the wall to the Jewish Quarter . The small , approximately 120 square metres ( 1 @,@ 300 sq ft ) pre @-@ 1967 area in front of the wall grew to 2 @,@ 400 square metres ( 26 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , with the entire Western Wall Plaza covering 20 @,@ 000 square metres ( 4 @.@ 9 acres ) .
The new plaza created in 1967 is used for worship and public gatherings , including Bar mitzvah celebrations and the swearing @-@ in ceremonies of newly full @-@ fledged soldiers in the Israel Defense Forces . Tens of thousands of Jews flock to the wall on the Jewish holidays , and particularly on the fast of Tisha B 'Av , which marks the destruction of the Temple and on Jerusalem Day , which commemorates the reunification of Jerusalem in 1967 and the delivery of the Wall into Jewish hands .
Conflicts over prayer at the national monument began little more than a year after Israel ’ s victory in the Six @-@ Day War once again made site accessible to Jews . In July 1968 the World Union for Progressive Judaism , which had planned the group 's international convention in Jerusalem , appealed to the Knesset after the Ministry of Religious Affairs prohibited the organization from hosting mixed @-@ gender services at the Wall . The Knesset committee on internal affairs backed the Ministry of Religious Affairs in disallowing the Jewish convention attendees , who had come from over 24 countries , from worshiping in their fashion . The Orthodox hold that services at the Wall should follow traditional Jewish law for segregated seating followed in synagogues , while the non @-@ Orthodox perspective was that " the Wall is a shrine of all Jews , not one particular branch of Judaism . "
= = = = Robinson 's Arch = = = =
At the southern end of the Western Wall , Robinson 's Arch along with a row of vaults once supported stairs ascending from the street to the Temple Mount . Because it does not come under the direct control of the Rabbi of the Wall or the Ministry of Religious Affairs , the site has been opened to religious groups that hold worship services that would not be approved by the Rabbi or the Ministry in the major men 's and women 's prayer areas against the Wall .
The need for such an area became apparent when in 1989 , after repeated attacks by haredim , activists belonging to a group called Women of the Wall petitioned to secure the right of women to pray at the wall without restrictions . In a 2003 directive , Israel 's Supreme Court disallowed any women from reading publicly from the Torah or wearing traditional prayer shawls at the plaza itself , but instructed the Israeli government to prepare the site of Robinson 's Arch to host such events . The site was inaugurated in August 2004 and has since hosted services by Reform and Conservative groups , as well as services by the Women of the Wall . In May 2013 a judge ruled that the 2003 Israeli Supreme Court ruling prohibiting women from carrying a Torah or wearing prayer shawls had been misinterpreted and that Women of the Wall prayer gatherings at the wall should not be deemed as disturbing the public order .
In November 2010 , the government approved a NIS 85m ( $ 23m ) scheme to improve access and infrastructure at the site .
The Isaiah Stone , located under Robinson 's Arch , has a carved inscription in Hebrew from Isaiah 66 : 14 : וראיתם ושש לבכם ועצמותיכם כדשא תפרחנה ( " And when ye see this your heart shall rejoice and your bones shall flourish like an herb " ) .
In April 2013 , Jewish Agency for Israel leader Natan Sharansky spearheaded a concept that would expand and renovate the Robinson 's Arch area into an area where people may " perform worship rituals not based on the Orthodox interpretation of Jewish tradition . " On 25 August 2013 , a new 4 @,@ 480 square foot prayer platform named " Azarat Yisrael Plaza " was completed as part of this plan , with access to the platform at all hours , even when the rest of the area 's archeological park is closed to visitors . After some controversy regarding the question of authority over this prayer area , the announcement was made that it would come under the authority of a future government @-@ appointed " pluralist council " that would include non @-@ Orthodox representatives . In January 2016 , the Israeli Cabinet approved a plan to designate a new space at the Kotel that would be available for egalitarian prayer and which would not be controlled by the Rabbinate . Women of the Wall welcomed the decision , although Sephardic Chief Rabbi Shlomo Amar of Jerusalem said creating a mixed @-@ gender prayer section was paramount to destroying it . The Chief rabbinate said it would create an alternate plan .
= = = = Wilson 's Arch = = = =
In 2005 , the Western Wall Heritage Foundation initiated a major renovation effort under Rabbi @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Wall Shmuel Rabinovitch . Its goal was to renovate and restore the area within Wilson 's Arch , the covered area to the left of worshipers facing the Wall in the open prayer plaza , in order to increase access for visitors and for prayer .
The restoration to the men 's section included a Torah ark that can house over 100 Torah scrolls , in addition to new bookshelves , a library , heating for the winter , and air conditioning for the summer . A new room was also built for the scribes who maintain and preserve the Torah scrolls used at the Wall . New construction also included a women 's section , overlooking the men 's prayer area , so that women could use this separate area to " take part in the services held inside under the Arch " for the first time .
On July 25 , 2010 , a Ner Tamid , an oil @-@ burning " eternal light , " was installed within the prayer hall within Wilson 's Arch , the first eternal light installed in the area of the Western Wall . According to the Western Wall Heritage Foundation , requests had been made for many years that " an olive oil lamp be placed in the prayer hall of the Western Wall Plaza , as is the custom in Jewish synagogues , to represent the menorah of the Temple in Jerusalem as well as the continuously burning fire on the altar of burnt offerings in front of the Temple , " especially in the closest place to those ancient flames .
A number of special worship events have been held since the renovation . They have taken advantage of the cover , temperature control , and enhanced security . However , in addition to the more recent programs , one early event occurred in September 1983 , even before the modern renovation . At that time U.S. Sixth Fleet Chaplain Rabbi Arnold Resnicoff was allowed to hold an unusual interfaith service — the first interfaith service ever conducted at the Wall during the time it was under Israeli control — that included men and women sitting together . The ten @-@ minute service included the Priestly Blessing , recited by Resnicoff , who is a Kohen . A Ministry of Religions representative was present , responding to press queries that the service was authorized as part of a special welcome for the U.S. Sixth Fleet .
= = = = Rabbis of the wall = = = =
After the 1967 Arab @-@ Israeli war , Rabbi Yehuda Meir Getz was named the overseer of proceedings at the wall . After Rabbi Getz 's death in 1995 , Rabbi Shmuel Rabinowitz was given the position .
= = Theology and ritual = =
= = = Judaism = = =
Rabbinic tradition teaches that the western wall was built upon foundations laid by the biblical King Solomon from the time of the First Temple . A Midrash compiled in Late Antiquity refers to a western wall of the Temple which " would never be destroyed " , and Lamentations Rabbah mentions how Rome was unable to topple the western wall due to the Divine oath promising its eternal survival . Another Midrash quotes a 4th @-@ century scholar : " Rav Acha said that the Divine Presence has never departed from the Western Wall " , and the Zohar similarly writes that " the Divine Presence rests upon the Western Wall " .
Some medieval rabbis claimed that today 's Western Wall is a surviving wall of the Temple itself and cautioned Jews from approaching it , lest they enter the Temple precincts in a state of impurity . Many contemporary rabbis believe that the rabbinic traditions were made in reference to the Temple Mount 's Western Wall , which accordingly endows the Wall with inherent holiness . Most secular scholars believe however that these traditions originally pertained to a western wall of the Temple itself , and since the 1500s , were gradually applied to the surviving retaining Western Wall of the Mount .
Rabbi Zvi Hirsch Kaindenover discusses the mystical aspect of the Hebrew word kotel when discussing the significance of praying against a wall . He cites the Zohar which writes that the word kotel , meaning wall , is made up of two parts : " Ko " , which has the numerical value of God ’ s name , and " Tel " , meaning mount , which refers to the Temple and its Western Wall .
Eighteenth @-@ century scholar Jonathan Eybeschutz writes that " after the destruction of the Temple , God removed His Presence from His sanctuary and placed it upon the Western Wall where it remains in its holiness and honour " . It is told that great Jewish sages , including Isaac Luria and the Radvaz , experienced a revelation of the Divine Presence at the wall .
= = = = Sanctity of the Wall = = = =
Most Jews attach sanctity to the Wall , while others do not . Many contemporary Orthodox scholars rule that the area in front of the Wall has the status of a synagogue and must be treated with due respect . This is the view upheld by the authority in charge of the wall . As such , men and married women are expected to cover their heads upon approaching the Wall , and to dress appropriately . When departing , the custom is to walk backwards away from the Wall . On Saturdays , it is forbidden to enter the area with electronic devices , including cameras , which infringe on the sanctity of the Sabbath .
Some Orthodox Jewish codifiers warn against inserting fingers into the cracks of the Wall as they believe that the breadth of the Wall constitutes part of the Temple Mount itself and retains holiness , while others who permit doing so claim that the Wall is located outside the Temple area .
In the past , some visitors would write their names on the Wall , or based upon various scriptural verses , would drive nails into the crevices . These practices stopped after rabbis determined that such actions compromised the sanctity of the Wall . Another practice also existed whereby pilgrims or those intending to travel abroad would hack off a chip from the Wall or take some of the sand from between its cracks as a good luck charm or memento . In the late 19th century the question was raised as to whether this was permitted and a long responsa appeared in the Jerusalem newspaper Havatzelet in 1898 . It concluded that even if according to Jewish Law it was permitted , the practices should be stopped as it constituted a desecration . More recently the Yalkut Yosef rules that it is forbidden to remove small chips of stone or dust from the Wall , although it is permissible to take twigs from the vegetation which grows in the Wall for an amulet , as they contain no holiness . Cleaning the stones is also problematic from a halachic point of view . Blasphemous graffiti once sprayed by a tourist was left visible for months until it began to peel away .
There was once an old custom of removing one 's shoes upon approaching the Wall . A 17th @-@ century collection of special prayers to be said at holy places mentions that " upon coming to the Western Wall one should remove his shoes , bow and recite ... " . Rabbi Moses Reicher wrote that " it is a good and praiseworthy custom to approach the Western Wall in white garments after ablution , kneel and prostrate oneself in submission and recite " This is nothing other than the House of God and here is the gate of Heaven . " When within four cubits of the Wall , one should remove their footwear . " Over the years the custom of standing barefoot at the Wall has ceased , as there is no need to remove one 's shoes when standing by the Wall , because the plaza area is outside the sanctified precinct of the Temple Mount .
In Judaism , the Western Wall is venerated as the sole remnant of the Holy Temple . It has become a place of pilgrimage for Jews , as it is the closest permitted accessible site to the holiest spot in Judaism , namely the Even ha @-@ shetiya or Foundation Stone , which lies on the Temple Mount . According to one rabbinic opinion , Jews may not set foot upon the Temple Mount and doing so is a sin punishable by Kareth . While almost all historians and archaeologists and some rabbinical authorities believe that the rocky outcrop in the Dome of the Rock is the Foundation Stone , some rabbis say it is located directly opposite the exposed section of the Western Wall , near the El @-@ kas fountain . This spot was the site of the Holy of Holies when the Temple stood .
= = = = Mourning the Temple 's destruction = = = =
According to Jewish Law , one is obligated to grieve and rend one 's garment upon visiting the Western Wall and seeing the desolate site of the Temple . Bach ( 17th century ) instructs that " when one sees the Gates of Mercy which are situated in the Western Wall , which is the wall King David built , he should recite : Her gates are sunk into the ground ; he hath destroyed and broken her bars : her king and her princes are among the nations : the law is no more ; her prophets also find no vision from the Lord " . Some scholars write that rending one 's garments is not applicable nowadays as Jerusalem is under Jewish control . Others disagree , pointing to the fact that the Temple Mount is controlled by the Muslim waqf and that the mosques which sit upon the Temple site should increase feelings of distress . If one hasn 't seen the Wall for over 30 days , the prevailing custom is to rend one 's garments , but this can be avoided if one visits on the Sabbath or on festivals . According to Donneal Epstein , a person who has not seen the Wall within the last 30 days should recite : " Our Holy Temple , which was our glory , in which our forefathers praised You , was burned and all of our delights were destroyed " .
= = = = Prayer at the Wall = = = =
The Sages of the Talmud stated that anyone who prays at the Temple in Jerusalem , " it is as if he has prayed before the throne of glory because the gate of heaven is situated there and it is open to hear prayer . " Jewish Law stipulates that the Silent Prayer should be recited facing towards Jerusalem , the Temple and ultimately the Holy of Holies , as God 's bounty and blessing emanates from that spot . It is generally believed that prayer by the Western Wall is particularly beneficial since it was that wall which was situated closest to the Holy of Holies . Rabbi Jacob Ettlinger writes " since the gate of heaven is near the Western Wall , it is understandable that all Israel 's prayers ascend on high there ... as one of the great ancient kabbalists Rabbi Joseph Gikatilla said , when the Jews send their prayers from the Diaspora in the direction of Jerusalem , from there they ascend by way of the Western Wall . " A well @-@ known segula ( efficacious remedy ) for finding one 's soulmate is to pray for 40 consecutive days at the Western Wall , a practice apparently conceived by Rabbi Yisroel Yaakov Fisher .
The Scroll of Ahimaaz , a historical document written in 1050 CE , distinctly describes the Western Wall as a place of prayer for the Jews . In around 1167 CE during the late Crusader Period , Benjamin of Tudela wrote that " In front of this place is the western wall , which is one of the walls of the Holy of Holies . This is called the Gate of Mercy , and hither come all the Jews to pray before the Wall in the open court " . In 1625 " arranged prayers " at the Wall are mentioned for the first time by a scholar whose name has not been preserved . Scrolls of the Law were brought to the Wall on occasions of public distress and calamity , as testified to in a narrative written by Rabbi Gedaliah of Semitizi who went to Jerusalem in 1699 .
The writings of various travellers in the Holy Land , especially in the 18th and 19th centuries , tell of how the Wall and its environs continued to be a place of devotion for the Jews . Isaac Yahuda , a prominent member of the Sephardic community in Jerusalem recalled how men and women used to gather in a circle at the Wall to hear sermons delivered in Ladino . His great @-@ grandmother , who arrived in Palestine in 1841 , " used to go to the Western Wall every Friday afternoon , winter and summer , and stay there until candle @-@ lighting time , reading the entire Book of Psalms and the Song of Songs ... she would sit there by herself for hours . " In the past women could be found sitting at the entrance to the Wall every Sabbath holding fragrant herbs and spices in order to enable worshipers to make additional blessings . In the hot weather they would provide cool water . The women also used to cast lots for the privilege of sweeping and washing the alleyway at the foot of the Wall . Throughout the ages , the Wall is where Jews have gathered to express gratitude to God or to pray for divine mercy . On news of the Normandy landings on June 6 , 1944 thousands of Jews went to the Wall to offer prayers for the " success of His Majesty ’ s and Allied Forces in the liberation of all enemy @-@ occupied territory . " On October 13 , 1994 , 50 @,@ 000 gathered to pray for the safe return of kidnapped soldier Nachshon Wachsman . August 10 , 2005 saw a massive prayer rally at the Wall . Estimates of people protesting Israel 's unilateral disengagement plan ranged from 50 @,@ 000 to 250 @,@ 000 people . Every year on Tisha B 'Av large crowds congregate at the Wall to commemorate the destruction of the Temple . In 2007 over 100 @,@ 000 gathered . During the month of Tishrei 2009 , a record 1 @.@ 5 million people visited the site .
= = = = = Egalitarian and non @-@ Orthodox prayer = = = = =
While during the late 19th century , no formal segregation of men and women was to be found at the Wall , conflict erupted in July 1968 when members of the World Union for Progressive Judaism were denied the right to host a mixed @-@ gender service at the site after the Ministry of Religious Affairs insisted on maintaining the gender segregation customary at Orthodox places of worship . The progressives responded by claiming that " the Wall is a shrine of all Jews , not one particular branch of Judaism . " In 1988 , the small but vocal Women of the Wall launched a campaign for recognition of non @-@ Orthodox prayer at the Wall . Their form and manner of prayer elicited a violent response from some Orthodox worshippers and they were subsequently banned from holding services at the site . In response to the repeated arrest of women , including Anat Hoffman found flouting the law , the Jewish Agency observed ' the urgent need to reach a permanent solution and make the Western Wall once again a symbol of unity among the Jewish people , and not one of discord and strife . " Some commentators called for the closure of the site unless an acceptable solution to the controversy was found . In 2003 Israel 's Supreme Court upheld the ban on non @-@ Orthodox worship at the Wall and the government responded by allocating Robinson 's Arch for such purposes . But in 2012 , critics still complained about the restrictions at the Western Wall , saying Israel had " turned a national monument into an ultra @-@ Orthodox synagogue , " and in April 2013 the Jerusalem District Court ruled that as long as there was no other appropriate area for pluralistic prayer , prayer according to non @-@ Orthodox custom should be allowed at the Wall . This led to the expansion and renovation of the Robinson 's Arch prayer area which would be placed under the authority of a Pluralist Council . In August 2013 , a platform named " Azarat Yisrael Plaza " was completed to facilitate non @-@ Orthodox worship .
= = = = = Prayer notes = = = = =
There is a much publicised practice of placing slips of paper containing written prayers into the crevices of the Wall . The earliest account of this practice is attributed to Rabbi Chaim ibn Attar , ( d . 1743 ) . More than a million notes are placed each year and the opportunity to e @-@ mail notes is offered by a number of organisations . It has become customary for visiting dignitaries to place notes too .
= = = Islam = = =
Islamic reverence for the site is derived from the belief that the prophet Mohammed tied his miraculous steed Buraq nearby during his night journey to Jerusalem . Various places have been suggested for the exact spot where Buraq was tethered , but for several centuries the preferred location has been the al @-@ Buraq mosque , which is just inside the wall at the south end of the present Western Wall plaza . The mosque is located above an ancient passageway , which once came out through the long @-@ sealed Barclay 's Gate whose huge lintel is still visible directly below the Maghrebi gate .
When a British Jew asked the Egyptian authorities in 1840 for permission to re @-@ pave the ground in front of the Western Wall , the governor of Syria wrote :
It is evident from the copy of the record of the deliberations of the Consultative Council in Jerusalem that the place the Jews asked for permission to pave adjoins the wall of the Haram al @-@ Sharif and also the spot where al @-@ Buraq was tethered , and is included in the endowment charter of Abu Madyan , may God bless his memory ; that the Jews never carried out any repairs in that place in the past . ... Therefore the Jews must not be enabled to pave the place .
Carl Sandreczki , who was charged with compiling a list of place names for Charles Wilson 's Ordnance Survey of Jerusalem in 1865 , reported that the street leading to the Western Wall , including the part alongside the wall , belonged to the Hosh ( court / enclosure ) of al Burâk , " not Obrâk , nor Obrat " . In 1866 , the Prussian Consul and Orientalist Georg Rosen wrote that " The Arabs call Obrâk the entire length of the wall at the wailing place of the Jews , southwards down to the house of Abu Su 'ud and northwards up to the substructure of the Mechkemeh [ Shariah court ] . Obrâk is not , as was formerly claimed , a corruption of the word Ibri ( Hebrews ) , but simply the neo @-@ Arabic pronunciation of Bōrâk , ... which , whilst ( Muhammad ) was at prayer at the holy rock , is said to have been tethered by him inside the wall location mentioned above . "
The name Hosh al Buraq appeared on the maps of Wilson 's 1865 survey , its revised editions of 1876 and 1900 , and other maps in the early 20th century . In 1922 , it was the street name specified by the official Pro @-@ Jerusalem Council .
= = = Christianity = = =
Some scholars believe that when Jerusalem came under Christian rule in the 4th century , there was a purposeful " transference " of respect for the Temple Mount and the Western Wall in terms of sanctity to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre , while the sites around the Temple Mount became a refuse dump for Christians . However , the actions of many modern Christian leaders , including Pope John Paul II and Pope Benedict XVI , who visited the Wall and left prayer messages in its crevices , have symbolized for many Christians a restoration of respect and even veneration for this ancient religious site .
= = Views = =
= = = Jewish = = =
Most Jews , religious and secular , consider the wall to be important to the Jewish people since it was originally built to hold the Second Temple . They consider the capture of the wall by Israel in 1967 as a historic event since it restored Jewish access to the site after a 19 @-@ year gap . There are , however , some haredi Jews who hold opposing views . Most notable are the adherents of the Satmar hasidic dynasty who retain the views espoused by their Grand Rabbi Joel Teitelbaum , who would not approach the Wall after the 1967 conquest , although he did visit the site during his visits to the Holy Land in the 1920s .
In 1994 , Shlomo Goren wrote that the tradition of the wall as a Jewish prayer site was only 300 years old , the Jews being compelled to pray there after being forbidden from assembling on the mount itself .
= = = Israeli = = =
A poll carried out in 2007 by the Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies indicated that 96 % of Israeli Jews were against Israel relinquishing the Western Wall . During a speech at Israel 's Mercaz HaRav yeshivah on Jerusalem Day in 2009 , Israeli Prime Minister Benyamin Netanyahu declared :
" The flag that flies over the Kotel is the Israeli flag ... Our holy places , the Temple Mount – will remain under Israeli sovereignty forever . "
= = = Muslim = = =
In December 1973 , King Faisal of Saudi Arabia stated that " Only Muslims and Christians have holy places and rights in Jerusalem " . The Jews , he maintained , had no rights there at all . As for the Western Wall , he said , " Another wall can be built for them . They can pray against that " . Raed Salah , leader of the northern branch of the Islamic Movement in Israel wrote that :
" The Western Wall – all its various parts , structures and gates – are an inseparable part of the al @-@ Aqsa compound ... The Western Wall is part of Al @-@ Aqsa 's western tower , which the Israeli establishment fallaciously and sneakily calls the ' Wailing Wall ' . The wall is part of the holy al @-@ Aqsa Mosque " .
= = = Palestinian = = =
According to the Palestinian National Authority , the Jews did not consider the Wall as a place for worship except after the Balfour Declaration was issued in 1917 . PA @-@ appointed Mufti of Jerusalem , Sheikh Ekrima Sa 'id Sabri , believes that the Wall belongs to the Muslims alone . In 2000 he related that " No stone of the Al @-@ Buraq wall has any relation to Judaism . The Jews began praying at this wall only in the nineteenth century , when they began to develop [ national ] aspirations . " A year later he stated :
" There is not a single stone in the Wailing Wall relating to Jewish History . The Jews cannot legitimately claim this wall , neither religiously nor historically . The Committee of the League of Nations recommended in 1930 , to allow the Jews to pray there , in order to keep them quiet . But by no means did it acknowledge that the wall belongs to them . "
In 2006 , Dr. Hassan Khader , founder of the Al Quds Encyclopedia , told PA television that the first connection of the Jews to the Wall is " a recent one which began in the 16th century ... not ancient ... like the roots of the Islamic connection " .
In November 2010 , an official paper published by the PA Ministry of Information denied Jewish rights to the Wall . It stated that " Al @-@ Buraq Wall is in fact the western wall of Al @-@ Aksa Mosque " and that Jews had only started using the site for worship after the 1917 Balfour Declaration .
Yitzhak Reiter writes that " the Islamization and de @-@ Judaization of the Western Wall are a recurrent motif in publications and public statements by the heads of the Islamic Movement in Israel . "
= = = American = = =
While recognizing the difficulties inherent in any ultimate peace agreement that involves the status of Jerusalem , the official position of the United States includes a recognition of the importance of the Wall to the Jewish people , and has condemned statements that seek to " delegitimize " the relationship between Jews and the area in general , and the Western Wall in particular . For example , in November 2010 , the Obama administration " strongly condemned a Palestinian official 's claim that the Western Wall in the Old City has no religious significance for Jews and is actually Muslim property . " The U.S. State Department noted that the United States rejects such a claim as " factually incorrect , insensitive and highly provocative . "
|
= Merrion v. Jicarilla Apache Tribe =
Merrion v. Jicarilla Apache Tribe , 455 U.S. 130 ( 1982 ) , was a case in which the Supreme Court of the United States holding that an Indian tribe has the authority to impose taxes on non @-@ Indians that are conducting business on the reservation as an inherent power under their tribal sovereignty .
= = Background = =
= = = History = = =
The Jicarilla Apache Tribe is a Native American ( Indian ) tribe in northwestern New Mexico on a reservation of 742 @,@ 315 acres ( 3 @,@ 004 @.@ 04 km2 ; 1 @,@ 159 @.@ 867 sq mi ) . The reservation was established by an Executive Order of President Grover Cleveland in 1887 and clarified by the Executive Orders of Presidents Theodore Roosevelt in 1907 and William Howard Taft in 1912 . The tribe adopted a formal constitution under the provisions of the Indian Reorganization Act , 25 U.S.C. § 461 et seq. that provided for the taxation of members of the tribe and non @-@ members of the tribe doing business on the reservation . If the tribe enacted a such tax ordinance on non @-@ members , the ordinance had to be approved by the Secretary of the Interior .
Beginning in 1953 , the tribe entered into agreements with oil companies , including the plaintiffs Merrion and Bayless , to provide oil and gas leases . The leases were approved by the Commissioner of Indian Affairs ( now the Bureau of Indian Affairs , or BIA ) in accordance with 25 U.S.C. § § 396a – 396g . As was the usual practice at the time , the oil companies negotiated directly with BIA , who then presented the contracts to the tribal council . While the oil and gas was from reservation land , Merrion paid severance taxes to the state of New Mexico under the provisions of 25 U.S.C. § 398c , where Congress had authorized such taxation in 1927 . The leases provided for royalties to be paid to the tribe , but the BIA was lax in collecting them . In 1973 , tribal attorneys wrote to the BIA to demand the collection of royalties , and after a year delay , the BIA would only state that they were " looking into it . " In 1976 , the BIA approved a tribal ordinance that also provided for a severance tax . This tax was set at 29 cents ( U.S. ) per barrel of oil and at 5 cents per million British thermal units ( BTU ) for natural gas .
= = = District court = = =
Merrion did not want to pay a severance tax to both New Mexico and the tribe , and filed suit in the United States District Court for the District of New Mexico , along with such major companies as Atlantic Richfield ( now part of BP ) , Getty Oil , Gulf Oil , and Phillips Petroleum ( now ConocoPhillips ) , among others . The case was not filed until 15 days before the severance tax was due . In the hearing on the temporary injunction on June 17 , 1977 , Merrion argued that the tribe 's severance tax was unconstitutional , violating both the Commerce clause and Equal protection clause , and that it was both taxation without representation and double taxation . In addition , the plaintiffs argued against the entire concept of tribal sovereignty , stating that it had been a " legal fiction for decades . " U.S. District Judge H. Vearle Payne granted the temporary injunction and set the hearing on the permanent injunction for August 29 , 1977 . The oil companies showed up with approximately 40 @-@ 50 attorneys , compared to 2 or 3 lawyers for the tribe . Both sides made essentially the same arguments as for the temporary injunction . Following the hearing , District court ruled that the tribe 's tax violated the Commerce clause of the Constitution and that only state and local authorities had the ability to tax mineral rights on Indian reservations . The court then issued a permanent injunction prohibiting the collection of the tax by the tribe .
= = = Circuit court = = =
The case then went to the Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals . The western states of Utah , New Mexico , Montana , North Dakota and Wyoming filed amici curiae briefs in support of the oil companies , while the Navajo Nation , the Arapahoe Nation , the Shoshone Indian Tribe , the Assiniboine and Sioux Tribes , the Three Affiliated Tribes of the Fort Berthold Reservation , and the National Congress of American Indians all filed briefs in support of the Jacrilla tribe . The case was heard on May 29 , 1979 by a three @-@ judge panel consisting of Chief Judge Oliver Seth and Circuit Judges William Holloway , Jr. and Monroe G. McKay . The arguments were the same as at the district court level , with the oil companies stating that tribal sovereignty did not apply to taxation of non @-@ Indians conducting business on the reservation . In an unusual move , no written decision was issued , and the attorneys were told to reargue the case en banc . McKay stated that as he recalls , he and Holloway were in disagreement with Seth , who favored a limited view of the tribe 's authority to tax the oil companies .
On September 12 , 1979 , the case was reheard before the entire panel . Following that hearing , in a 5 @-@ 2 decision , the Tenth Circuit reversed the District Court , holding that the tribe had the inherent power under their tribal sovereignty to impose taxes on the reservation . The court also held that the tax did not violate the Commerce Clause nor place an undue burden on the oil companies .
= = Opinion of the Court = =
= = = Initial arguments = = =
The oil companies immediately appealed and the United States Supreme Court granted certiorari to hear the case . This appeal came shortly after the Supreme Court had decided Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe , 435 U.S. 191 ( 1978 ) , which had stated that an Indian tribe did not have the authority to try a non @-@ Indian for a crime committed on the reservation . The Oliphant case was a major blow against tribal sovereignty , and was a case used by the oil companies in their briefs . The oil companies argued that Oliphant , currently limited to criminal cases , should be expanded to civil matters as well . The attorneys for the tribe argued that this case was no different than Washington v. Confederated Tribes of Colville Indian Reservation , 447 U.S. 134 ( 1980 ) , which stated that tribes had the authority to impose a cigarette tax on both tribal members and non @-@ Indians alike . Amici briefs were filed by Montana , North Dakota , Utah , Wyoming , New Mexico , Washington ( state ) , the Mountain States Legal Foundation , the Salt River Project Agricultural Improvement and Power District , Shell Oil , and Westmoreland Resources in support of the oil companies . The Council of Energy Resource Tribes and the Navajo Nation filed briefs supporting the tribe .
Arguing for Mellion and Bayless was Jason W. Kellahin , for Amoco and Marathon Oil was John R. Cooney ( originally a separate case , but which was consolidated with this case ) , for the tribe was Robert J. Nordhaus , and on behalf of the tribe for the Solicitor General was Louis F. Claiborne . Kellahin argued that tribal sovereignty only extended to members of the tribe , citing both Oliphant and Montana v. United States , 450 U.S. 544 ( 1981 ) , both cases involving the jurisdiction of a tribal court over non @-@ Indians . Kellahin stated that those cases that allowed a tribe to tax non @-@ Indians were not due to tribal sovereignty , but were connected with the authority of the tribe to regulate who could enter the reservation , in the same manner as a landlord controlled their property . Cooney argued that the tax was a violation of the Commerce Clause , in that Congress divested the tribes of that authority when they enacted 25 U.S.C. § 398c granting the states the right to impose a severance tax on reservation lands . Nordhaus , in arguing for the tribe , pointed out that there was first , no Congressional preemption of the tribal authority to tax , and that second , taxation was an inherent power of tribal sovereignty . Claiborne first distinguished Montana , noting that it dealt with non @-@ Indians on fee land owned by non @-@ Indians that happened to be within the boundaries of the reservation , something that was completely unrelated to the current case .
= = = Re @-@ argument = = =
Following the oral argument , the Chief Justice assigned Justice John Paul Stevens to write the majority opinion and Justice William J. Brennan , Jr. asked Justice Thurgood Marshall to write the minority or dissenting opinion , based on the initial count of the justices ' views . Since Justice Potter Stewart did not participate in the case , it would take a 5 @-@ 3 vote to overturn the decision of the Circuit Court . Stevens circulated a memorandum stating that his decision would be to invalidate the tax - Chief Justice Warren Burger and Justice William Rehnquist immediately stated they would join his opinion . Justice Byron White stated that he would wait and see what the dissent said , and then indicated he would join the dissent in part . It also appeared that Justice Harry Blackmun was also going to write a separate dissent , but he also stated that he would wait to see Marshall 's opinion . At this point , the tribe had the votes to win on a 4 @-@ 4 vote , but the Court was close to being adjourned for the summer recess . On July 3 , 1981 , the Court notified the parties to reargue the case on November 4 , 1981 .
In the meantime , the Court had changed . Justice Stewart retired , and President Ronald Reagan had appointed Sandra Day O 'Connor to replace him . During the re @-@ argument , Kellahin began with the fact the New Mexico was acquired via the Treaty of Guadalupe Hildalgo and that neither Spain or Mexico recognized Indian title and claimed that the tax was a veiled attempt to increase royalty payments . Cooney argued that there was no authority in statute for the Secretary of the Interior to approve a tribal tax and that the 1927 statute preempted the tribes authority in favor of the states being empowered to apply a severance tax on reservations . Nordhaus stated that the argument about the Treaty of Guadalupe Hildalgo did not apply , since no branch of the federal government had ever differentiated between these tribes and other tribes . The case was then submitted to the court .
= = = Majority opinion = = =
Justice Thurgood Marshall delivered the opinion of the court . Marshall noted that the tribe had a properly formed constitution , approved by the Secretary of the Interior , and that it included that the tribal council may impose taxes on non @-@ members doing business on the reservation . He noted that the tribe had executed oil and gas leases for about 69 % of the reservation and that the leases provided for royalties to be paid to the tribe . Marshall further noted that the tribe followed the proper process to enact a severance tax , obtaining the approval of the BIA as part of the process . The first argument of the oil companies that the power to tax only arose from the power of the tribe to exclude persons from the reservation . Marshall disagreed , stating that the power to tax is an inherent attribute of a tribe 's sovereignty . Tribal government includes the need to provide for services , not only to the tribe , but to anyone doing business on the reservation . He noted that the oil companies benefited from police protection and other governmental services . Citing Colville , he stated that the tribe 's interest in raising " revenues for essential governmental programs . . . is strongest when the revenues are derived from value generated on the reservation by activities involving the Tribes and when the taxpayer is the recipient of tribal services . " Marshall noted that Congress was able to remove this power , but had not done so , and had acknowledged in 1879 the power of the Cherokee Nation to tax non @-@ Indians .
Marshall further noted the oil companies ' arguments that a lease would prevent a governmental body from later imposing a tax would denigrate tribal sovereignty , and that tribal sovereignty was not limited by contractual arrangements . Only the Federal government has the authority to limit the powers of a tribal government , and a non @-@ Indian 's consent is not needed ( by contract or otherwise ) to exercise its sovereignty , to the contrary , the tribe may set conditions and limits on the non @-@ Indian as a matter of right . " To presume that a sovereign forever waives the right to exercise one of its sovereign powers unless it expressly reserves the right to exercise that power in a commercial agreement turns the concept of sovereignty on its head . "
Marshall then addressed the Commerce Clause issues , and the argument of the Solicitor General that the section of the Commerce Clause that dealt directly with Indians applied rather than the argument of the oil companies that the section dealing with interstate commerce applied . First , Marshall noted that the case history of the Indian Commerce Clause was to protect the tribes from state infringement , not to approve of Indian trade without constitutional restraint . He saw of no reason to begin now , especially since he did not find that the tribe 's severance tax did not have negative implications on interstate commerce . In a 6 @-@ 3 decision , Marshall found that the tribe had the right to impose such a tax on non @-@ Indians .
= = = Dissent = = =
Justice John Paul Stevens , joined by Chief Justice Burger and Justice Rehnquist , dissented from the majority opinion . Stevens noted that over its own members , a tribe has virtually unlimited sovereignty . Over non @-@ Indians , a tribe had no power , but many tribes were granted the authority to exclude non @-@ Indians from their reservations . Stevens also noted that the various statutes that were passed in regards to mineral rights and leases were silent as to the authority of a tribe to impose taxes . Therefore , authority must come from one of three sources , federal statutes , treaties , and inherent tribal sovereignty . He noted that in matters involving their own members , the tribe could act in manners that the federal government could not , such as discriminating against females in citizenship cases ( citing Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez , 436 U.S. 49 ( 1978 ) ) . Tribal authority over non @-@ members was always severely limited , in both a civil and criminal context , and he viewed both Oliphant and Montana as controlling in this area also . He viewed the authority to tax as merely an adjunct to the tribe 's right to exclude individuals from the reservation . Since the leases were entered into by the tribe voluntarily , the tribe cannot enact later taxes without the consent of the oil companies . Stevens would have reversed the Circuit Court .
= = Subsequent developments = =
Almost immediately after the decision , the BIA , on directions from Assistant Secretary of the Interior Kenneth Smith , proposed federal regulations that would have severely limited the ability of the tribes to impose severance taxes . Following numerous complaints from the tribes , the BIA abandoned that plan . The Jicarilla tribe has also purchased the Palmer Oil Company , becoming the first Indian tribe to have 100 % ownership of an oil production firm . The case is a landmark case in Native American case law , having been cited in approximately 400 law review articles as of July 2010 . Almost all tribes that have mineral deposits now impose a severance tax , based on the Merrion decision and has been used as the basis for subsequent decisions supporting tribal taxing authority . Numerous books also mention the case , whether in regards to tribal sovereignty or taxation .
|
= History of Stoke City F.C. =
Stoke City Football Club was formed in 1863 under the name of " Stoke Ramblers " by former pupils of Charterhouse School whilst they were apprentices at the North Staffordshire Railway . The club dropped the Ramblers from their name and in 1888 they were founding members of the Football League . In 1928 , the club 's name was changed for the final time to Stoke City Football Club when Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent was granted city status .
The club moved in 1997 to the Britannia Stadium , a 28 @,@ 383 all @-@ seater stadium ; having spent 119 years at the Victoria Ground . In the 2007 – 08 season , Stoke won promotion from the Football League Championship , the second tier of English football , and as of 2008 – 09 are playing in the top flight ( currently Premier League ) for the first time since the 1984 – 85 season , when they were relegated with a total of 17 points , a record low unsurpassed for 21 years . Stoke 's only major trophy was the 1972 Football League Cup , won when they beat Chelsea 2 – 1 in the final at Wembley Stadium before a crowd of 97 @,@ 852 . The club have also won the Football League Trophy twice , in 1992 and 2000 . In terms of league achievement the closest Stoke have come to winning the title was in the 1946 – 47 season where a final day defeat cost Stoke top spot .
= = 1863 – 1930 : Early years = =
It is claimed that Stoke Ramblers was formed in 1863 when former pupils of Charterhouse School formed a football club while apprentices at the North Staffordshire Railway works in Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent . However , Stoke Ramblers ' first documented match was five years later , on 17 October 1868 , at the club 's original home , the Victoria Cricket Club ground and any earlier history is based on supposition . Played against an E.W. May XV club , the 15 @-@ a @-@ side match ended in a 1 – 1 draw . In the game , the club 's first goal was scored by Henry Almond , Stoke 's founder and captain . Stoke played four further fixtures in 1868 , recording their first victory with a 2 – 0 win against Newcastle @-@ under @-@ Lyme . In 1875 , to cope with rising attendances , the club switched to a ground at Sweetings Field , not far from the Victoria Cricket Ground . At this time , the only fixtures were friendly matches ; this changed in 1877 when the Staffordshire Football Association was formed and created a new competition , the County Cup , which Stoke won in the inaugural season , beating Talke Rangers 1 – 0 in the final . In an earlier round , Stoke had recorded what is still the club 's record victory , a 26 – 0 triumph over Mow Cop . Stoke retained the County Cup in the following season with a 2 – 1 win over Cobridge and established themselves as the largest club in the area .
In 1878 , the club merged with Stoke Victoria Athletic Club and became known as Stoke Football Club . They moved from Sweetings Field to the Athletic Club ground , which soon became known as the Victoria Ground . It was around this time that the club adopted their red and white striped kit . Stoke entered the newly formed Birmingham Association Cup in 1881 , although they were beaten 8 – 0 by Aston Villa in the first round . In the 1882 – 1883 season , Stoke reached the final of the Staffordshire Senior Cup but were beaten 3 – 2 by West Bromwich Albion . The club decided to enter the FA Cup for the first time in the 1883 – 84 season ; the competition itself had been founded 12 years earlier .
The threat of a rival football association , the British FA , forced the Football Association to legalise professionalism in 1885 ; Stoke subsequently turned professional in August of that year . The club were defeated again in the FA Cup in 1885 – 86 after a replay defeat to Crewe Alexandra . The club 's first victory in the competition came in the 1886 – 87 season with a 10 – 0 win over Caernarfon Wanderers at the Victoria Ground .
Stoke became one of the twelve founding members of the Football League in 1888 . Stoke 's manager , Harry Lockett , represented the club at a meeting in London , where the league 's formation was discussed . Lockett played an instrumental role in its inception and became the league 's first secretary ; however he resigned from his role of manager in August 1890 , in order to concentrate on his league responsibilities . Stoke struggled in their first two seasons in the league , 1888 – 89 and 1889 – 90 , finishing in last place on both occasions . The club failed to secure re @-@ election to the league at the end of its second season , instead being replaced by Sunderland . As a consequence , Stoke started 1890 – 91 in the Football Alliance ; they finished the season as champions . The Football League was expanded to include fourteen clubs in 1891 – 92 , which ensured Stoke were re @-@ elected to the league , where they remained for the rest of the decade . In 1897 , Stoke appointed Horace Austerberry , who in 1899 became the first manager to lead the club to the semi @-@ final of the FA Cup .
Stoke suffered financial problems around 1900 , which ultimately led to the loss of the club 's Football League status in 1908 . " Historical Football Kits " says that , " In 1908 , having finished in mid @-@ table , Stoke went into liquidation and resigned from the League . Ironically this galvanised local businessmen , the clergy ( the Victoria Ground was owned by the Church of England ) and supporters to form a new limited company and purchase the old club 's assets . " The club moved to the Birmingham & District League after its demotion . In 1909 , the club opted to field two teams , one in the Birmingham & District League and the other in the Southern League ( West Division ) ; Stoke won the latter in their first year in the competition . Stoke continued to participate in both leagues until 1915 , when their application for election back into the Football League was approved . However , the outbreak of the First World War meant the league was suspended for four years ; it recommenced in August 1919 . During this time , Stoke entered the Lancashire Primary and Secondary leagues .
The club became owners of the Victoria Ground in 1919 . The Butler Street stand was constructed shortly afterward , increasing the overall capacity of the ground to 50 @,@ 000 . Following the restart of the Football League , Stoke achieved promotion from the Second Division in the 1921 – 22 season under the stewardship of Arthur Shallcross , although this was followed by relegation in the 1922 – 23 season . Unable to prevent the club 's bad form , Shallcross resigned in March 1923 . Tom Mather was appointed manager later in 1923 , although Stoke were unable to mount another promotion challenge . They were instead relegated from the Second Division four years later in the 1925 – 26 season . The club 's stay in Third Division North was brief , as Stoke won the championship during their first season in that league . In 1925 , Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent was granted city status , and this led the club to change its name to Stoke City Football Club in 1928 .
= = 1930 – 1960 = =
The 1930s saw the début of the club 's most celebrated player , Stanley Matthews . Matthews , who grew up in Hanley , was an apprentice at the club and made his first appearance , aged 17 , in March 1932 against Bury . By end of the decade , Matthews had established himself as an England international and one of the best footballers of his generation . Matthews won his first England cap in 1934 , making him the first Stoke player in 30 years to play for England . Stoke achieved promotion from the Second Division in the 1932 – 33 season as champions , but Matthews only featured in 15 games , although he did score his first goal for the club in a 3 – 1 win against local rivals Port Vale .
By 1934 , the club 's average attendance had risen to over 23 @,@ 000 , which allowed the club manager , Tom Mather , more transfer funds . Despite this , the core of the side consisted of young local players , such as Matthews , Tommy Sale and Freddie Steele . Mathers resigned from his post in May 1935 to take the managerial job at Newcastle United , ending his 12 @-@ year tenure . Bob McGrory was appointed as the club 's manager shortly afterward ; he had previously played for the club for 14 years . In the 1935 – 36 season , the club finished fourth in the Football League First Division , nine points adrift of champions Sunderland . This was followed by two successive mid @-@ table finishes , in 1936 – 37 and 1937 – 38 . The club recorded its record league win , 10 – 3 , over West Bromwich Albion in February 1937 , in which Steele scored five goals . In April of that year , the club achieved its largest league crowd — 51 @,@ 373 against Arsenal . Steele 's 33 league goals in the 1936 – 37 season remains a club record in 2007 .
By 1938 , rumours purported that Stanley Matthews wanted to leave Stoke to further his career . This led to a meeting at Kings Hall , attended by three thousand people with a further thousand outside . Matthews opted to stay with Stoke and helped the club to finish in seventh place in the 1938 – 39 season .
The outbreak of the Second World War prevented further progress as the league was suspended for six years . After resumption of the FA Cup , 33 fans died and 520 were injured during a sixth round away game against Bolton Wanderers when the crush barriers gave way on the terraces .
At this time , the side was predominantly composed of local players who had come through the club 's youth system , including Matthews , Sale , Steele and John McCue , all in their prime , as well as the newly discovered Neil Franklin , regarded as the country 's best centre @-@ half . In the 1946 – 47 season , Stoke mounted a serious title challenge : the club needed a win in their final game of the season to win the First Division title , but a 2 – 1 defeat to Sheffield United gave the title to Liverpool . Stanley Matthews left the club three games before the end of the 1946 – 47 season to join Blackpool at the age of 32 for a fee of £ 11 @,@ 500 . The team subsequently failed to mount a title challenge in the following two seasons , 1947 – 48 and 1948 – 49 , finishing 15th and 11th respectively .
The 1950s did not start well for the club ; having avoided relegation in the 1950 – 51 and 1951 – 52 seasons , Stoke succumbed in 1952 – 53 , finishing second from bottom . Bob McGrory resigned as the club 's manager in February 1952 after 17 years in the role . His successor , Frank Taylor , consolidated the club 's position in the Second Division but was unable to mount a sustained challenge for promotion , although Stoke came close in the 1954 – 55 season , missing by two points . Taylor 's failure to deliver promotion led to his dismissal in June 1960 , after a 17th @-@ place finish in the 1959 – 60 season .
= = 1960 – 1977 : The Waddington years = =
By 1960 Stoke were struggling to attract supporters to the Victoria Ground , with the average attendance dropping below 10 @,@ 000 for the first time in 40 years . Tony Waddington was appointed as the club 's manager in June 1960 . He joined the club in 1952 as a coach , before being promoted to assistant manager in 1957 . In his first season in charge , 1960 – 61 , Stoke finished 18th in the Second Division . Crowds were still low ; a match against Preston North End attracted 8 @,@ 409 in 1961 . However , Waddington pulled off a significant coup by enticing Stanley Matthews — now 46 years old — back to the club , 14 years after he had left . A crowd of 35 @,@ 974 witnessed Matthews ' return to the club , only a fortnight after the poor crowd against Preston . The return of Matthews helped Stoke to rise to eighth position in 1961 – 62 . Promotion was achieved in the next season , when Stoke finished as champions . In their first season back in the First Division , 1963 – 64 , Waddington guided Stoke to a mid @-@ table finish . Matthews remained influential , as he helped the club to the Football League Cup final in 1964 , although this ended in defeat to Leicester over two legs .
Waddington relied upon experience ; Dennis Viollet , Jackie Mudie , Roy Vernon , Maurice Setters and Jimmy McIlroy were players signed in the later stages of their careers . Matthews was awarded a knighthood for services to football in the 1965 New Year 's Honours list . This was followed by his 701st , and final , league appearance for the club against Fulham in February 1965 , shortly after his 50th birthday . It ended a career spanning 33 years , including 19 years ' service to his home town club .
Gordon Banks , England 's 1966 World Cup winning goalkeeper , joined Stoke from Leicester in 1967 for £ 52 @,@ 000 . Regarded as the best goalkeeper in the world , Banks proved to be a shrewd signing for Waddington as he helped the club maintain stability in the First Division . However , Banks was forced to quit top @-@ level football in 1972 , after losing an eye in a road accident .
The club won its first significant trophy on 4 March 1972 , in the League Cup Final . Stoke beat favourites Chelsea 2 – 1 in the final at Wembley Stadium before a crowd of 97 @,@ 852 spectators . Before this victory , Stoke had progressed through 11 games to reach the final . This included four games with West Ham United in the semi @-@ final ; the two @-@ legged match was played twice . Stoke fared well in the FA Cup ; the club progressed to the semi @-@ final stage in both the 1970 – 71 and 1971 – 72 seasons . However , on both occasions Stoke lost to Arsenal in a replay .
Waddington was presented with a dilemma as both George Eastham and Peter Dobing retired not long after the club 's League Cup win . Waddington responded by paying £ 240 @,@ 000 to Chelsea for the services of Alan Hudson in early 1974 . This was followed by Geoff Salmons ' arrival from Sheffield United for £ 160 @,@ 000 , in the same year . Waddington later paid a world record fee for a goalkeeper , £ 325 @,@ 000 , to sign Peter Shilton from Leicester City . The new personnel brought added impetus to Waddington 's side , and Stoke were close to winning the League title in 1974 – 75 , but an end of season slump led to a fifth @-@ place finish , four points off the champions , Derby .
The 1970s also saw Stoke compete at European Level for the first time in its history . Stoke qualified for the UEFA Cup in 1972 – 73 as a result of their League Cup triumph . In the first round , Stoke played Kaiserslautern of Germany : Stoke won the first leg 3 – 1 at the Victoria Ground , with a crowd of over 22 @,@ 000 . However , the club lost the second leg 4 – 0 , therefore losing 5 – 3 on aggregate . Stoke qualified for the UEFA Cup two years later , due to their fifth @-@ place finish in the First Division in the 1973 – 74 season . In the 1974 – 75 competition , Stoke were again knocked out at the first stage . Stoke drew both legs against Dutch side Ajax , 1 – 1 and 0 – 0 respectively , but went out due to the away goals rule .
The Butler Stand roof was blown off in a storm in January 1976 . The ground damage meant the club 's next home game against Middlesbrough had to be played at Vale Park , the home of local rivals Port Vale . The repair bill , in the region of £ 250 @,@ 000 , put the club in financial trouble , which was eased by the sale of Alan Hudson , Mike Pejic and Jimmy Greenhoff for a combined sum of £ 440 @,@ 000 . With the team depleted , relegation proved inevitable in the 1976 – 77 season . Waddington , after a spell of 17 years in charge , left the club after a 1 – 0 home defeat in March 1977 .
= = 1977 – 1997 = =
George Eastham , who had previously been Waddington 's assistant , was appointed as manager in March 1977 , but the club 's slide into the Second Division in 1976 – 77 season proved unstoppable . Eastham did not last long , leaving in January 1978 after only 10 months in charge . The club 's misery was compounded by a defeat to non @-@ league Blyth Spartans in the FA Cup shortly afterwards . Alan Durban , arriving from Shrewsbury Town , was selected as the club 's new manager in February 1978 . Durban achieved promotion to the First Division in his first full season , 1978 – 79 , with a third @-@ place finish . After consolidating the club 's position in the First Division , Durban left for Sunderland in 1981 .
Richie Barker , Durban 's successor , was appointed manager in 1981 . He signed Mickey Thomas from Brighton and Hove Albion and Mark Chamberlain from Port Vale , as he set about building a side for the 1982 – 83 season . Thomas was signed for £ 200 @,@ 000 and made over 60 appearances for the club , but was sold to Chelsea for £ 75 @,@ 000 in 1984 . Winger Chamberlain , a £ 135 @,@ 00 signing , proved successful as he made eight appearances for England during his stay at Stoke . Barker 's spell in charge was short @-@ lived ; he was sacked in his second season , 1983 – 84 . The club 's new manager , Bill Asprey , decided to bring back veteran Alan Hudson , and the decision paid off as Stoke improved during the second half of the 1983 – 84 season and avoided relegation on the final day .
The next season , referred to as The Holocaust Season by fans , proved to be disastrous . Stoke finished the season with only 17 points and just three wins , which would be the lowest points total in the top flight of English football ( under the " three points for a win " system ) for 21 years until the record was broken by Sunderland in the 2005 – 06 season . Mick Mills was appointed player @-@ manager for the 1985 – 86 season , following Asprey 's departure in April 1985 due to ill health . His first task was to consolidate following the club 's relegation in the previous season , which he achieved with a mid @-@ table finish in the Second Division . The team reached fourth place in 1986 – 87 , his second season in charge , including a 7 – 2 win over Leeds United , but the team 's form tailed off towards the end of the season , culminating in an eighth @-@ place finish . Mills was unable to sustain a challenge for promotion and was sacked in November 1989 , following a poor start to the 1989 – 90 season after spending £ 1m on players . His successor , Alan Ball , became the club 's fifth manager in 10 years . Peter Coates became the club 's chairman in 1989 , following numerous changes of chairmanship during the 1980s .
Ball struggled in his first season in charge , 1989 – 90 , and his Stoke side were relegated to the third tier of English football after finishing bottom of the Second Division . The start of the 1990 – 91 season in the Third Division marked the first time Stoke had played at this level in 63 years . Ball kept his job for the start of this campaign but departed in February 1991 in the midst of an indifferent season that saw Stoke finish 15th . This remains the club 's lowest league position , as of 2007 .
Ball 's successor , Lou Macari , was appointed in May 1991 , prior to the start of the 1991 – 92 season . The improvement was immediate , as Stoke narrowly missed out on promotion in his first season in charge , finishing fourth in the Third Division . He also clinched a trophy for the club ; the Associate Members ' Cup ( at the time known as the Autoglass trophy for sponsorship reasons ) was won with a 1 – 0 victory against Stockport County at Wembley ; Mark Stein scored the only goal of the game . The following season , 1992 – 93 , promotion was achieved from the third tier , now known as Division Two , with Stoke finishing as league champions . Stein , a £ 100 @,@ 000 purchase from Oxford United , scored 26 goals during the season as Stoke amassed a total of 93 points . Macari left in October 1993 to take over as manager of Scottish side Celtic , and Stein also departed in a £ 1.5m move to Chelsea .
Joe Jordan 's tenure in charge was short ; he left the club less than a year after joining . Following Jordan 's departure , Stoke opted to reappoint Lou Macari only 12 months after he had left . Despite the optimism surrounding his return , only a mid @-@ table finish was attained in the 1994 – 95 season . The 1995 – 96 season started poorly , but the signing of striker Mike Sheron turned around the club 's campaign . Stoke eventually finished fourth but were defeated in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final by Leicester City . The following season , 1996 – 97 , saw Mark Stein return from Chelsea on loan , partnering Sheron in attack . The season started well , with Stoke in fourth place at Christmas , but a poor second half of the season saw the club drop to an eventual 12th place . Sheron was sold in 1997 for a club record fee of £ 2.5m. Macari left the club at the end of the season , his last game in charge the final league game at the Victoria Ground in a match against West Bromwich Albion .
= = 1997 – 2008 : The Britannia Stadium = =
The 1997 – 98 season saw Stoke move to its new ground , the 28 @,@ 000 all @-@ seater Britannia Stadium , after 119 years at the Victoria Ground , the longest time spent at a ground by any team in Britain . Chic Bates , Macari 's assistant , was appointed manager for the club 's inaugural season in the new ground . Bates struggled as his side slipped from a play @-@ off place towards the relegation zone , with the club 's bad run culminating in a 7 – 0 home defeat to Birmingham City . Bates was replaced by Chris Kamara in January 1998 . Kamara could not improve the club 's fortunes , and he left in April . Alan Durban , Stoke 's manager two decades earlier , took charge for the remainder of season . Durban was unable to keep the club up , with a 23rd @-@ place finish consigning Stoke to relegation from Division One .
Brian Little , formerly manager of Aston Villa , took charge for the 1998 – 99 season , and Stoke began the season impressively , holding first place until December with six straight wins . The team 's form tailed off in the latter stages of the season , leading to Little 's departure at the end of the season . His successor , Gary Megson , was only in the job for four months . Megson was forced to depart following a takeover by Stoke Holding , an Icelandic consortium that purchased a 66 percent share in Stoke City F.C. for £ 6.6m. The club 's new owners appointed the club 's first foreign manager , Icelander Gudjon Thordarson , in November 1999 .
Stoke won the Football League Trophy in the 1999 – 2000 season with a 2 – 1 win over Bristol City in April 2000 before a crowd of 75 @,@ 057 at Wembley . Disappointment followed a month later , as Stoke were defeated against Gillingham in the play @-@ off semi @-@ finals , consigning themselves to another year in Division Two . They reached the play @-@ offs again in the 2000 – 01 season with a fifth @-@ place finish , but this time Walsall halted Stoke 's progress at the semi @-@ final stage . Thordarson achieved promotion at the third attempt in 2001 – 02 ; another fifth @-@ place finish ensured a play @-@ off spot . Cardiff City were defeated in the semi @-@ final before a 2 – 0 win against Brentford at the Millennium Stadium secured promotion . Despite achieving the goal of promotion , Thordarson was sacked by Gunnar Gíslason , only five days after the club won the play @-@ off final . A campaign calling for Thordarson 's reinstatement was organised by fans , but it proved unsuccessful .
Steve Cotterill was drafted in as Thordarson 's replacement before the start of the 2002 – 03 season . Cotterill quit in October 2002 , after only four months in charge , to take the role of Howard Wilkinson 's assistant at Sunderland . The club were close to unveiling George Burley as their new manager after Cotterill 's departure ; however , a last minute charge of heart led the former Ipswich manager to decline the club 's offer . The club acted swiftly and Tony Pulis was appointed as Stoke 's new manager shortly afterwards . Pulis steered Stoke clear of relegation with a 1 – 0 win over Reading on the final day of the season that kept the club in the Championship . The club 's position in the league was consolidated in 2003 – 04 . Pulis was sacked at the end of the 2004 – 05 season , following a disagreement between himself and the club 's owners . Dutch manager Johan Boskamp was named as Pulis ' successor on 29 June 2005 , only a day after Pulis was sacked . Boskamp broke the club 's transfer record in signing Sambegou Bangoura for a fee in the region of £ 1m . Another significant addition was the signing of Belgium international Carl Hoefkens , who subsequently won the Fans ' Player of the Year Award for the 2005 – 06 season . Despite his spending on new players , Boskamp 's side was inconsistent and only a mid @-@ table finish was achieved . The season was marred by a feud between Boskamp and the club 's director of football , John Rudge , which escalated to the point where Boskamp threatened to quit . Boskamp left at the end of the 2005 – 06 season , amidst a takeover by former chairman Peter Coates .
On 23 May 2006 , Coates completed his takeover of Stoke City , marking the end of Gunnar Gíslason 's chairmanship of the club . Coates chose former manager Tony Pulis as Boskamp 's successor in June 2006 . Pulis took Stoke close to a play @-@ off place , however an eventual eighth @-@ place finish was achieved in the 2006 – 07 season . In June 2007 , chairman Peter Coates purchased the Britannia Stadium outright from the City Council for a fee in the region of £ 6m .
= = 2008 – present : Promotion to the Premier League = =
On 4 May 2008 , Stoke City won promotion to the top flight of English football after a 23 @-@ year absence , and as of 2008 – 09 are playing in the Premier League for the first time . On 18 July 2008 , the club broke their transfer record to purchase striker Dave Kitson for £ 5 @.@ 5 million from Reading . The following weekend , the Britannia Stadium hosted its first ever top @-@ flight game , against Aston Villa , with a home win courtesy of Mamady Sidibe 's injury @-@ time goal from a Rory Delap throw @-@ in , giving Stoke City their first ever Premier League points . The club went on to record a 12th @-@ place finish in their first season back in the Premier League . A much cited aspect of the team 's style of play has been the utilisation of Rory Delap 's long throw to create goal @-@ scoring opportunities . Pulis signed Robert Huth and Tuncay Şanlı from Middlesbrough for a combined fee in the region of £ 10 million , in a bid to establish the club in the Premier League prior to the 2009 – 2010 season . This feat was achieved comfortably as the club finished in 11th place , thereby securing a third season in the Premier League . Pulis bolstered his squad for 2010 – 11 season with the club record £ 8 million signing of Kenwyne Jones .
A 3 – 0 win over West Bromwich Albion in the 2010 – 11 season gave Stoke two new records : The largest away win in the Premier League and largest top division away win since 1982 and also the first time since the 1983 – 84 season Stoke have won three top @-@ flight matches in a row . Manager Pulis hailed the new records as " A Fantastic Achievement " . For the second season running Stoke made it to the quarter final of the FA Cup after overcoming Cardiff City , Wolverhampton Wanderers and Brighton & Hove Albion . They met West Ham United in the quarters and won 2 – 1 thus earning a place in the FA Cup Semi @-@ final for only the fourth time in their history . It was also be their first trip to the New Wembley Stadium when they took on Bolton Wanderers for a place in the final . Stoke comfortably beat Bolton 5 – 0 clinching a first FA Cup Final appearance in their 148 @-@ year history . However , they lost the final 1 – 0 to Manchester City . By reaching the final , Stoke qualified for the 2011 – 12 UEFA Europa League . Despite a strong season , with an 8th @-@ place finish in sight , defeat at home to Wigan Athletic in the final game meant that Stoke finished 13th in the 2010 – 11 season .
On 28 July 2011 , Stoke beat Hadjuk Split 2 – 0 over two legs in the third qualifying round of the Europa League . It was Stoke 's first appearance in Europe in 37 years . Stoke would go on progress past FC Thun in the Play @-@ off round gaining entrance into the group stage where Stoke were handed a tough draw against Besiktas , Dynamo Kyiv and Maccabi Tel Aviv . Stoke finished second in the group and were handed a glamour tie against Spanish giants Valencia in the round of 32 , following the draw manager Pulis stated that he is relishing the prospect of taking on one of Europe 's top clubs . Stoke lost both legs 1 – 0 to end their European campaign . Pulis received criticism from some supporters after he fielded a weakened team in the second leg . Stoke ended the 2011 – 12 season in 14th position in what was perceived to be a disappointing season . The 2012 – 13 season saw Stoke make little progress , finishing in 13th position . Pulis subsequently left the club by mutual consent on 21 May 2013 .
He was replaced by another Welsh manager , Mark Hughes . Hughes led Stoke to a ninth @-@ place finish in 2013 – 14 , their highest position in the Premier League and best finish since 1974 – 75 . Stoke again finished in ninth position in 2014 – 15 , which ended with a 6 – 1 victory against Liverpool . Despite breaking their transfer record twice ( on Xherdan Shaqiri and then Giannelli Imbula ) , in 2015 – 16 , Stoke did not make any progression and finished in ninth position for a third season running .
= = Books = =
Lowe , Simon ( 2007 ) . Match of My Life : Stoke City . Know the Score Books . ISBN 1 @-@ 905449 @-@ 55 @-@ 0 .
Matthews , Tony ( 1997 ) . A @-@ Z of Stoke City . The Breedon Books Publishing Company Limited . ISBN 1 @-@ 85983 @-@ 100 @-@ 1 .
Matthews , Tony ( 2008 ) . The Legends of Stoke City . Breedon Books Publishing Company Limited . ISBN 1 @-@ 85983 @-@ 653 @-@ 4 .
Smith , Denis ( 2008 ) . Denis Smith : Just One of Seven . Know the Score Books . ISBN 1 @-@ 84818 @-@ 504 @-@ 9 .
Thomas , Mickey ( 2008 ) . Kickups , Hiccups , Lockups : The Autobiography . Century . ISBN 1 @-@ 84605 @-@ 523 @-@ 7 .
|
= William Etty =
William Etty ( 10 March 1787 – 13 November 1849 ) was an English artist best known for his history paintings containing nude figures . He was the first significant British painter of nudes and still lifes . Born in York , he left school at the age of 12 to become an apprentice printer in Hull . He completed his apprenticeship seven years later and moved to London , where in 1807 he joined the Royal Academy Schools . There he studied under Thomas Lawrence and trained by copying works by other artists . Etty earned respect at the Royal Academy of Arts for his ability to paint realistic flesh tones , but had little commercial or critical success in his early years in London .
Etty 's Cleopatra 's Arrival in Cilicia , painted in 1821 , featured numerous nudes and was exhibited to great acclaim . Its success prompted several further depictions of historical scenes with nudes . All but one of the works he exhibited at the Royal Academy in the 1820s contained at least one nude figure , and he acquired a reputation for indecency . Despite this , he was commercially successful and critically acclaimed , and in 1828 was elected a Royal Academician , at the time the highest honour available to an artist . Although he was one of the most respected artists in the country he continued to study at life classes throughout his life , a practice considered inappropriate by his fellow artists . In the 1830s Etty began to branch out into the more lucrative but less respected field of portraiture , and later became the first English painter to paint significant still lifes . He continued to paint both male and female nudes , which caused severe criticism and condemnation from some elements of the press .
An extremely shy man , Etty rarely socialised and never married . From 1824 until his death he lived with his niece Betsy ( Elizabeth Etty ) . Even in London he retained a keen interest in his native York , and was instrumental in the establishment of the town 's first art school and the campaign to preserve York city walls . While he never formally converted from his Methodist faith , he was deeply attached to the Roman Catholic Church and was one of the few non @-@ Catholics to attend the 1838 opening of Augustus Pugin 's chapel for St Mary 's College , Oscott .
Etty was prolific and commercially successful throughout the 1840s , but the quality of his work deteriorated throughout this period . As his health progressively worsened he retired to York in 1848 . He died in 1849 , shortly after a major retrospective exhibition . In the immediate aftermath of his death his works became highly collectable and sold for large sums . Changing tastes meant his work later fell out of fashion , and imitators soon abandoned his style . By the end of the 19th century the value of all of his works had fallen below their original prices , and outside his native York he remained little known throughout the 20th century . Etty 's inclusion in Tate Britain 's landmark Exposed : The Victorian Nude exhibition in 2001 – 02 , the high @-@ profile restoration of his The Sirens and Ulysses in 2010 and a major retrospective of his work at the York Art Gallery in 2011 – 12 led to renewed interest in his work .
= = Background = =
In the late 18th and early 19th centuries , British painting was strongly influenced by Joshua Reynolds ( 1723 – 1792 ) , the first president of the Royal Academy of Arts ( RA ) . Reynolds believed the purpose of art was " to conceive and represent their subjects in a poetical manner , not confined to mere matter of fact " , and that artists should emulate Renaissance painters such as Rubens , Paolo Veronese and Raphael and make their subjects close to perfection . After Reynolds 's death his Discourses on Art , which extolled the notion of an artist 's duty to paint idealised subjects , remained Britain 's primary theoretical work on art . The Royal Academy dominated British art , with the annual Royal Academy Summer Exhibition the most important event in the calendar . The Academy controlled the prestigious Academy art schools , an effective monopoly on the training of new artists , and preoccupied with technique . While painters such as J. M. W. Turner ( a strong supporter of the Royal Academy ) were beginning to move away from the influence of the Old Masters to create uniquely British styles , they adhered to principles established by Reynolds .
In the opinions then current at the Royal Academy and among critics , the most prestigious form of painting was considered history painting , in which an artwork illustrated a story . It was thought that such works enabled British artists to show themselves as equal or even superior to those European artists active at the time , as well as to the Old Masters . Other forms of painting such as portraiture and landscapes were considered lesser styles , as they did not give the artist as much opportunity to illustrate a story but instead were simply depictions of reality . Nonetheless , even the most eminent artists would often devote time to portrait painting , as portraits were generally commissioned by the subjects or their families , providing a guaranteed source of income to the artist ; two of the first three presidents of the Royal Academy ( Joshua Reynolds and Sir Thomas Lawrence ) had made their names as portrait painters . Owing to a lack of patrons willing to commission history paintings , by the early 19th century history painting in England was in serious decline .
= = Childhood and apprenticeship ( 1787 – 1805 ) = =
William Etty was born in Feasegate , York , on 10 March 1787 , the seventh child of Matthew and Esther Etty , née Calverley . Although Matthew Etty was a successful miller and baker , he bore a large family and was never financially secure . Esther Calverley 's brother unexpectedly inherited the title of Squire of Hayton in 1745 , nine years before Esther 's birth , but disowned her following her marriage to Matthew as he considered him beneath her station . The family were strict Methodists and the young William was raised as such , although he disliked the spartan appearance of the Methodist chapel and liked to attend his Anglican parish church or York Minster when able .
The young William showed artistic promise from an early age , drawing in chalk on the wooden floor of his father 's shop . From the age of four he attended local schools in York , before being sent at the age of 10 to Mr. Hall 's Academy , a boarding school in nearby Pocklington , which he left two years later . On 8 October 1798 , at the age of 11 , William was apprenticed as a printer to Robert Peck of Hull , publisher of the Hull Packet . While Etty found the work exhausting and unpleasant , he continued to draw in his spare time , and his job gave him the opportunity to broaden his education by reading books . It seems likely that it was working as a printer that led him to realise for the first time that it was possible for someone to make a living drawing and painting .
On 23 October 1805 Etty 's seven @-@ year indenture with Peck expired , an event greeted with great happiness as he intensely disliked the job . He remained in Hull for a further three weeks as a journeyman printer . He moved to London " with a few pieces of chalk @-@ crayons in colours " , to stay with his older brother Walter in Lombard Street . Walter was working for the successful gold lace manufacturer Bodley , Etty and Bodley , in which their father 's brother , also named William Etty , was partner . He arrived in London on 23 November 1805 , with the intention of gaining admission to the Royal Academy Schools .
= = Training ( 1806 – 21 ) = =
Applicants to the Royal Academy Schools were expected to pass stringent ability tests , and on his arrival in London Etty set about practicing , drawing " from prints and from nature " . Aware that all successful applicants were expected to produce high quality drawings of classical sculptures , he spent much time " in a plaster @-@ cast shop , kept by Gianelli , in that lane near to Smithfield , immortalised by Dr. Johnson 's visit to see ' The Ghost ' there " , which he described as " My first academy " .
Etty obtained a letter of introduction from Member of Parliament Richard Sharp to painter John Opie . He visited Opie with this letter , and showed him a drawing he had done from a cast of Cupid and Psyche . Impressed by the quality of his work , Opie in turn recommended Etty to Henry Fuseli , who accepted Etty into the Royal Academy Schools as a probationer . Having satisfactorily completed drawings from casts of Laocoön and " the Torso of Michelangelo " , Etty was accepted as a full student on 15 January 1807 .
Shortly after Etty joined the RA , four major lectures on painting were delivered by John Opie in February and March 1807 . In them , Opie said that painting " brings into view the heroes , sages , and beauties of the earliest periods , the inhabitants of the most distant regions , and fixes and perpetuates the forms of the present day ; it presents to us the heroic deeds , the remarkable events , and the interesting examples of piety , patriotism and humanity of all ages ; and according to the nature of the action depicted , fills us with innocent pleasure , excites our abhorrence of crimes , moves us to piety , or inspires us with elevated sentiments " . Opie rejected Reynolds 's tradition of idealising the subjects of paintings , observing that he did not believe " that the flesh of heroes is less like flesh than that of other men " . Opie advised his students to pay great attention to Titian , whose use of colour he considered unsurpassed , advising students that " colouring is the sunshine of the art , that clothes poverty in smiles [ ... ] and doubles the charms of beauty . Opie 's opinions made a deep impression on the young Etty , and he would hold these views throughout his career .
= = = Thomas Lawrence = = =
By this time , Etty had developed a great admiration for the portrait painter Thomas Lawrence , and hoped to learn from him . After having arranged an introduction via Henry Fuseli , Etty 's uncle William met with Lawrence and paid him 100 guineas ( about £ 7 @,@ 500 in 2016 terms ) in return for his accepting the younger William as a private pupil for a year .
Under this arrangement Etty did not receive formal tuition from Lawrence . Instead , Lawrence set aside a room in his attic for Etty to copy from his pictures , and agreed to answer Etty 's questions when he was in a position to do so . Etty found the experience of trying to copy Lawrence 's work extremely frustrating , and in his own words " was ready to run away " , but he persisted and eventually taught himself to copy Lawrence 's work very closely . Although Etty found his year with Lawrence a frustrating experience , his development of the ability to copy other works served him in good stead in future when he came to copy elements from the Old Masters .
Once he had completed his year with Lawrence , Etty returned to the Royal Academy , drawing at the life class and copying other paintings , as well as undertaking commissions and doing occasional work for Lawrence to earn money . He was unsuccessful in all the Academy 's competitions , and every painting he submitted for the Summer Exhibition was rejected .
In 1809 Etty 's uncle William , with whom he had been staying , died . Etty was forced into an inconvenient transient lifestyle , moving from lodging to lodging . However , Etty had been left a significant sum in his uncle 's will , and his brother Walter now took over their uncle 's position at Bodley , Etty and Bodley , giving Walter the means to support the younger William 's work financially . In 1811 Etty 's persistence paid off . He finally had two of his paintings accepted for exhibition — Telemachus Rescues Antiope from the Fury of the Wild Boar at the Royal Academy Summer Exhibition , and Sappho at the British Institution . The latter sold for the respectable sum of 25 guineas ( about £ 1 @,@ 600 in 2016 terms ) . Although from now on Etty would have at least one work accepted for the Summer Exhibition each year , he had little commercial success and generated little interest over the next few years . By 1814 , Etty was becoming widely respected at the RA for his use of colour and in particular his ability to produce realistic flesh tones .
= = = France and Italy = = =
At the time , there were no public art galleries in England with permanent collections . In 1816 , in the face of his continued lack of success , Etty decided to spend a year in Italy to study the artworks held in the great Italian collections . He had made a brief visit to France in early 1815 , but other than this had never been abroad . The 28 @-@ year @-@ old Etty had fallen in love , and fretted about the difficulties a potential marriage would cause , and whether it would be right to travel to further his career even though it would mean taking his new wife to a foreign country . In the event , the woman rejected him , and he set out for the Continent in early September 1816 .
Etty landed in Dieppe , and made his way to Paris via Rouen . Although he admitted to finding France a beautiful country , he was unhappy throughout his stay there , suffering from severe homesickness ; shortly after his arrival in Paris he wrote to his cousin Martha Bodley that " I hope I shall like Italy better than Paris , or I think I shall not feel resolution to stop a year . If I don 't , I shall content myself with seeing what I think worth while ; and then return . " He travelled onwards via Geneva , but found Switzerland frustrating ; although he had brought his own tea @-@ making equipment with him , in the remoter mountain villages he found it difficult to obtain milk for his tea . Travelling through the Simplon Pass to Piedmont revived his spirits somewhat ; he found the variety of colour in the landscapes of northern Italy fascinating , and in late September arrived in Florence .
Despite the grandeur of Florence , Etty was severely depressed , writing to his brother on 5 October that " I feel so lonely , it is impossible for me to be happy " and complaining of " the vermin in the bed , the dirt and the filth " which he considered " such as no Englishman can have any idea of , who has not witnessed it " . His emotional state made it impossible for him to study , and within a month of his arrival in Italy , he began the journey back to England , stopping in Paris on 26 October 1816 . In Paris he enrolled in the atelier of Jean @-@ Baptiste Regnault but found the atmosphere too rowdy and the studio too full of Frenchmen , and he left after a week . While in Paris he also attended the Académie des Beaux @-@ Arts , and amassed a large quantity of prints from the art shops of Paris . Still homesick , Etty left Paris , returning to London in November .
Notwithstanding his unhappiness , Etty appears to have developed as a painter during his travels . For the first time , his two paintings exhibited at the 1817 Summer Exhibition ( Bacchanalians : a Sketch and Cupid and Euphrosyne ) attracted a favourable review in the press , in this case from William Paulet Carey writing in the Literary Gazette who considered Bacchanalians " a fine classical invention " and Cupid as showing " splendid promise " . Carey was later to take great pride in being the first critic to recognise Etty 's potential , and continued to champion him throughout his career . In 1818 Etty entered a copy of Damiano Mazza 's The Rape of Ganymede — at the time thought to be by Titian — in one of the Royal Academy 's painting competitions . Easily the most accomplished entry in the competition , Etty was due to win until two of the other contestants complained that he had technically breached RA rules by briefly removing the painting from Academy premises to work on it at home ; they further complained that Etty was technically a professional artist and thus ineligible for the contest despite his still being a student . Etty was disqualified from the competition , but the high quality of his work further raised his prestige within the Academy . Although his income was still low and he was surviving on gifts from his brother , at some point by 1818 Etty hired an assistant , George Henry Franklin .
= = = = The Coral Finder = = = =
At the 1820 Summer Exhibition , Etty exhibited two paintings : Drunken Barnaby and The Coral Finder : Venus and her Youthful Satellites Arriving at the Isle of Paphos . Drunken Barnaby is a scene of a drunken man being carried away from an inn while a barmaid looks on ; the barmaid is shown as sturdily built , plump and rosy @-@ cheeked , a style in which Etty would continue to paint women throughout his career . The Coral Finder is strongly inspired by Titian , and depicts Venus Victrix lying nude in a golden boat , surrounded by scantily clad attendants . It was Etty 's first use of the combination of nude figures and mythological or literary references for which he was to become famous .
The Coral Finder was sold at exhibition to piano manufacturer Thomas Tomkinson for £ 30 ( about £ 2 @,@ 200 in 2016 terms ) . Sir Francis Freeling had admired The Coral Finder at its exhibition , and on learning that it had already been sold he commissioned Etty to paint a similar picture on a more ambitious scale , for a fee of 200 guineas ( about £ 15 @,@ 100 in 2016 terms ) . Etty had for some time been musing on the possibility of a painting of Cleopatra , and took the opportunity provided by Freeling to paint a picture of her based loosely on the composition of The Coral Finder .
= = Recognition and travels ( 1821 – 23 ) = =
Cleopatra 's Arrival in Cilicia ( also known as The Triumph of Cleopatra ) is based loosely on Plutarch 's Life of Antony and Shakespeare 's Antony and Cleopatra , in which the Queen of Egypt travels to Tarsus in Cilicia aboard a grand ship to cement an alliance with the Roman general Mark Antony . While superficially similar to The Coral Finder , Cleopatra is more closely related to the style of Regnault , with its intentionally cramped and crowded composition . The individual figures are out of proportion to each other and the ship , while many figures are tightly positioned within a small section of the painting . As well as from Regnault , the work borrows elements from Titian , Rubens and classical sculpture .
When exhibited in 1821 , Cleopatra was generally extremely well received , and considered among the finest paintings of its kind , and its success inspired Etty to paint more works in a similar vein . The exhibition of Cleopatra , coupled with the exhibition in January 1822 of A Sketch from One of Gray 's Odes ( Youth on the Prow ) which also depicted nude figures on a boat , drew criticism of Etty for his treatment of female nudes . The Times in early 1822 chided Etty , remarking that " We take this opportunity of advising Mr. Etty , who got some reputation for painting " Cleopatra 's Galley " , not to be seduced into a style which can gratify only the most vicious taste . Naked figures , when painted with the purity of Raphael , may be endured : but nakedness without purity is offensive and indecent , and on Mr. Etty 's canvass is mere dirty flesh . " Unlike nude studies by other artists of the period , Etty made no attempt to idealise the female nudes in Cleopatra , but instead painted them in realistic poses and realistic flesh tones . Possibly alarmed by the criticism , Freeling persuaded Etty to paint clothes onto some of the figures in Cleopatra , although in 1829 he allowed Etty to return the figures to the state in which he had originally painted them .
The success of Cleopatra notwithstanding , Etty remained a student at the RA and continued with a rigorous programme of study . Now in his mid 30s , he felt that for his work to progress beyond mere competence he needed a chance to study those European masters whose styles he most admired , despite his unpleasant experiences the last time he left England .
= = = Travels in Europe = = =
Recalling his homesickness and loneliness the last time he had ventured abroad , for his next foreign trip Etty travelled in the company of Richard Evans , who had been a fellow student of Thomas Lawrence . Despite warnings that Italy would be uncomfortably hot , the two men set out on 23 June 1822 with the aim of reaching Rome . Crossing to France by means of the recently developed steamboat , they arrived in Paris on 26 June . They stayed in Paris for two weeks , visiting Versailles and the city 's public art galleries ; they also visited the much @-@ reduced remaining exhibits of the Louvre . The Louvre was hosting an exhibition of modern French painting at the time , at which Etty felt a great dislike for the quality of portraiture in France , but he was nonetheless greatly impressed by the permanent collections , in particular Rubens 's Marie de ' Medici cycle , elements of which he would later reuse in many of his own works .
Travelling onwards through Dijon and Switzerland , Etty and Evans passed over the Simplon Pass and on to Milan , where they viewed Leonardo 's The Last Supper and visited the Brera Gallery . After a sixteen @-@ day cabriolet ride through the gruelling heat of an unusually hot summer , the two men reached Florence , where they stayed for two days visiting the city 's galleries . On 10 August , the two men finally reached Rome .
Although Etty was somewhat disappointed by Rome , comparing the architecture of St. Peter 's unfavourably with that of St. Paul 's , he was highly impressed with Michelangelo 's " almost Venetian " use of colour in the Sistine Chapel . He also met with Antonio Canova , to whom he had been recommended by Lawrence , shortly before Canova 's death . Rome was at the time suffering badly from malaria , and after two weeks Etty decided to leave for Naples . Evans had contracted malaria and decided to stay in Rome , and so Etty travelled to Naples alone and returned to Rome in the company of actor William Macready , who happened to be making the same journey , and with whom he remained a good friend for the rest of his life . On his return to Rome , Etty toured the city 's museums , making copies of various artworks , particularly those of the Venetian artists such as Titian and Veronese whom he so admired .
= = = = Venice = = = =
Feeling unsettled , Etty left Rome for Venice , intending to remain there for 10 days and then return to England . Evans preferred to remain in Rome , so Etty travelled alone , pausing briefly in Florence and in Ferrara ( where he stopped to kiss the armchair of Ludovico Ariosto ) . The painter Charles Lock Eastlake , then resident in Rome , had provided Etty with a letter of introduction to Harry D 'Orville , British Vice consul in Venice ; D 'Orville was so impressed with Etty that he arranged for him to stay in his own house , rather than in lodgings . Etty had long considered Venice his spiritual home and " the hope and idol of my professional life " , and had often wondered why , given its artistic importance , so few English travellers visited the city . He was not disappointed . Throughout the remainder of his life , he would look back on his visit to Venice with great fondness , writing shortly before his death that " Venezia , cara Venezia ! thy pictured glories haunt my fancy now ! "
Although Etty had only intended to stay for 10 days , he was so taken with Venice that he remained for over seven months . He fell into a routine of copying paintings in Venetian collections by day , and attending the life class of the Venetian Academy of Fine Arts by night , producing around 50 oil paintings in total as well as numerous pencil sketches . He was extremely impressed with the high quality of the Venetian Academy ; the instructors in their turn were extremely impressed with the quality of Etty 's work , in particular his flesh tones . He acquired the nickname of " Il Diavolo " owing to the high speed at which he was able to paint , and watching him at work became something of a spectacle in its own right ; luminaries including Gioachino Rossini and Ladislaus Pyrker ( then Patriarch of Venice ) came to watch him paint . So devoted was Etty to his studies in Venice that he exhibited no original work in 1823 , writing to his brother that " If one spent all the time in painting originals , one might as well , nay better , be at home " . The members of the Venetian Academy were so impressed by Etty that he was elected an Honorary Academician .
By 7 June 1823 , Etty felt that he had reached the limits of what he could accomplish in Venice , and was considering returning home . Soon afterwards he left Venice for Florence , with the intention of creating a full @-@ size replica of Titian 's Venus of Urbino , considered one of the finest works of the Venetian school of painting . Although the Uffizi management were hostile to this proposal , after 10 days of negotiations they allowed Etty to create his copy . His contemporaries considered it among the finest copies ever made of a painting generally considered to be impossible to copy . In late July Etty began the journey home , pausing for a further two months in Venice . On 8 October 1823 Etty finally left Venice , travelling via Mantua and Geneva to Paris .
Etty had intended to travel to England , but instead remained in Paris , to resume copying works in Paris galleries , collecting prints and buying a lay figure and around 200 paintbrushes , both of which the French made to a higher standard than English manufacturers . In early January 1824 , Etty finally returned to London .
= = Success and controversy ( 1824 – 35 ) = =
As soon as he arrived home , Etty began to work on ensuring he had at least one picture ready for the 1824 Summer Exhibition . He decided to return to a theme for which he had created a sketch in 1820 , that of the story of Pandora and in particular the passage in Hesiod in which the seasons crown her with a wreath . He had exhibited a sketch in 1820 on the same theme , and had already decided on the arrangement of the figures . His first attempt in 1824 was abandoned half @-@ finished , and he began again on a smaller canvas with different positioning of the key figures of Pandora , Vulcan and Venus .
Pandora Crowned by the Seasons is an unusual composition , painted to resemble a bas @-@ relief in which the different elements are emerging from a flat background . The figure of Pandora stands in the centre , with Vulcan to one side and Venus and Cupid to the other , each leaning away from her ; the figures of Vulcan and Venus , along with the four figures representing the seasons in the upper corners of the canvas , create a diamond shape around Pandora . The foot of Vulcan rests upon the picture frame , a favourite device of Rubens ; elements of the picture 's composition are also taken from an 1817 engraving on the same subject , drawn by Etty 's fellow York artist John Flaxman and engraved by William Blake . As with all Etty 's history paintings from this time on , he worked by painting the figures first , and only filling in the background once the figures were complete .
Although recognisably descended from earlier works such as The Coral Finder , Pandora was a far more accomplished work than those Etty exhibited prior to his travels . Although some critics were reluctant to accept Etty 's combination of realistic figures and an unrealistic setting ( Etty 's 1958 biographer Dennis Farr characterises the critical reaction to Pandora as " grudging admiration not unmixed with philistinism " ) , his fellow artists were extremely impressed with it , to the extent that Thomas Lawrence bought the painting at the 1824 Summer Exhibition .
In the wake of the success of Pandora , Etty moved to an apartment in Buckingham Street , near the Strand , where he was to reside for the remainder of his working life . Shortly afterwards he applied to become an Associate of the Royal Academy for the first time , and on 1 November was duly elected , beating William Allan by 16 votes to seven . ( The Times , at this time still hostile to Etty for his perceived indecency , sneered that " this cannot be as an honour conferred on Mr. Etty : if it were , he has deserved and should have obtained it long ago " . The same reviewer did concede that Etty 's copy of Tintoretto 's Esther Before Ahaseurus was " the most important picture in the room " in their report on an exhibition held at the British Institution of significant copies of paintings . )
= = = Betsy Etty = = =
In the years following his return from Italy , Etty had a very limited social life . In a typical day he would wake at 7 am , paint from around 9 or 10 am until 4 pm , after which he would have a meal . Following the meal he would take a walk , and attend life classes between 6 and 8 pm . On returning home he would drink two cups of tea , and go to bed at midnight .
Etty was considered extremely unattractive , described by his 1855 biographer Alexander Gilchrist — a great admirer — as " Slovenly in attire , short and awkward in body — large head , large hands , large feet — a face marked with the small @-@ pox , made still more noticeable by length of jaw , and a quantity of sandy hair , long and wild : all , conspired to make him ' one of the oddest looking creatures ' in a Young Lady 's eyes — what she would call ' a sight ' ; one , not redeemed ( to her ) , by the massive brow , its revelation of energy and power , the sign @-@ manual of Genius there legible . "
One of his few close companions was his niece Betsy ( Elizabeth Etty ) , fifth daughter of his brother John . Betsy was unmarried and 14 years younger than William , and became his housekeeper in 1824 . She remained in his service for the rest of his life , and as he grew older William increasingly came to depend on her , suffering distress whenever they were apart and regularly writing to her in panic whenever he did not hear from her . She became his companion and acted as his assistant , alongside his official assistant George Franklin .
While he appears to have been attracted to young women throughout his life , and there is a strong suggestion in his letters that in his early years he had a sexual encounter with one of his models and possibly also a sexual encounter of some kind while in Venice , there is no suggestion that he ever had a sexual relationship with Betsy of any kind . He recorded in his diary in 1830 that " it is best I have not married because I have not noisy Children and can have nice Books , and Pictures etc " . He suffered from extreme shyness throughout his life , and when compelled to attend dinner parties would often sit silent throughout , although he was popular with fellow artists and students . Etty rarely socialised , preferring to concentrate on his painting ; when on one occasion it was suggested that he had little further need of training and need not continue attending classes , he indignantly replied that " it fills up a couple of hours in the evening , I should be at a loss how else to employ " .
As she grew older Betsy suffered from numerous illnesses , the exact natures of which are not recorded but which are known to have caused William great concern . William began to become paranoid that Betsy would marry and leave his service , in 1835 going as far as to have her sign an affidavit that she would never leave him . In 1843 his older brother Charles , a successful planter in Java , returned to England after over 30 years abroad . William became deeply suspicious that Betsy was becoming too close to Charles , a suspicion intensified when Charles took her on a visit to Holland and the Rhine ; Charles returned to Java in 1845 . In around 1844 Betsy struck up a close relationship with the pen manufacturer and art collector Joseph Gillott , one of William 's regular customers who owned some of his pictures . Gillott was married with children , and the closeness of their relationship caused William concern . In 1848 , William retired to York leaving Betsy alone in his London apartment ; although aware that Betsy was considering marriage he was confident that he could persuade her to come to York and live with him in his retirement . Betsy did eventually join him in York , and was present at his death .
= = = The Combat = = =
Spurred by the reception of Pandora , in 1825 Etty exhibited his most ambitious work to date , The Combat : Woman Pleading for the Vanquished . This was a huge canvas , 399 cm ( 13 ft 1 in ) across , showing a woman pleading for the life of a defeated soldier as another soldier prepares to kill him . Highly unusually for a history painting at the time , Etty did not base The Combat on an incident from literature , religion or history , but instead painted a scene entirely from his own imagination , based on an idea which had first occurred to him in 1821 . ( He was later to describe this type of painting as " that class of compositions called by the Romans Visions , not having their origin in history or poetry " . )
The Combat was extremely well received , even by critics who had previously been hostile to Etty . In terms of composition and technique it was considered as equalling or even surpassing Titian and Veronese , and one critic considered it " one of the finest and most masterly works that ever graced the walls of the Royal Academy " , while those critics who had previously dismissed Etty for his supposed obscenity reconsidered their opinions in light of it . The Combat continued to be one of Etty 's best @-@ regarded works , and formed the basis of a successful 1848 engraving by George Thomas Doo .
Following the success of The Combat , Etty painted a further four very large paintings . One was on the well @-@ worn theme of the Judgement of Paris , exhibited in 1826 , and three were on the theme of Judith beheading Holofernes , the first of which was exhibited in 1827 . Unlike other artists who had painted this subject , Etty 's Judith paintings did not show the actual beheading , as he hoped to avoid " the offensive and revolting butchery , some have delighted and even revelled in " . The first Judith picture in particular was extremely well received critically .
= = = Royal Academician = = =
In February 1828 , shortly before his 41st birthday , Etty soundly defeated John Constable by 18 votes to five to become a full Royal Academician , at the time the highest honour available to an artist . By this time , complaints about his supposed indecency were beginning to resurface . All but one of the 15 paintings Etty exhibited at the Royal Academy in the 1820s had included at least one nude figure , and Etty was acquiring a reputation for using respectable themes as a pretext for nudity .
For the 1828 Summer Exhibition Etty exhibited three pictures ; The World Before the Flood , Venus , the Evening Star and Guardian Cherubs . ( The latter was a portrait of the children of Welbore Ellis Agar , 2nd Earl of Normanton , and was the only non @-@ nude painting exhibited by Etty at the RA in the 1820s . ) Although similar to his earlier works , they were technically more accomplished . Both The World Before the Flood and Venus attracted positive reviews in the press and were sold during their exhibition for substantial sums , although the purchase by the Marquess of Stafford of The World Before the Flood — a work containing scantily clad figures of both sexes — drew a pointed comment in The Gentleman 's Magazine that it " will serve to accompany the private Titians of that nobleman " . Despite the increasing number of complaints in the press about his use of nudity , respect for Etty from his fellow artists continued to rise , and in 1828 the British Institution awarded him £ 100 in recognition of his talent .
As soon as the 1828 Summer Exhibition was over , Etty stopped work on other projects to concentrate on a diploma piece , without which he could not become a Royal Academician . This piece , Sleeping Nymph and Satyrs , was presented to the Academy in October , and in December 1828 Etty finally became a Royal Academician .
It appears to me then that virtuous happiness being our lawful aim in life , that having Academic Rank and Fame the next thing to be considered ( if God approve ) is to seek that Decent Competency which shall make my latter days comfortable and happy , which I hope if it please Him , to be able to do by the time I am fifty — by occasionally mixing with my historic pictures a Portrait or two , and to vary and extend my sphere — a classic Landscape or two so that if I can get about 100 a year I may be enabled to retire to my dear native city and spend my latter days in peace .
= = = = Life classes = = = =
Even after he had achieved status as a full Royal Academician , Etty regularly attended life classes ; fellow artist John Constable sarcastically wrote that " Etty [ sets ] an excellent example to the Modles [ sic ] for regularity " . His contemporaries considered this at best peculiar and at worst extremely inappropriate , complaining that for someone in his senior position to attend classes as a student was both unprofessional and unnecessary , and that it damaged the standing of the position of Academician ; there were complaints that he had far outlasted the official student term of 10 years . Etty refused to give up attendance , offering to resign rather than give up his studies , and the Academy grudgingly allowed him to continue to attend classes . He divided his time between the RA 's own life classes and those at nearby St. Martin 's Lane .
Etty generally finished life studies during three evenings sittings . On the first evening he would sketch the model in charcoal or chalk , and then ink in the outline . On the second he used oil paints to fill in the figures . On the third he layered glaze and the final coverings of paint . He usually painted on millboard , re @-@ using the reverse for fresh paintings . His female models were typically shop @-@ girls , prostitutes , actresses or poses plastiques models , while his male models tended to be Life Guards recruited from the nearby barracks , who he thought to have an appropriate muscular physique , or occasionally men Etty met in public bath houses .
= = = = Hero and Leander = = = =
In the wake of Etty 's elevation to Academician , he exhibited two paintings at the Summer Exhibition in 1829 , Benaiah , David 's Chief Captain and Hero , Having Thrown Herself from the Tower at the Sight of Leander Drowned , Dies on his Body . Benaiah is on the same large scale as The Combat at 398 cm ( 13 ft 1 in ) wide , and is a very similar composition , although in place of the woman begging for mercy is the body of a dead soldier . Hero recycles the pose of the dead soldier from Benaiah as the dying Hero as she lies on the body of her dead lover . Unusually for Etty , Hero is painted in intentionally neutral tones rather than his usual Venetian colours , and the composition uses foreshortening of the bodies to create a single diagonal across the canvas . For the rest of his life , Etty considered Hero to be " the finest of my fine pictures " .
On 7 January 1830 Etty 's mentor Thomas Lawrence died , followed on 30 July by Etty 's mother . Etty was devastated by the loss , and was one of those considered to replace Lawrence as President of the Royal Academy , although in the event he did not stand for election . Possibly distracted by the death of Lawrence , Etty only submitted three paintings to the Summer Exhibition that year . One of these , Judith Going Forth , was an addition to Judith , which had been commissioned the previous year by that painting 's new owners , the Royal Scottish Academy .
= = = = Candaules = = = =
Of Etty 's two original works exhibited at the RA in 1830 , The Storm , inspired by Psalm 22 , attracted little interest and was dismissed by The Gentleman 's Magazine — typically a staunch supporter of Etty 's work — as " a sad failure " . The other painting exhibited was Candaules , King of Lydia , Shews his Wife by Stealth to Gyges , One of his Ministers , as She Goes to Bed , which was to prove one of the most controversial works of Etty 's career . Candaules is based on a story from Herodotus in which king Candaules arranges for his servant Gyges to spy on his wife Nyssia undressing without her knowledge . Gyges is discovered and at Nyssia 's behest kills Candaules , marries Nyssia and rules the kingdom in his stead . The painting shows the moment at which Nyssia removes the last of her clothes . By positioning the figures in such a way that none are looking out of the picture , and the viewer is directly behind Nyssia , Etty aimed for the viewer to feel the same sense of voyeurism and intrusion that Gyges would have felt , forced to spy on his master 's naked wife against his will and without her knowledge .
Etty felt that the work illustrated the moral that women are not chattels , and were entitled to punish men who violated their rights . He made little effort to explain this to his audience , and thus Candaules appeared morally highly ambiguous , inviting the viewer to sympathise either with the sexually immoral Candaules , the murderous Nyssia or the voyeuristic Gyges . From the moment it was unveiled Candaules was condemned as a cynical mix of a distasteful narrative and pornographic images , and there was near @-@ unanimous consensus that it was inappropriate for public exhibition . The piece remained controversial long after Etty 's death ; Alexander Gilchrist 's overwhelmingly flattering 1855 biography of Etty described it as " almost the only instance among Etty 's works , of an undeniably disagreeable , not to say objectionable subject " , while as late as 2011 Sarah Burnage of the University of York wrote of Candaules that " it is perhaps hard to see the painting as anything but a deliberate attempt by the artist to shock and scandalise " . Candaules was bought by wealthy collector Robert Vernon , who was in the process of building a major collection of British art and was to become one of Etty 's most important customers .
With the three paintings for the 1830 Summer Exhibition completed , Etty decided to pay another visit to Paris . Etty travelled via Brighton , arriving in Paris in early July 1830 . He found the atmosphere of the city had become unpleasantly hedonistic , writing to Betsy that " If I had a daughter , she should not be educated here . Pleasure and amusement are the idols . "
France was in constitutional crisis in 1830 , which reached a peak in late July as the July Revolution began and riots erupted across Paris . Although moved by the death and destruction taking place around him , Etty felt that the purpose of his visit was to study paintings , and continued to attend the Louvre to copy paintings as the violence raged in the surrounding streets . On 31 July he decided to abandon the trip ; abandoning his proposed onward journey to Brussels and Antwerp , he collected the five copies he had made in the Louvre and set off for London .
The works Etty painted following his return began to show a departure in style from his previous efforts . While the figures in his previous original paintings had been painted from sketches of models made in the studio or life classes , from now on he began to work from memory , and as a consequence his figures began to appear more idealised ; Farr ( 1958 ) describes his figures from now on as " [ conforming ] less to a particular aspect of the model than to a preconceived notion of what the model ought to look like " .
= = = = Youth and Pleasure and The Destroying Angel = = = =
In 1832 Etty returned to the theme of A Sketch from One of Gray 's Odes , exhibited in 1822 to such disdain from the press . The result was Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm , which remains one of his best known works . Illustrating a passage from The Bard , a poem by Thomas Gray , Youth and Pleasure has been described as " a poetic romance " . It shows a gilded boat being propelled by the breath of a nude child on the sails ; one nude figure representing Pleasure languidly holds the helm of the boat . A nude child blows bubbles , which another nude on the prow of the ship , representing Youth , reaches to catch . Naiads , again nude , swim around and clamber onto the boat .
The Bard was about the English destruction of Welsh culture and the subsequent decline of the House of Plantagenet and its replacement by the Welsh House of Tudor , and there was a general feeling among critics that Etty had misunderstood the point of the metaphors used by Gray . Etty claimed that his unusual interpretation of the text was intended to create " a general allegory of Human Life , its empty vain pleasures — if not founded on the laws of Him who is the Rock of Ages " , and that the painting served as a moral warning about the pursuit of empty pleasure . This explanation appears to have left critics unconvinced . Even those critics most favourable towards Etty 's technical accomplishments in creating the picture found it hard to ascertain what the painting was supposed to represent ; other critics were more openly hostile , with The Morning Chronicle condemning it as " indulgence of what we once hoped a classical , but which are now convinced , is a lascivious mind " . Purchased for a huge sum by Robert Vernon on its exhibition , Youth and Pleasure remained controversial long after Etty 's death , with Farr 's 1958 biography describing it as " singularly inept " .
Also exhibited at the 1832 Summer Exhibition along with Youth and Pleasure was The Destroying Angel and Daemons of Evil Interrupting the Orgies of the Vicious and Intemperate , seen as a riposte by Etty to his critics . Another of what Etty deemed " visions " , depicting a wholly imaginary scene rather than one from literature , mythology or history , The Destroying Angel shows an imaginary classical temple under attack from a destroying angel and a group of daemons . The human figures , intentionally painted in paler tones than usual to suggest death , each show their fear in a different way . Painted soon after his 1830 travels , it is thought that the heaped corpses and terrified crowds were directly inspired by events Etty had witnessed in Paris .
Unlike Youth and Pleasure , the critical response to The Destroying Angel was generally favourable even from those critics usually hostile to Etty . The painting generated favourable comparisons to Michelangelo and Rubens , and Etty 's early supporter William Carey ( writing under the name of " Ridolfi " ) considered it to be evidence of Etty 's " redeeming grace and spirit " . The painting was explicitly seen as a renunciation by Etty of his previous nude studies , with Fraser 's Magazine described it as " a sermon to [ Etty 's ] admirers ... where he inflicts poetical justice upon his own gay dames and their gallants , their revels being broken in upon , and they themselves being carried off most unceremoniously , like that little gentleman Don Juan , by sundry grim @-@ looking brawny devils " .
At around this time Etty began to receive many unsolicited letters from wealthy Old Etonian lawyer Thomas Myers . Myers was a huge admirer of Etty , and his letters mainly suggest literary topics he felt Etty ought to be painting so as to appeal to the nobility ; he wrote regularly between July 1832 and May 1844 . Although eccentric and largely incoherent ( one of his suggestions was for Etty to raise his profile by painting nude portraits of the wives of the aristocracy ) , Etty appears to have taken at least some of Myers 's suggestions seriously .
= = = Illness and recovery = = =
In mid @-@ 1833 Etty began a portrait of the daughters of Charles Watkin Williams @-@ Wynn , the long @-@ serving Conservative Member of Parliament for Montgomeryshire , shown Preparing for a Fancy Dress Ball . Etty was then little @-@ known for portraits , but had recently completed Elizabeth Potts , a portrait of the daughter of a family friend , which although poorly received by some critics was technically highly accomplished . He said at the time that he hoped his portrait of the Williams @-@ Wynn children would be " one of my best " .
In February 1834 , Etty became seriously ill , and was incapacitated for four months . Unable to paint , he exhibited only two already @-@ completed paintings in the 1834 Summer Exhibition , Elizabeth Potts and The Cardinal . In June of that year he left London to convalesce , renting a cottage in York . Weak and unable to concentrate , Etty painted very little , and spend the next few months visiting friends and touring the sights of Yorkshire . Gradually regaining his health , he returned to London in December 1834 , and resumed work on those paintings he had left incomplete on the onset of his illness .
Making up for lost time during illness , he completed several significant works over the next few months , and exhibited eight paintings at the 1835 Summer Exhibition . These included works now considered among his most significant . The Bridge of Sighs , Venice was based on sketches made by Etty during his visit to that city in the early 1820s . It shows the aftermath of an execution , as two men haul the body away to be thrown into the sea ; it was described as " poetry on canvas " by William Macready , who bought it from Etty . Preparing for a Fancy Dress Ball was the portrait of the daughters of Charles Watkin Williams @-@ Wynn which Etty had begun in 1833 . Etty had put far more work into this than was usual for a portrait , remarking to the Williams @-@ Wynn family that he intended " to make a fine work of Art as well as a resemblance " . Showing Williams @-@ Wynn 's daughters Charlotte and Mary in elaborate Italian @-@ style costumes , it was critically well received as evidence that Etty was able to paint a major work that did not rely on nudity , as well as demonstrating that Etty could paint on commission for the elite , leading to further commissions . The Warrior Arming was a study of Godfrey de Bouillon. painted to satisfy the then @-@ current fad for medievalism . Etty had recently developed an interest in collecting pieces of armour , and The Warrior Arming is a technically adept study of the effects of lights from multiple sources shining on polished armour .
The most contentious of Etty 's 1835 RA exhibits was Venus and Her Satellites , a depiction of the Toilet of Venus . This was condemned in much of the press as pornographic , and was described as having a " total absence of soul " , with The Observer in particular extremely hostile , calling for the Archbishop of Canterbury to become involved in chastising Etty for his lack of taste . Despite this condemnation , Etty considered Venus and her Satellites one of his best works , and sold it to Rev. Edward Pryce Owen for the substantial sum of 300 guineas ( about £ 28 @,@ 000 in 2016 terms ) in August .
We must , indeed , be more serious with this gentleman [ Etty ] than is our wont , for the " Society for the Suppression of Vice " are not to be excused for their prosecutions in cases of obscene publications , and the Lord Mayor himself deserves at once to be sent to the tread @-@ mill for imprisoning a little Italian boy for hawking about the streets a naked Cupid , if such lascivious scenes , such gross insults to morality and decency , are allowed to be exhibited at the Roy . Acad. with impunity . A Brothel on fire , which had driven all the Paphian Nymphs out from their beds into the court @-@ yard , would be a modest exhibition compared to this — for they would at least exhibit en chemise . Several ladies , we know , were deterred from going into this corner of the room to see Leslie 's , Webster 's , and other pictures of great merit there , to avoid the offence and disgrace Mr. E. has conferred on that quarter ... Really , really , if Mr. E. , with all his power of colour , turn his drawings of the human figure to no honester purpose — if the absence of all taste and decency is to mark his Academical studies , it is high time that he had a hint from an authority which neither he nor the Council of the Academy will dare to treat slightly . The Archbishop of Canterbury and some of our Bishops are fond of the arts — what say they to them in this shape ?
In August 1835 Etty spent a brief holiday in Shropshire , where he delivered Venus and Her Satellites to Owen . While en route back he made a detour to Manchester to visit an art exhibition ; while there he made the acquaintance of wealthy cotton merchant Daniel Grant .
= = = Etty and York = = =
After Jonathan Martin 's arson attack on York Minster in 1829 caused major damage , there were proposals by the dean and chapter to take the opportunity of the destruction to restructure the interior of the building . Etty was prominent in the effort to resist the redesign and to restore the building to its original state . A campaign led by Etty and other York luminaries was successful , and the plans were eventually defeated in February 1831 .
By the time of the Minster fire , the Corporation of York ( the body responsible for local government ) was already engaged in a debate about the future of the city 's defensive walls . The walls no longer served any practical purpose and were expensive to maintain , and with the population of the city rising rapidly the city was becoming cramped and dangerous . The city gates ( " Bars " ) had become a public health hazard given the number of locals using them as toilets , and theft of stone for other building works had left parts of the walls dangerously unstable . The Bars restricted stagecoaches , meaning York was unable to capitalise on its strategic position halfway along the lucrative London – Edinburgh route . Faced with the need to clear the city 's slums , in 1800 the Corporation sought permission from Parliament to demolish the Bars and much of the walls . Owing to opposition from York Minster the scheme was abandoned , but by 1826 the barbicans of four of the gates had been demolished . In the face of this a public campaign to save the walls was launched in 1824 , but attention on both sides of the debate was diverted by the Minster fire . In 1828 Etty had written to his mother expressing horror at the demolition proposals , but distracted by the need to complete Sleeping Nymph and Satyrs was unable to take any action himself . By 1831 the Corporation had decided to demolish the barbicans but to retain and restore the walls .
In February 1832 Etty began a campaign of writing to local York newspapers urging the preservation of the walls , and sending donations to various campaigns associated with their retention . Although some local newspapers were now supporting preservation in light of the damage their demolition would do to the tourist trade , many locals — whose lives were made more difficult by living in a walled city with few points of entry — remained hostile to the preservation campaigns . A proposal in 1838 by the York and North Midland Railway to cut an archway through the walls to allow access to a railway station within the walls galvanised Etty , and he delivered two lectures on the preservation of the walls during visits to York in 1838 – 39 , and made four paintings of the Bars . Etty 's words went unheeded and the archway was duly cut in the walls , much to his dismay , although the station was soon moved to its current location outside the walls to allow through the running of trains to both north and south . While the walls were eventually saved in 1889 , many years after Etty 's death , Etty is sometimes credited with their salvation . It is open to debate how significant his part was . Some authors feel that his interventions had no impact and the preservation of the walls was the result of decisions made by the Corporation and lobbying by local newspapers , while others feel that the Corporation would not have made these decisions had Etty and other like @-@ minded dignitaries not put pressure on them to do so .
In 1838 , Etty started lobbying for the establishment of an art school in York . He proposed that the Hospitium of St Mary 's Abbey be used for this purpose , with the lower floor becoming a museum of sculpture and the upper floor becoming a school and exhibition hall . The Hospitium scheme was abandoned , but the York School of Design duly opened on a different site in 1842 . Although the school was created by an artist who had built his reputation on nudes , nude art remained controversial . In 1847 , following a complaint from a female student about a display of replicas of Ancient Greek sculptures , " the master was requested to have the penis of each of the offending statues cut off [ ... ] a proceeding that called forth the indignation of the male students and the remonstrances of even the lady students " .
= = Later life ( 1836 – 49 ) = =
In 1836 architect John Harper arranged a small exhibition in York of works by modern artists , which included 11 Etty paintings . This included the first public showing of Venus and her Doves , which had been commissioned by Daniel Grant . Although the exhibition broke even it met with little public interest , and no further Etty retrospectives were held for some years . Harper did take the opportunity to buy Etty 's A Family of the Forest ( also known as Flowers of the Forest ) , which had failed to sell at the 1836 Summer Exhibition . A Family of the Forest illustrates a passage from the Ancient Greek poem Theogony , dealing with the Golden Age before humanity suffered pain , misery or the need to work . The setting sun in the background and the man looking away from the woman and child , and instead into the distance , signify his knowledge that his days of ease are coming to an end .
By this time , Etty was becoming conflicted religiously . Although he had been raised as a Methodist , following Catholic emancipation in 1829 Etty became increasingly drawn to Roman Catholicism . Although he considered himself " in [ my ] heart 's core deeply and sincerely of the Ancient Faith " , he refused formally to convert to Catholicism owing to concerns that it would upset his family and friends , worries that he would be denied access to Anglican buildings such as York Minster , and a distaste for the concept of auricular ( spoken ) confession . He remained closely associated with Catholicism throughout his later life , and was one of the few non @-@ Catholics to attend the 1838 opening of Augustus Pugin 's chapel for St Mary 's College , Oscott , at the time the most important Roman Catholic building in England .
= = = The Sirens and Ulysses = = =
Also in 1836 Etty began work on The Sirens and Ulysses , which he considered among his greatest works , and which is his largest surviving painting . Measuring 442 @.@ 5 cm by 297 cm ( 14 ft 6 in by 9 ft 9 in ) Sirens was based on a passage from Homer 's Odyssey in which sailors resist the irresistible song of the Sirens . The theme and scale of the painting were probably suggested to Etty by Thomas Myers , who had been encouraging Etty to paint very large canvases . Myers 's suggested theme appealed to Etty , who later wrote that it illustrated " the importance of resisting Sensual Delights " . Etty made every effort to ensure realism in the picture , going as far as to visit mortuaries to sketch corpses in varying stages of decay to ensure the accuracy of the cadavers on the beach .
When Etty completed Sirens in 1837 , it was one of the main attractions at the 1837 Summer Exhibition , the first to be held in the Royal Academy 's new building in Trafalgar Square ( now part of the National Gallery ) . The painting , with its juxtaposition of male and female nudity and decaying corpses , immediately divided opinion . Some critics considered it one of the finest artworks ever made , with The Gentleman 's Magazine particularly taken with the work , describing Sirens as " a historical work of the first class " and " by far the best that Mr. Etty ever painted " . Other critics were less kind ; The Spectator considered it " a disgusting combination of voluptuousness and loathsome putridity — glowing in colour and wonderful in execution , but conceived in the worst possible taste " .
Possibly because of its size , The Sirens and Ulysses failed to sell at the Summer Exhibition . In October 1837 Etty met again with Daniel Grant who , without having seen the painting , offered £ 250 ( about £ 20 @,@ 000 in today 's terms ) for Sirens and for Samson and Delilah , also exhibited by Etty that year . Etty , poor at business and always reluctant to keep unsold paintings in his studio , sold both paintings to Grant for well below their true worth . Etty had used a strong glue as a paint stabiliser which flaked when dry , and as soon as it was complete Sirens began to deteriorate . It was shown at the 1857 Art Treasures Exhibition but then considered in too poor a condition for further public display , and placed in long @-@ term storage in the archives of the Royal Manchester Institution and its successor , the Manchester Art Gallery . In 2006 restoration began on it , and in May 2010 Sirens was returned to public display and is now one of the key works in the Manchester Art Gallery .
= = = Decline = = =
After Sirens , Etty 's output remained as high as ever , with seven paintings exhibited at the 1838 Summer Exhibition , but the quality of his work is generally considered to have gone into decline . By 1838 critics began to comment that Etty 's paintings were no longer inventive but simply reworkings of his earlier paintings , while in June of that year William Makepeace Thackeray ( under the pen name of Michael Angelo Titmarsh ) wrote that " [ Etty ] is , like great men , lazy , or indifferent , perhaps , about public approbation " . By 1839 , criticisms of Etty were being raised in even those newspapers and journals which had previously championed his work . A new type of criticism of Etty also began to appear in 1839 , from a new generation led by The Art Union , who praised Etty 's technical abilities but saw his choice of subjects as out of touch and anachronistic , and " very frequently doing as little good for mankind as the priest who preaches his sermon in Latin " .
From around this time onwards , while Etty still held to his belief that the purpose of art is to illustrate moral lessons , he began to abandon the literary , religious and mythological themes which had dominated his work . He began to paint still lifes , beginning with Pheasant and Peach ( likely to be the painting now called Dead Pheasant and Fruit ) ; in the 1840s he exhibited six in total , and painted many more . Etty was the first English painter to paint significant still lifes , which at the time were thought by the English a primarily Netherlandish form . Also for the first time , he began to paint a significant number of landscape paintings . Etty still continued to paint history paintings , but while he continued to produce highly acclaimed reworkings of his previous pictures , those works on fresh topics were generally poorly received . Etty 's decline in quality can possibly be attributed in part to London art dealers ; from 1835 dealer Richard Colls had become increasingly close to Etty , and by 1844 had a near @-@ monopoly on his work . As the importance of the landed gentry to the art market declined , the new purchasers of art were industrialists ; generally lacking in a classical education and with little interest in Old Masters , they preferred to buy works by then @-@ contemporary artists such as Etty , and relied on dealers to advise them .
In May 1840 , Etty finally made the trip to Brussels and Antwerp which he had been forced by revolution to abandon in 1830 . He intended to study the works of Rubens , but the briefness of his tour — in the company of Betsy Etty he visited Ostend , Bruges , Antwerp , Brussels , Aachen , Cologne , Bonn and Rotterdam in the course of ten days — meant he had little time for study . The following year he returned to Antwerp and Mechelen for a longer visit to visit St. Rumbold 's Cathedral and to study the substantial collections of Rubens paintings in the two cities . On this second journey he twice visited a Trappist monastery outside Antwerp , staying overnight on one visit , and bought a Trappist habit ; he also bought a Capuchin habit from a monastery in Bruges . These acquisitions prompted paintings on monastic themes over subsequent years .
Despite a perceived decline in his work 's quality , the 1840s were the most financially successful of Etty 's career . His income increased with further opportunities for patronage from a growing industrial class , and with few costs and all his earlier debts cleared , Etty was in a position to invest money for the first time . By 1841 Etty had around £ 300 invested , rising to £ 8500 in 1845 and £ 17 @,@ 000 in 1849 . He continued to have difficulty forming relationships with any woman other than Betsy Etty , writing in his diary in 1843 that " being in sound Mind and Body I declare it to be my Firm Intention NEVER TO MARRY . In which resolution I pray GOD to help me that I may devote myself purely to my Art , my Country , and my GOD ! "
In May 1843 , Etty was one of eight artists chosen by Prince Albert to paint frescoes on the theme of Milton 's Comus for a new pavilion being built in the grounds of Buckingham Palace . Etty was unhappy with his selection , as fresco was a medium with which he had no experience , but reluctantly did so , choosing to paint on the theme of Circe and the Sirens Three . The result was a disaster . Etty found himself unable to retouch or alter his existing work , as any freshly applied paint would flake away from the existing paint layer , and the lunette shape of the panel left Etty with a large empty space above the central figures . Etty 's fresco was deemed unsalvageable , and although he offered to paint a replacement on the theme of Hesperus he was rejected , and William Dyce was commissioned to paint a replacement fresco . Etty was paid only a token £ 40 fee .
The perceived lack of respect shown to one of England 's leading artists led to some outcry , and attacks in the press upon the then very unpopular Albert ; William Makepeace Thackeray wrote in 1845 : " Think of the greatest patronage in the world giving forty pounds for pictures worth four hundred — condescending to buy works from humble men who could not refuse , and paying for them below their value ! Think of august powers and principalities ordering the works of such a great artist as Etty to be hacked out of the palace @-@ wall ! That was a slap in the face to every artist in England . "
In August 1843 , during a break from his work on the fresco , Etty made what was to prove his final overseas journey . Since 1839 he had been planning a series of monumental paintings of Joan of Arc , and he wanted to visit places associated with her . Setting out on 16 August he spent two weeks touring sites in Rouen , Paris and Orléans associated with her life . Unlike Etty 's disastrous prior visits to France , this journey passed without incident , and he found that he actually was coming to enjoy certain aspects of French living .
= = = = Musidora and Joan of Arc = = = =
In the same year , Etty painted the first version of Musidora : The Bather ' At the Doubtful Breeze Alarmed ' , an illustration from the poem Summer by James Thomson and arguably Etty 's last history painting painted while he still had all his powers . Musidora shows a scene in which the titular character , having removed the last of her clothes , steps into " the lucid coolness of the flood " to " bathe her fervent limbs in the refreshing stream " , unknowing that she is being watched by her suitor Damon . Etty 's composition is shown from the viewpoint of Damon ; by so doing Etty aimed to induce the same reactions in the viewer as Damon 's dilemma as described by Thomson ; that of whether to enjoy the spectacle despite knowing it to be inappropriate , or to follow the accepted morality of the time and look away , in what art historian Sarah Burnage has described as " a titillating moral test for spectators to both enjoy and overcome " . Musidora met with almost universal acclaim , compared favourably to Titian and Rembrandt , and described by The Critic as " a preeminent work " and " the triumph of the British school " .
By the time Musidora was exhibited , Etty 's health was in serious decline . Suffering severe asthma , it was not unusual for passers @-@ by to accuse him of drunkenness as he made his way wheezing through the London streets , and he was beginning to plan his retirement from polluted London to his beloved York . Abandoning the smaller paintings which kept him profitable , he strived to complete his Joan of Arc triptych before his health gave out . This was on a huge scale , 28 ft ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) in total width and 9 ft 9 in ( 3 m ) high ; the three pictures from left to right depicted Joan devoting herself to the service of God and her country , Joan scattering the enemies of France , and Joan dying a martyr .
Etty sold the triptych for the huge sum of 2500 guineas ( about £ 220 @,@ 000 in 2016 terms ) to dealer Richard Colls and the engraver C. W. Wass . Colls and Wass had ambitious plans to recoup their money by selling engravings of the pictures and by taking the paintings on a tour of Britain and Europe . The paintings proved less popular than expected . Very few engravings were sold and the tours did not take place ; Wass declared bankruptcy in 1852 . The paintings were separated , and sold on to a series of buyers , with the third panel fetching just 71 ⁄ 2 guineas in 1893 as Etty 's popularity continued to wane . By the 1950s all three panels of Joan of Arc were believed lost or destroyed , although some preliminary studies survive .
= = = Retrospective and death = = =
Following the completion of Joan of Arc , Etty 's health continued to deteriorate . He continued to paint and exhibit , but his retirement plans grew firmer . In April 1846 he bought a house in Coney Street , central York , as a retirement home , and in December 1847 he formally resigned from the Council of the Royal Academy . Following structural alterations to give him a better view of the river , Etty moved into the house in June 1848 , completing the move in September of that year , although he retained his London apartments . His move from London caused some consternation among that city 's models , who were losing one of their most regular customers , as well as concerns from Etty who was worried that working with nude models might cause a scandal in York .
He continued to exhibit , sending seven paintings to that year 's Summer Exhibition , but they drew little interest , although the lack of nudes was applauded by some reviewers . By this time , Robert Vernon 's bequest of his collection to the nation had led to eleven Etty paintings going on public display in the cellars of the National Gallery . In late 1848 he wrote a brief autobiography , published the following year in The Art Journal , in which he staunchly defended himself against the accusations of pornography which had been levelled at him throughout his life :
As a worshipper of beauty , whether it be seen in a weed , a flower , or in that most interesting form to humanity , lovely woman , in intense admiration of it and its Almighty Author , if at any time I have forgotten the boundary line that I ought not to have passed , and tended to voluptuousness , I implore His pardon ; I have never wished to seduce others from that path and practice of virtue , which alone leads to happiness here and hereafter ; and if in any of my pictures an immoral sentiment has been aimed at , I consent it should be burnt ; but I never recollect being actuated in painting my pictures by such sentiment . That the female form , in its fulness , beauty of colour , exquisite rotundity , may , by being portrayed in its nudity , awake like nature in some degree an approach to passion , I must allow , but where no immoral sentiment is intended , I affirm that the simple undisguised naked figure is innocent . " To the pure in heart all things are pure . "
In 1849 , the Royal Society of Arts decided to organise a retrospective exhibition of Etty 's work , the first since the minor York exhibition of 1836 . Etty agreed only on condition that all nine of his large works were included . The three Joan of Arc paintings were in London and easily accessible , and the Royal Scottish Academy was happy to lend The Combat , Benaiah and the Judith triptych , but the Royal Manchester Institution was deeply reluctant to lend The Sirens and Ulysses in light of concerns that transporting it would damage the fragile paintwork further . They were eventually persuaded to lend the piece after Etty and some of his friends visited Manchester to personally request they release it . The exhibition duly went ahead from 9 June to 25 August 1849 , bringing together 133 Etty paintings for the first time ; Etty hoped that it would raise public awareness of his abilities , writing to his friend Rev. Isaac Spencer " Please God , I will give them a taste of my quality " . The exhibition was well received and well attended ; even Etty 's old adversaries at the Morning Chronicle recommending that readers " lose no time in visiting this collection " . However , it was a financial disaster for the Royal Society of Arts , faced with the cost of transporting large numbers of delicate artworks from around the country .
During the exhibition Etty suffered a serious bout of rheumatic fever . Exhausted by illness and the stress of the exhibition , when the exhibition was complete he returned to York in very poor health . On 3 November 1849 he suffered a serious asthma attack , thought to have been made worse by his neglecting to wear his flannel undershirt the night before . His condition deteriorated rapidly , and by 10 November he was bedridden . On Tuesday 13 November , watching the sun set over the River Ouse , he was heard to say " Wonderful ! Wonderful ! This death ! " Later that night , Betsy Etty wrote to Joseph Gillott that " Uncle paid the last debt to nature at 1 ⁄ 4 past Eight oclock tonight . I do not know what to do . I am almost broken hearted . I have lost my best friend . I now [ sic ] not what to do . I can say no more . "
= = Legacy = =
Etty had planned for a burial in York Minster , but neglected to cover the necessary costs in his will . With Yorkshire local government in political and financial chaos in the wake of the bankruptcy of George Hudson , there was no political will to organise a public subscription or to waive the fees , and as a consequence Etty was buried in the churchyard of St Olave 's Church , his local parish church . On 6 May 1850 the contents of his studio were auctioned , in a total of 1034 lots including around 900 paintings ; some of these paintings were incomplete studies later completed by other artists to increase their value . In the years following his death Etty 's work became highly collectable , his works fetching huge sums on resale . He continued to be regarded as a pornographer by some , with Charles Robert Leslie observing in 1850 " It cannot be doubted that the voluptuous treatment of his subjects , in very many instances , recommended them more powerfully than their admirable art ; while we may fully believe that he himself , thinking and meaning no evil , was not aware of the manner in which his works were regarded by grosser minds " .
Six months after William 's death , Betsy Etty married chemist Stephen Binnington , a distant relation of the Etty family . She moved into his house in Haymarket , and some time after his death moved to 40 Edwardes Square , where she died in 1888 at the age of 87 .
While Etty did have admirers , the patchy quality of his later work meant that he never acquired the circle of imitators and students that could have led to him being seen as the founder of the English realist movement , now considered to have begun in 1848 with the formation of the Pre @-@ Raphaelite Brotherhood . William Holman Hunt and John Everett Millais , two of the three founders of the Pre @-@ Raphaelites , were heavily influenced by Etty 's early works but recoiled from his later style . Holman Hunt recollected that " in my youth [ Etty ] had lost the robustness he once had [ ... ] the paintings of his advanced age cloyed the taste by their sweetness " . Millais had consciously modelled his style on Etty , and his works prior to the formation of the Pre @-@ Raphaelites are very similar in composition , but after 1848 the only similarity in style is the use of colour . As Pre @-@ Raphaelitism waned Millais 's style became more varied , and some of his later work such as The Knight Errant owes a strong debt to Etty 's influence .
During his life Etty had acquired followers such as Irish painters William Mulready and Daniel Maclise , but both rejected Etty 's preoccupation with nudes . Mulready painted nudes but became best known for domestic genre paintings , while Maclise chose to specialise in more traditional history paintings and exhibited only one nude work in his career . One of the few painters who consciously attempted to continue Etty 's style after his death was William Edward Frost , who had been an acquaintance of Etty 's since 1825 . In the early 1830s Frost painted on commission for Thomas Potts ( whose 1833 commission of Etty to paint his daughter Elizabeth 's portrait had been Etty 's first significant portrait commission ) , and later was commissioned on Etty 's recommendation to paint a portrait of Etty 's cousin Thomas Bodley . Frost successfully imitated Etty throughout his career , to the extent that his figure studies and Etty 's are often misattributed to each other . Although Frost eventually became a Royal Academician in 1870 , by this time Etty 's style of painting had badly fallen out of fashion .
Victorian painting had gone through radical changes , and by the 1870s the realism of Etty and the Pre @-@ Raphaelites had given way to the ideas of the Aesthetic Movement , abandoning the traditions of storytelling and moralising in favour of painting works designed for aesthetic appeal rather than for their narrative or subject . Although the aesthetic movement ultimately led to a brief revival of history painting , these works were in a very different style to Etty 's . The new generation of history painters such as Edward Burne @-@ Jones , Lawrence Alma @-@ Tadema and Frederic Leighton sought to depict passivity , rather than the dynamism seen in previous works depicting the classical world . By the end of the 19th century , the value of all of Etty 's works had fallen below their original prices . As the 20th century began , the increasingly influential Modernist movement , which came to dominate British art in the 20th century , drew its inspiration from Paul Cézanne and had little regard for 19th @-@ century British painting .
In 1911 the city of York belatedly recognised Etty . A statue of Etty by G. W. Milburn was unveiled on 1 February outside the York Art Gallery , and a retrospective of 164 Etty paintings was held at the gallery despite opposition from some of Etty 's descendants who refused to lend works for it . William Wallace Hargrove , proprietor of the York Herald , gave a speech recalling his memories of knowing Etty . Outside York , Etty generally remained little @-@ known , with the majority of those galleries holding his works , other than the Lady Lever Art Gallery , the Russell @-@ Cotes Museum and Anglesey Abbey , tending to keep them in storage . Minor Etty exhibitions in London in 1936 and 1938 had little impact , and likewise an exhibition of 30 Etty paintings in 1948 to mark the reopening of the York Art Gallery and another York exhibition of 108 paintings the following year to mark the centenary of his death . In 2001 – 02 four Etty paintings were included in Tate Britain 's landmark Exposed : The Victorian Nude exhibition , which did much to raise Etty 's profile , and established Etty as " the first British artist to paint the nude with both seriousness and consistency " . The restoration of The Sirens and Ulysses , completed in 2010 , led to increased interest in Etty , and in 2011 – 12 a major exhibition of Etty 's works was held at the York Art Gallery . The York Art Gallery continues to hold the largest collection of Etty 's works .
|
= King Charles Spaniel =
The King Charles Spaniel ( also known as the English Toy Spaniel ) is a small dog breed of the spaniel type . In 1903 , the Kennel Club combined four separate toy spaniel breeds under this single title . The other varieties merged into this breed were the Blenheim , Ruby and Prince Charles Spaniels , each of which contributed one of the four colours available in the breed .
Thought to have originated in the Far East , toy spaniels were first seen in Europe during the 16th century . They were made famous by their association with King Charles II of England ( 1630 – 1685 ) and have been linked with English royalty since the time of Queen Mary I ( 1516 – 1558 ) . Members of the breed have been owned by Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna of Russia , Queen Victoria and Queen Elizabeth II .
The King Charles Spaniel and the other types of toy spaniels were crossbred with the Pug in the early 19th century to reduce the size of the nose , as was the style of the day . The 20th century saw attempts to restore lines of King Charles Spaniels to the breed of Charles II 's time . These included the unsuccessful Toy Trawler Spaniel and the now popular Cavalier King Charles Spaniel . The Cavalier is slightly larger , with a flat head and a longer nose , while the King Charles is smaller , with a domed head and a flat face .
Historically the breeds that were merged into the King Charles Spaniel were used for hunting ; due to their stature they were not well suited . They have kept their hunting instincts , but do not exhibit high energy and are better suited to being lapdogs . The modern breed is prone to several health problems , including cardiac conditions and a range of eye issues .
= = History = =
It is thought that the toy spaniels that eventually became the King Charles Spaniel originated in the Far East , primarily Japan . They may share a common ancestry with the Pekingese and Japanese Chin . Toy spaniels were given as gifts to European royalty .
The red and white variety of toy spaniel was first seen in paintings by Titian , including the Venus of Urbino ( 1538 ) , where a small dog is used as a symbol of female seductiveness . Further paintings featuring these toy spaniels were created by Palma Vecchio and Paolo Veronese during the 16th century . These dogs already had high domed heads with short noses , although the muzzles were more pointed than they are today . These Italian toy spaniels may have been crossed with local small dogs such as the Maltese and also with imported Chinese dogs . The Papillon is the continental descendant of similar toy @-@ sized spaniels .
The earliest recorded appearance of a toy spaniel in England was in a painting of Queen Mary I and King Philip . Mary , Queen of Scots ( 1542 – 1587 ) , was also fond of small toy dogs , including spaniels , showing the fondness of the British royalty for these types of dogs before Charles II .
King Henry III of France ( 1551 – 1589 ) owned a number of small spaniels , which were called Damarets . Although one of the translations of John Caius ' 1570 Latin work De Canibus Britannicis talks of " a new type of Spaniel brought out of France , rare , strange , and hard to get " , this was an addition in a later translation , and was not in the original text . Caius did discuss the " Spainel @-@ gentle , or Comforter " though , which he classified as a delicate thoroughbred . This spaniel was thought to originate from Malta and was sought out only as a lapdog for " daintie dames " .
Captain John Saris may have brought back examples of toy spaniels from his voyage to Japan in 1613 , a theory proposed by Commodore Matthew C. Perry during his expeditions to Japan on behalf of the United States in the mid ‐ 19th century . He noted that dogs were a common gift and thought that the earlier voyage of Captain Saris introduced a Japanese type of spaniel into England .
= = = 17th century and Charles II = = =
In the 17th century , toy spaniels began to feature in paintings by Dutch artists such as Caspar Netscher and Peter Paul Rubens . Spanish artists , including Juan de Valdés Leal and Diego Velázquez , also depicted them ; in the Spanish works , the dogs were tricolour , black and white or entirely white . French naturalist Georges @-@ Louis Leclerc , Comte de Buffon would later describe these types of dogs as crosses between spaniels and Pugs .
Charles II of England was very fond of the toy spaniel , which is why the dogs now carry his name , although there is no evidence that the modern breeds are descended from his particular dogs . He is credited with causing an increase in popularity of the breed during this period . Samuel Pepys ' diary describes how the spaniels were allowed to roam anywhere in Whitehall Palace , including during state occasions . In an entry dated 1 September 1666 , describing a council meeting , Pepys wrote , " All I observed there was the silliness of the King , playing with his dog all the while and not minding the business . " Charles ' sister Princess Henrietta was painted by Pierre Mignard holding a small red and white toy @-@ sized spaniel . Judith Blunt @-@ Lytton , 16th Baroness Wentworth , writing in her 1911 work Toy Dogs and Their Ancestors , theorised that after Henrietta 's death at the age of 26 in 1670 , Charles took her dogs for himself .
= = = After Charles II = = =
Toy spaniels continued to be popular in the British court during the reign of King James II , through that of Queen Anne . Popular types included those of the white and red variety . Following the Glorious Revolution in 1688 and the reign of King William III and Queen Mary II , the Pug was introduced into Britain which would eventually lead to drastic physical changes to the King Charles Spaniel . Comparisons between needlework pictures of English toy spaniels and the continental variety show that changes had already begun to take place in the English types by 1736 , with a shorter nose being featured and the breed overall moving away from the one seen in earlier works by Anthony van Dyck during the 17th century .
English toy spaniels remained popular enough during the 18th century to be featured frequently in literature and in art . On Rover , a Lady 's Spaniel , Jonathan Swift 's satire of Ambrose Philips 's poem to the daughter of the Lord Lieutenant , describes the features of an English toy , specifying a " forehead large and high " among other physical characteristics of the breeds . Toy spaniels and Pugs were featured in both group portraits and satirical works by William Hogarth . Toy spaniels were still popular with the upper classes as ladies ' dogs , despite the introduction of the Pug ; both Thomas Gainsborough 's portrait of Queen Charlotte from 1781 and George Romney 's 1782 Lady Hamilton as Nature feature toy spaniels with their mistresses . The toy spaniels of this century weighed as little as 5 pounds ( 2 @.@ 3 kg ) , although they were thought to be the dog breed most prone to becoming overweight , or " fattened " .
= = = 19th century and the Blenheim Spaniel = = =
The varieties of toy spaniel were occasionally used in hunting , as the Sportsman 's Repository reported in 1830 of the Blenheim Spaniel : " Twenty years ago , His Grace the Duke of Marlborough was reputed to possess the smallest and best breed of cockers in Britain ; they were invariably red – and – white , with very long ears , short noses , and black eyes . " During this period , the term " cocker " was not used to describe a Cocker Spaniel , but rather a type of small spaniel used to hunt woodcock . The Duke 's residence , Blenheim Palace , gave its name to the Blenheim Spaniel . The Sportsman 's Repository explains that toy spaniels are able to hunt , albeit not for a full day or in difficult terrain : " The very delicate and small , or ' carpet spaniels , ' have exquisite nose , and will hunt truly and pleasantly , but are neither fit for a long day or thorny covert . " This idea was supported by Vero Shaw in his 1881 work The Illustrated Book of the Dog , and by Thomas Brown in 1829 who wrote , " He is seldom used for field – sports , from his diminutive size , being easily tired , and is too short in the legs to get through swampy ground . " During the 19th century , the Maltese was still considered to be a type of spaniel , and thought to be the parent breed of toy spaniels , including both the King Charles and Blenheim varieties .
The breeds of toy spaniel often rivalled the Pug in popularity as lapdogs for ladies . The disadvantage of the breeds of toy spaniel was that their long coats required constant grooming . By 1830 , the toy spaniel had changed somewhat from the dogs of Charles II 's day . William Youatt in his 1845 study , The Dog , was not enamoured of the changes : " The King Charles 's breed of the present day is materially altered for the worse . The muzzle is almost as short , and the forehead as ugly and prominent as the veriest bull @-@ dog . The eye is increased to double its former size , and has an expression of stupidity with which the character of the dog too accurately corresponds . " Youatt did concede that the breed 's long ears , coat and colouring were attractive . Due to the fashion of the period , the toy spaniels were crossed with Pugs to reduce the size of their noses and then selectively bred to reduce it further . By doing this , the dog 's sense of smell was impaired , and according to 19th century writers , this caused the varieties of toy spaniel to be removed from participation in field sports . Blunt @-@ Lytton proposed that the red and white Blenheim Spaniels always had the shorter nose now seen in the modern King Charles .
From the 16th century , it was the fashion for ladies to carry small toy @-@ sized spaniels as they travelled around town . These dogs were called " Comforters " and given the species biological classification of Canis consolator by 19th @-@ century dog writers . By the 1830s , this practice was no longer in vogue , and these types of spaniels were becoming rarer . " Comforter " was given as a generic term to lapdogs , including the Maltese , the English Toy and Continental Toy Spaniels , the latter of which was similar to the modern Phalène . It was once believed that the dogs possessed some power of healing : in 1607 Edward Topsell repeated Caius ' observation that " these little dogs are good to asswage the sickness of stomach , being oftentimes thereunto applied as a plaister preservative , or bourne in the bosum of the diseased and weak person , which effect is performed by their moderate heat . " By the 1840s , " Comforter " had dropped out of use , and the breed had returned to being called Toy Spaniels . The first written occurrence of a ruby coloured toy spaniel was a dog named Dandy , owned by a Mr Garwood in 1875 .
The dogs continued to be popular with royalty . Queen Victoria 's first dog was a King Charles Spaniel named Dash . In 1896 , Otto von Bismarck purchased a King Charles Spaniel from an American kennel for $ 1 @,@ 000 . The dog weighed less than 2 pounds ( 0 @.@ 9 kg ) , and had been disqualified from the Westminster Kennel Club the previous year on account of its weight . The average price was lower than that paid by Bismarck . In 1899 , the price ranged between $ 50 and $ 200 for a King Charles or Blenheim , with the Ruby and Prince Charles Spaniel ranging between $ 50 and $ 150 .
Anne Brontë 's " Flossy , " given to her by the Robinson children when she left her governorship of them , was a King Charles Spaniel .
= = = Conformation showing and the 20th century = = =
In 1903 , the Kennel Club attempted to amalgamate the King James ( black and tan ) , Prince Charles ( tricolour ) , Blenheim and Ruby spaniels into a single breed called the Toy Spaniel . The Toy Spaniel Club , which oversaw those separate breeds , strongly objected , and the argument was only resolved following the intervention of King Edward VII , who made it clear that he preferred the name " King Charles Spaniel " . In 1904 , the American Kennel Club followed suit , combining the four breeds into a single breed known as the English Toy Spaniel . The Japanese Spaniel was also considered a type of toy spaniel , but was not merged into the new breed and was recognised as a breed in its own right .
Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna of Russia owned a King Charles Spaniel at the time of the shooting of the Romanov family on 17 July 1918 . Eight days later , Nicholas Sokolov of the White Forces found a clearing where he believed the bodies of the Romanov family had been burnt , and discovered the corpse of a King Charles Spaniel at the site . In 1920s , the Duchess of Marlborough bred so many King Charles Spaniels at Blenheim Palace that her husband moved out and later evicted the Duchess herself .
Blunt @-@ Lytton documented her attempts in the early 20th century to re @-@ breed the 18th @-@ century type of King Charles Spaniel as seen in the portraits of King Charles II . She used the Toy Trawler Spaniel , a curly haired , mostly black , small to medium @-@ sized spaniel , and cross @-@ bred these dogs with a variety of other breeds , including Blenheim Spaniels and Cocker Spaniels , in unsuccessful attempts to reproduce the earlier style .
The Cavalier King Charles Spaniel originated from a competition held by American Roswell Eldridge in 1926 . He offered a prize fund for the best male and female dogs of " Blenheim Spaniels of the old type , as shown in pictures of Charles II of England 's time , long face , no stop , flat skull , not inclined to be domed , with spot in centre of skull . " Breeders entered what they considered to be sub ‐ par King Charles Spaniels . Although Eldridge did not live to see the new breed created , several breeders banded together and created the first breed club for the new Cavalier King Charles Spaniel in 1928 , with the Kennel Club initially listing the new breed as " King Charles Spaniels , Cavalier type " . In 1945 , the Kennel Club recognised the new breed in its own right . The American Kennel Club did not recognise the Cavalier until 1997 .
Princess Margaret , Countess of Snowdon , continued the connection between royalty and the King Charles Spaniel , attending Princess Anne 's tenth birthday party with her dog Rolly in 1960 . Elizabeth II has also owned King Charles Spaniels in addition to the dogs most frequently associated with her , the Pembroke Welsh Corgi .
In 2008 , the BBC documentary Pedigree Dogs Exposed was critical of the breeding of a variety of pedigree breeds including the King Charles Spaniel . The show highlighted issues involving syringomyelia in both the King Charles and Cavalier breeds . Mark Evans , the chief veterinary advisor for the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals ( RSPCA ) , said , " Dog shows using current breed standards as the main judging criteria actively encourage both the intentional breeding of deformed and disabled dogs and the inbreeding of closely related animals " ; this opinion was seconded by the Scottish SPCA . Following the programme , the RSPCA ended its sponsorship of the annual Crufts dog show , and the BBC declined to broadcast the event .
The King Charles Spaniel is less popular than the Cavalier in both the UK and the US . In 2010 , the Cavalier was the 23rd most popular breed , according to registration figures collected by the American Kennel Club , while the English Toy Spaniel was the 126th . In the UK , according to the Kennel Club , the Cavalier is the most popular breed in the Toy Group , with 8 @,@ 154 puppies registered in 2010 , compared to 199 registrations for King Charles Spaniels . Due to the low number of registrations , the King Charles was identified as a Vulnerable Native Breed by the Kennel Club in 2003 in an effort to help promote the breed .
= = Description = =
The King Charles has large dark eyes , a short nose , a high domed head and a line of black skin around the mouth . On average , it stands 9 to 11 inches ( 23 to 28 cm ) at the withers , with a small but compact body . The breed has a traditionally docked tail . It has the long pendulous ears typical of a spaniel and its coat comes in four varieties , trait it shares with its offshoot , the Cavalier King Charles Spaniel .
The four sets of markings reflect the four former breeds from which the modern breed was derived . Black and tan markings are known as " King Charles " , while " Prince Charles " is tricoloured , " Blenheim " is red and white , and " Ruby " is a single @-@ coloured solid rich red . The " King Charles " black and tan markings typically consist of a black coat with mahogany / tan markings on the face , legs and chest and under the tail . The tricoloured " Prince Charles " is mostly white with black patches and mahogany / tan markings in similar locations to the " King Charles " . The " Blenheim " has a white coat with red patches , and should have a distinctive red spot in the center of the skull .
King Charles Spaniels are often mistaken for Cavalier King Charles Spaniels . There are several significant differences between the two breeds , the principal being the size . While the Cavalier weighs on average between 13 to 18 pounds ( 5 @.@ 9 to 8 @.@ 2 kg ) , the King Charles is smaller at 8 to 14 pounds ( 3 @.@ 6 to 6 @.@ 4 kg ) . In addition , their facial features , while similar , are distinguishable : the Cavalier 's ears are set higher and its skull is flat , while the King Charles ' is domed . Finally , the muzzle length of the King Charles tends to be shorter than the typical muzzle on a Cavalier .
The American Kennel Club has two classes , English Toy Spaniel ( B / PC ) ( Blenheim and Prince Charles ) and English Toy Spaniel ( R / KC ) , while in the UK , the Kennel Club places the breed in a single class . Under the Fédération Cynologique Internationale groups , the King Charles is placed in the English Toy Spaniel section within the Companion and Toy Dog Group , along with the Cavalier King Charles Spaniel .
= = Temperament = =
The King Charles is a friendly breed , to the extent that it is not typically as suitable as a watchdog as some breeds , though it may still bark to warn its owners of an approaching visitor . It is not a high energy breed , and enjoys the company of family members , being primarily a lapdog . Although able to bond well with children and tolerant of them , it will not accept rough handling . It prefers not to be left alone for long periods . Known as one of the quietest toy breeds , it is suitable for apartment living .
The breed can tolerate other pets well , although the King Charles still has the hunting instincts of its ancestors and may not always be friendly towards smaller animals . It is intelligent enough to be used for obedience work and , due to its stable temperament , it can be a successful therapy dog for hospitals and nursing homes .
= = Health = =
A natural bobtail can be found in some members of the breed , which is not a mutation of the T @-@ box gene , and so is allowed under conformation show rules . Health @-@ related research on the breed has been limited , with no major studies conducted in Britain . However , it has been included in studies outside the UK , including by the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals ( OFA ) in the United States . The King Charles Spaniel has a number of eye and respiratory system disorders common to brachycephalic dogs , and endocrine and metabolic diseases common to small breeds , as well as specific breed @-@ associated health conditions . The average lifespan is 10 to 12 years , and the breed should be able to reproduce naturally .
= = = Eye and heart conditions = = =
The eye problems associated with the King Charles Spaniel include cataracts , corneal dystrophy , distichia , entropion , microphthalmia , optic disc drusen , and keratitis . Compared to other breeds , the King Charles Spaniel has an increased risk of distichia ( where extra eyelashes or hairs cause irritation to the eye ) . Inheritance is suspected in the other conditions , with ages of onset ranging from six months for cataracts to two to five years for corneal dystrophy .
Heart conditions related to the King Charles Spaniel include mitral valve disease , in which the mitral valve degrades , causing blood to flow backwards through the chambers of the heart and eventually leading to congestive heart failure . Patent ductus arteriosus , where blood is channelled back from the heart into the lungs , is also seen and can lead to heart failure . Both of these conditions present with similar symptoms and are inheritable . The OFA conducted a survey on cardiac disease , where of 105 breeds , the King Charles Spaniel was found to be 7th worst , with 2 @.@ 1 % of 189 dogs affected .
= = = Other common issues = = =
Being a brachycephalic breed , King Charles Spaniels can be sensitive to anesthesia . This is because in brachycephalic dogs , there is additional tissue in the throat directly behind the mouth and nasal cavity , known as the pharynx , and anesthesia acts as a muscle relaxant causing this tissue to obstruct the dogs ' narrow airways . These narrow airways can decrease the dogs ' ability to exercise properly and increase their susceptibility to heat stroke . Other congenital and hereditary disorders found in the King Charles Spaniel are hanging tongue , where a neurological defect prevents the tongue from retracting into the mouth ; diabetes mellitus , which may be associated with cataracts ; cleft palate and umbilical hernia . The English Toy Spaniel Club of America recommends that umbilical hernias be corrected only if other surgery is required , due to the risk of surgery in brachycephalic breeds . In another study conducted by the OFA , the King Charles Spaniel was the 38th worst of 99 breeds for patella luxation ; of 75 animals tested , 4 % were found to have the ailment . However , surveys conducted by the Finnish breed club between 1988 and 2007 found that the occurrences were higher in some years , ranging from 5 @.@ 3 % to 50 % .
There are several breed traits which may cause concern as health issues . They include skull issues such as an open fontanelle , where in young dogs there is a soft spot in the skull ; it is common in dogs under a year old . A complication from that condition is hydrocephalus , also known as water on the brain . This condition may cause neurological symptoms that require the dog to be euthanised . Fused toes , where two or more of the dog 's toes are fused together , may seem to be a health issue but this breed trait is not a cause for concern .
= = Urban myth = =
An urban legend claims that Charles II issued a special decree granting King Charles Spaniels permission to enter any establishment in the UK , overriding " no dog except guide dogs " rules . A variant of this myth relates specifically to the Houses of Parliament . This myth is sometimes instead applied to the Cavalier King Charles Spaniel .
The UK Parliament website states : " Contrary to popular rumour , there is no Act of Parliament referring to King Charles spaniels being allowed anywhere in the Palace of Westminster . We are often asked this question and have thoroughly researched it . " Similarly , there is no proof of any such law covering the wider UK . A spokesman for the Kennel Club said : " This law has been quoted from time to time . It is alleged in books that King Charles made this decree but our research hasn 't tracked it down . "
|
= David Hattner =
David Hattner is an American professional clarinetist and conductor currently serving as music director of the Portland Youth Philharmonic . Raised in Toledo , Ohio , Hattner attended the Interlochen Arts Camp and Arts Academy , experiences which inspired him to become a professional musician and conductor . He graduated from the Arts Academy in 1986 and enrolled in Northwestern University where he studied clarinet performance under Robert Marcellus . In 1988 he placed second in the International Clarinet Association 's Young Artist Competition and was selected to join the American @-@ Soviet Youth Orchestra . He earned a music degree with honors in 1990 .
After performing clarinet with and guest conducting several major ensembles , Hattner moved to New York City in 1996 and became principal clarinetist of the Princeton Symphony Orchestra ; his Lincoln Center debut occurred later that year . By 2002 Hattner was the music director and clarinetist of Camerata Atlantica . In 2008 he was chosen to be the conductor and music director of the Portland Youth Philharmonic . Since joining the Philharmonic he has debuted with the Oregon Symphony , Oregon Mozart Players and continues to perform clarinet for local ensembles and other projects . Hattner has also participated in multimedia work with silent film both nationally and internationally .
= = Education and career = =
David Hattner was born to Louis and Joan Hattner , residents of Toledo , Ohio . His father was not a musician but owned an extensive record collection which included classical music , which influenced David at a young age . Prior to college , Hattner attended the Interlochen Arts Camp in 1980 and from 1982 – 1984 . He then spent three years at the Interlochen Arts Academy where he studied with Richard MacDowell and Frank Kowalsky , graduating in 1986 . He has stated that his experiences at Interlochen inspired him to become a professional musician and conductor . In the summer of 1987 , following his freshman year at Northwestern University where he studied clarinet performance under Robert Marcellus , Hattner was selected to perform at the Spoleto Music Festival in Italy . In 1988 he placed second in the International Clarinet Association 's Young Artist Competition and was selected to be a member of the American @-@ Soviet Youth Orchestra . Hattner earned a music degree with honors from Northwestern in 1990 . Following his graduation , Hattner returned to Toledo and presented a clarinet recital at the University of Toledo 's Center for the Performing Arts .
In 1996 Hattner moved to New York City and became the principal clarinetist of the Princeton Symphony Orchestra . His Lincoln Center debut took place at Alice Tully Hall in November 1996 with the American premiere of Isang Yun 's Quintet No. 2 for Clarinet and Strings . He also performed with the Garden State Philharmonic , Long Island Philharmonic , New Jersey Symphony Orchestra , Orpheus Chamber Orchestra , and the Quintet of the Americas . Hattner guest conducted the Oklahoma Chamber Ensemble and Garden State Philharmonic and organized benefit concerts at St. Ignatius of Antioch Church in Manhattan to feed local residents . In 2001 , he released The Clarinetist Composer with Albert Tiu . By 2002 Hattner was the music director and clarinetist of Camerata Atlantica , an ensemble he co @-@ founded with Mark Sloss .
Hattner participated in the American Academy of Conducting at the Aspen Music Festival three times ( 2003 , 2005 and 2006 ) ; there he studied with Murry Sidlin and David Zinman , the former conductor of the Baltimore Symphony Orchestra . In February 2006 he conducted Richard Einhorn 's Voices of Light as the score to Carl Theodor Dreyer 's 1928 silent film The Passion of Joan of Arc at the Winter Garden Atrium in Manhattan as part of the World Financial Center 's Arts + Events series . Hattner has also guest conducted the Brooklyn Symphony Orchestra , Cincinnati Chamber Orchestra , Ensemble Sospeso , Eugene Symphony , International Contemporary Ensemble , and the Massapequa Philharmonic Orchestra . He has been the principal clarinet with the Cascade Music Festival Orchestra in Bend for two seasons , the Key West Symphony Orchestra , and the New Jersey Opera Theater . In 2010 he became a member of Interlochen 's Heritage Society , reserved for people who have chosen to contribute to Interlochen through estate @-@ planning . In May 2010 he served as conductor of the Interlochen Philharmonic during the first two weeks of Interlochen Arts Camp . Hattner made his Oregon Symphony debut in January 2011 . He guest conducted the Oregon Mozart Players , an ensemble based in Eugene , in October 2011 as one of three finalists to fill the position of departing music director Glen Cortese . Hattner guest conducted the Oregon State University Wind Ensemble and FearNoMusic in October 2011 , followed by the University of Oregon Symphony in November 2011 . In April 2012 Hattner conducted and performed clarinet for Promise , an opera by Theresa Koon about the life of Camille Claudel .
= = = Portland Youth Philharmonic = = =
In 2008 Hattner was chosen from a field of 112 candidates to be the conductor and music director of the Portland Youth Philharmonic . In April 2010 the Philharmonic was awarded the Oregon Symphony 's Patty Vemer Excellence in Music Education Award , marking the first time the recognition for inspiring students was presented to an organization . Hattner accepted the award on the orchestra 's behalf . In order to make use of all musicians in the Philharmonic as often as possible , Hattner often uses Romantic music and symphonies and ballets from the early 20th century in his programs . The Philharmonic began offering chamber orchestra concerts during his tenure .
= = Style and interests = =
Hattner has said of his conducting style , " It is generally somewhat of a collaborative process between myself and the musicians , having been a player myself . I 'm fairly specific about what I 'm asking for in terms of the tempos and the phrasing , but bits of individual expression comes from the hearts and minds of the players themselves . I don 't try to micromanage every detail . " In addition to conducting and clarinet performance , Hattner has participated in multimedia work with silent film both nationally and internationally . He continues to perform clarinet in ensembles such as 45th Parallel , Martingale Ensemble and other projects .
|
= English embroidery =
English embroidery includes embroidery worked in England or by English people abroad from Anglo @-@ Saxon times to the present day . The oldest surviving English embroideries include items from the early 10th century preserved in Durham Cathedral and the 11th century Bayeux Tapestry , if it was worked in England . The professional workshops of Medieval England created rich embroidery in metal thread and silk for ecclesiastical and secular uses . This style was called Opus Anglicanum or " English work " , and was famous throughout Europe .
With the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century , the focus of English embroidery increasingly turned to clothing and household furnishings , leading to another great flowering of English domestic embroidery in the Elizabethan and Jacobean eras . The end of this period saw the rise of the formal sampler as a record of the amateur stitcher 's skills . Curious fashions of the mid @-@ 17th century were raised work or stumpwork , a pictorial style featuring detached and padded elements , and crewel work , featuring exotic leaf motifs worked in wool yarn .
Canvaswork , in which thread is stitched through a foundation fabric , and surface embroidery , in which the majority of the thread sits on top of the fabric , exist side @-@ by @-@ side in the English tradition , coming in and out of fashion over the years . In the 19th century , the craze for Berlin wool work , a canvaswork style using brightly coloured wool , contrasts with art needlework , associated with the Arts and Crafts Movement , which attempted to resurrect the artistic and expressive styles of medieval surface embroidery under the influence of the Gothic Revival and the Pre @-@ Raphaelites .
Although continental fashions in needlework were adopted in England , a number of popular styles were purely English in origin , including the embroidered linen jackets of the turn of the 17th century , stumpwork , and art needlework .
= = Medieval period = =
= = = Anglo @-@ Saxon = = =
Little physical evidence survives to reconstruct the early development of English embroidery before the Norman Conquest of 1066 . Stitches reinforcing the seams of a garment in the Sutton Hoo ship burial may have been intended as decoration , and so be classed as embroidery , and fragments of a scrolling border worked in stem stitch were recovered from a grave in Kempston , Bedfordshire . Some embroidered pieces of about 850 preserved in Maaseik , Belgium , are generally assumed to be Anglo @-@ Saxon work based on their similarity to contemporary manuscript illustrations and sculptures of animals and interlace .
The documentary evidence is rather richer than the physical remains . Part of the reason for both these facts is the taste among the late Anglo @-@ Saxon elite for embroidering using lavish amounts of precious metal thread , especially gold , which both gave items a magnificence and expense worth recording , and meant that they were well worth burning to recover the bullion . Three old vestments , almost certainly Anglo @-@ Saxon , recycled in this way at Canterbury Cathedral in the 1370s , produced over £ 250 of gold – a huge amount . Richly embroidered hangings were used in both churches and the houses of the rich , but vestments were the most richly embellished of all , of a " particularly English " richness . Most of these were sent back to Normandy or burnt for their metal after the Norman conquest . An image of part of a huge gold acanthus flower on the back of a gold @-@ bordered chasuble , almost certainly depicting a specific real vestment , can be seen in the Benedictional of St. Æthelwold ( fol . 118v ) .
Scholars agree that three embroidered items from the coffin of St Cuthbert in Durham are Anglo @-@ Saxon work , based on an inscription describing their commission by Queen Ælfflæd between 909 and 916 . These include a stole and maniple ornamented with figures of prophets outlined in stem stitch and filled with split stitch , with halos in gold thread worked with underside couching . The quality of this silk embroidery on a gold background is " unparalleled in Europe at this time . "
Scholarly consensus favours an Anglo @-@ Saxon , probably Kentish origin for the Bayeux tapestry . This famous narrative of the Conquest is not a true woven tapestry but an embroidered hanging worked in wool yarn on a tabby @-@ woven linen ground using outline or stem stitch for lettering and the outlines of figures , and couching or laid work for filling in figures .
= = = Opus Anglicanum = = =
The Anglo @-@ Saxon embroidery style combining split stitch and couching with silk and goldwork in gold or silver @-@ gilt thread of the Durham examples flowered from the 12th to the 14th centuries into a style known to contemporaries as Opus Anglicanum or " English work " . Opus Anglicanum was made for both ecclesiastical and secular use on clothing , hangings , and other textiles . It was usually worked on linen or dark silks , or later , worked as individual motifs on linen and applied to velvet .
Throughout this period , the designs of embroidery paralleled fashions in manuscript illumination and architecture . Work of this period often featured continuous light scrolls and spirals with or without foliations , in addition to figures of kings and saints in geometrical frames or Gothic arches .
Opus Anglicanum was famous throughout Europe . A " Gregory of London " was working in Rome as a gold @-@ embroiderer to Pope Alexander IV in 1263 , and the Vatican inventory in Rome of 1295 records well over 100 pieces of English work . Notable surviving examples of Opus Anglicanum include Syon Cope and the Butler @-@ Bowden Cope of 1330 – 50 in the Victoria and Albert Museum , embroidered with silver and silver @-@ gilt thread and coloured silks on silk velvet , which was disassembled and later reassembled into a cope in the 19th century .
= = = Professional embroiderers = = =
By the 13th century , most English goldwork was made in London workshops , which produced ecclesiastical work , clothing and furnishings for royalty and the nobility , heraldic banners and horse @-@ trappings , and the ceremonial regalia for the great Livery Companies of the City of London and for the court .
The founding of the embroiderer 's guild in London is attributed to the 14th century or earlier , but its early documents were lost in the Great Fire of London in the 17th century . An indenture of 23 March 1515 records the establishment of Broderers ' Hall in Cutter Lane in that year , and the guild was officially incorporated ( or reincorporated ) by Royal Charter under Elizabeth I in 1561 as the Worshipful Company of Broderers . Professional embroiderers were also attached to the great households of England , but it is unlikely that those working far from London were members of the Company .
From the middle of the 14th century , money that had previously been spent on luxury goods like lavish embroidery was redirected to military expenditure , and imported Italian figured silks competed with native embroidery traditions . Varieties of design in textiles succeeded each other very rapidly , and they were more readily available than the more leisurely produced needlework . The work produced by the London workshops was simplified to meet the demands of this deteriorating market . The new techniques required less work and smaller quantities of expensive materials . Surface couching replaced underside couching , and allover embroidery was replaced by individual motifs worked on linen and then applied to figured silks or silk velvets . Increasingly , designs for embroidery were derived directly from woven patterns , " thus losing not only their former individuality and richness , but also their former ... story @-@ telling interest . "
= = Renaissance to Restoration = =
The second great flowering of English embroidery , after Opus Anglicanum , took place in the reign of Elizabeth I.
Although the majority of surviving English embroidery from the medieval period was intended for church use , this demand decreased radically with the Protestant Reformation . In contrast , the bulk of the surviving embroidery of the Tudor , Elizabethan , and Jacobean eras is for domestic use , whether for clothing or household decoration . The stable society that existed between the accession of Elizabeth in 1558 and the English Civil War encouraged the building and furnishing of new houses , in which rich textiles played a part . Some embroidery was imported in this period , including the canvas work bed valances once thought to be English but now attributed to France , but the majority of work was made in England — and increasingly , by skilled amateurs , mostly women , working domestically , to designs by professional men and women , and later to published pattern books .
= = = Tudor and Jacobean styles = = =
A general taste for abundant surface ornamentation is reflected in both household furnishings and in fashionable court clothing from the mid @-@ 16th century through the reign of James I. A 1547 account of the wardrobe of Henry VIII shows that just over half of the 224 items were ornamented with embroidery of some kind , and embroidered shirts and accessories were popular New Year 's gift to the Tudor monarchs . Fine linen shirts , chemises , ruffs , collars , coifs and caps were embroidered in monochrome silks and edged in lace . The monochrome works are classified as blackwork embroidery even when worked in other colours ; red , crimson , blue , green , and pink were also popular .
Outer clothing and furnishings of woven silk brocades and velvets were ornamented with gold and silver embroidery in linear or scrolling patterns , applied bobbin lace and passementerie , and small jewels .
Appliqué work was popular in the Tudor era , especially for large @-@ scale works such as wall hangings . In Medieval England , rich clothing had been bequeathed to the church to be remade into vestments ; following the dissolution of the monasteries at the Reformation , the rich silks and velvets of the great monastic houses were cut up and repurposed to make hangings and cushions for private homes . Shapes cut from opulent fabrics and small motifs or slips worked on fine linen canvas were applied a background fabric of figured silk , velvet , or plain wool and embellished with embroidery , in a style deriving from the later , simpler forms of Medieval work .
Canvaswork in which the linen ground was covered entirely by tent , gobelin , or cross stitches in wool or silk thread was often used for cushion covers and small bags . Notable examples like the Bradford carpet , a pictorial table cover , were likely the work of professionals in the Broderers ' Company .
Polychrome ( multicoloured ) silk embroidery became fashionable in the reign of Elizabeth , and from c . 1590 to 1620 a uniquely English fashion arose for embroidered linen jackets worn informally or as part of masquing costume . These jackets usually featured scrolling floral patterns worked in a multiplicity of stitches . Similar patterns worked in 2 @-@ ply worsted wool called crewel on heavy linen for furnishings are characteristic of Jacobean embroidery .
= = = Pattern sources = = =
Pattern books for geometric embroidery and needlelace were published in Germany as early as the 1520s . These featured the stepped , angular patterns characteristic of early blackwork , ultimately deriving from medieval Islamic Egypt . These patterns , seen in the portraits of Hans Holbein the Younger , were worked over counted threads in a double running stitch ( later called Holbein stitch by English embroiderers ) .
The first pattern book for embroidery published in England was Moryssche & Damaschin renewed & encreased very popular for Goldsmiths & Embroiderers by Thomas Geminus ( 1545 ) . Moryssche or Moresque refers to Moorish or arabesque designs of spirals , scrolls , and zigzags , an important part of the reportoire of Renaissance ornament in many media . Scrolling patterns of flowers and leaves filled with geometric filling stitches are characteristic of blackwork from the 1540s through 1590s , and similar patterns worked in coloured silks appear from the 1560s , outlined in backstitch and filled with detached buttonhole stitch .
Additional pattern books for embroiderers appeared late in the century , followed by Richard Shorleyker 's A Schole @-@ house for the Needle published in London in 1624 . Other sources for embroidery designs were the popular herbals and emblem books . Both domestic and professional embroiderers probably relied on skilled draughtsmen or pattern @-@ drawers to interpret these design sources and draw them out on linen ready to be stitched .
= = = Early samplers = = =
Printed pattern books were not easily obtainable , and a sampler or embroidered record of stitches and patterns was the most common form of reference . 16th @-@ century English samplers were stitched on a narrow band of fabric and totally covered with stitches . These band samplers were highly valued , often being mentioned in wills and passed down through the generations . These samplers were stitched using a variety of needlework styles , threads , and ornament .
The earliest dated surviving sampler , housed in the Victoria and Albert Museum , was made by Jane Bostocke who included her name and the date 1598 in the inscription , but the earliest documentary reference to sampler making goes back another hundred years , to the 1502 household expense accounts of Elizabeth of York , which record the purchase of an ell of linen to make a sampler for the queen .
From the early 17th century , samplers became a more formal and stylized part of a girl 's education , even as the motifs and patterns on the samplers faded from fashion .
= = = Pictorial embroidery and stumpwork = = =
Following the death of James I and the accession of Charles I , elaborately embroidered clothing faded from popularity under the dual influences of rising Puritanism and the new court 's taste for French fashion with its lighter silks in solid colours accessorised with masses of linen and lace . In this new climate , needlework was praised by moralists as an appropriate occupation for girls and women in the home , and domestic embroidery for household use flourished . Embroidered pictures , mirror frames , workboxes , and other domestic objects of this era often depicted Biblical stories featuring characters dressed in the fashion of Charles and his queen Henrietta Maria , or after the Restoration , Charles II and Catherine of Braganza .
These stories were executed in canvaswork or in coloured silks in a uniquely English style called raised work , usually known by its modern name stumpwork . Raised work arose from the detached buttonhole stitch fillings and braided scrolls of late Elizabethan embroidery . Areas of the embroidery were worked on white or ivory silk grounds in a variety of stitches and prominent features were padded with horsehair or lambswool , or worked around wooden shapes or wire frames . Ribbons , spangles , beads , small pieces of lace , canvaswork slips , and other objects were added to increase the dimensionality of the finished work .
= = = Crewel = = =
Sets of bed hangings embroidered in crewel wools were another characteristic product of the Stuart era . These were worked on a new fabric , a natural twill weave from Bruges with a linen warp and cotton weft . Crewel wools of the 17th century were firmly twisted unlike the soft wools sold under that name today , and were dyed in deep rich shades of green , blue , red , yellow , and brown . Motifs of flowers and trees , with birds , insects , and animals , were worked at large scale in a variety of stitches . The origins of this work are in the polychrome embroidery on scrolling stems of the Elizabethan era , later blended with the Tree of Life and other motifs of Indian palampores , introduced by the trade of the East India Company .
After the Restoration , the patterns became ever more fanciful and exuberant . " It is an almost impossible task to describe the large leaves , since they bear no resemblance to anything natural , they are , however , rarely angular in outline , rejoicing rather in sweeping curves , and drooping points , curled over to display the under side of the leaf , a device that gave opening for much ingenuity in the arrangement of the stitches . "
Although usually called " Jacobean embroidery " by modern stitchers , crewel has its origins in the reign of James I but remained popular through the reign of Queen Anne and into the early 18th century , when a return to the simpler forms of the earliest work became fashionable .
= = Glorious Revolution to the Great War = =
= = = Later Stuart = = =
The accession of William III and Mary II following the Glorious Revolution of 1688 triggered another change in needlework fashions . Associations of stumpwork with the reign of the deposed Stuarts combined with Mary 's Dutch taste ushered in new styles influenced by Indian chintzes . From the 1690s , household furnishings such as chair covers and firescreens were the focus of embroidery in the home .
= = = Georgian = = =
In the Georgian era , canvaswork was popular for chair coverings , footstools , screens and card tables . Embroidered pictures and upholstery both reflected the popular pastoral theme of men and women in the sheep @-@ cropped English countryside . Other recurring themes include exotic Tree of Life patterns influenced by earlier crewelwork and chinoiserie with its fanciful imagery of an imaginary China , asymmetry in format and whimsical contrasts of scale . In contrast , needlepainting in silks and wools produced naturalistic portraits and domestic scenes .
Embroidery was once again an important element of fashion in the early 18th century . Aprons , stomachers , hanging pockets , shoes , gowns , and men 's coats and waistcoats were all decorated with embroidery .
= = = Later samplers = = =
By the 18th century , sampler making had become an important part of girls ' education in boarding and institutional schools . A commonplace component was now an alphabet with numerals , possibly accompanied by various crowns and coronets , all used in marking household linens . Traditional embroidered motifs were now rearranged into decorative borders framing lengthy inscriptions or verses of an " improving " nature and small pictorial scenes . These new samplers were more useful as a record of accomplishment to be hung on the wall than as a practical stitch guide .
= = = Tambourwork = = =
Tambourwork was a new chainstitch embroidery fad of the 1780s influenced by Indian embroidered muslins . Stitched originally with a needle and later with a small hook , tambour takes its name from the round embroidery frame in which it was worked . Tambour was suited to the light , flowing ornament appropriate to the new muslin dresses of this period , and patterns were readily available in periodicals like the Lady 's Magazine which debuted in 1770 .
Tambourwork was copied by machine early in the Industrial Revolution . As early as 1810 , a " worked muslin cap ... done in tambour stitch by a steam @-@ engine " was on the market , and machine @-@ made netting was in general use as a background by the 1820s .
= = = Smocking = = =
The linen smock @-@ frocks worn by rural workers , especially shepherds and waggoners , in parts of England and Wales from the early eighteenth century featured fullness across the back , breast , and sleeves folded into " tubes " ( narrow unpressed pleats ) held in place and decorated by smocking , a type of surface embroidery in a honeycomb pattern across the pleats that controls the fullness while allowing a degree of stretch .
Embroidery styles for smock @-@ frocks varied by region , and a number of motifs became traditional for various occupations : wheel @-@ shapes for carters and wagoners , sheep and crooks for shepherds , and so on . Most of this embroidery was done in heavy linen thread , often in the same color as the smock .
By the mid @-@ nineteenth century , wearing of traditional smock @-@ frocks by country laborers was dying out , and a romantic nostalgia for England 's rural past led to a fashion for women 's and children 's clothing loosely styled after smock @-@ frocks . These garments are generally of very fine linen or cotton and feature delicate smocking embroidery done in cotton floss in contrasting colors ; smocked garments with pastel @-@ colored embroidery remain popular for babies .
= = = Berlin work = = =
In the early 19th century , canvaswork in tent or petit point stitch again became popular . The new fashion , using printed patterns and coloured tapestry wools imported from Berlin , was called Berlin wool work . Patterns and wool for Berlin work appeared in London in 1831 . Berlin work was stitched to hand @-@ coloured or charted patterns , leaving little room for individual expression , and was so popular that " Berlin work " became synonymous with " canvaswork " . Its chief characteristic was intricate three @-@ dimensional looks created by careful shading . By mid @-@ century , Berlin work was executed in bright colours made possible by the new synthetic dyes . Berlin work was very durable and was made into furniture covers , cushions , bags , and slippers as well as for embroidered " copies " of popular paintings . The craze for Berlin work peaked around 1850 and died out in the 1870s , under the influence of a competing aesthetic that would become known as art needlework .
= = = Art needlework = = =
In 1848 , the influential Gothic Revival architect G. E. Street co @-@ wrote a book called Ecclesiastical Embroidery . He was a staunch advocate of abandoning faddish Berlin work in favour of more expressive embroidery techniques based on Opus Anglicanum . Street 's one @-@ time apprentice , the Pre @-@ Raphaelite poet , artist , and textile designer William Morris , embraced this aesthetic , resurrecting the techniques of freehand surface embroidery which had been popular from the Middle Ages to the 18th century . The new style , called art needlework , emphasized flat patterns with delicate shading in satin stitch accompanied by a number of novelty stitches . It was worked in silk or wool thread dyed with natural dyes on wool , silk , or linen grounds .
By the 1870s , Morris 's decorative arts firm Morris & Co. was offering both designs for embroideries and finished works in the art needlework style . Morris became active in the growing movement to return originality and mastery of technique to embroidery . Morris and his daughter May were early supporters of the Royal School of Art Needlework , founded in 1872 , whose aim was to " restore Ornamental Needlework for secular purposes to the high place it once held among decorative arts . "
Textiles worked in art needlework styles were featured at the various Arts and Crafts exhibitions from the 1890s to the Great War .
= = Modern period = =
Organizations whose origins date back as far as the Middle Ages remain active in supporting embroidery in Britain today .
The Worshipful Company of Broderers is now a charitable organization supporting excellence in embroidery .
The Royal School of Needlework is based at Hampton Court Palace and is engaged in textile restoration and conservation , as well as training professional embroiderers through a new 2 @-@ year Foundation Degree programme ( in conjunction with the University for the Creative Arts ) with a top @-@ up to full BA ( Hons ) being available for the first time in the 2011 / 12 academic year . Previously , apprentices were trained by an intensive 3 @-@ year in @-@ house programme . It is a registered charity and receives commissions from public bodies and individuals , including the Hastings embroidery of 1965 commemorating the 900th anniversary of the Battle of Hastings the following year , and the Overlord embroidery of 1968 commemorating the D @-@ Day invasion of France during World War II , now in the D @-@ Day museum in Southsea , Portsmouth .
The Embroiderers ' Guild , also based at Hampton Court , was founded in 1906 by sixteen former students of the Royal School of Art Needlework to represent the interests of embroidery . It is active in education and exhibition .
|
= MP 40 =
The MP 40 was a submachine gun chambered for the 9 × 19mm Parabellum cartridge . It was developed in Nazi Germany and used extensively by the Axis powers during World War II .
Designed in 1938 by Heinrich Vollmer with inspiration from its predecessor the MP 38 , it was heavily used by infantrymen , paratroopers , platoon and squad leaders on the Eastern and Western Front . Its advanced and modern features made it a favorite among soldiers and popular in countries from various parts of the world after the war . It was often erroneously called " Schmeisser " by the Allies , despite Hugo Schmeisser 's non @-@ involvement in the weapon 's design and production . From 1940 to 1945 , an estimated 1 @.@ 1 million were produced by Erma Werke .
= = Development = =
The Maschinenpistole 40 ( " Machine pistol 40 " ) descended from its predecessor the MP 38 , which was in turn based on the MP 36 , a prototype made of machined steel . The MP 36 was developed independently by Erma Werke 's Berthold Geipel with funding from the German Army . It took design elements from Heinrich Vollmer 's VPM 1930 and EMP . Vollmer then worked on Berthold Geipel 's MP 36 and in 1938 submitted a prototype to answer a request from the Heereswaffenamt ( Army Weapons Office ) for a new submachine gun , which was adopted as MP 38 . The MP 38 was a simplification of the MP 36 , and the MP 40 was a further simplification of the MP 38 , with certain cost @-@ saving alterations , most notably in the more extensive use of stamped steel rather than machined parts .
The MP 40 was often called the " Schmeisser " by the Allies , after the weapon designer Hugo Schmeisser . Schmeisser had designed the MP 18 , which was the first mass @-@ produced submachine gun in the world , and carried some resemblance to the MP 40 . He did not , however , have anything to do with the design or development of the MP 40 , although he held a patent on the magazine .
= = Design = =
The MP 40 submachine guns are open @-@ bolt , blowback @-@ operated automatic arms . The only mode of fire was fully automatic , but the relatively low rate of fire enabled single shots with controlled trigger pulls . The bolt features a telescoping return spring guide which serves as a pneumatic recoil buffer . The cocking handle was permanently attached to the bolt on early MP 38s , but on late production MP 38s and MP 40s , the bolt handle was made as a separate part . It also served as a safety by pushing the head of handle into one of two separate notches above the main opening ; this action locked the bolt either in the cocked ( rear ) or uncocked ( forward ) position . The absence of this feature on early MP 38s resulted in field expedients such as leather harnesses with a small loop , used to hold the bolt in forward position .
The MP 38 receiver was made of machined steel , but this was a time @-@ consuming and expensive process . To save time and materials , and thus increase production , construction of the MP 40 receiver was simplified by using stamped steel and electro @-@ spot welding as much as possible . The MP 38 also features longitudinal grooving on the receiver and bolt , as well as a circular opening on the magazine housing . These features were eliminated on the MP 40 .
One unique feature found on most MP 38 and MP 40 submachine guns was an aluminum , steel , or bakelite resting bar or support under the barrel . This was used to steady the weapon when firing over the side of open @-@ top armored personnel carriers such as the Sdkfz 251 half @-@ track . A handguard , made of a synthetic material derived from bakelite , was located between the magazine housing and the pistol grip . The barrel lacked any form of insulation , which often resulted in burns on the supporting hand if it was incorrectly positioned . The MP 40 also had a forward @-@ folding metal stock , the first for a submachine gun , resulting in a shorter overall weapon when folded . However , this stock design was at times insufficiently durable for hard combat use .
Although the MP 40 was generally reliable , a major weakness was its 32 @-@ round magazine . Unlike the double @-@ column , dual @-@ feed magazine insert found on the Thompson M1921 @-@ 28 variants , the MP 40 used a double @-@ column , single @-@ feed insert . The single @-@ feed insert resulted in increased friction against the remaining cartridges moving upwards towards the feed lips , occasionally resulting in feed failures ; this problem was exacerbated by the presence of dirt or other debris . Another problem was that the magazine was also sometimes misused as a handhold . This could cause the weapon to malfunction when hand pressure on the magazine body caused the magazine lips to move out of the line of feed , since the magazine well did not keep the magazine firmly locked . German soldiers were trained to grasp either the handhold on the underside of the weapon or the magazine housing with the supporting hand to avoid feed malfunctions .
= = Usage = =
At the outbreak of World War II , the majority of German soldiers carried either Karabiner 98k rifles or MP 40s , both of which were regarded as the standard weapons of choice for an infantryman .
However , later experience with Soviet tactics , such as the Battle of Stalingrad where entire Russian units armed with submachine guns outgunned their German counterparts in short range urban combat , caused a shift in tactics , and by the end of the war the MP 40 and its derivatives were being issued to entire assault platoons on a limited basis . Starting in 1943 , the German Army moved to replace both the Karabiner 98k rifle and MP 40 with the new , revolutionary StG 44 . By the end of World War II ( which ended in 1945 ) , an estimated 1 @.@ 1 million MP 40s had been produced of all variants .
= = = Post @-@ war usage = = =
During and after the end of World War II , many MP 40s were captured or surrendered ( upwards of 200 @,@ 000 ) to the Allies and were then redistributed to the paramilitary and irregular forces of some developing countries . The Norwegian army withdrew the MP 38 in 1975 , MP 40 was used for some years more , the territorials ( Heimevernet ) used it until about 1990 , when it was replaced by Heckler & Koch MP5 .
= = Variants = =
= = = Lanchester = = =
After the evacuation of Dunkirk in 1940 , the British Armed Forces wanted to adopt a submachine gun similar to the MP 40 . The Royal Air Force sent a request to the Ministry of Supply for 10 @,@ 000 British @-@ made copies of the MP 40 , but eventually they settled on a copy of the MP 28 , known as the Lanchester .
= = = MP 41 = = =
In 1943 , Schmeisser designed the MP 41 , which was in reality an MP 40 with a wooden rifle stock and a selector , identical to those found on the earlier MP 28 submachine gun . It saw limited service , however , and was only issued to SS and police units in 1944 . The MP 41 was also supplied to Germany 's Axis ally Romania .
= = Operators = =
During World War II , anti @-@ Nazi resistance fighters and Allied soldiers sometimes captured MP40s to replace or supplement their own weapons .
The MP 40 was used for several decades following World War II by many countries around the world in armed conflicts . Captured MP40s found their way into guerrilla groups such as the Viet Cong or African guerrillas .
Austria
Bulgaria
China
Czechoslovakia
France
Greece
Hungary
Indonesia
Israel
South Korea
Malaysia
Nazi Germany
Norway
Poland
Romania
Soviet Union ( Captured MP @-@ 40s were used by Soviet partisans and others . )
Spain
Vietnam
West Germany
Yugoslavia
= = = Printed = = =
= = = Online = = =
|
= Typhoon Nida ( 2004 ) =
Typhoon Nida , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Dindo , was the fourth tropical cyclone and second named storm of the 2004 Pacific typhoon season . Nida was the second super typhoon of the 2004 season , reaching a peak intensity of 160 miles per hour ( 260 km / h ) . Forming southeast of the Philippines , the storm strengthened as it moved northwest . The typhoon brushed the eastern Philippines causing heavy rains across the island archipelago . Nida later accelerated northeast , missing Japan to the east while becoming an extratropical cyclone . A total of $ 1 @.@ 3 million ( 2004 USD ) in damage occurred , and Nida left 31 fatalities .
= = Meteorological history = =
On May 12 , a persistent area of thunderstorms formed within a monsoon trough 220 miles ( 350 km ) southwest of Palau . Satellite imagery revealed a weak low @-@ level circulation . Initially , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) forecast the storm to not strengthen . The following day , forecasters saw that the storm was strengthening and upgraded the system to tropical depression status . Forecasters at the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration designated the storm as Tropical Depression Dindo .
At the time of formation , the depression was located 190 miles ( 310 km ) east of Palau as it moved west northwest at 3 mph ( 5 km / h ) . Quickscat satellite imagery showed the depression 's winds were near 29 mph ( 46 km / h ) and increasing . Satellite imagery later the showed deep convection organizing over the low @-@ level circulation . The depression underwent rapid intensification as it became a tropical storm late in the morning on May 14 and was assigned the name Nida by the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) . Still intensifying , the storm turned northwest where it reached typhoon status later that night .
Curving west @-@ northwest at 7 mph ( 11 km / h ) , Typhoon Nida attained winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) , equivalent to a Category 3 hurricane . On May 16 , Nida became a super typhoon as its winds reached 165 mph ( 266 km / h ) . At its peak , its highest winds extended 35 miles ( 56 km ) from the center . Satellite imagery showed the storm developed a defined eye measuring 25 miles ( 40 km ) wide . On May 17 , the center of Nida passed over Catanduanes Island , Philippines .
After making landfall , Nida weakened and then turned more northward and slowed down . Re @-@ entering the warmer waters of the Western Pacific Ocean , Nida 's winds restrengthened to 150 mph ( 250 km / h ) . During the night of May 18 , the typhoon began to weaken . Infrared satellite imagery showed the eye being obscured by high cirrostratus clouds , indicative of the weakening typhoon . The eyewall became significantly disorganized as Nida continued to recurve to the northeast .
Nida accelerated northeast and its maximum sustained winds weakened to 90 mph ( 148 km / h ) . Interacting with an upper level low pressure system over Japan , the typhoon became elongated . Nida weakened below typhoon strength as the center passed 290 miles ( 467 km ) south of Tokyo , Japan . By May 21 , Nida transitioned to an extratropical cyclone . The JMA continued to track the remnants of Nida as it weakened northeast of northern Japan .
= = Preparations and impact = =
In the Philippines , evacuation centers were opened to accommodate 2 @,@ 986 people . The typhoon approach cancelled ferry operations stranding 15 @,@ 057 passengers . In Taiwan , forecasters at the Central Weather Bureau issued a typhoon warning as forecast models predicted a high probability of the typhoon hitting Taiwan . The warnings interrupted the preparations for the inauguration of President Chen Shui @-@ bian .
In the Philippines , winds were clocked at 100 knots ( 190 km / h ) at Virac. on Catanduanes Island at 6 a.m. local time on May 17 . The pressure at that location fell to 965 millibars ( 28 @.@ 5 inHg ) . Structural damage was severe as the typhoon damaged or destroyed over 700 @-@ 4 @,@ 000 homes displacing 11 @,@ 000 people . In Guimba , Nueva Ecija , Nida spawned a tornado that caused moderate damage . After the storm , President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo placed eight providences under a state of emergency .
Nida produced heavy rainfall across the eastern Philippines . Rainfall up to 10 @.@ 6 inches ( 270 mm ) was reported in Ombao while Naga City received 5 @.@ 9 inches ( 150 mm ) of rain . The rest of the Philippines received 104 millimetres ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) to 372 millimetres ( 14 @.@ 6 in ) of rain . 31 fatalities ( 20 confirmed , 11 unaccounted for ) were reported during Nida 's landfall . In Camotes island , nine people drowned and five were declared missing when a ferry boat sank during the storm . Elsewhere offshore , 13 crewmen were rescued when their ship ran aground near Luzon . In all , the typhoon left $ 1 @.@ 3 million in damage across the eastern Philippines .
In Japan , heavy rains produced by the outer bands of Nida triggered flash flooding and landslides in Fukushima Prefecture . Several highways were shut down due to rising waters or debris and a few homes also were inundated . In Mito , Ibaraki , 360 homes were left without power after high winds knocked down electrical wires . A 10 m ( 33 ft ) section of highway in the city also collapsed . In addition to the structural damage caused by Nida , the poor weather conditions created during its passage resulted in several canceled flights by Japan Air Commuter . In Minamidaitō , Okinawa , a weather station operated by the WMO reported winds gusting to 71 mph ( 115 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 972 millibars ( 28 @.@ 7 inHg ) . Rainfall total at the station was 1 @.@ 25 inches ( 32 mm ) with the highest at 2 @.@ 79 inches ( 71 mm ) . There were no reports of damage .
|
= Ontario Highway 33 =
King 's Highway 33 , commonly referred to as Highway 33 , is a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario . The route begins at Highway 62 in Bloomfield and travels east to the Collins Bay Road junction at Collins Bay in the city of Kingston , a distance of 60 @.@ 9 kilometres ( 37 @.@ 8 mi ) . The highway continues farther east into Kingston as Bath Road ( Kingston Road 33 ) , ending at the former Highway 2 , now Princess Street . Highway 33 is divided into two sections by the Bay of Quinte . The Glenora Ferry service crosses between the two sections just east of Picton , transporting vehicles and pedestrians for free throughout the year .
Originally , Highway 33 continued northeast through Trenton to the town of Stirling , ending at a junction with Highway 14 . This section was transferred to county governments by the beginning of 1998 . In 2009 , Highway 33 west of Picton became the site of the first modern roundabout on a provincial highway .
In 1984 , Queen Elizabeth commemorated Highway 33 between Trenton and Kingston as the Loyalist Parkway at a ceremony in Amherstview in honour of the settlers that landed there in 1784 .
= = Route description = =
Highway 33 , known as the Loyalist Parkway throughout its length , begins in the west at the southern terminus of Highway 62 , west of which the parkway continues as Prince Edward County Road 33 to Trenton . The route begins within the community of Bloomfield . To the east it crosses several creeks then intersects Prince Edward County Road 1 at the first modern provincially maintained roundabout . East of this , the highway enters into the city of Picton .
Within Picton , Highway 33 intersects the former Highway 49 , now Prince Edward County Road 49 . It exits the city and follows the southeastern shoreline of Picton Bay , passing the H.J. McFarland Conservation Area midway between the city and Glenora .
Highway 33 has two sections , which are joined by the Glenora Ferry , an auto ferry crossing the Bay of Quinte from Glenora to Adolphustown . The Ministry of Transportation of Ontario ( MTO ) , which maintains Highway 33 , also provides the ferry service free of charge . The eastern section of the highway begins west of Adolphustown , where it passes by several Loyalist heritage sites . Now in the county of Lennox and Addington , the route remains close to the shores of the Bay of Quinte for the remainder of its journey towards Kingston . It divides the Greater Napanee communities of Conway , South Fredericksburg , Parma , Sandhurst Shores and Sandhurst , then enters the municipality of Loyalist opposite Amherst Island . The highway passes through Bath , after which it follows the Bath Road , one of the oldest roads in Ontario , built circa 1785 . At Millhaven , a ferry service provides access to Amherst Island ; Highway 33 continues east and passes through Amherstview before crossing the county line into Frontenac County and the City of Kingston .
The short section of Highway 33 within Kingston travels as far east as Collins Bay Road , in the community of Collins Bay . From this point , the road continues east as Bath Road ( Kingston City Road 33 ) , ending at Princess Street , formerly Highway 2 .
Highway 33 is 60 @.@ 9 kilometres ( 37 @.@ 8 mi ) in length , excluding the length of the Glenora Ferry . Traffic volumes vary considerably throughout the length of the route . On an average day , over 5 @,@ 000 vehicles travel the section between Bloomfield and Picton . Between Picton and the Glenora Ferry , volumes drop to under 2 @,@ 000 . On the opposite shore , traffic volumes grow from over 6 @,@ 000 near Bath to over 11 @,@ 000 outside of Kingston .
= = History = =
Highway 33 , also known since 1984 as the Loyalist Parkway , follows a pioneer colonial route on which the first segments were built two hundred years prior . The route connects several historical settlement sites in Prince Edward County , continuing east through Bath to what is now Kingston .
In 1784 , following the American Revolution , the United Empire Loyalists began to arrive in Upper Canada , hoping to settle the frontier near Cataraqui ( now Kingston ) . With the help of the military , the loyalists blazed a trail west from Cataraqui to Bath , a distance of 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) . This trail would become a section of Highway 33 nearly 150 years later .
On June 5 , 1799 , Asa Danforth Jr. began construction eastward from Toronto on a road which was to extend the Governor 's Road through Port Hope and to the Trent River . That road , completed in 1801 , would be described by acting surveyor general William Chewett to be " good " for use in the dead of winter but " impassible " during the wet summers , when the path turned to a bottomless mud pit . It would be extended in 1802 to reach the Bay of Quinte at Stone Mills ( now Glenora ) and a ferry crossing established to Adolphustown . The Bath extension of the Danforth Road ( 1802 ) provided access to a key early colonial road , the Bath Road , which had long joined Bath to Kingston .
Sporadic privately operated ferry services between Adolphustown and Stone Mills ( Glenora ) were initially a primitive affair . In October 1835 a Mr. Clark from Cobourg tipped out of the bark canoe ferrying him to Glenora and was buried without an inquest ; a year earlier , a Rev. Mathew Miller from Cobourg had drowned after falling through the February ice . The road itself was no better , barely adequate for horse and rider but unfit to run stagecoach lines .
This road would serve as the initial mail road linking Kingston to Toronto , but was poorly maintained and soon allowed to fall into disrepair . By 1817 , the Kingston Road replaced or bypass much of Danforth 's Road , following a similar path to the Trent River ( with minor improvements in routing around Scarborough , Port Hope , Cobourg and Grafton ) but then blazing a more northerly route through Belleville and Napanee . Like the Danforth Road before it , this 1817 York Road was initially a muddy dirt road ; it would , however , suffice to establish reliable scheduled stagecoach runs by which mail and passengers could make the two @-@ day trip from Kingston to Toronto and permit enterprises ( such as the branches of the newly established Bank of Montreal ) safe and timely delivery of documents and valuables . By 1839 , the Napanee @-@ Kingston route was being improved for use as a gravel toll road .
While the area around Bath and the Bay of Quinte would remain a major agricultural region , the pattern of redirecting Kingston @-@ Toronto traffic further inland which started with construction of the Kingston Road ( 1817 ) would be repeated with the Grand Trunk Railway ( 1856 ) and ultimately Highway 401 ( 1964 ) .
Due to its historic role in early colonisation and its prime waterfront scenic location , the original route from Kingston westward through Bath and the Quinte Region would be commemorated in 1984 by Queen Elizabeth as the Loyalist Parkway .
Ironically , the first section of Highway 33 to be assumed as provincial highway is not part of the commemorated Loyalist Parkway . On July 9 , 1930 , the Department of Highways assumed the Trenton – Stirling Road as King 's Highway 33 , a distance of approximately 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) . In July 1934 , as part of a depression @-@ relief effort , the Carrying Place Trail through Prince Edward County and the United Counties of Lennox and Addington was assumed as an extension of Highway 33 . ( The section between Trenton and Glenora was assumed on July 4 , 1934 , the section between Adolphustown and Kingston on July 11 . ) The provincially operated ferries , as the first to operate without a toll on the route , entered service after 1936 .
In 1984 , Queen Elizabeth toured the Kingston area as part of its two hundredth anniversary , attending several events and ceremonies through her visit . On her final day in the region , she dedicated the Loyalist Parkway in honour of the settlers that landed there in 1784 . The ceremony was held in Amherstview on September 27 , 1984 .
In 1998 , all portions of Highway 33 west of Ontario Highway 62 , Bloomfield or east of Collins Bay Road , Kingston were decertified as provincial highway and downloaded as county or city roads .
In 2009 , intersection of Highway 33 and Prince Edward County Road 1 ( Scoharie Road ) near Picton saw the introduction of a traffic roundabout , the first ever constructed on a provincial highway in the province , to replace the at @-@ grade intersection . The MTO felt that the area had reached its operational threshold due to high tourist and recreational activity , particularly during the busy summer months , and so felt a traffic roundabout was needed .
The engineering and consulting firm Morrison Hershfield was retained to undertake the detail design for the realignment and reconfiguration of the existing intersection at Highway 33 and Country Road 1 into a single lane roundabout with a central island and truck apron . The assignment included highway engineering , drainage and hydrology engineering , electrical engineering , public consultation , and traffic engineering . The roundabout was officially opened on July 17 , 2009 .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 33 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario .
|
= Ralphie the Buffalo =
Ralphie is the name of the live mascot of the University of Colorado Buffaloes . Ralphie has been called one of the best live mascots in sports , and she is often erroneously labeled male .
The University of Colorado Boulder has a unique mascot among those of intercollegiate athletics , a live buffalo mascot named Ralphie . Ralphie , with a team of varsity student @-@ athletes called Ralphie Handlers , is a symbol of Buff pride and is best known for leading the football team onto the field on game day . As one of the most exclusive sights in college or professional sports , even opposing teams are excited to watch her round the end zone and fly by their sideline .
In their most famous appearances , a team of varsity student @-@ athletes , Ralphie Handlers , run the buffalo around Folsom Field in a horse shoe pattern with the football team behind them at both the start of the game and the start of the second half . Five Ralphie Handlers run her around the field , four on either side of her to help guide her around the field and one in the back to control her speed . The rest of the team guides her from a distance , showing her the route . Ralphie and her Handlers can reach speeds of 25 miles per hour . Ralphie and her Handlers also make special appearances throughout the year talking to fans and educating Colorado Athletics , Ralphie , and buffalo in general .
Ralphie has always been a female bison because of their size and temperament . Males can be almost twice the size , although any gender of bison comes with some risk . Because Ralphie is a live animal , whether or not she runs at a football game is at the sole discretion of the Program Manager , who may cancel it if she is unusually nervous . Additionally , Ralphie ’ s run may also be canceled in field conditions are unsafe for either Ralphie or the Handlers .
= = History = =
In 1934 a contest in the Silver & Gold newspaper determined the school mascot to be the buffaloes . For the final football game of the 1934 season , a group of students paid $ 25 to rent a buffalo calf to stand on the sidelines . Along with a real cowboy caretaker , it took four students to keep the calf , the son of “ Killer , ” a famed bison at Trails End Ranch in Fort Collins , calm on the sidelines . As far as luck though , Thanksgiving Day .
Prior to 1934 , CU athletic teams were referred to as the Silver and Gold , Silver Helmets , Yellow Jackets , Hornets , Arapahoes , Big Horns , Grizzlies , and Frontiersmen . The student newspaper decided to sponsor a national contest in the summer of 1934 , with a $ 5 prize to go to the author of the winning selection . Over 1 @,@ 000 entries arrived from almost every state in the Nation . Athletic Director Harry Carlson , Graduate Manager Walter Franklin , and Kenneth Bundy of the Silver and Gold were the judges .
Local articles first reported that Claude Bates of New Madrid , Missouri , and James Proffitt of Cincinnati , Ohio , were co @-@ winners for the prize as both submitted “ Buffaloes ” as their entry . However , a few days later , the newspaper declared Boulder resident Andrew Dickson the winner , after a follow @-@ up investigation revealed his submission of “ Buffaloes ” had actually arrived several days before those of the original winners . Through the years , synonyms which quickly came into use included “ Bisons , ” “ Buffs , ” “ Golden Avalanche , ” and “ Golden Buffaloes . ”
Live buffaloes made appearances at Colorado games on and off throughout the early years , usually in a pen on the field or sometimes driven around in a trailer . In the 1940s , the school kept a baby buffalo in a special pen at the University Riding Academy . The first named buffalo was “ Mr. Chips , ” who appeared for the for by a men ’ s honorary society .
The original “ Ralphie ” was donated to Colorado in 1966 . It was the duty of the five sophomore class officers to run the buffalo around the outside of the stadium with fans participating in the " Buffalo Stomp , " shaking the ground at Folsom Field . However , that tradition was halted because of the actual physical damage “ the stomp ” was causing .
Around that same time , head football coach Eddie Crowder was approached with the idea of the buffalo charging out on the field before the game , the team closely following . Crowder thought it was a great idea , and the debut of this great tradition took place on October 28 , 1967 , Colorado ’ s homecoming game against Oklahoma State . Though OSU won the game 10 @-@ 7 , the greatest mascot tradition in college athletics was born .
The Ralphie Live Mascot Program has since evolved , becoming a prestigious athletic endeavor for 15 student athletes and buffalo enthusiasts . It is currently under the direction of Program Manager John Graves , longtime Coach Benny Frei , and Assistant Coach Taylor Stratton , all of whom were Handlers when they were students at Colorado .
= = = Ralphie I = = =
Born : March 1966 in Sedgewick , Colorado
Died : May 13 , 1982
Served : October 1 , 1966 - November 4 , 1978
Folsom Field Games : 62
Mile High Stadium Games : 0
Away Stadium Games : 2
Conference Championship Games : 0
Bowl Games : 7
Total Games : 71
In 1966 , John Lowery , the father of a Colorado freshman from Lubbock , Texas , donated a six @-@ month old buffalo calf from Sedgewick , Colorado to the University . Lowery bought the calf from rancher Art Kashcke . Bill Lowery ( John ’ s son ) , John McGill , Don Marturano , and Vic Reinking were the original Ralphie Handlers who trained Ralphie I. The original Handlers say she was named “ Ralph ” after the class president at the time , while another story says she was named “ Ralph ” after the sound she made while running . After it was noted that the buffalo was a female and Ralph was a male ’ s name , the name was changed to Ralphie .
The initial tradition was for five sophomore class officers to run the buffalo around the outside of the stadium in a full loop . At the conclusion of the tiring activities , the fans would break into the “ Buffalo Stomp , ” which would literally shake the stadium in deafening fashion as the team took the field . However , Colorado officials soon had the tradition stopped because of the actual physical damage it was causing . Ralphie first attended a game on October 1 , 1966 when Colorado played Kansas State . She did not run at that game , but stood on the sideline . Colorado won the game 10 @-@ 0 .
Around that same time , head coach Eddie Crowder was approached with the idea of charging the buffalo out onto the field before the game , the team following closely behind . Crowder thought it was a great idea , and the debut of this great tradition took place on October 28 , 1967 , Colorado ’ s Homecoming game against Oklahoma State . Though Oklahoma State won the game 10 @-@ 7 , the tradition was here to stay . Ralphie ’ s first bowl game was the Bluebonnet Bowl on December 23 , 1967 , where Colorado beat Miami ( FL ) 31 @-@ 21 . The five sophomores that ‘ handled ’ her appointed themselves as the board of directors of a fundraising effort to bring Ralphie to Houston , raising the necessary money through marketing Ralphie ’ s potentially appearance .
In 1976 , the President of The Bank of Boulder , Steve Bosley , proposed to Crowder they would do a fundraiser to send Ralphie to the Orange Bowl game with Ohio State . When a reporter asked Bosley how Ralphie would travel to Miami , he explained that the information was top secret since Colorado was concerned that Ohio State students would try to kidnap , or “ buffalo @-@ nap ” Ralphie . The story of the potential “ buffalo @-@ napping ” made newspapers nationwide , featuring a picture of Ralphie in full charge with her Handlers . The story stimulated over $ 25 @,@ 000 in donations . Ralphie ’ s trip to the Orange Bowl cost $ 2 @,@ 500 , and the balance was put into a fund for Ralphie ’ s future care .
Ralphie I attended every Colorado home football game for 13 years , including all bowl games , and retired at the end of the 1978 season . The team matured too , selecting and training knowledgeable Handlers . Colorado ’ s first Ralphie achieved nationally celebrity status , and was even kidnapped in 1970 by some Air Force Academy students , as well as being named Colorado ’ s 1971 Homecoming Queen at the height of the anti @-@ establishment era .
During the football season Ralphie lived at the Green Meadows Riding Stable , located near present day East Campus of the University , owned by C.D. “ Buddy ” Hays . Hays not only cared for and trained Ralphie , he was also the coach of the Colorado Rodeo Club . The Ralphie Handlers would also practice and work with Ralphie in the arena of Green Meadows Riding Stable . In the off @-@ season Ralphie lived on the pastures at Hidden Valley Ranch , where Hays also kept his herd of buffalo , located north of Boulder . Ralphie I lived at Hidden Valley Ranch until 1981 when she moved to the McKenzie Ranch located in North Boulder . Ralphie traveled in a modified steel , brown 4 @-@ horse trailer , donated by Hays . She used a custom harness and headstall made by Ray Cornell out of Boulder , Colorado that lead ropes were attached to allow the Handlers to run with and help guide her around the field .
Ralphie I also had four calves . In October 1970 , Ralphie ’ s first calf unfortunately died during a strong snowstorm . In May 1972 , Buffie , named by Colorado students , was born , but died from pneumonia in the fall of 1973 . In April 1974 , her third calf , Streaker , was born , but died from an accident on the ranch . Her fourth and final calf was Spirit who was born in August 1975 . Spirit made her public debut at the 1975 homecoming parade . She was sold to a local rancher shortly after , and never ran at a football game . Ralphie I ’ s final game was on November 4 , 1978 against Oklahoma . Colorado lost 7 @-@ 28 . Ralphie I died on May 13 , 1982 , she was 17 years old .
= = = Ralphie II = = =
Born : Spring 1975
Died : September 19 , 1987
Served : November 18 , 1978 – September 19 , 1987
Folsom Field Games : 52
Mile High Stadium Games : 0
Away Stadium Games : 2
Conference Championship Games : 0
Bowl Games : 2
Total Games : 56
In 1978 , when Ralphie I became ill , Steve Bosley organized a search for a new buffalo headed by Buddy Hays . Hays discovered a calf named Moon , short for Moonshine , owned by Gregg C. Mackenzie . Bosley , The Bank of Boulder , and bank Director Robert Confer bought Moonshine from Mackenzie and donated her to Colorado . Since “ Ralphie ” had become the well @-@ known name of the buffalo , Athletic Director Eddie Crowder made it permanent . Mackenzie continued to train Ralphie II . Ralphie II lived at Hidden Valley Ranch until 1981 , when she moved to the McKenzie Ranch located in North Boulder . In 1985 Johnnie and Shaaron Parker took over the program and the training of Ralphie II as well as housed her at the Parker Ranch in Hudson , Colorado .
Ralphie II made her debut on November 18 , 1978 , the final home game of the season , and last game for head coach Bill Mallory . Colorado lost 16 @-@ 20 to Iowa State . But the Ralphie Program and name became a tradition . In 1985 Colorado selected the homecoming theme of “ Ralphie goes to Hollywood . ” In 1986 Ralphie made the trip to Oklahoma and ran at the Colorado vs Oklahoma State game and stayed at OSU ’ s veterinary clinic . Students from Oklahoma State University broke into the clinic that night and spray painted “ OSU ” in orange letters . Ralphie II was transported around in the same modified steel , brown 4 @-@ horse trailer that Ralphie I used . Initially Ralphie II used the same custom leather harness that Ralphie I used , but used a different headstall . The harness was modified to fit Ralphie II ’ s bigger size than Ralphie I ’ s . In 1986 a new harness and headstall was used by Ralphie , this one was built by Carl W. Pike Saddlery out of Boulder , Colorado , the same company who modified the original harness to fit Ralphie II . The new headstall featured the iconic brass “ CU ” emblem on the front of the headstall . While always a part of the Athletic Department , it was not until 1987 when Ralphie Handlers first earned a Varsity Letter for their participation .
She was expected to retire at the end of the 1987 season . However , at the age of 12 , and after serving the Buffs for 10 years , Ralphie II died on September 19 , 1987 , following a 31 @-@ 17 Colorado win over Stanford .
= = = Ralphie III = = =
Born : June 1985 , Laramie , Wyoming
Died : January 20 , 1998
Served : November 7 , 1987 – November 28 , 1997
Folsom Field Games : 62
Mile High Stadium Games : 0
Away Stadium Games : 2
Conference Championship Games : 0
Bowl Games : 8
Total Games : 72
In June 1985 Chuck Brackenbury was out mending fences on the Joe Miller Ranch outside of Laramie , Wyoming , when he noticed a buffalo giving birth early in the morning . He checked back later that night and discovered the mom had died during labor , but the calf was still alive just standing there all alone . He brought the calf back to his ranch where she was bottle @-@ fed and raised with horses and a goat . Brackenbury eventually sold her to Bob Renaud , a buffalo rancher in Hudson , Colorado . In 1987 , Johnnie and Shaaron Parker bought the 2 @-@ year old buffalo from Renaud and donated her to Colorado . Parker also trained and housed her . Ralphie III was a lot bigger and faster than her two predecessors .
Ralphie III was brought into action earlier than anticipated , making her debut on November 7 , 1987 at a home game against Missouri . Originally named " Tequila , " Ralphie III was being trained for the 1988 season , as Ralphie II was to retire following the 1987 season . When Ralphie II died earlier than anticipated , and after only five weeks of training , Ralphie III finished the 1987 season . The Buffs welcomed her with a 27 @-@ 10 victory over Missouri .
In 1991 , Ted Davis joined the program as a coach . In 1995 , Gail Pederson began helping with the Ralphie Program behind the scenes , overseeing all the logistics , scheduling , and planning for the program . Ralphie III was initially transported in the same modified steel , brown 4 @-@ horse trailer that carried Ralphie I and II , but in 1996 , a new custom steel , black stock trailer was purchased for Ralphie through a donation from Coors Brewing Company . Initially she used the same harness and headstall that was used by Ralphie II . In 1989 a new harness and headstall was used , again with a large brass “ CU ” on the front of the headstall . The new harness and headstall was built by M. King Saddlery out of Boulder , Colorado .
Ralphie III led the Buffaloes on the field in 72 games , including 62 times in Boulder , eight bowl games , and two times in Fort Collins . After over 10 years of service , she died in January 1998 , at the age of 11 . Her final game was against Nebraska on November 28 , 1997 . Colorado lost 24 @-@ 27 .
After Ralphie 's death , the Colorado State Senate passed State Resolution 98 – 10 by Senator Elsie Lacy , a tribute to Ralphie III the University of Colorado bison mascot , stating : " That the University of Colorado and fans alike have lost a most beloved mascot and are saddened by the occasion of Ralphie III 's death . "
= = = Ralphie IV = = =
Born : April 1997 , Gallatin Gateway , Montana
Died : Presently Alive
Served : September 5 , 1998 – August 31 , 2008
Folsom Field Games : 55
Mile High Stadium Games : 9
Away Stadium Games : 1
Conference Championship Games : 4
Bowl Games : 6
Total Games : 75
Ralphie IV was born in April 1997 on the Flying D Ranch in Gallatin Gateway , Montana , a part of Turner Ranches , the largest buffalo ranching operation in the United States . Named “ Rowdy ” by ranch hands , she was separated from her mother when she was about a month old and was literally found in the jaws of a coyote with bite marks around her neck . She survived the attack and was bottle @-@ fed by the ranch hands for four months . She was released back to the herd , but would not bond with them . She was then donated to Colorado as a yearling in the early spring of 1998 . Johnnie Parker , who trained and housed both Ralphie II and III , brought her back to Colorado from Montana and supervised all of her early training .
Parker retired from the program in May 1999 , after 15 years of working with the program , and housing and training Ralphie II , III , and IV . Longtime Colorado supporters Dale and Lynn Johnson housed Ralphie for the following year and coach Ted Davis assumed the program duties for the 2000 season . In the summer of 2001 , two former Ralphie Handlers and Colorado graduates , Benny Frei and Kevin Priola , took over the program including the housing of Ralphie . Priola still houses Ralphie IV . Ralphie IV was transported in the same custom steel , black stock trailer that carried Ralphie III . She also used the same harness and headstall that was used by Ralphie III .
Ralphie IV weighs in at about 1 @,@ 100 pounds , over three times her weight when she made her debut against Colorado State University at Mile High Stadium in Denver on September 5 , 1998 . Colorado won 42 @-@ 14 . Her final game was also against Colorado State University on August 31 , 2008 . Colorado won that game 38 @-@ 17 . Ralphie IV is now retired and lives in Henderson , Colorado .
= = = Ralphie V = = =
Born : October 2006 , Cimarron , New Mexico
Died : Presently Alive
Served : September 6 , 2008 – present
Folsom Field Games : 46
Mile High Stadium Games : 6
Away Stadium Games : 0
Conference Championship Games : 0
Bowl Games : 0
Total Games : 52
The newest addition to the Colorado mascot family is Ralphie V. Like Ralphie IV , Ralphie V was donated to Colorado from a Ted Turner buffalo ranch . She was born in October 2006 on the Vermejo Park Ranch in northern New Mexico . As the darkest calf in the herd , she was named " Blackout " by ranch hands . Ralphie Program Directors Benny Frei and Kevin Priola worked with Barney Coppedge , the Bison Manager at Vermejo Park Ranch , to bring Ralphie V to Colorado . Frei continues to house Ralphie V.
Ralphie V was introduced to Buffs fans at " Ralphie ’ s Salute to a New Era " on November 17 , 2007 . A little over one @-@ year @-@ old , she weighed in at only 450 pounds . Her debut game run came against Eastern Washington on September 6 , 2008 . Colorado won that game 31 @-@ 24 . Ralphie V is by far the fastest and largest of all the previous buffaloes .
Ralphie V has now reached maturity , weighing approximately 1 @,@ 200 pounds and standing about 5 feet tall at her hump . Her growing has stopped , but not her speed . She currently completes her run around Folsom Field , nearly two football fields in length , in approximately 25 seconds .
At the end of the 2008 season , Priola retired from the program , and John Graves , a former Ralphie Handler , was brought on as the Assistant Director . In the summer of 2015 Graves was promoted to Program Manager , replacing Gail Pederson who retired after 20 years of helping the program . Graves now oversees the day to day activities of the program and the training of the Handlers and Ralphie . In the spring of 2016 Taylor Stratton , also a former Ralphie Handler , was brought on as the new Assistant Coach .
Ralphie V was initially transported in the same custom steel , black stock trailer that carried Ralphie III and IV . In 2012 a new highly customized aluminum stock trailer was purchased through donations made to the program , which is now used to transport Ralphie V. In 2016 , a new black leather harness and headstall was used for Ralphie , built by Bill Jesser Saddlery out of Longmont , Colorado . The new harness kept the iconic brass “ CU ” located on the front of her headstall , and the leather color was switched from brown to black . The brass CU logo was made by Ray “ Butch ” Cornell , the son of Ray Cornell who built the first Ralphie harness . The previous harness that she wore was also worn by Ralphie III and IV .
Ralphie V makes many appearances throughout the school year to support Colorado and the University . During football seasons , she attends Ralphie ’ s Corral pre @-@ game party on campus . One hour before kickoff , Ralphie stands on the northeast sideline , ready to welcome the Buffs onto the field .
= = Ralphie Handlers = =
The Ralphie Handlers are varsity student @-@ athletes who run with Ralphie , take her to appearances , and care for her year round . On an average week during football season , Ralphie Handlers will volunteer 20 – 30 hours to the program in training , practicing , appearances , and caring for the beloved mascot . In the off season they still put forth 20 hours a week toward the program , always caring for Ralphie and staying in top shape to be able to run with Ralphie .
Workouts & Practice
Ralphie Handlers have a specially @-@ designed workout that they do twice a week , created and supervised by Program Manager John Graves . They work on overall strength and speed , as well perform Olympic lifts to focus on quick and explosive movements with heavy weight .
Ralphie and her Handlers practice two times a week . In Folsom Field , Ralphie runs in a traditional right hand turn “ horseshoe ” run . Handlers primarily practice this run , working on the depth and width of the run , as well as the turn and , of course , speed . They also practice running with Ralphie in a straight line , as used for her trips to Mile High Stadium for the Rocky Mountain Showdown , and in an “ L ” shape for her annual soccer game run . Ralphie and her Handlers also practice a non @-@ traditional left hand “ horseshoe ” run , which is used when they run at the National Western Stock Show .
For special occasions , the Handlers can run in patterns that appear like a “ ribbon ” or “ tear drop . ” These runs help the team and Ralphie be flexible to accommodate any event venue where they may run .
Appearances with Ralphie
Ralphie Handlers also do appearances with Ralphie throughout the year to promote the University and the Athletic Department , as well as to educate the public about buffalo in general . Appearances are pre @-@ determined by the Athletic Department .
Ralphie of course runs at all Colorado home football games , bowl games , conference championship games , and very occasionally makes a special trip to a regular season away game . She also makes an appearance and runs at one soccer game a year , at the National Western Stock Show in Denver , and at the Fourth of July celebration held at Folsom Field . Ralphie and her Handlers also attend other Colorado athletic sporting events to support other varsity sports .
Special appearances can be arranged with donations to the program that will go to the program to help cover costs of Ralphie ’ s care and other expenses associated with keeping this great tradition going .
The Team
The Ralphie Live Mascot Program is under the direction of Program Manager John Graves , longtime Coach Benny Frei , and Assistant Coach Taylor Stratton . John , Benny , and Taylor were Ralphie Handlers when they were students at Colorado . They provide the training for Ralphie and her Handlers , and coordinate the care for Ralphie . The team consists of approximately 15 student @-@ athletes made up of both males and females . The Handlers earn a varsity letter for each year they are on the team . Handlers first started earning varsity letters in 1987 . Even though the Handlers do not fall under NCAA jurisdiction , the Athletic Department still holds them to the same standards as all other varsity athletes in the department , including minimum GPA requirements , full course load , and other rules . The first female Handler joined the team in 1993 . Females have had a strong presence in the Program ever since .
Originally the students who ran with Ralphie were called “ The Men Who Run with Ralphie . ” In the 1970 ’ s the term for the students changed to Ralphie Runners , as a direct representation of the feat that they did with Ralphie at each game . As the team and the program became more formalized and regulated , the term for the students became Ralphie Handlers in the early 1990 ’ s . The responsibilities and duties for the students that were on the team increase from just running with Ralphie , to also assisting in her overall care and maintenance , the reasoning behind changing their name from Ralphie Runners to Ralphie Handlers .
= = Traditions = =
Ralphie runs at all home football games , as well as bowl games , and conference championship games . Over the years of the program , Ralphie has made a handful of special trips to lead the team onto the field at away games as well . Colorado is one of only a few schools where the home team comes out team does not get in the way of Ralphie running .
Ralphie sometimes displays a custom @-@ made banner that reads " GO CU " on one side , and " Beat [ the opposing team ] " on the other side , such as " Beat CSU . "
Ralphie travels to home games and appearances in a highly customized aluminum stock trailer , purchased in 2012 through generous donations . Ralphie and her trailer are pulled through the infamous University Hill neighborhood before games to excite student fans on her way to the stadium .
Each year the Ralphie Handlers take a yearly trip to a buffalo ranch to learn more about buffalo , and see just how big male bison can get .
Ralphie is held in a secret location so that she will not be harassed or harmed , keeping her and the public safe .
= = Records = =
When Colorado introduces a new buffalo , the team has a record of 3 @-@ 2 . Additionally , when the retiring Ralphie runs at her last game team has a record of 2 @-@ 2 .
Ralphie I ’ s first run : 10 / 28 / 67 L , 7 @-@ 10 , CU vs Oklahoma State
Ralphie I ’ s final run : 11 / 4 / 78 L , 7 @-@ 28 , CU vs Oklahoma
Ralphie II ’ s first run : 11 / 18 / 78 L , 16 @-@ 20 , CU vs Iowa State
Ralphie II ’ s final run : 9 / 19 / 87 W , 31 @-@ 17 , CU vs Stanford
Ralphie III ’ s first run : 11 / 7 / 87 W , 27 @-@ 10 , CU vs Missouri
Ralphie III ’ s final run : 11 / 28 / 97 L , 24 @-@ 27 , CU vs Nebraska
Ralphie IV ’ s first run : 9 / 5 / 98 W , 42 @-@ 14 , CU vs Colorado State
Ralphie IV ’ s final run : 8 / 31 / 08 W , 38 @-@ 17 , CU vs Colorado State
Ralphie V ’ s first run : 9 / 6 / 08 W , 31 @-@ 24 , CU vs Eastern Washington
Conference Championship Game Runs ( team record of 1 @-@ 3 ) :
12 / 1 / 01 – Big 12 Championship , CU beat Texas 39 @-@ 37
12 / 7 / 02 – Big 12 Championship , CU lost to Oklahoma 7 @-@ 29
12 / 4 / 04 – Big 12 Championship , CU lost to Oklahoma 3 @-@ 42
12 / 3 / 05 – Big 12 Championship , CU lost to Texas 3 @-@ 70
Bowl Game Runs ( team record of 9 @-@ 14 ) :
12 / 23 / 67 – Bluebonnet Bowl , CU beat Miami ( FL ) 31 @-@ 21
12 / 13 / 69 – Liberty Bowl , CU beat Alabama 47 @-@ 33
12 / 12 / 70 – Liberty Bowl , CU lost to Tulane 3 @-@ 17
12 / 31 / 71 – Bluebonnet Bowl , CU beat Houston 29 @-@ 17
12 / 28 / 72 – Gator Bowl , CU lost to Auburn 3 @-@ 24
12 / 27 / 75 – Bluebonnet Bowl , CU lost to Texas 21 @-@ 38
1 / 1 / 77 – Orange Bowl , CU lost to Ohio State 10 @-@ 27
12 / 30 / 85 – Freedom Bowl , CU lost to Washington 17 @-@ 20
12 / 31 / 86 – Bluebonnet Bowl , CU lost to Baylor 9 @-@ 21
12 / 29 / 88 – Freedom Bowl , CU lost to BYU 17 @-@ 20
1 / 1 / 90 – Orange Bowl , CU lost to Notre Dame 6 @-@ 21
1 / 1 / 91 – Orange Bowl , CU beat Notre Dame 10 @-@ 9
12 / 28 / 91 – Blockbuster Bowl , CU lost to Alabama 25 @-@ 30
1 / 1 / 93 – Fiesta Bowl , CU lost to Syracuse 22 @-@ 26
1 / 2 / 95 – Fiesta Bowl , CU beat Notre Dame 41 @-@ 24
1 / 1 / 96 – Cotton Bowl , CU beat Oregon 38 @-@ 6
12 / 30 / 96 – Holiday Bowl , CU beat Washington 33 @-@ 21
1 / 31 / 99 – Insight.com Bowl , CU beat Boston College 62 @-@ 28
1 / 1 / 02 – Fiesta Bowl , CU lost to Oregon 16 @-@ 38
12 / 28 / 02 – Alamo Bowl , CU lost to Wisconsin 28 @-@ 31
12 / 29 / 04 – Houston Bowl , CU beat Texas @-@ El Paso 33 @-@ 28
12 / 27 / 05 – Champs Sports Bowl , CU lost to Clemson 10 @-@ 19
12 / 30 / 07 – Independence Bowl , CU lost to Alabama 24 @-@ 30
Mile High Stadium Game Runs ( team record of 9 @-@ 6 ) :
9 / 5 / 98 – CU beat CSU 42 @-@ 14
9 / 4 / 99 – CU lost to CSU 14 @-@ 41
9 / 2 / 00 – CU lost to CSU 24 @-@ 28
9 / 1 / 01 – CU beat CSU 41 @-@ 14
8 / 31 / 02 – CU lost to CSU 14 @-@ 19
8 / 30 / 03 – CU beat CSU 42 @-@ 35
9 / 9 / 06 – CU lost to CSU 10 @-@ 14
9 / 1 / 07 – CU beat CSU 31 @-@ 28
8 / 31 / 08 – CU beat CSU 38 @-@ 17
9 / 4 / 10 – CU beat CSU 24 @-@ 3
9 / 17 / 11 – CU beat CSU 28 @-@ 14
9 / 1 / 12 – CU lost to CSU 22 @-@ 17
9 / 1 / 13 – CU beat CSU 41 @-@ 27
8 / 29 / 14 – CU lost to CSU 31 @-@ 17
9 / 19 / 15 – CU beat CSU 27 @-@ 24
Away Stadium Game Runs ( team record of 5 @-@ 2 ) :
11 / 2 / 68 – Game in Lawrence , Kansas , CU lost to Kansas 14 @-@ 27
10 / 13 / 73 – Game in Ames , Iowa , CU beat Iowa State , 23 @-@ 16
10 / 19 / 85 – Game in Ames , Iowa , CU beat Iowa State 40 @-@ 6
11 / 1 / 86 – Game in Stillwater , Oklahoma , CU beat Oklahoma State 31 @-@ 14
10 / 1 / 88 – Game in Ft . Collin , Colorado , CU beat CSU 27 @-@ 23
9 / 7 / 96 – Game in Ft . Collins , Colorado , CU beat CSU 38 @-@ 34
9 / 23 / 06 – Game in Athens , Georgia , CU lost to Georgia 13 @-@ 14
Spring Football Games :
Ralphie regularly runs at spring football games .
Ralphie makes a special run before the start of a Colorado Women ’ s Soccer game every year . When she runs before a soccer game the team has a record of 4 @-@ 5 .
10 / 5 / 07 W , 4 @-@ 0 , CU vs Nebraska
10 / 26 / 08 L , 1 @-@ 2 OT , CU vs Texas A & M
10 / 2 / 09 W , 5 @-@ 1 , CU vs Oklahoma
10 / 10 / 10 W , 3 @-@ 1 , CU vs Iowa State
10 / 30 / 11 L , 0 @-@ 1 , CU vs USC
10 / 7 / 12 L , 1 @-@ 2 , CU vs Stanford
10 / 6 / 13 W , 1 @-@ 0 , CU vs Oregon
9 / 27 / 14 L , 4 @-@ 2 , CU vs California
10 / 11 / 15 L , 3 @-@ 0 , CU vs Washington State
= = Gallery = =
|
= The Boat Race 1849 ( March ) =
The 9th Boat Race took place on the River Thames on 29 March 1849 . Typically held annually , the event is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge . The race was won by Cambridge who triumphed over Oxford " easily " . As a result of the nature of the defeat , Oxford challenged Cambridge to a second race that year , which was to be held in December , the first and only time the Boat Race was competed for twice in a calendar year . Every member of the Cambridge crew came from Trinity College .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . Cambridge went into the race leading overall with six victories to Oxford 's two . They had beaten Oxford in the previous race , held in 1845 , by three lengths .
Cambridge used an outrigged boat built by Searle , 62 feet 9 inches ( 19 @.@ 1 m ) in length and 26 inches ( 66 cm ) in width , while the Dark Blues ' boat was constructed by Hall of Oxford . The umpire for the race was J. C. Fellowes while the starter was Edward Searle .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 11 st 2 @.@ 5 lb ( 70 @.@ 8 kg ) , just under 2 pounds ( 0 @.@ 9 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Every rower from Cambridge was studying at Trinity College but all were new to the event ; not one Blue returned from the 1846 race . F. Blomfield was replaced as the Light Blue cox by George Booth as a result of an accident . Oxford welcomed back E. C. Burton at number four and their cox , C.Soanes.
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station . Just prior to the race , Oxford had suggested a foreshortening of the course , in order to avoid both crews having to pass through the narrow arches of Barnes Bridge ; this was rejected by Cambridge and the conventional course was rowed . After a close start , Oxford pulled ahead and held a half @-@ length lead by the time they passed the Star and Garter pub . By Hammersmith Bridge , the Oxford crew began to slow , their cox made an error in steering and Cambridge began to reduce the deficit . At Chiswick Eyot the crews were level once again , and Cambridge started to draw away . Several lengths ahead by Barnes Bridge , Cambridge won by around 60 seconds . The result meant that Cambridge led overall with seven victories to Oxford 's two .
= = Reaction = =
Three main factors were attributed with Oxford 's substantial defeat . Firstly their stroke , and boat club president , William Rich had set such a high rating , he and his crew were unable to sustain it for the duration of the race , becoming quickly tired . Secondly , Rich himself suggested that Oxford 's vessel was inadequate , calling it " a bad boat " . Finally , poor steering had allowed Cambridge to pass them " like a shot " .
Given the nature of the defeat , Oxford sent out a challenge in October 1849 to Cambridge for a re @-@ row . For the first and only time in the history of the Boat Race , a second race was held in the same calendar year , this time in December .
|
= SMS Cöln ( 1909 ) =
SMS Cöln ( " His Majesty 's Ship Cologne " ) was a Kolberg @-@ class light cruiser of the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) during the First World War . She had three sister ships , SMS Kolberg , Mainz , and Augsburg . She was built by the Germaniawerft ; her hull was laid down in 1908 and she was launched in June 1909 . Cöln was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet in June 1911 . She was armed with a main battery of twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns and had a top speed of 25 @.@ 5 kn ( 47 @.@ 2 km / h ; 29 @.@ 3 mph ) . After her commissioning , she served with the II Scouting Group , part of the reconnaissance forces of the High Seas Fleet .
Cöln was assigned to patrols off the island of Heligoland at the outbreak of World War I in early August 1914 , as the flagship of Rear Admiral Leberecht Maass . At the Battle of Heligoland Bight on 28 August 1914 , the German patrol forces were attacked by superior British forces , including five battlecruisers and several light cruisers . Cöln was initially stationed in support of the forces on the patrol line . She attempted to reinforce the beleaguered German forces , and encountered Vice Admiral David Beatty 's battlecruisers . She was hit several times by the battlecruisers ' large @-@ caliber guns , but managed to escape in the haze . She inadvertently turned back toward them , however , and was quickly disabled when the battle resumed . The crew abandoned Cöln , but German vessels did not search the area for three days , and only one man survived .
= = Design = =
Cöln was 130 @.@ 5 meters ( 428 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 14 m ( 46 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 73 m ( 18 @.@ 8 ft ) forward . She displaced 4 @,@ 915 t ( 4 @,@ 837 long tons ; 5 @,@ 418 short tons ) at full combat load . Cöln was initially to be powered by two sets of Zoelly steam turbines manufactured by Escher Wyss & Cie. in Zürich . Her propulsion system was revised and instead consisted of two sets of Germaniawerft steam turbines driving four propellers . They were designed to give 19 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 14 @,@ 000 kW ) . These were powered by fifteen coal @-@ fired Marine water @-@ tube boilers . These gave the ship a top speed of 25 @.@ 5 knots ( 47 @.@ 2 km / h ; 29 @.@ 3 mph ) . Cöln carried 960 t ( 940 long tons ; 1 @,@ 060 short tons ) of coal that gave her a range of approximately 3 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 500 km ; 4 @,@ 000 mi ) at 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) .
Cöln had a crew of eighteen officers and 349 enlisted men . The ship was armed with twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , eight were located amidships , four on either side , and two were side by side aft . She also carried four 5 @.@ 2 cm SK L / 55 anti @-@ aircraft guns . She was also equipped with a pair of 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes submerged in the hull . She could also carry 100 mines . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the deck was covered with up to 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick armor plate .
= = Service history = =
Cöln was ordered under the contract name Ersatz Schwalbe and was laid down on 25 May 1908 at the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel . She was launched on 5 June 1909 and christened by the mayor of Cöln , Max Wallraf , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . During the builders ' sea trials , the Zoelly turbines were found to be poor quality and they were replaced with Germaniawerft @-@ produced models . This work significantly delayed her completion . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 16 June 1911 , and she began her acceptance trials . These were interrupted by a fleet parade for Kaiser Wilhelm II on 5 September . On 10 October , she was assigned to the II Scouting Group , which screened for the battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group . She participated in the normal peacetime routine of individual , squadron , and fleet exercises and cruises over the next two years without incident . Fregattenkapitän Hans Zenker served as her commander from October 1911 to September 1913 .
From 28 August to 21 September , she served as the flagship for Konteradmiral ( Rear Admiral ) Franz von Hipper , then the deputy commander of the reconnaissance forces , while Hipper was temporarily displaced from his usual flagship , the battlecruiser Von der Tann . Hipper left briefly , but returned on 26 September and remained aboard through the following year . During the autumn fleet maneuvers in September 1913 , Cöln attempted to warn the crew of zeppelin L 1 of the deteriorating weather conditions , but they did not receive the message . As a result , the zeppelin crashed off the island of Helgoland . After the conclusion of the maneuvers , Hipper lowered his flag , and he was replaced by Kommodore ( Commodore ) Leberecht Maass . The year 1914 began with the normal training routine , but as tensions rose following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria on 28 June forced the cancellation of the planned fleet exercises for the end of July . Starting on 30 July , as war loomed , Cöln was stationed in the German Bight to monitor maritime traffic .
After the outbreak of World War I at the beginning of August 1914 , she and several other cruisers were tasked with patrol duties in the Heligoland Bight . The cruisers were divided with the torpedo boat flotillas , and assigned to rotate through nightly patrols into the North Sea . From 1 to 7 August , Cöln lay in the Schillig roadstead . She thereafter went to the mouth of the Weser , where she was joined by the cruiser Hamburg and the IV Torpedo @-@ boat Flotilla . As part of the patrol operations , Cöln conducted a sortie on the night of 15 August with Stuttgart and the I and II Torpedo @-@ boat Flotillas , without incident .
= = = Battle of Heligoland Bight = = =
At the same time , British submarines began reconnoitering the German patrol lines . On 23 August , several British commanders submitted a plan to attack the patrol line with the light cruisers and destroyers of the Harwich Force , commanded by Commodore Reginald Tyrwhitt . These ships would be supported by submarines and Vice Admiral David Beatty 's battlecruisers and associated light forces . The plan was approved and set for 28 August . The British forces began to leave port on the evening of 26 August , beginning with the submarines assigned to the operation . Most of the surface forces went to sea early on the following morning ; the 7th Cruiser Squadron , which had been added to provide further support to the Harwich Force , left port later in the day .
On the morning of 28 August , Cöln was re @-@ coaling in Wilhelmshaven . Her sister , Mainz , was at anchor in the mouth of the Ems , and Ariadne lay in the entrance to the Weser . These three cruisers were assigned to support the cruisers Stettin and Frauenlob , and the aviso Hela , which were stationed on the patrol line that morning . At 07 : 57 , the Harwich Force encountered the outer German torpedo boats , which fled back to the German cruisers on the patrol line . In the ensuing Battle of Heligoland Bight , Stettin engaged the British force first , and was quickly reinforced by Frauenlob . Upon receiving reports of the action , Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper , the commander of the reconnaissance forces , ordered Maass to deploy his cruisers to support the engaged vessels . At 09 : 30 , Cöln steamed out of port .
Cöln steamed to aid her sister Mainz , which was under heavy fire from several British cruisers and battlecruisers . At around 13 : 25 , she came upon the damaged cruiser HMS Arethusa and several destroyers . Cöln engaged the British ships briefly , but was interrupted by the appearance of the British battlecruisers . At 13 : 37 , Cöln made a 16 @-@ point turn and returned fire at the battlecruisers ; the British ships turned to port to steam closer to Cöln , which in turn similarly altered course to escape . She was hit several times , however , including one hit that killed Maass . At 13 : 56 , another German cruiser arrived on the scene , which distracted the British ships and allowed Cöln to slip away to the north . About fifteen minutes later , she turned back south @-@ east to return to port .
The reversal of course brought her back in range of the British battlecruisers , however , which quickly opened fire and scored several damaging hits . The order to abandon ship was given , and men began gathering on the deck . Engineers set scuttling charges while the men topside prepared to go into the water . At 14 : 25 , the ship rolled over and sank . The survivors expected the British to pick them up , but they instead departed . German ships searched the area three days later , to find only one survivor , Leading Stoker Neumann ; the rest of the crew had died in the water . The wreck was moved in August 1979 to render it less of an underwater hazard . Some parts of the ship were salvaged and are now preserved in the Cuxhaven Shipwreck Museum .
|
= Wigwam ( Bob Dylan song ) =
" Wigwam " is a song by Bob Dylan that was released on his 1970 album Self Portrait . It was a hit single that reached the Top 10 in several countries worldwide . The song 's basic track , including " la @-@ la " vocals , was recorded in early March 1970 in New York City . Later that month , producer Bob Johnston had brass instrument overdubs added to the track ; these were recorded in Nashville , Tennessee at a session without Dylan present .
Critical appraisal of " Wigwam " has been mostly positive , and reviewers have called it a highlight of Self Portrait . Several artists have covered the composition , including Drafi Deutscher , whose version of it was a Top 20 hit in Germany .
= = Recording = =
" Wigwam " was recorded during the sessions for Dylan 's Self Portrait album , and produced by Bob Johnston . The basic track was put on tape on March 4 , 1970 , at Columbia Studio A in New York City , and was labelled " New Song 1 " on the recording sheet . The musicians on the basic track were Dylan , vocals and guitar ; David Bromberg , guitar ; Al Kooper , piano . On April 20 , 2013 , this early version of " Wigwam " was released as a single for Record Store Day , and on August 27 of the same year , it appeared on The Bootleg Series Vol . 10 – Another Self Portrait ( 1969 – 1971 ) .
On March 17 , 1970 , at Columbia Recording Studios in Nashville , Tennessee , instrumental overdubs were recorded for " Wigwam " and several other songs . Dylan was not present for the overdubs , and they were overseen by Johnston .
In the song , Dylan sings " la @-@ la " vocals , accompanied by horns , in an arrangement that has been called " mariachi @-@ like " , and " Tex @-@ Mex " . The feeling of the song has also been described as " campfire music " and as having a " hazy glow " .
= = Release = =
" Wigwam " was released on Self Portrait on June 8 , 1970 , and as a single in June or July . The single 's B @-@ side is " Copper Kettle " . The single was a Top 10 hit in Belgium , Denmark ( in 1972 ) , France , Malaysia , the Netherlands , Singapore , and Switzerland , and was a Top 40 hit in Canada and Germany . In the US , the song reached No. 41 on the Billboard Hot 100 , and No. 13 on the Billboard Top 40 Easy Listening chart .
Years later , in the early 2000s , " Wigwam " appeared on the " Limited Tour Edition " of The Essential Bob Dylan . The song was also included on the soundtrack to the film The Royal Tenenbaums ( 2001 ) , as well as on the compilations One Hit Wonders and Hard to Find Classics ( 2003 ) , Radio 2 - De Topcollectie ' 70 Vol . 2 ( 2010 ) , Top 40 Hitarchief - 1970 ( 2011 ) , and Remember the 70s Vol . 5 .
= = Appraisal = =
Reactions to the song have been generally positive . A review in Billboard magazine describes the track as " winning " . Biographer Rober Shelton includes " Wigwam " among the " quality " songs on Self Portrait , describing it as " hard to forget " ; it is also one of the " AllMusic Picks " of the highlights of Self Portrait , and Michael Gray similarly rates it as one of the " best tracks " on the album . Greil Marcus is likewise positive about the track , calling it " a great job of arranging " . PopMatters reviewer Tom Useted calls the song " more than worthy " , while NME writer Paul Stokes qualifies it as " melodious " and as demonstrating Dylan 's " versatility and impact " . In a review of The Royal Tenenbaums soundtrack , critic Heather Phares writes that the " hazy glow " of the song " add [ s ] to the album 's strangely timeless but emotionally direct atmosphere . " Critic Sean Egan writes that " Dylan la @-@ las against a big brass arrangement in a not disagreeable way — but is ' not disagreeable ' supposed to be what a Dylan track amounts to ? "
On a more negative note , writer Seth Rogovoy describes " Wigwam " as a " bizarre , wordless vocal tune " . Critic Anthony Varesi considers the instrumentation on " Wigwam " to be an example of " horns misplaced " , and " evidence of flaws " in Bob Johnston 's production choices on Self Portrait . Pitchfork writer Rob Mitchum characterizes the song as " moaning along with the brass section " and " rather unpleasant " .
= = Covers = =
Artists who have covered " Wigwam " include the New Christy Minstrels , Sounds Orchestral , and the French orchestra leaders Raymond Lefèvre and Caravelli . Drafi Deutscher released a version with German lyrics , entitled " Weil ich dich lieb " ( " Because I Love You " ) , that was a Top 20 hit in Germany in 1970 .
= = Charts = =
|
= George Nicol ( baseball ) =
George Edward Nicol ( October 17 , 1870 – August 4 , 1924 ) was an American baseball pitcher and outfielder who played three seasons in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He played for the St. Louis Browns , Chicago Colts , Pittsburgh Pirates and Louisville Colonels from 1890 to 1894 . Possessing the rare combination of batting right @-@ handed and throwing left @-@ handed , he served primarily as a right fielder when he did not pitch .
Signed by the Browns without having previously played any minor league baseball , Nicol made his debut on September 23 , 1890 , and pitched — what was then considered to be — a no @-@ hitter . In the following season , he joined the Chicago Colts in July after starting in the minor leagues . After a two @-@ year sojourn away from the major leagues , he signed for the Pittsburgh Pirates in 1894 . In August of the same season , he was traded to the Louisville Colonels , with whom he played his final game on September 29 , 1894 .
= = Personal life = =
Nicol was born on October 17 , 1870 in Barry , Illinois . His father , Matthew Nicol , immigrated to the United States from Scotland in 1852 , while his mother , Eliza , was born in America . As a youngster , he played baseball for a semi @-@ professional club in nearby Mount Sterling . There , he rose to fame as a left @-@ handed pitcher — probably due to rarity and valuableness of southpaws — and eventually got the opportunity to play in the major leagues before he turned twenty .
After his professional baseball career ended , Nicol moved to Milwaukee , Wisconsin . In 1896 , he married his wife Lilian . Together , they had one son , George Jr . , who was born in 1908 . In order to support his new family , he became a machinist . During this time , he continued to play baseball — albeit amateur baseball — with the Milwaukee City League .
On the night of August 3 , 1924 , Nicol died in his sleep at the age of 53 . His death was treated as suspicious , as a post @-@ mortem examination found him to have four broken ribs that led to his death . He was interred at the Union Cemetery in Milwaukee .
= = Professional career = =
= = = St. Louis Browns ( 1890 ) = = =
Nicol was signed by the St. Louis Browns near the end of the 1890 season , even though he had no prior experience in minor league baseball . The team were in desperate need for players ; their situation was a microcosm of the American Association ( AA ) that already had few players with major league experience to begin with . The league 's precarious situation was not helped by the fact that they had to compete with both the well @-@ established National League ( NL ) and the newly formed yet highly popular Players ' League . Although the latter league lasted just one season , they were able to outdraw both the AA and NL in terms of attendance . This put a dent in the fortunes of the American Association , whose teams consequently struggled to pay the players ' salaries and thus , had to utilize amateur , semi @-@ professional or minor league players .
Nicol made his major league debut for the Browns on September 23 , 1890 , starting the game against the Philadelphia Athletics that resulted in a 21 – 2 win . He did not allow a single hit to the Athletics through seven innings , after which the game was called off due to darkness . Although the game was previously considered a no @-@ hitter , a rule change made by the MLB 's Committee on Statistical Accuracy in 1991 redefined the definition of a no @-@ hitter ; a no @-@ hit game now had to span a minimum of nine innings . As a result , Nicol 's debut was one of fifty no @-@ hitters deleted from the official record books .
Three days after his debut , Nicol faced the Athletics again in his second major league start . He followed up his dazzling debut with another solid performance , giving up just one hit — a single — in a 7 – 3 win that ended after five innings . His subsequent starts were disappointing , most notably a 10 – 3 loss against the Toledo Maumees , where his inability to hold baserunners was first exposed . He finished the season with a win – loss record of 2 – 1 , a 4 @.@ 76 earned run average ( ERA ) , had 16 strikeouts but walked 19 in three games started . After his contract expired at the end of the season , no major league team signed Nicol , so he began the 1891 season with the Davenport Pilgrims , a minor league baseball team that competed in the Illinois – Iowa League .
= = = Chicago Colts ( 1891 ) = = =
Nicol 's tenure with the Pilgrims was successful , albeit brief . He compiled a 15 – 8 record with a 1 @.@ 36 ERA in 23 games started and threw five shutouts . He soon demonstrated himself as the best pitcher in the league by holding opposing teams to three hits or less in four separate games . His pitching performances caught the eye of Chicago Colts ' manager Cap Anson , who offered him a $ 225 a month contract . Nicol originally agreed to the deal , but subsequently wanted to renege , citing " a change of heart . " However , he was eventually forced to accept the offer when the Colts threatened to blacklist him . The Pilgrims , who were already struggling financially , received just $ 300 from the Colts for their ace and folded soon after he left the team .
Nicol arrived in Chicago on July 20 and was penciled in to start on consecutive days against Charles Radbourn and Cy Young . Though he performed poorly in both games , the Colts still managed to win . He was shelled in the third inning by the Cincinnati Reds and on the next day , he gave up seven runs to the Cleveland Spiders in only two innings . Because of these starts , he did not appear in another game until August 14 , when he was used in relief to face the Brooklyn Dodgers . His control issues flared up and he had trouble holding the Dodgers ' baserunners . He was released one week later , having walked 10 batters in the 11 innings he pitched for the Colts . He ended the season playing for Marinette of the Wisconsin State League .
= = = Minor league sojourn = = =
After 1891 , Nicol went back to the Illinois – Iowa League and joined the Rockford Hustlers . He pitched well throughout the 1892 season — though his record was 16 – 16 , he had a 1 @.@ 47 ERA , 230 strikeouts in 288 innings pitched and pitched five shutouts . He limited his opponents to two hits in five different complete games and threw a one @-@ hitter . The league , however , was struggling financially and after the end of the league 's postseason , his request for release was granted .
At the start of 1893 , Nicol signed with the Los Angeles Angels of the California League . A new rule was introduced stipulating that the pitcher 's mound be 60 feet 6 inches ( 18 @.@ 44 m ) away from home plate . This increase of five feet in distance gave batters a greater advantage . Despite this , Nicol was noted for his ability to adapt to the new rule better than other pitchers in the league . This was evident as he was able to garner a 15 – 8 record and 0 @.@ 86 ERA in 1881 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . His control suffered , however , as he struck out just 64 batters and walked 125 , thus contributing to his 1 @.@ 66 WHIP that season . In early June , there was speculation that players would have their salaries cut in order to sustain the league , which was allegedly on the verge of collapsing . Several weeks after two of his teammates departed , Nicol himself left the team , joining the two in the Eastern League with the Erie Blackbirds . He continued his stellar pitching performances with a 13 – 9 record and a 1 @.@ 80 ERA in 200 innings , while reducing the number of walks issued to 89 .
= = = Pittsburgh Pirates and Louisville Colonels ( 1894 ) = = =
Nicol signed for the Pittsburgh Pirates at the start of the 1894 season . His stint with the team was dismal , as he posted a 3 – 4 record with a 6 @.@ 22 ERA , while his control and strikeout ability continued to diminish , evident with his 39 walks issued against a mere 13 strikeouts in 9 games pitched . On August 13 , he was traded to the Louisville Colonels in exchange for Jock Menefee and $ 1000 .
In his first game for the Colonels , Nicol was battered by the opposing team , giving up 19 hits and 15 earned runs in a complete game . He made just one more start for the team and finished with a 13 @.@ 76 ERA over 17 innings pitched . Because of his pitching struggles , he changed positions and played 26 games in the outfield during his time with the organization , making 43 putouts , 2 assists and committed 9 errors , resulting in a .791 fielding percentage . His overall statistics for the year were mixed . His pitching record was 3 – 5 with an 8 @.@ 24 ERA , 17 strikeouts and 55 walks issued over 631 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . However , his offensive numbers were impressive , as he posted a batting average of .351 and amassed 47 hits , 7 doubles , 4 triples , 22 runs batted in and a .463 slugging percentage in 141 plate appearances , while striking out just 5 times . At the conclusion of the season , he was released by the Colonels .
= = = Back to the minors = = =
Nicol returned to minor league baseball , joining the Indianapolis Hoosiers of the Western League . After spending just one month with the team , he moved within the league to the Milwaukee Brewers , where he played for five seasons and was utilized exclusively as an outfielder from 1896 onwards . In 1896 , he was at the centre of controversy when the Philadelphia Phillies drafted him and promised the Brewers that they would return him should they not be in need of his services . However , he was instantly outrighted to the Detroit Tigers , with the Phillies ' president acknowledging that they were assisting and collaborating with the Tigers , who had requested the transaction . The case went to an arbitral tribunal , which ruled in favour of the Brewers .
In 1900 , Nicol joined the Wilkes @-@ Barre Coal Barons of the Atlantic League . The league disbanded in June of that year , whereupon he joined the Detroit Tigers , who were now part of the American League . He was released at the end of the season , having batted .258 in 73 games . He returned to the now @-@ expanded Illinois – Indiana – Iowa League in 1904 and played there for two seasons . His career after 1906 is unclear , although the Society for American Baseball Research writes that he signed with a Wisconsin State League team based in Freeport , Illinois and played for them for the remainder of the year before retiring from professional baseball .
|
= Murder of Suzanne Capper =
The murder of Suzanne Capper was committed in Greater Manchester , England in December 1992 . Sixteen @-@ year @-@ old Suzanne Jane Capper died in Withington Hospital on 18 December 1992 , from multiple organ failure arising from eighty percent burns after she was deliberately set on fire on 14 December . Before her death , Capper related that she had previously been kidnapped and kept prisoner for seven days at a house in Moston , Manchester , where she was beaten and tortured . She was taken from the house by car , driven into the countryside and forced out of the car virtually naked into a wood at Werneth Low where petrol was poured over her and she was set alight . The torture and murder arose from the " avenging [ of ] trivial grievances : a sexual insult , infection with pubic lice and the loss of a pink duffle coat . "
Detectives conducting the inquiry said that " for sheer mindless brutality " the crime ranked alongside the torture inflicted on children by the Moors murderers . The case went to trial in November 1993 , but received " comparatively little publicity " as it coincided with the trial of Robert Thompson and Jon Venables for the murder of James Bulger . On 17 December 1993 , Jean Powell , aged 26 , her ex @-@ husband Glyn Powell , aged 29 , and Bernadette McNeilly , aged 24 , were sentenced to life imprisonment for their parts in the murder . Jeffrey Leigh , aged 27 , was jailed for twelve years for false imprisonment . Jean Powell 's brother Clifford Pook , aged 18 , was sentenced to fifteen years in a Young Offenders ' Institution for false imprisonment and conspiracy to cause grievous bodily harm . Anthony Michael Dudson , who was 16 years old at the time of the murder , was also found guilty of murder and sentenced to be detained at Her Majesty 's pleasure under section 53 ( 1 ) of the Children and Young Persons Act 1933 .
= = Background = =
Capper , described as " a gentle and easily influenced girl , " had been babysitting for Jean Powell since she was ten years old . In 1990 she had spent time in the care of the local authority after her mother , Elizabeth Capper , and her stepfather separated , after which Suzanne and her older sister Michelle stayed with their stepfather . Around this time Capper began to truant from Moston Brook High School , and her attendance during the final two years of schooling was described as " erratic . " Capper increasingly spent her time at Powell 's house . Powell lived at 97 Langworthy Road , Moston , a small Victorian terraced house , where she also dealt drugs and was involved with the handling of stolen motor vehicles . Michelle Capper had briefly lived with Powell , but moved out in August 1992 because she did not like the " evil new friends " Powell was associating with , particularly Bernadette McNeilly , who had recently moved in three doors away at number 91 . McNeilly , who had three children , subsequently moved in with Powell and her three children , where the two shared a bed in the downstairs dining room because the bedrooms were " full of children . " Capper continued to stay regularly even though Powell and McNeilly frequently bullied her . Her sister said : " It was not that she was scared of them , it 's just that she would do anything for them . She pampered their every whim . "
Powell was separated from her husband Glyn , although the two remained friendly and he would visit regularly from his nearby home . McNeilly 's boyfriend was 16 @-@ year @-@ old Anthony Dudson , who was also having sexual intercourse with Powell . Powell was sexually involved with Jeffrey Leigh , a regular visitor to the house as a purchaser of amphetamines . Another frequent visitor to the house was Powell 's younger brother , Clifford Pook .
= = Events leading to murder = =
= = = Kidnap = = =
At trial , it emerged that Capper had been kidnapped for " insubstantial , even trivial " reasons : Jean Powell claimed that Capper had tried to persuade her to sleep with a man for money ; McNeilly and Dudson had contracted pubic lice which they believed were from a bed that Capper had also used ; and McNeilly believed that she had taken a pink duffle coat that belonged to her . In November 1992 , when Dudson had contracted pubic lice and had his pubic hair shaved , McNeilly told him she thought that he had caught them from Capper . Dudson believed otherwise , and said later : " I told Jean [ Powell ] I thought I got them from Bernie [ McNeilly ] . " On 7 December 1992 , Capper was lured to Jean Powell 's home , where Glyn Powell and Dudson were already waiting . She was grabbed as soon as she arrived and held down while Glyn Powell shaved her head and her eyebrows and then made her clean up the hair and place it in a bin . Then he placed a plastic bag over her head and walked round her while hitting her on the head . She was then kicked by Jean Powell and McNeilly as she lay curled up on the floor and both women took turns beating her with a three @-@ foot @-@ long wooden instrument and a belt . She was then taken to the bathroom and forced to shave off her own pubic hair as " ritual humiliation in revenge for having caused , as they claimed , Dudson and McNeilly themselves to be shaved . " Afterwards Jean Powell locked her in a cupboard overnight . The following morning she was taken upstairs and locked in another cupboard . On 8 December she was transferred to McNeilly 's house because of concern that Powell and McNeilly 's six children were disturbed by Capper 's crying . There she was tied spreadeagle to an upturned bed with electrical flex in a downstairs back room .
= = = Torture = = =
Over the next five days Capper was subjected to a series of violent acts , " increasing in severity and brutality as the time passed . " She was regularly beaten and injected with amphetamines , burned with cigarettes , and had rave music — in particular a 45 @-@ minute long remix of Hi , I 'm Chucky ( Wanna Play ? ) by 150 Volts , featuring samples from the movie Child 's Play — played at maximum volume through headphones . McNeilly would commence each torture session with the phrase " Chucky ’ s coming to play " and soon the words themselves were enough to make Capper scream . At some point during the week Pook and Leigh called at the house and were shown Capper , blindfolded and gagged , tied to the bed . By this time , Capper had been lying in her own urine and faeces for several days and was placed in a bath containing concentrated disinfectant and scrubbed with a stiff brush with sufficient force to remove skin . Pook then used pliers to extract two of her teeth , which police later found at his house " like some kind of macabre trophy . " Dudson said : " I was stood at the doorway with Jeanie [ Powell ] and Bernie [ McNeilly ] . Cliff [ Pook ] took her gag off . He told her to open her mouth . He said : ' Right , I 'm going to rip your teeth out ' . He started hitting her teeth with the pliers . He got the pliers on and started pulling it out . But it just snapped and chipped . Then he hit them a few more times . He put the pliers on again and really , really pulled . He pulled Suzanne 's head forward until there was a snap and he had the tooth in the pliers . He did the same again and he was laughing . "
= = = Missed opportunities for rescue = = =
David Hill , 18 , was asked to " sit in " at the house , and while there heard Dudson shout " Shut up , you slag ! " in the back room . When he asked what was going on , Leigh had shown him Capper . He said : " She had a sort of cloth over her face , from just above the eyebrows and covering her nose . She had a bit of dried blood on her lip . She had no hair . " Hill also said he had heard them talking about " dentistry work . It was something about pulling her teeth out with a pair of pliers . " Later , he was left alone in the house with Capper , who pleaded with him to untie her . He said : " She asked me if I could help but I told her I couldn 't . I asked her who she was . She said her name was Suzanne . She asked me if I could untie her . I said I couldn 't do anything . " He later claimed that he was too afraid of Leigh to intervene or raise the alarm , saying : " I thought they would batter me . If I 'd said [ anything ] they 'd all have got me , wouldn 't they ? I didn 't know what to do . I was too shocked to do anything . " While Capper was being held in the house , Leigh and Dudson met up with her sister 's fiance Paul Barlow to help him repair his car . Barlow said : " They could have told me there and then . The door would have been kicked down and I would have got Suzanne out . I did not think they were capable of such savagery . Now all I want is ten minutes with them in a back room . "
= = Murder = =
The six finally agreed that Capper had to be removed from the house after Michelle Capper told them her stepfather was going to report her to the police as a missing person . In the early hours of 14 December 1992 , Capper was forced into the boot of a stolen white Fiat Panda car and driven 15 miles to a narrow lane at Werneth Low near Romiley , on the outskirts of Stockport . In the car were McNeilly , the Powells and Dudson . McNeilly " giggled " as they made the journey . Capper was pushed down an embankment into a patch of brambles and then McNeilly poured petrol over her . Powell stated : " Suzanne was still wobbly and fell over . Bernie [ McNeilly ] said ' Get up . ' Bernie pushed her down the hill and poured petrol on her . " When McNeilly had difficulty getting the petrol to ignite , Glyn Powell asked Dudson for some paper , who handed him a folded envelope which Powell then attempted to light and use as a taper . After three failed attempts , Dudson said : " In the end he just went up to her with a lighter and lit her . He lit her on the back . She went straight up in flames and was screaming . The flames lit up the whole forest . " McNeilly began to sing " Burn baby burn ! Burn baby burn ! " from the Trammps ' song Disco Inferno . Believing Capper to be dead , the four returned to Jean Powell 's house , stopping to buy canned drinks on the way . Both Leigh and Pook were at the house when they arrived and Dudson stated : " Cliff [ Pook ] asked Glyn [ Powell ] , ' Have you done it ? ' Glyn said ' Yes ' and he was laughing . He gave Cliff his lighter back . "
= = = Naming attackers before death = = =
Capper had not died immediately as her murderers believed , and after they left she managed to scramble back up the embankment and stagger along the lane for approximately a quarter of a mile to Compstall Road before being found at 06 : 10 by Barry Sutcliffe and two of his colleagues on their way to work . She told them : " Over there , in the field . They burnt me , they put petrol on me . " They immediately took her to a nearby house and roused the residents , Michael and Margaret Coop , to call for an ambulance . Michael Coop said : " Both her hands appeared like ash . Her legs were just like raw meat and her feet appeared to be badly charred . I was struck by how polite the victim was . She was constantly thanking my wife for her assistance . " Margaret Coop said : " I instinctively went to put my arms around her but she pulled away because she could not bear to be touched . Her head was shaved and there were recent , not new , cuts to her head . Her face was almost featureless . Her hands were red raw and black at the fingertips . Her legs were red from top to bottom . She couldn 't bear anything near her legs . " Capper drank six glasses of water , but was unable to hold the glass herself because of the injuries to her hands . Margaret Coop said : " She looked like the victim of an attack in the Vietnam war . But I felt she would survive . I had this theory that , now she had got to somewhere she could be helped , she would live . " Capper was rushed to the hospital and was able to give the names of her six assailants and Powell 's address before falling into a coma . The extent of her burns was such that her mother and stepfather were unable to recognise her , and she was positively identified by a partial fingerprint from her thumb , the only part of her hands not severely burned . She died on 18 December 1992 , without regaining consciousness .
= = = Arrests = = =
The inquiry was led by Detective Inspector Peter Wall of Greater Manchester Police . At 07 : 30 on 14 December , he instructed officers to attend 97 Langworthy Road and arrest everyone that they found there . Jean Powell and McNeilly laughed and joked with each other as they were arrested . Initially , all six denied involvement . Under questioning , Dudson , who had been urged by his father to tell the truth , began to talk . D.I. Wall said of Dudson 's statement : " As the story began to unfold , we just couldn 't believe it . I kept asking myself how one human being could do this to another . " Police officers " wept as the extent of Suzanne 's suffering was revealed , " and together with civilian staff at the station the police collected cash to send flowers to her at the hospital . On 17 December 1992 , the six accused appeared before magistrates in Manchester and were remanded into custody charged with kidnapping and attempted murder . Following Capper 's death they were charged with her murder on 23 December 1992 .
= = = Inquest = = =
The inquest was opened by Leonard Gorodkin at Manchester Coroner 's Court on 8 January 1993 . Dr William Lawler , a Home Office pathologist , testified that Capper had suffered 75 — 80 per cent burns consistent with having had petrol thrown over her and set alight , and that her chance of survival had been minimal . " It was clear from the outset that Suzanne was unlikely to survive . She suffered widespread burns that led to several complications internally . " Death was due to complications caused by these burns . The coroner said : " It is clear that this young girl must have suffered a great deal of pain and had no chance of survival . But she did fortunately survive long enough to give information which led to the people mentioned being charged with her death . " To Capper 's mother and stepfather the coroner said : " I offer you , not just on my behalf but on behalf of the whole nation , my very deepest sympathy and condolences at this tragic happening to your young daughter . "
= = Convictions = =
The trial commenced on 16 November 1993 , and lasted 22 days . All six denied murder and in their testimonies each defendant tried to minimise their part in the crime . On 24 November , Clifford Pook was cleared of murder on the directions of the judge Mr. Justice Potts . The jury began their deliberations on 16 December 1993 , and took nine hours and fifty @-@ two minutes to reach their verdicts . Mr Justice Potts said : " Each of you has been convicted on clear evidence of murder which was as appalling a murder as it is possible to imagine . "
= = = Verdicts and sentences = = =
Bernadette McNeilly
guilty of murder — life imprisonment with a minimum tariff of 25 years
guilty of conspiracy to cause grievous bodily harm — 20 years
pleaded guilty to false imprisonment — 20 years
Jean Powell
guilty of murder — life imprisonment with a minimum tariff of 25 years
guilty of conspiracy to cause grievous bodily harm — 20 years
pleaded guilty to false imprisonment — 20 years
Glyn Powell
guilty of murder — life imprisonment with a minimum tariff of 25 years
guilty of conspiracy to cause grievous bodily harm — 20 years
guilty of false imprisonment — 20 years
Jeffrey Leigh
pleaded guilty to false imprisonment — 12 years
acquitted of murder
acquitted of conspiracy to cause grievous bodily harm
Anthony Michael Dudson
guilty of murder — detained indefinitely with a minimum tariff of 18 years
guilty of conspiracy to cause grievous bodily harm — 15 years
pleaded guilty to false imprisonment — 15 years
Clifford Pook
pleaded guilty to conspiracy to cause grievous bodily harm — 15 years
pleaded guilty to false imprisonment — 15 years
acquitted of murder
As the sentences were announced two women jurors wept and there were cries of " Yes ! Yes ! " from the public gallery , which was filled with relatives of the victim . In a statement to the press after the sentencing D.I. Wall said : " Psychological reports say that these are absolutely sane individuals . It 's frightening that they are such ordinary people . There is nothing special about any of them . "
= = = Appeals = = =
Leigh appealed against his sentence , which was reduced from 12 years to 9 years on 4 November 1994 . In 2002 , Dudson 's minimum tariff was cut from 18 years to 16 years . Dudson appealed again , arguing that the reduction was insufficient and that the Lord Chief Justice " had failed to reflect the continuing obligation to have regard to Dudson 's welfare . " Lord Justice Kennedy and Mr Justice Mackay dismissed this second appeal on 21 November 2003 . He was moved to an open prison in 2009 .
Jean Powell and McNeilly were granted leave to have the lengths of their minimum sentences reviewed at the Court of Appeal in June 2012 . McNeilly 's sentence was reduced by one year .
= = = McNeilly prison controversy = = =
While she was incarcerated at HM Prison Durham , a routine security check in 1996 uncovered letters which revealed McNeilly had been having an affair with the prison governor , Mike Martin . The married officer resigned his position before disciplinary action could be taken . McNeilly , who was sharing a wing with Rosemary West and Myra Hindley , was immediately transferred to HM Prison New Hall .
= = = Releases from prison = = =
Leigh was freed early from his sentence in 1998 , as was Pook in May 2001 . Both were released on licence . McNeilly was released from prison in December 2014 .
= = Reactions = =
= = = Social environment = = =
There was wide commentary in the news media about the social situation in and around Moston . Writing in The Times , Jon Ronson focused on Manchester 's apparent economic imbalance , pointing out that while " superficially , it is a city of growth " — hosting international environmental conferences in 1993 and bidding to host the 2000 Olympic Games — this could not disguise the realities of the poor quality of " built @-@ to @-@ collapse " housing , the city council 's policy on homelessness , poverty , street violence and drug culture , all of which played parts in the events leading up to Capper 's murder . The city , he said , had violent ' no @-@ go ' areas , where " you can expect to be mugged , " created through drug abuse and hopelessness , and populated by people who " don 't work , have no money , and rarely leave the houses that they find themselves living in before dark . " Ronson highlighted a city of contrasts , where " expensive canal @-@ side cafes are springing up faster than you can count them : the joke around town is that you can sip cappuccino all day and gaze out at the corpses floating past . " David Ward , writing in The Guardian , similarly drew attention to the housing policies , and quoted an older Moston resident as saying : " These people are moving in and out every three months . They 're illiterate half of them — just shagging and having kids . " The Daily Mail – in what Barker and Petley called " ideological overdrive " – described Capper 's killers as " the product of a society that tolerates petty crime , the break @-@ up of families and feckless spending ... Most of Suzanne 's tormentors were on social security ... [ and belong to ] an underclass which is a grave threat to Britain 's future . " Author Carol Anne Davis agreed that when looking for answers about how this crime came about one need only " look at the upbringings of these women who were single parents to three children by their mid twenties , had teenage boyfriends who were barely legal and who supported themselves through drug dealing and theft . "
= = = " Moral panic " = = =
Davis also noted the unusual situation in that " a gang was involved and that two females were the sadistic leaders . " Following the convictions of Powell and McNeilly , there was wider press speculation about " girl gangs " and the rise in violent crime committed by young women , and " the probation service and ex @-@ offender organisations found themselves bombarded with requests from journalists seeking out case histories to illustrate this apparent explosion of LA @-@ style girl @-@ gang culture on the streets of Britain . " Mary Barnish , a senior probation officer at the Inner London Probation Service Women 's Centre , dismissed the notion , saying : " One woman does something somewhere and immediately there 's a great moral panic . People think there 's an epidemic of it . " However , statistics and research produced by the National Association of Probation Officers did show " an increase in the number of women jailed for offences involving violence . " The association 's assistant general secretary Harry Fletcher said that , like the women involved in the Capper murder , the group is " characterised by neglect , personal abuse , drug or alcohol abuse and low self @-@ esteem . Many have themselves been the victim of violence . The problem needs help rather than incarceration . " In one of the " starkest signs of change " there was evidence that " in the 15 — 17 age group , girls are more likely to take pleasure in violence than boys , an indication we may face far more female violence in the future as these girls grow up . " Despite the focus on the female perpetrators around the time of the crime and trial Davis pointed out that , in cases like this which involved female and male sadists , " the female 's role is invariably forgotten over time . This was apparent when Dudson 's appeals were reported in the national press . Manchester newspapers named all of the killers involved , but most less @-@ localised reports simply referred to the ' violent gang ' he belonged to , and it probably wouldn 't have occurred to newer readers that this gang included two merciless female sadists who thought that an allegedly stolen duffle coat was an excuse to torture someone to death . "
= = = " Video nasties " = = =
The moral panic was not confined solely to the gender of the murderers , but also the role played by so @-@ called " video nasties " . The news media immediately made a connection between the Bulger murder trial and the Capper murder trial when the horror movie Child 's Play 3 : Look Who 's Stalking was mentioned as part of the testimonies . D.I. Wall said " throughout interviews with the accused there was no suggestion that the reason Suzanne was killed had anything to do with Child 's Play " but this was overlooked by more sensationalist headlines ( Demonic doll Chucky links the horror crimes ; The curse of Chucky ) . Neither Powell or McNeilly owned a video recorder , and the Child 's Play – inspired music that had been used to torture Capper was a popular track at the time , taped direct from Manchester 's Piccadilly Radio . Broadcaster David Elstein called the video connection " a false story ... branded into the consciousness of the media , " and questioned the news media 's fascination with the film : " There is no reason to believe that Suzanne Capper would be alive today if the audiotape had instead contained the torture scene from King Lear , or a catchphrase from Bruce Forsyth ... But the Child 's Play hare has been running ever since the last day of the James Bulger murder trial . " Elstein argued that the film was simply a scapegoat which the press " made a three @-@ course meal out of . " The Guardian reported that 21 @,@ 000 four – nine @-@ year @-@ olds watched each of BSkyB 's two transmissions of Child 's Play 3 – but Elstein explained the figure was " simply a projection based on an average of just two actual viewers from BARB 's reporting panel , and that the margin of error means even the two may have been just one . But why spoil a good running story by asking what the figures mean ? "
In April 1994 , Professor Elizabeth Newson published Video Violence and the Protection of Children ( the " Newson Report " ) which attracted huge media interest due to its claims that it had " definitively established the long sought @-@ for link between screen violence and the real @-@ life variety , " and which cited the Capper murder as an example . Despite its support by the press , however , the report failed to demonstrate any definitive link , " merely drawing inferences from ... often highly speculative accounts in the press rather than independent first @-@ hand research . " Newson was called to give oral evidence to the House of Commons Home Affairs Select Committee on Video Violence , where she asserted : " The Suzanne Capper case is another example of very explicit imitation of video and the use of video and that was Child 's Play 3 . " The chairman of the committee , Sir Ivan Lawrence had to point out to Newson that this was incorrect , and that both the police and the British Board of Film Classification had ruled out any connection between the movie and the murder .
The link between the murders and Child 's Play 3 by the news media directly led to the delay of the release certification for both Natural Born Killers and Reservoir Dogs .
|
= Black catbird =
The black catbird ( Melanoptila glabrirostris ) is a songbird species in the monotypic genus Melanoptila , part of the family Mimidae . At 19 – 20 @.@ 5 cm ( 7 @.@ 5 – 8 in ) in length and 31 @.@ 6 – 42 g ( 1 @.@ 1 – 1 @.@ 5 oz ) in mass , it is the smallest of the mimids . Sexes appear similar , with glossy black plumage , black legs and bill , and dark reddish eyes . The species is endemic to the Yucatán Peninsula , and is found as far south as Campeche , northern Guatemala and northern Belize . Although there are historical records from Honduras and the US state of Texas , the species is not now known to occur in either location . It is found at low elevations in semi @-@ arid to humid habitats ranging from shrubland and abandoned farmland to woodland with thick understory , and is primarily sedentary .
Although it is a mimid , the black catbird is not known to imitate any other species . Its song is a mix of harsh notes and clear flute @-@ like whistles , with the phrases repeated . It builds a cup nest in low bushes or trees , and lays two bluish eggs . It is threatened by habitat loss , and has been assessed as near threatened by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature .
= = Systematics = =
When Philip Sclater first described the black catbird in 1858 , from a specimen collected in Omoa Honduras , he assigned it to the monotypic genus Melanoptila , which he created at the same time . At least one subsequent ornithologist assigned the species to the genus Turdus , believing it to be a thrush , but most agreed with Sclater 's assessment . DNA studies have since shown that it is most closely related to various endemic Antillean mimids and the gray catbird , and it is sometimes included with the latter species in the genus Dumetella . Although some taxonomists place the birds from Mexico 's Cozumel Island in a separate subspecies ( M. g. cozumelana ) , most authorities do not feel that such distinction is warranted and the species is generally regarded as monotypic throughout its range .
The genus name Melanoptila is a compound word created from two Greek words : melas , meaning " black " and ptilon , meaning " plumage " . This and the " black " of the bird 's common name are a straightforward reference to its general appearance . The species name glabrirostris is a combination of two Latin words : glaber , meaning " smooth or hairless " and rostris , meaning " beak " ( rostrum ) . This is a reference to the very small rictal bristles which surround the black catbird 's beak , in marked comparison to the prominent bristles found on the gray catbird .
= = Description = =
At 19 – 20 @.@ 5 cm ( 7 @.@ 5 – 8 in ) in length and 31 @.@ 6 – 42 g ( 1 @.@ 1 – 1 @.@ 5 oz ) in mass , the black catbird is the smallest of the mimids . It has short , rounded wings and a relatively long tail . The sexes are similar in appearance , though the male tends to be heavier . The plumage is glossy black with a purplish sheen overall , though the rectrices and primary and secondary coverts have a greenish sheen and the remiges are a duller blackish @-@ brown color showing reduced sheen . The female is less glossy than the male , and juveniles are brownish @-@ gray with mottling below . The legs are black . The bill , which is black and shorter than the head , has a generally straight culmen , decurved toward the tip . The iris is a dark reddish color in adults and gray in juveniles .
= = = Similar species = = =
Although the black catbird is unlikely to be mistaken for any other mimid species , there are several other black birds — including the melodious blackbird , the bronzed cowbird and the giant cowbird — that occur within the same range and might conceivably cause confusion . All are birds of more open habitats . The melodious blackbird is larger and longer tailed ; it has dark eyes and a stocky bill with an evenly curved culmen . The bronzed cowbird is thicker necked than is the catbird and has a bronzy , rather than purplish or greenish gloss to its plumage ; its eye is bright red rather than dark red . The giant cowbird is considerably larger , and is relatively longer tailed and thicker necked than is the catbird .
= = Range and habitat = =
The black catbird is endemic to the Yucatán Peninsula . It occurs as far south as the Mexican state of Campeche , northern Guatemala and northern Belize , and is found on the offshore islands of Cozumel , Isla Mujeres , Ambergris Caye , Caye Caulker , Lighthouse Reef and Glover 's Reef . Although the type specimen of the bird was apparently collected in northwestern Honduras in 1855 or 1856 , it has not been recorded in that country since , and must have been rare if it was ever there . Some authors feel that the specimen might have been mislabeled , and have come instead from northwestern " British Honduras " as Belize was then called . There is also a single specimen of a black catbird collected from Brownsville , Texas in 1892 . Although obtained by a reportedly reputable collector , and accepted by the Texas State Records Committee , the origin of this specimen is a source of some controversy , and it has not been accepted by the American Birding Association or the American Ornithologists ' Union .
The species is found at low elevations in semi @-@ arid to humid areas in habitats ranging from scrubland and abandoned farmland to wood edge . It prefers areas with dense thickets , scrub or understory , and is uncommon in taller forest where the vegetation beneath the canopy is more open . Although it is largely sedentary , there may be some localized seasonal movements away from the drier northern parts of the Yucatán Peninsula in late summer to early winter .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Voice = = =
Unlike many of its fellow mimids , the black catbird is not known to imitate any other species . Its song consists of repeated phrases of notes ranging from harsh and scratchy to warbled and flute @-@ like , often interspersed with metallic clicking buzzes . It often sings from exposed perches . It has a variety of calls , including some which are quite similar to those of the gray catbird ; these are variously described as a harsh rriah , a nasal chrrh and a grating tcheeu .
= = = Food and feeding = = =
Although no specific studies have been done on the black catbird 's feeding ecology , it is thought to be an omnivore , like its close relatives are . It is known to eat the fruits of Bursera simaruba and Ficus cotinifolia , two deciduous trees found in the Neotropics .
= = = Breeding = = =
Little is known about the breeding biology of the black catbird . Its breeding season appears to run from spring through summer ; nest building was observed in Belize in early May , and small young were found in a nest in Mexico in mid @-@ August . The nest , an open cup of twigs lined with rootlets and other fine material , is placed low in a dense bush or small tree . The female lays two greenish @-@ blue eggs . However , details of nest @-@ building , incubation times , parental care , fledging periods and number of broods are unknown .
= = Conservation and threats = =
The range of the black catbird is small and dwindling further due to habitat loss . In 2008 , the world population was estimated to be less than 50 @,@ 000 and decreasing . Due to the speed of its decline , which is reported to have been " precipitous " on Caye Caulker between 2003 and 2008 , the International Union for the Conservation of Nature has assessed the species as near threatened . The late 20th century arrival of the shiny cowbird , a brood parasite , into the Yucatán may cause problems for the black catbird as ( based on past host choices ) the catbird may become a target of the cowbird .
= = Note = =
|
= Zou Bisou Bisou =
" Zou Bisou Bisou " ( also performed as " Zoo Be Zoo Be Zoo " ) is a song written by Bill Shepherd and Alan Tew , and Michel Rivgauche for the lyrics of the French version . The song 's origins stem from the Yé @-@ yé movement with which an early version of the song was associated . Its theme is variously described as an open declaration of love and the joy of kissing .
" Zou Bisou Bisou " was Gillian Hills ' first single in the summer of 1960 . A French recording titled " Zoo Be Zoo Be Zoo " was produced by George Martin and sung in English by Sophia Loren . Although most sources associate the origins of the song with Hills , New York claims that the songwriting credits make it more likely that Loren 's version was the original . Slate 's David Haglund notes that Hills ' version is the best @-@ known of the early recordings .
It was performed by Jessica Paré as Megan Draper in the first episode of the fifth season of Mad Men on March 26 , 2012 . The morning after its on @-@ air performance on AMC , the song was released as a music download and as a vinyl special edition . Paré 's on @-@ air performance of the song was lip synced to a prior recording .
= = Versions = =
Amazon.com sells music downloads of nine versions of the song but not Paré 's . They carry the Hills version from Twistin ' : The Rock - Vol . 9 , the Casabianca version from Les Chansons de ma jeunesse , three different remixes of the song by Bart & Baker featuring Lada Redstar from the Zou Bisou Bisou extended play , two versions by Loren by the name " Zoo Be Zoo Be Zoo " from Pete & Sophia , and a karaoke version . Additionally , they carry a cha @-@ cha version by Gilles Dutey , from Ca Tourne En Gironde under the title " Bisou Zou Bisou " .
= = Background and production = =
Martin 's production of " Zoo Be Zoo Be Zoo " was originally recorded by Sophia Loren as publicity associated with the film The Millionairess ( 1960 ) on the album Peter and Sophia . Several sources , including a posting at AMC 's website , state that Hills did not produce her version , with Rivgauche 's lyrics , until 1961 , after Loren 's October 1960 movie . Another version of the song , by Israeli @-@ French performer Maya Casabianca , appeared on France 's Billboard chart in September 1961 . Additional cover versions have been produced by the Pennies and Kerstin Dahl .
At the time of the Mad Men performance , Hills was working as a professional artist and illustrator married to Stewart Young , the manager for AC / DC , Cyndi Lauper , and Foreigner .
Lionsgate Television released a music download edition of Paré 's version at the iTunes Store as well as two vinyl editions made available online . It will also be released in the future on Amazon.com and in stores . This version was produced by Matthew Weiner , Russell Ziecker , David Carbonara , and James T. Hill . Paré recorded her lyrics in a recording studio , working with Carbonara , and choreographed her routine with Marianne Ann Kellogg . The 7 @-@ inch vinyl version includes the B @-@ side , " A Beautiful Mine " by RJD2 , which is the theme music for the show . Weiner tracked down the song and had many objectives for Paré to achieve in the production of the song .
= = Themes = =
Roughly translated from French to English " Zou Bisou Bisou " means " Oh ! Kiss Kiss " or " Oh You Kiss Kiss " . The Hills version is described as " . . .typical in style of the international yé @-@ yé movement " , which is much like the go @-@ go music genre and was most popular in France , Spain , and Quebec , Mrs. Draper 's homeland . The movement 's name has phonetic origins , stemming from the exclamation of " Yeah Yeah " in typical fashion during rock and roll music . After translating the song , Haglund claimed that the theme of the song is about " . . .openly declaring and displaying one 's love , coming out from ' the bushes ' where ' lovers glide stealthily ' and feeling love ' everywhere ' " . The Huffington Post summarized the song more simply saying that it made the statement " about how kissing is fun " . Slate noted that yé @-@ yé singers were often " teenage girls who exuded a faux @-@ innocent sexuality " , which played on Megan Draper 's " youthful sex appeal and the generation gap between Megan and Don " . Paré stated that , " Megan , who is younger and more naïve than Don , was ' unknowingly putting their intimate connection on the line ' in front of their friends and co @-@ workers ' . . . ' The reason that it ’ s so awkward isn ’ t that she was doing anything wrong , but because it ’ s private ' . . . "
= = Critical response to Mad Men scene = =
Numerous critics from prominent media outlets such as The Wall Street Journal , Slate , USA Today , Rolling Stone , Daily Mail , New York Daily News , Los Angeles Times , Chicago Sun @-@ Times , CBS News , noted that the highlight of the 5th season premiere was Paré 's performance of this song during Don Draper 's surprise 40th birthday party , describing the performance and Paré as sexy , slinky and sultry . Matthew Perpetua of Rolling Stone said that " Megan sings … for her husband , who can barely suppress his embarrassment and discomfort . " Erin Carlson of The Hollywood Reporter described Paré 's performance as " bizarre , come @-@ hither burlesque " , noting that she " … stunned partygoers who openly ogled her while the ad exec ( Jon Hamm ) squirmed with polite embarrassment . "
The song 's performance became a trending topic on Twitter . Since the song was trending the entire following day , The Roots performed a brief rendition of a verse of the song as interstitial music the following night on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon . Despite the social media frenzy , the song did not crack the iTunes Top 100 . However , it did reach the final position of the Canadian Hot 100 .
= = Charts = =
|
= Vivien Leigh =
Vivian Mary Hartley , later known as Vivien Leigh and Lady Olivier ( 5 November 1913 – 8 July 1967 ) , was an English stage and film actress . She won two Academy Awards for Best Actress for her performances as Scarlett O 'Hara in Gone with the Wind ( 1939 ) and Blanche DuBois in the film version of A Streetcar Named Desire ( 1951 ) , a role she had also played on stage in London 's West End in 1949 . She also won a Tony Award for her work in the Broadway version of Tovarich ( 1963 ) .
After her drama school education , Leigh appeared in small roles in four films in 1935 and progressed to the role of heroine in Fire Over England ( 1937 ) . Lauded for her beauty , Leigh felt that it sometimes prevented her from being taken seriously as an actress . Despite her fame as a screen actress , Leigh was primarily a stage performer . During her 30 @-@ year stage career , she played roles ranging from the heroines of Noël Coward and George Bernard Shaw comedies to classic Shakespearean characters such as Ophelia , Cleopatra , Juliet , and Lady Macbeth . Later in life , she played character roles in a few films .
To the public at the time , Leigh was strongly identified with her second husband Laurence Olivier , to whom she was married from 1940 to 1960 . Leigh and Olivier starred together in many stage productions , with Olivier often directing , and in three films . She earned a reputation for being difficult to work with , as for much of her adult life she suffered from bipolar disorder as well as recurrent bouts of chronic tuberculosis , first diagnosed in the mid @-@ 1940s , which ultimately claimed her life at the age of 53 . Although her career had periods of inactivity , in 1999 , the American Film Institute ranked Leigh as the 16th greatest female movie star of classic Hollywood cinema .
= = Early life and acting debut = =
Leigh was born Vivian Mary Hartley in British India on the campus of St. Paul 's School , Darjeeling . She was the only child of Ernest Richard Hartley , an English broker , and his wife , Gertrude Mary Frances ( née Yackjee ; she also used the name Robinson ) . Her father was born in Scotland in 1882 , while her mother , a devout Roman Catholic , was born in Darjeeling in 1888 and may have been of Irish and Parsi Indian ancestry . Gertrude 's parents , who lived in India , were Michael John Yackjee ( born 1840 ) , a man of independent means , and Mary Teresa Robinson ( born 1856 ) , who was born to an Irish family killed during the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and grew up in an orphanage , where she met Yackjee ; they married in 1872 and had five children , of whom Gertrude was the youngest . Ernest and Gertrude Hartley were married in 1912 in Kensington , London .
In 1917 , Ernest Hartley was transferred to Bangalore as an officer in the Indian Cavalry , while Gertrude and Vivian stayed in Ootacamund . At the age of three , young Vivian made her first stage appearance for her mother 's amateur theatre group , reciting " Little Bo Peep " . Gertrude Hartley tried to instil an appreciation of literature in her daughter and introduced her to the works of Hans Christian Andersen , Lewis Carroll and Rudyard Kipling , as well as stories of Greek mythology and Indian folklore . At the age of six , Vivian was sent by her mother to the Convent of the Sacred Heart ( now Woldingham School ) then situated in Roehampton , southwest London , from Loreto Convent , Darjeeling . One of her friends there was future actress Maureen O 'Sullivan , two years her senior , to whom Vivian expressed her desire to become " a great actress " . She was removed from the school by her father , and travelling with her parents for four years , she attended schools in Europe , notably in Dinard , Biarritz , San Remo and Paris , becoming fluent in both French and Italian . The family returned to Britain in 1931 . She attended A Connecticut Yankee , one of O 'Sullivan 's films playing in London 's West End and told her parents of her ambitions to become an actress . Shortly after , her father enrolled Vivian at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art ( RADA ) in London .
Vivian met Herbert Leigh Holman , known as Leigh Holman , a barrister 13 years her senior , in 1931 . Despite his disapproval of " theatrical people " , they married on 20 December 1932 , and she terminated her studies at RADA ; her attendance and interest in acting having already waned after meeting Holman . On 12 October 1933 in London , she gave birth to a daughter , Suzanne , later Mrs. Robin Farrington .
= = Early career = =
Leigh 's friends suggested she take a small role as a schoolgirl in the film Things Are Looking Up , which was her film debut , albeit uncredited as an extra . She engaged an agent , John Gliddon , who believed that " Vivian Holman " was not a suitable name for an actress . After rejecting his many suggestions , she took " Vivian Leigh " as her professional name . Gliddon recommended her to Alexander Korda as a possible film actress , but Korda rejected her as lacking potential . She was cast in the play The Mask of Virtue , directed by Sidney Carroll in 1935 and received excellent reviews , followed by interviews and newspaper articles . One such article was from the Daily Express , in which the interviewer noted " a lightning change came over her face " , which was the first public mention of the rapid changes in mood which had become characteristic of her . John Betjeman , the future Poet Laureate , described her as " the essence of English girlhood " . Korda attended her opening night performance , admitted his error , and signed her to a film contract . She continued with the play ; but , when Korda moved it to a larger theatre , Leigh was found to be unable to project her voice adequately or to hold the attention of so large an audience , and the play closed soon after . In the playbill , Carroll had revised the spelling of her first name to " Vivien " .
In 1960 Leigh recalled her ambivalence towards her first experience of critical acclaim and sudden fame , commenting , " some critics saw fit to be as foolish as to say that I was a great actress . And I thought , that was a foolish , wicked thing to say , because it put such an onus and such a responsibility onto me , which I simply wasn 't able to carry . And it took me years to learn enough to live up to what they said for those first notices . I find it so stupid . I remember the critic very well and have never forgiven him . "
= = Meeting Laurence Olivier = =
Laurence Olivier saw Leigh in The Mask of Virtue , and after he congratulated her on her performance , a friendship developed . Olivier and Leigh began an affair while acting as lovers in Fire Over England ( 1937 ) , but Olivier was still married to actress Jill Esmond . During this period , Leigh read the Margaret Mitchell novel Gone with the Wind and instructed her American agent to suggest her to David O. Selznick , who was planning a film version . She remarked to a journalist , " I 've cast myself as Scarlett O 'Hara " ; and The Observer film critic C. A. Lejeune recalled a conversation of the same period in which Leigh " stunned us all " with the assertion that Olivier " won 't play Rhett Butler , but I shall play Scarlett O 'Hara . Wait and see . "
Despite her relative inexperience , Leigh was chosen to play Ophelia to Olivier 's Hamlet in an Old Vic Theatre production staged at Elsinore , Denmark . Olivier later recalled an incident when her mood rapidly changed as she was preparing to go onstage . Without apparent provocation , she began screaming at him , before suddenly becoming silent and staring into space . She was able to perform without mishap ; and , by the following day , she had returned to normal with no recollection of the event . It was the first time Olivier witnessed such behaviour from her . They began living together , as their respective spouses had each refused to grant either of them a divorce . Under the moral standards then enforced by the film industry , their relationship had to be kept from public view .
Leigh appeared with Robert Taylor , Lionel Barrymore and Maureen O 'Sullivan in A Yank at Oxford ( 1938 ) , the first of her films to receive attention in the United States . During production , she developed a reputation for being difficult and unreasonable , partly because she disliked her secondary role but mainly because her petulant antics seemed to be paying dividends . After dealing with the threat of a lawsuit brought over a frivolous incident , Korda , however , instructed her agent to warn her that her option would not be renewed if her behaviour did not improve . Her next role was in Sidewalks of London , also known as St. Martin 's Lane ( 1938 ) , with Charles Laughton .
Olivier had been attempting to broaden his film career . He was not well known in the United States despite his success in Britain , and earlier attempts to introduce him to American audiences had failed . Offered the role of Heathcliff in Samuel Goldwyn 's production of Wuthering Heights ( 1939 ) , he travelled to Hollywood , leaving Leigh in London . Goldwyn and the film 's director , William Wyler , offered Leigh the secondary role of Isabella ; but she refused , preferring the role of Cathy , which went to Merle Oberon .
= = Gone with the Wind = =
Hollywood was in the midst of a widely publicised search to find an actress to portray Scarlett O 'Hara in David O. Selznick 's production of Gone with the Wind ( 1939 ) . At the time , Myron Selznick , David 's brother , and Leigh 's American theatrical agent was the London representative of the Myron Selznick Agency . In February 1938 , Leigh made a request to Myron Selznick that she be considered to play Scarlett O 'Hara .
Myron Selznick , who watched her performances that month in Fire Over England and A Yank at Oxford , thought her to be excellent , but , in no way , a possible Scarlett , as she was " too British " . Leigh travelled to Los Angeles , however , to be with Olivier and to try to convince David Selznick that she was Scarlett . When Myron Selznick , who also represented Olivier , met Leigh , he felt that she possessed the qualities his brother was searching for . According to legend , Myron Selznick took Leigh and Olivier to the set where the burning of the Atlanta Depot scene was being filmed and stage @-@ managed an encounter , where he introduced Leigh , derisively addressing his younger brother , " Hey , genius , meet your Scarlett O 'Hara . " The following day , Leigh read a scene for Selznick , who organised a screen test with director George Cukor , and wrote to his wife , " She 's the Scarlett dark horse and looks damn good . Not for anyone 's ear but your own : it 's narrowed down to Paulette Goddard , Jean Arthur , Joan Bennett and Vivien Leigh " . The director , George Cukor , concurred and praised Leigh 's " incredible wildness " ; she secured the role of Scarlett soon after .
Filming proved difficult for Leigh . Cukor was dismissed and replaced by Victor Fleming , with whom Leigh frequently quarrelled . She and Olivia de Havilland secretly met with Cukor at night and at weekends for his advice about how they should play their parts . Leigh befriended Clark Gable , his wife Carole Lombard and Olivia de Havilland ; but she clashed with Leslie Howard , with whom she was required to play several emotional scenes . Leigh was sometimes required to work seven days a week , often late into the night , which added to her distress ; and she missed Olivier , who was working in New York City . On a long @-@ distance telephone call to Olivier , she declared : " Puss , my puss , how I hate film acting ! Hate , hate , and never want to do another film again ! "
Quoted in a 2006 biography of Olivier , Olivia de Havilland defended Leigh against claims of her manic behaviour during the filming of Gone with the Wind : " Vivien was impeccably professional , impeccably disciplined on Gone with the Wind . She had two great concerns : doing her best work in an extremely difficult role and being separated from Larry [ Olivier ] , who was in New York . "
Gone with the Wind brought Leigh immediate attention and fame ; but she was quoted as saying , " I 'm not a film star – I 'm an actress . Being a film star – just a film star – is such a false life , lived for fake values and for publicity . Actresses go on for a long time and there are always marvellous parts to play . " The film won 10 Academy Awards including a Best Actress award for Leigh , who also won a New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actress .
= = Marriage and early joint projects = =
In February 1940 , Jill Esmond agreed to divorce Laurence Olivier , and Leigh Holman agreed to divorce Vivian Leigh , although they maintained a strong friendship for the rest of Leigh 's life . Esmond was granted custody of Tarquin , her son with Olivier . Holman was granted custody of Suzanne , his daughter with Leigh . On 31 August 1940 , Olivier and Leigh were married at the San Ysidro Ranch in Santa Barbara , California , in a ceremony attended only by their hosts , Ronald and Benita Coleman and witnesses , Katharine Hepburn and Garson Kanin . Leigh had made a screen test and hoped to co @-@ star with Olivier in Rebecca , which was to be directed by Alfred Hitchcock with Olivier in the leading role . After viewing Leigh 's screen test , David Selznick noted that " she doesn 't seem right as to sincerity or age or innocence " , a view shared by Hitchcock and Leigh 's mentor , George Cukor .
Selznick observed that she had shown no enthusiasm for the part until Olivier had been confirmed as the lead actor so he cast Joan Fontaine . He refused to allow her to join Olivier in Pride and Prejudice ( 1940 ) , and Greer Garson played the role Leigh had wanted for herself . Waterloo Bridge ( 1940 ) was to have starred Olivier and Leigh ; however , Selznick replaced Olivier with Robert Taylor , then at the peak of his success as one of Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer 's most popular male stars . Her top billing reflected her status in Hollywood , and the film was popular with audiences and critics .
The Oliviers mounted a stage production of Romeo and Juliet for Broadway . The New York press publicised the adulterous nature of the beginning of Olivier and Leigh 's relationship and questioned their ethics in not returning to the UK to help with the war effort .
Critics were hostile in their assessment of Romeo and Juliet . Brooks Atkinson for The New York Times wrote : " Although Miss Leigh and Mr. Olivier are handsome young people , they hardly act their parts at all . " While most of the blame was attributed to Olivier 's acting and direction , Leigh was also criticised , with Bernard Grebanier commenting on the " thin , shopgirl quality of Miss Leigh 's voice " . The couple had invested almost all of their combined savings of $ 40 @,@ 000 in the project , and the failure was a financial disaster for them .
The Oliviers filmed That Hamilton Woman ( 1941 ) with Olivier as Horatio Nelson and Leigh as Emma Hamilton . With the United States not yet having entered the war , it was one of several Hollywood films made with the aim of arousing a pro @-@ British sentiment among American audiences . The film was popular in the United States and an outstanding success in the Soviet Union . Winston Churchill arranged a screening for a party that included Franklin D. Roosevelt and , on its conclusion , addressed the group , saying , " Gentlemen , I thought this film would interest you , showing great events similar to those in which you have just been taking part . " The Oliviers remained favourites of Churchill , attending dinners and occasions at his request for the rest of his life ; and , of Leigh , he was quoted as saying , " By Jove , she 's a clinker . "
The Oliviers returned to Britain , and in 1943 , Leigh toured through North Africa as part of a revue for the armed forces stationed in the region . Leigh performed for troops before falling ill with a persistent cough and fevers . In 1944 she was diagnosed as having tuberculosis in her left lung and spent several weeks in hospital before appearing to have recovered . Leigh was filming Caesar and Cleopatra ( 1945 ) when she discovered she was pregnant , then had a miscarriage . Leigh temporarily fell into a deep depression that hit its low point , with her falling to the floor , sobbing in an hysterical fit . This was the first of many major bipolar disorder breakdowns . Olivier later came to recognise the symptoms of an impending episode – several days of hyperactivity followed by a period of depression and an explosive breakdown , after which Leigh would have no memory of the event , but would be acutely embarrassed and remorseful .
With her doctor 's approval , Leigh was well enough to resume acting in 1946 , starring in a successful London production of Thornton Wilder 's The Skin of Our Teeth ; but her films of this period , Caesar and Cleopatra ( 1945 ) and Anna Karenina ( 1948 ) , were not great commercial successes . All British films in this period were adversely affected by a Hollywood boycott of British films .
In 1947 Olivier was knighted and Leigh accompanied him to Buckingham Palace for the investiture . She became Lady Olivier . After their divorce , according to the style granted to the divorced wife of a knight , she became known socially as Vivien , Lady Olivier .
By 1948 Olivier was on the board of directors for the Old Vic Theatre , and he and Leigh embarked on a six @-@ month tour of Australia and New Zealand to raise funds for the theatre . Olivier played the lead in Richard III and also performed with Leigh in The School for Scandal and The Skin of Our Teeth . The tour was an outstanding success and , although Leigh was plagued with insomnia and allowed her understudy to replace her for a week while she was ill , she generally withstood the demands placed upon her , with Olivier noting her ability to " charm the press " . Members of the company later recalled several quarrels between the couple as Olivier was increasingly resentful of the demands placed on him during the tour . The most dramatic altercation occurred in Christchurch , New Zealand , when her shoes were not found and Leigh refused to go onstage without shoes . An exhausted and exasperated Olivier screamed an obscenity at her and slapped her face , and a devastated Leigh slapped him in return , dismayed that he would hit her publicly . Subsequently , she made her way to the stage in borrowed pumps , and in seconds , had " dried her tears and smiled brightly onstage " . By the end of the tour , both were exhausted and ill . Olivier told a journalist , " You may not know it , but you are talking to a couple of walking corpses . " Later , he would observe that he " lost Vivien " in Australia .
The success of the tour encouraged the Oliviers to make their first West End appearance together , performing the same works with one addition , Antigone , included at Leigh 's insistence because she wished to play a role in a tragedy .
= = A Streetcar Named Desire = =
Leigh next sought the role of Blanche DuBois in the West End stage production of Tennessee Williams 's A Streetcar Named Desire and was cast after Williams and the play 's producer Irene Mayer Selznick saw her in The School for Scandal and Antigone ; Olivier was contracted to direct . Containing a rape scene and references to promiscuity and homosexuality , the play was destined to be controversial , and the media discussion about its suitability added to Leigh 's anxiety . Nevertheless , she believed strongly in the importance of the work .
When the West End production of Streetcar opened in October 1949 , J. B. Priestley denounced the play and Leigh 's performance ; and the critic Kenneth Tynan , who was to make a habit of dismissing her stage performances , commented that Leigh was badly miscast because British actors were " too well @-@ bred to emote effectively on stage " . Olivier and Leigh were chagrined that part of the commercial success of the play lay in audience members attending to see what they believed would be a salacious story , rather than the Greek tragedy that they envisioned . The play also had strong supporters , among them Noël Coward , who described Leigh as " magnificent " .
After 326 performances , Leigh finished her run , and she was soon engaged to reprise her role as Blanche DuBois in the film version . Her irreverent and often bawdy sense of humour allowed her to establish a rapport with her co @-@ star Marlon Brando , but she had an initial difficulty in working with director Elia Kazan , who was displeased with the direction that Olivier had taken in shaping the character of Blanche . Kazan had favoured Jessica Tandy and later , Olivia de Havilland over Leigh , but knew she had been a success on the London stage as Blanche . He later commented that he did not hold her in high regard as an actress ; " she had a small talent , " but , as work progressed , he became " full of admiration " for " the greatest determination to excel of any actress I 've known . She 'd have crawled over broken glass if she thought it would help her performance . " Leigh found the role gruelling and commented to the Los Angeles Times , " I had nine months in the theatre of Blanche DuBois . Now she 's in command of me . " Olivier accompanied her to Hollywood where he was to co @-@ star with Jennifer Jones in William Wyler 's Carrie ( 1952 ) .
Leigh 's performance in A Streetcar Named Desire won glowing reviews , as well as a second Academy Award for Best Actress , a British Academy of Film and Television Arts ( BAFTA ) Award for Best British Actress , and a New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actress . Tennessee Williams commented that Leigh brought to the role " everything that I intended , and much that I had never dreamed of " . Leigh herself had mixed feelings about her association with the character ; in later years , she said that playing Blanche DuBois " tipped me over into madness " .
= = Struggle with illness = =
In 1951 Leigh and Laurence Olivier performed two plays about Cleopatra , William Shakespeare 's Antony and Cleopatra and George Bernard Shaw 's Caesar and Cleopatra , alternating the play each night and winning good reviews . They took the productions to New York , where they performed a season at the Ziegfeld Theatre into 1952 . The reviews there were also mostly positive , but the critic Kenneth Tynan angered them when he suggested that Leigh 's was a mediocre talent that forced Olivier to compromise his own . Tynan 's diatribe almost precipitated another collapse ; Leigh , terrified of failure and intent on achieving greatness , dwelt on his comments and ignored the positive reviews of other critics .
In January 1953 , Leigh travelled to Ceylon to film Elephant Walk with Peter Finch . Shortly after filming commenced , she had a breakdown and Paramount Pictures replaced her with Elizabeth Taylor . Olivier returned her to their home in Britain , where , between periods of incoherence , Leigh told him she was in love with Finch and had been having an affair with him . She gradually recovered over a period of several months . As a result of this episode , many of the Oliviers ' friends learned of her problems . David Niven said she had been " quite , quite mad " . Noël Coward expressed surprise in his diary that " things had been bad and getting worse since 1948 or thereabouts " . Leigh 's romantic relationship with Finch began in 1948 , and waxed and waned for several years , ultimately flickering out as her mental condition deteriorated .
In 1953 Leigh recovered sufficiently to play The Sleeping Prince with Olivier ; and , in 1955 , they performed a season at Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon in Shakespeare 's Twelfth Night , Macbeth , and Titus Andronicus . They played to capacity houses and attracted generally good reviews , Leigh 's health seemingly stable . John Gielgud directed Twelfth Night and wrote , " ... perhaps I will still make a good thing of that divine play , especially if he will let me pull her little ladyship ( who is brainier than he but not a born actress ) out of her timidity and safeness . He dares too confidently ... but she hardly dares at all and is terrified of overreaching her technique and doing anything that she has not killed the spontaneity of by overpractice . " In 1955 Leigh starred in Anatole Litvak 's film The Deep Blue Sea ; co @-@ star Kenneth More felt he had poor chemistry with Leigh during the filming .
In 1956 Leigh took the lead role in the Noël Coward play South Sea Bubble , but became pregnant and withdrew from the production . Several weeks later , she miscarried and entered a period of depression that lasted for months . She joined Olivier for a European tour of Titus Andronicus , but the tour was marred by Leigh 's frequent outbursts against Olivier and other members of the company . After their return to London , her former husband , Leigh Holman , who could still exert a strong influence on her , stayed with the Oliviers and helped calm her .
In 1958 considering her marriage to be over , Leigh began a relationship with the actor Jack Merivale , who knew of Leigh 's medical condition and assured Olivier he would care for her . In 1959 , when she achieved a success with the Noël Coward comedy Look After Lulu ! , The Times critic described her as " beautiful , delectably cool and matter of fact , she is mistress of every situation " .
In 1960 she and Olivier divorced and Olivier soon married actress Joan Plowright . In his autobiography , Olivier discussed the years of strain they had experienced because of Leigh 's illness : " Throughout her possession by that uncannily evil monster , manic depression , with its deadly ever @-@ tightening spirals , she retained her own individual canniness – an ability to disguise her true mental condition from almost all except me , for whom she could hardly be expected to take the trouble . "
= = Final years and death = =
Merivale proved to be a stabilising influence for Leigh , but despite her apparent contentment , she was quoted by Radie Harris as confiding that she " would rather have lived a short life with Larry [ Olivier ] than face a long one without him " . Her first husband , Leigh Holman , also spent considerable time with her . Merivale joined her for a tour of Australia , New Zealand and Latin America that lasted from July 1961 until May 1962 , and Leigh enjoyed positive reviews without sharing the spotlight with Olivier . Though she was still beset by bouts of depression , she continued to work in the theatre and , in 1963 , won a Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical for her role in Tovarich . She also appeared in the films The Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone ( 1961 ) and Ship of Fools ( 1965 ) .
Leigh 's last screen appearance in Ship of Fools was both a triumph and emblematic of her illnesses taking root . Producer and director Stanley Kramer who ended up with the film , planned to star Leigh but was initially unaware of the fragile mental and physical health of his star . In later recounting her work , Kramer remembered her courage in taking on the difficult role , " She was ill , and the courage to go ahead , the courage to make the film – was almost unbelievable . " Leigh 's performance was tinged by paranoia and resulted in outbursts that marred her relationship with other actors , although both Simone Signoret and Lee Marvin were sympathetic and understanding . In one unusual instance during the attempted rape scene , Leigh became distraught and hit Marvin so hard with a spiked shoe , that it marked his face .
Leigh won the L 'Étoile de Cristal for her performance in a leading role in Ship of Fools .
In May 1967 Leigh was rehearsing to appear with Michael Redgrave in Edward Albee 's A Delicate Balance when her tuberculosis recurred . Following several weeks of rest , she seemed to recover . On the night of 7 July 1967 , Merivale left her as usual at their Eaton Square flat , to perform in a play , and returned home just before midnight to find her asleep . About 30 minutes later , he returned to the bedroom and discovered her body on the floor . She had been attempting to walk to the bathroom and , as her lungs filled with liquid , they collapsed and she suffocated . Merivale first contacted her family and the next day was able to reach Olivier , who was receiving treatment for prostate cancer in a nearby hospital . In his autobiography , Olivier described his " grievous anguish " as he immediately travelled to Leigh 's residence , to find that Merivale had moved her body onto the bed . Olivier paid his respects , and " stood and prayed for forgiveness for all the evils that had sprung up between us " , before helping Merivale make funeral arrangements ; Olivier stayed until her body was removed from the flat .
On the public announcement of her death on 8 July , the lights of every theatre in central London were extinguished for an hour . A Catholic service for Leigh was held at St. Mary 's Church , Cadogan Street , London . Her funeral was attended by the luminaries of British stage and screen . According to the provisions of her will , Leigh was cremated at the Golders Green Crematorium and her ashes were scattered on the lake at her summer home , Tickerage Mill , near Blackboys , East Sussex , England . A memorial service was held at St Martin @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Fields , with a final tribute read by John Gielgud . In 1968 Leigh became the first actress honoured in the United States , by " The Friends of the Libraries at the University of Southern California " . The ceremony was conducted as a memorial service , with selections from her films shown and tributes provided by such associates as George Cukor , who screened the tests that Leigh had made for Gone With the Wind , the first time the screen tests had been seen in 30 years .
= = Legacy = =
Leigh was considered one of the most beautiful actresses of her day , and her directors emphasised this in most of her films . When asked if she believed her beauty had been an impediment to being taken seriously as an actress , she said , " People think that if you look fairly reasonable , you can 't possibly act , and as I only care about acting , I think beauty can be a great handicap , if you really want to look like the part you 're playing , which isn 't necessarily like you . "
Director George Cukor described Leigh as a " consummate actress , hampered by beauty " , and Laurence Olivier said that critics should " give her credit for being an actress and not go on forever letting their judgments be distorted by her great beauty . " Garson Kanin shared their viewpoint and described Leigh as " a stunner whose ravishing beauty often tended to obscure her staggering achievements as an actress . Great beauties are infrequently great actresses – simply because they don 't need to be . Vivien was different ; ambitious , persevering , serious , often inspired . "
Leigh explained that she played " as many different parts as possible " in an attempt to learn her craft and to dispel prejudice about her abilities . She believed that comedy was more difficult to play than drama because it required more precise timing and said that more emphasis should be placed upon comedy as part of an actor 's training . Nearing the end of her career , which ranged from Noël Coward comedies to Shakespearean tragedies , she observed , " It 's much easier to make people cry than to make them laugh . "
Her early performances brought her immediate success in Britain , but she remained largely unknown in other parts of the world until the release of Gone with the Wind . In December 1939 , film critic Frank Nugent wrote in The New York Times , " Miss Leigh 's Scarlett has vindicated the absurd talent quest that indirectly turned her up . She is so perfectly designed for the part by art and nature that any other actress in the role would be inconceivable " , and as her fame escalated , she was featured on the cover of Time magazine as Scarlett . In 1969 critic Andrew Sarris commented that the success of the film had been largely due to " the inspired casting " of Leigh , and in 1998 , wrote that " she lives in our minds and memories as a dynamic force rather than as a static presence " . Film historian and critic Leonard Maltin described the film as one of the all @-@ time greats , writing in 1998 that Leigh " brilliantly played " her role .
Her performance in the West End production of A Streetcar Named Desire , described by the theatre writer Phyllis Hartnoll as " proof of greater powers as an actress than she had hitherto shown " , led to a lengthy period during which she was considered one of the finest actresses in British theatre . Discussing the subsequent film version , Pauline Kael wrote that Leigh and Marlon Brando gave " two of the greatest performances ever put on film " and that Leigh 's was " one of those rare performances that can truly be said to evoke both fear and pity . "
Her greatest critic was Kenneth Tynan who ridiculed Leigh 's performance opposite Olivier in the 1955 production of Titus Andronicus , commenting that she " receives the news that she is about to be ravished on her husband 's corpse with little more than the mild annoyance of one who would have preferred foam rubber . " He was also critical of her reinterpretation of Lady Macbeth in 1955 , saying that her performance was insubstantial and lacked the necessary fury demanded of the role . After her death , however , Tynan revised his opinion , describing his earlier criticism as " one of the worst errors of judgment " he had ever made . He came to believe that Leigh 's interpretation , in which Lady Macbeth uses her sexual allure to keep Macbeth enthralled , " made more sense ... than the usual battle @-@ axe " portrayal of the character . In a survey of theatre critics conducted shortly after Leigh 's death , several named her performance as Lady Macbeth as one of her greatest achievements in theatre .
In 1969 a plaque to Leigh was placed in the Actors ' Church , St Paul 's , Covent Garden , London . In 1985 a portrait of her was included in a series of United Kingdom postage stamps , along with Sir Alfred Hitchcock , Sir Charlie Chaplin , Peter Sellers and David Niven to commemorate " British Film Year " . In April 2013 she was again included in another series , this time celebrating the 100th anniversary of her birth , achieving the rare accolade for a non @-@ royal of appearing on British stamps on more than one occasion .
The British Library in London purchased the papers of Laurence Olivier from his estate in 1999 . Known as The Laurence Olivier Archive , the collection includes many of Vivien Leigh 's personal papers , including numerous letters she wrote to Olivier . The papers of Vivien Leigh , including letters , photographs , contracts and diaries , are owned by her daughter , Mrs. Suzanne Farrington . In 1994 the National Library of Australia purchased a photograph album , monogrammed " L & V O " and believed to have belonged to the Oliviers , containing 573 photographs of the couple during their 1948 tour of Australia . It is now held as part of the record of the history of the performing arts in Australia . In 2013 , an archive of Vivien Leigh 's letters , diaries , photographs , annotated film and theatre scripts and her numerous awards was acquired by the Victoria and Albert Museum .
= = Vivien Leigh performances = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
|
= Ghost ( Mystery Skulls song ) =
" Ghost " is a song written , recorded , produced and performed by American musician Luis Dubuc for his solo project Mystery Skulls . The track was released by Warner Bros. Records as the lead single off the project 's debut album Forever described as an electro retro funk track , written , produced and performed by Dubuc , is about him wanting to " disappear completely and start over " after he didn 't let anyone know about him moving from Dallas to Los Angeles , as reflected in the song 's chorus . The official music video for the track , directed by Josh Thomas , was released in February 2014 by Vice Media 's electronic music channel Thump . However , a fan @-@ animated music video for the song , which garnered over two million views in less than a month , helped put the track in the top 20 of the American Billboard Dance / Electronic Songs chart . The song was also well @-@ received critically .
= = Production and composition = =
" Ghost " is a four @-@ minute , eighteen @-@ second song described by Vibe as an " electro retro funk " track with harmonies influenced from disco . " Ghost " is about wanting to " disappear completely and start over " again , as it was inspired by Dubuc relocating from Dallas to Los Angeles without letting anyone know . The concept of the song is sung in the hook " This time I might just disappear . " He described it as " really special song . The moment I wrote it , I thought , ' Wow , this could really be something . " Written and produced by Dubuc , the original mix that appears on Mystery Skulls ' debut album Forever was mixed by Jeremy Wheatley for 365 Artists at 4db Studios in London , with Adam Looker assisting . Colin Leonard mastered the track at SING Mastering in Atlanta using SING Technology .
= = Release = =
Warner Bros. Records premiered the final mix of " Ghost " for streaming on December 10 , 2013 , and the song became available in digital stores by January 31 , 2014 . A remix by house producer Claude VonStroke was released on February 18 , 2014 by Spin magazine , which journalist Chris Martins named a " demented dance @-@ floor delight . " A day later , Vice Media 's channel Noisey released a remix by New York City @-@ based duo Solidisco , advertised to " make you nostalgic for the long weekend just gone ( thanks President 's Day ! ) , but super happy because Friday is just a little bit closer than it should be . " Both re @-@ workings were part of the song 's remix EP that also featured remixes from Fred Falke , Thomas Newson and Viceroy . A re @-@ cut by producer Martignetti that was not on the EP premiered on the blog Stoney Roads , who noted the song to be fitting in an episode of the HBO series Girls . " Ghost " was also included on the soundtrack for the game WWE 2K15 , and Dubuc has admitted to being happy of being involved with the game : " I 've been a really big fan for a long time , and they found out I was a fan , and it turns out that some of the people that work at WWE and in the game specifically are fans of Mystery Skulls and they were like , " What the fuck ? This is so cool ! Let 's do something together ! " "
" Ghost " garnered favorable reviews , with many writers highlighting its catchiness . One reviewer from Dance Music Northwest praised the song for putting Dubuc 's diverse talent on display . However , a critic who reviewed Forever was more mixed on the song , calling it , along with " When I 'm With You " , to be " slightly lackluster and boring . " The track also did well commercially ; it debuted at its peak position of number 15 on the American Billboard Dance / Electronic Songs chart , issue dated November 22 , 2014 , and landed the on the digital component of that chart in the top 20 the same week . It lasted on the Dance / Electronic chart for eighteen weeks , ending up at number 99 on the chart 's 2015 year @-@ end list .
= = Music videos = =
The official video for " Ghost " , produced by company Oh Yeah Wow and directed by Josh Thomas , parodies the 1973 horror film The Exorcist , but was also noted to spoof scenes from 1976 's Carrie by one writer . It premiered on February 4 , 2014 by Vice 's electronic music channel Thump , who advertised it as " a really good video . It 's got zombies . It 's got a funny exorcist . It 's got old people looking like they 're about to poop their Depends . People ( and things ) fly through the air . It 's neat , and it 's all set to an extremely catchy beat . " The video , which involves a priest who dances through an exorcism , was well @-@ received by publications . This included a writer for Bloody Disgusting who called it " awesome " , and another one who honored the choreography of the dancing priest as " seriously impressive " .
However , the song 's commercial success has been attributed to a fan @-@ made animated music video by Ben Mangum , also known as MysteryBen27 , that garnered more than two million views in under a month . The Scooby @-@ Doo @-@ esque video involves kids running in " the most colorful , vibrant , psychedelic , funky fresh haunted mansion I 've ever had the pleasure of laying eyes on " , as described by PrinceofTheUniverse of Kotaku 's Talk Amongst Yourselves . He also noted that " Everything happens on rhythm to the song which some may find a little cheesy cliche but its a nice way to keep the viewer into whats happening visual while still enjoying the music . As if one can 't exist without the other . "
= = Track list = =
Single
" Ghost " – 4 : 18
Remix EP
" Ghost " ( Solidisco Remix ) – 3 : 38
" Ghost " ( Fred Falke Remix ) – 6 : 38
" Ghost " ( Claude VonStroke Remix ) – 6 : 15
" Ghost " ( Thomas Newson Remix ) – 4 : 25
" Ghost " ( Viceroy Remix ) – 4 : 20
= = Charts = =
|
= AI Mk . IV radar =
Airborne Interception radar , Mark IV , or AI Mk . IV for short , was the world 's first operational air @-@ to @-@ air radar system . Early Mk . III units appeared in July 1940 on converted Bristol Blenheim light bombers , while the definitive Mk . IV reached widespread availability on the Bristol Beaufighter heavy fighter by early 1941 . On the Beaufighter , the Mk . IV arguably played a role in ending the Blitz , the Luftwaffe 's night bombing campaign of late 1940 and early 1941 .
Early development was prompted by a 1936 memo of Henry Tizard on the topic of night fighting . The memo was sent to Robert Watt , director of the radar research efforts , who agreed to allow physicist Edward George " Taffy " Bowen to form a team to study the problem of air interception . The team had a test bed system in flights later that year , but progress was delayed for four years by emergency relocations , three abandoned production designs , and Bowen 's increasingly adversarial relationship with Watt 's replacement , Albert Percival Rowe . Ultimately , Bowen was forced from the team just as the system was finally maturing .
The Mk . IV series operated at a frequency of about 193 megahertz ( MHz ) with a wavelength of 1 @.@ 5 metres , and offered detection ranges against large aircraft up to 20 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 km ) . Considerable skill was required of the radar operator to interpret the displays of its two cathode ray tubes ( CRTs ) for the pilot . It had numerous operational limitations , including a maximum range that increased with the aircraft 's altitude and a minimum range that was barely close enough to allow the pilot to see the target . It was only with the increasing proficiency of the crews , along with the installation of new ground @-@ based radar systems dedicated to the interception task , that interception rates began to increase . These roughly doubled every month through the spring of 1941 , during the height of The Blitz .
The Mk . IV was used in the front lines for only a short period . The introduction of the cavity magnetron in 1940 led to rapid progress in microwave @-@ frequency radars , which offered far greater accuracy and were effective at low altitudes . The prototype Mk . VII began to replace the Mk . IV at the end of 1941 , and the AI Mk . VIII largely relegated the Mk . IV to second @-@ line duties by 1943 . The basic electronics design , originally a television receiver , was used as the basis of the ASV Mk . II radar , Chain Home Low , AMES Type 7 , and many other radar systems throughout the war .
= = Development = =
= = = Genesis = = =
By late 1935 , Robert Watt 's development of Chain Home ( CH ) radar at Bawdsey Manor in Suffolk on the east coast of England had succeeded in building a system able to detect large aircraft at ranges over 40 miles ( 64 km ) . On 9 October , Watt wrote a memo calling for the construction of a chain of radar stations running down the east coast of England and Scotland , spaced about 20 miles ( 32 km ) apart , providing early warning for the entire British Isles . Development continued , and by the end of 1935 the range had improved to over 80 miles ( 130 km ) , reducing the number of stations required .
During 1936 the experimental system at Bawdsey was tested against a variety of simulated attacks , along with extensive development of interception theory carried out at RAF Biggin Hill . One observer was Hugh Dowding , initially as the director of research for the RAF , and later as the commander of RAF Fighter Command . Dowding noted that the CH stations provided so much information that operators had problems relaying it to the pilots , and the pilots had problems understanding it . He addressed this through the creation of what is today known as the Dowding system .
The Dowding system relied on a private telephone network forwarding information from the CH stations , Royal Observer Corps ( ROC ) , and pipsqueak radio direction finding ( RDF ) to a central room where the reports were plotted on a large map . This information was then telephoned to the four regional Group headquarters , who re @-@ created the map covering their area of operations . Details from these maps would then be sent to each Group 's Sectors , covering one or two main airbases , and from there to the pilots via radio . This process took time , during which the target aircraft moved . As the CH systems were only accurate to about 1 km at best , subsequent reports were scattered and could not place a target more accurately than about 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) . This was fine for daytime interceptions ; the pilots would have normally spotted their targets within this range .
= = = Night bombing = = =
Henry Tizard , whose committee spearheaded development of the CH system , grew concerned that CH would be too effective . He expected that the Luftwaffe would suffer so many losses that they would be forced to call off daylight attacks , and would turn to a night bombing effort . Their predecessors in World War I did the same when the London Air Defence Area successfully blocked daytime raids , and attempts to intercept German bombers at night proved comically ineffective . Tizard 's concerns would prove prophetic ; Bowen called it " one of the best examples of technological forecasting made in the twentieth century " .
Tizard was aware that tests showed an observer would only be able to see an aircraft at a range of about 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) , perhaps 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) under the very best moonlit conditions , an accuracy that the Dowding system could not provide . Adding to the problem would be the loss of information from the ROC , who would not be able to spot the aircraft except under the very best conditions . If the interception was to be handled by radar , it would have to be arranged in the short time between initial detection and the aircraft passing beyond the CH sites on the shoreline .
Tizard put his thoughts in a 27 April 1936 letter to Hugh Dowding , who was at that time the Air Member for Research and Development . He also sent a copy to Watt , who forwarded it to the researchers who were moving to their new research station at Bawdsey Manor . In a meeting at the Crown and Castle pub , Bowen pressed Watt for permission to form a group to study the possibility of placing a radar on the aircraft itself . This would mean the CH stations would only need to get the fighter into the general area of the bomber , the fighter would be able to use its own radar for the rest of the interception . Watt was eventually convinced that the staffing needed to support development of both CH and a new system was available , and the Airborne Group was spun off from the CH effort in August 1936 .
= = = Early efforts = = =
Bowen started the Airborne Interception radar ( AI ) efforts by discussing the issue with two engineers at nearby RAF Martlesham Heath , Fred Roland , and N.E. Rowe . He also made a number of visits to Fighter Command headquarters at RAF Bentley Priory and discussed night fighting techniques with anyone who proved interested . The first criteria for an airborne radar , operable by either the pilot or an observer , included :
weight not to exceed 200 pounds ( 91 kg ) ,
installed space of 8 cubic feet ( 0 @.@ 23 m3 ) or less ,
maximum power use of 500 W ( watts ) , and
antennas of 1 foot ( 30 cm ) length or less .
Bowen then started looking for a suitable receiver system , and immediately had a stroke of good luck ; EMI had recently constructed a prototype receiver for the experimental BBC television broadcasts on 6 @.@ 7 m wavelength ( 45 MHz ) . The receiver used seven or eight vacuum tubes ( valves ) on a chassis only 3 inches ( 7 @.@ 6 cm ) in height and about 18 inches ( 46 cm ) long . Combined with a CRT display , the entire system weighed only 20 pounds ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) . Bowen later described it as " far and away better than anything which [ had ] been achieved in Britain up to that time . "
Only one receiver was available , which was moved between aircraft for testing . A transmitter of the required power was not available in portable form . Bowen decided to gain some familiarity with the equipment by building a ground @-@ based transmitter . Placing the transmitter in Bawdsey 's Red Tower and the receiver in the White Tower , they found they were able to detect aircraft as far as 40 to 50 miles ( 64 – 80 km ) away .
= = = RDF 1 @.@ 5 = = =
With the basic concept proven , the team then looked for a suitable aircraft to carry the receiver . Martlesham provided a Handley Page Heyford bomber , a reversal of duties from the original Daventry Experiment that led to the development of CH in which a Heyford was the target . One reason for the selection of this design was that its Rolls @-@ Royce Kestrel engines had a well @-@ shielded ignition system which gave off minimal electrical noise .
Mounting the receiver in the Heyford was not a trivial task ; the standard half @-@ wave dipole antenna needed to be about 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 11 ft ) long to detect wavelengths of 6 @.@ 7 m . The solution was eventually found by stringing a cable between the Heyford 's fixed landing gear struts . A series of dry cell batteries lining the aircraft floor powered the receiver , providing high voltage for the CRT through an ignition coil taken from a Ford .
When the system took to the air for the first time in the autumn of 1936 , it immediately detected aircraft flying in the circuit at Martlesham , 8 to 10 miles ( 13 – 16 km ) away , in spite of the crudity of the installation . Further tests were just as successful , with the range pushed out to 12 miles ( 19 km ) .
It was around this time that Watt arranged for a major test of the CH system at Bawdsey with many aircraft involved . Dowding had been promoted to Chief of Fighter Command , and was on hand to watch . Things did not go well ; for unknown reasons the radar did not pick up the approaching aircraft until they were far too close to arrange interception . Dowding was watching the screens intently for any sign of the bombers , failing to find one when he heard them pass overhead . Bowen averted total disaster by quickly arranging a demonstration of his system in the Red Tower , which picked out the aircraft as they re @-@ formed 50 miles ( 80 km ) away .
The system , then known as RDF 1 @.@ 5 , would require a large number of ground @-@ based transmitters to work in an operational setting . Moreover , good reception was only achieved when the target , interceptor , and transmitter were roughly in a line . Due to these limitations , the basic concept was considered unworkable as an operational system , and all effort moved to designs with both the transmitter and receiver in the interceptor aircraft .
Bowen would later lament this decision in his book Radar Days , where he noted his feelings about failing to follow up on the RDF 1 @.@ 5 system :
Another attempt to revive the RDF 1 @.@ 5 concept , today known more generally as bistatic radar , was made in March 1940 when a modified set was mounted in Bristol Blenheim L6622 . This set was tuned to the transmissions of the new Chain Home Low transmitters , dozens of which were being set up along the UK coastline . These experiments did not prove successful , with a detection range on the order of 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) , and the concept was abandoned for good .
= = = Giant acorns , shorter wavelengths , and ASV = = =
The team received a number of Western Electric Type 316A large acorn vacuum tubes in early 1937 . These were suitable for building transmitter units of about 20 W continual power for wavelengths of 1 to 10 m ( 300 to 30 MHz ) . Percy Hibberd built a prototype transmitter with pulses of a few hundred watts and fitted it to the Heyford in March 1937 .
In testing the transmitter proved only barely suitable in the air @-@ to @-@ air role , with short detection ranges due to its relatively low power . But to everyone 's surprise , it was able to easily pick out the wharves and cranes at the Harwich docks a few miles south of Bawdsey . Shipping appeared as well , but the team was unable to test this very well as the Heyford was forbidden to fly over water . After this success , Bowen was granted two Avro Anson patrol aircraft , K6260 and K8758 , along with five pilots stationed at Martlesham to test this ship @-@ detection role . Early tests demonstrated a problem with noise from the ignition system interfering with the receiver , but this was soon resolved by fitters at the Royal Aircraft Establishment ( RAE ) .
Meanwhile , Hibberd had successfully built a new push – pull amplifier using two of the same tubes but working in the 1 @.@ 25 @-@ meter band , an upper @-@ VHF band ( around 220 MHz ) ; below 1 @.@ 25 m the sensitivity dropped off sharply . Gerald Touch , originally from the Clarendon Laboratory , converted the EMI receiver to this wavelength by using the existing set as the intermediate frequency ( IF ) stage of a superheterodyne circuit . The original 45 MHz frequency would remain the IF setting for many following radar systems . On its first test on 17 August , Anson K6260 with Touch and Keith Wood aboard immediately detected shipping in the English Channel at a range of 2 to 3 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 – 4 @.@ 8 km ) . The team later increased the wavelength slightly to 1 @.@ 5 m to improve sensitivity of the receiver , and this 200 MHz setting would be common to many radar systems of this era .
After hearing of the success , Watt called the team and asked if they would be available for testing in September , when a combined fleet of Royal Navy ships and RAF Coastal Command aircraft would be carrying out military exercises in the Channel . On the afternoon of 3 September the aircraft successfully detected the battleship HMS Rodney , the aircraft carrier HMS Courageous and the light cruiser HMS Southampton , receiving very strong returns . The next day they took off at dawn and , in almost complete overcast , found Courageous and Southampton at a distance of 5 to 6 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 – 9 @.@ 7 km ) . As they approached the ships and eventually became visible , they could see the Courageous launching aircraft to intercept them . The promise of the system was not lost on observers ; Albert Percival Rowe of the Tizard Committee commented that " This , had they known , was the writing on the wall for the German Submarine Service . "
This success in what became known as the Air @-@ Surface @-@ Vessel radar ( ASV ) role , airborne radar for detecting ships at sea , led to continued demands for additional tests throughout the year . Interest continued to grow , and this would ultimately be one of the reasons that airborne intercept sets would be delayed ; the team spent a considerable time in 1937 and 1938 working on the ASV problem , and ultimately these sets went into operational use first .
= = = ASV emerges = = =
In May 1938 A.P. Rowe took over Bawdsey Manor from Watt , who had been appointed Director of Communications Development at the Air Ministry . Many members of the radar team have described Rowe as insufferably by @-@ the @-@ book and have registered their disapproval . He became infamous for a string of station orders on all facets of life , as trivial as an order to conserve razor blades by sharpening them on glass , and for considering requiring formal dress for dinner . In one infamous example , Rowe wrote a memo complaining that he was " astonished " that members of the team bought tea from a local canteen in the morning , stating that he was " strongly in favour of tea in the afternoon . " This constant stream of memos affected the AI team in particular ; Bowen , Hanbury Brown , and Lovell have all described their problematic relationship with Rowe . They were not alone ; Arnold Wilkins , the inventor of radar in the UK and Watt 's right @-@ hand @-@ man , soon left to join Watt in London .
Most of 1938 was taken up with practical problems and development of ASV . One change was the use of the new Western Electric 4304 tubes in place of the earlier 316As . These allowed a further increase in power to pulses around 2 kW , which provided detection of ships at 12 to 15 miles ( 19 – 24 km ) . Their test target was the Cork Lightship , a small boat anchored about 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) from the White Tower . This performance against such a small vessel was enough to prompt the Army to begin work on what would become the Coast Defence ( CD ) radars . The Army cell had first been set up on 16 October 1936 to develop the Gun Laying radar systems .
Another change was due to every part of the equipment having different power requirements . The tubes for the transmitter used 6 V to heat their filaments , but 4 V was needed for the receiver tubes and 2 V for the filament of the CRT . The CRT also needed 800 V for its electron gun , but the transmitter tubes 1000 V for their modulators ( drivers ) . At first , the team used motor @-@ generator sets placed in the Anson and Battle fuselages , or batteries connected in various ways as in the earliest sets in the Heyfords . Bowen decided the solution was to build a power supply that would produce all of these DC voltages from a single 240 V 50 Hz supply using transformers and rectifiers . This would allow them to power the radar systems using mains power while the aircraft were on the ground .
British aero engines were normally equipped with a power take @-@ off shaft that led to the rear of the engine . In twin engine aircraft like the Anson , one of these would be used for a generator that powered the aircraft instruments at 24 V DC , the other would be left unconnected and available for use . Following a suggestion from Watt to avoid Air Ministry channels , in October Bowen flew one of the Battles to the Metropolitan @-@ Vickers ( Metrovick ) plant in Sheffield , where he pulled the DC generator off the engine , dropped it on the table , and asked for an AC alternator of similar size and shape . Arnold Tustin , Metrovick 's lead engineer , was called in to consider the problem , and after a few minutes he returned to say that he could supply an 80 V unit at 1200 to 2400 Hz and 800 W , even better than the 500 W requested . Bowen had an order for 18 pre @-@ production units placed as soon as possible , and the first units started arriving at the end of October . A second order for 400 more quickly followed . Eventually about 133 @,@ 800 of these alternators would be produced during the war .
= = = Working design = = =
To better test the needs of AI , an aircraft with the speed needed to intercept a modern bomber was needed . In October 1938 the team was provided with two Fairey Battle light bombers , which had performance and size more suited to the night fighter role . Battles K9207 and K9208 , and the crew to fly them , were sent to Martlesham ; K9208 was selected to carry the radar , while K9207 was used as a target and support aircraft .
By 1939 , it was clear that war was looming , and the team began to turn their primary attention from ASV back to AI . A new set , built by combining the transmitter unit from the latest ASV units with the EMI receiver , first flew in a Battle in May 1939 . The system demonstrated a maximum range that was barely adequate , around 2 to 3 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 – 4 @.@ 8 km ) , but the too @-@ long minimum range proved to be a far greater problem .
The minimum range of any radar system is due to its pulse width , the length of time that the transmitter is turned on before it turns off so the receiver can listen for reflections from targets . If the echo from the target is received while the transmitter is still sending , the echo will be swamped by backscattering of the transmitted pulse from local sources . For instance , a radar with a pulse width of 1 µs would not be able to see returns from a target less than 150 m away , because the radar signal travelling at the speed of light would cover the round trip distance of 300 m before that 1 µs interval had passed .
In the case of ASV this was not a problem ; aircraft would not approach a ship on the surface more closely than its altitude perhaps a few thousand feet , so a longer pulse width was fine . But in the AI role , the minimum range was pre @-@ defined by the pilot 's eyesight , at 300 m or less for night interception , which demanded sub @-@ microsecond pulse widths . This proved very difficult to arrange , and ranges under 1 @,@ 000 feet were difficult to produce .
Gerald Touch invested considerable effort in solving this problem and eventually concluded that a sub @-@ 1 µs transmitter pulse was possible . However , when this was attempted it was found that signals would leak through to the receiver and cause it to be blinded for a period , longer than 1 µs . He developed a solution using a time base generator that both triggered the transmitter pulse as well as cut out the front @-@ end of the receiver , causing it to become far less sensitive during this period . This concept became known as squegging . In extensive tests in Anson K6260 , Touch finally settled on a minimum range of 800 feet ( 240 m ) as the best compromise between visibility and sensitivity .
Additionally , the sets demonstrated a serious problem with ground reflections . The broadcast antenna sent out the pulse over a very wide area covering the entire forward side of the aircraft . This meant that some of the broadcast energy struck the ground and reflected back to the receiver . The result was a solid line across the display at a distance equal to the aircraft 's altitude , beyond which nothing could be seen . This was fine when the aircraft was flying at 15 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 km ) or more and the ground return was at about the maximum useful range , but meant that interceptions at lower altitudes offered increasingly shorter range .
= = = Dowding visits = = =
In May 1939 the unit was transferred to a Battle , and in mid @-@ June " Stuffy " Dowding was taken on a test flight . Bowen operated the radar and made several approaches from various points . Dowding was impressed , and asked for a demonstration of the minimum range . He instructed Bowen to have the pilot hold position once they had made their closest approach on the radar scope so they could look up and see how close that really was . Bowen relates the outcome :
Dowding 's version of the same events differs . He states he was " tremendously impressed " by the potential , but pointed out to Bowen that the 1 @,@ 000 foot minimum range was a serious handicap . He makes no mention of the close approach , and his wording suggests that it did not take place . Dowding reports that when they met again later in the day , Bowen stated that he had made a sensational advance , and the minimum range had been reduced to only 220 feet ( 67 m ) . Dowding reports this uncritically , but the historical record demonstrates no such advance had been made .
On their return to Martlesham , Dowding outlined his concerns about night interceptions and the characteristics of a proper night fighter . Since the interceptions were long affairs , the aircraft needed to have long endurance . To ensure that friendly fire was not an issue , pilots would be required to identify all targets visually . This meant a separate radar operator would be needed , so the pilot would not lose his night vision by looking at the CRTs . And finally , since the time needed to arrange an interception was so long , the aircraft required armament that could guarantee destruction of a bomber in a single pass — there was little chance a second interception could be arranged .
Dowding later wrote a memo considering several aircraft for the role , rejecting the Boulton Paul Defiant two @-@ seat fighter due to its cramped rear turret area . He was sure the Bristol Beaufighter would be perfect for the role , but it would not be ready for some time . So he selected the Bristol Blenheim light bomber for the immediate term , sending two of the early prototypes to Martlesham Heath to be fitted with the radar from the Battles . Blenheim K7033 was fitted with the radar , while K7034 acted as the target . Both of these aircraft lost a propeller in flight but landed safely ; K7033s propeller was never found , but K7034 's was returned to Martlesham the next day by an irate farmer .
= = = Mk . I = = =
Even at the 1 @.@ 5 m wavelength , antennas of practical size had relatively low gain and very poor resolution ; the transmitter antenna created a fan @-@ shaped signal over 90 degrees wide . This was not useful for homing on a target , so some system of direction indication was required . The team seriously considered phase comparison as a solution , but could not find a suitable phase shifting circuit .
Instead , a system of multiple receiver antennas was adopted , each one located so that only a certain section of the sky was visible . Two horizontal receivers were mounted on either side of the fuselage and only saw reflections from the left or right , slightly overlapping in the middle . Two vertical receivers were mounted above and below the wing , seeing reflections above or below the aircraft .
Each pair of antennas was connected to a motorized switch that rapidly switched between the pairs , a technique known as lobe switching . Both signals were then sent to a cathode ray tube ( CRT ) for display , with one of them passing through a voltage inverter . If the target was to the left , the display would show a longer blip on the left than the right . When the target was dead ahead , the blips would be equal length . There was an inherently limited accuracy to such a solution , about five degrees but it was a practical solution in terms of limiting the antenna sizes .
By this point the Air Ministry was desperate to get any unit into service . Satisfied with his visit in May , Dowding suggested that the Mk . I was good enough for operational testing purposes . On 11 June 1939 , AI was given the highest priority and provisions were made to supply 11 additional Blenheims to No 25 squadron at RAF Hawkinge ( for a total of 21 ) . Since each of the parts came from different suppliers , and the fitters were unfamiliar with any of it , members of the AI team would have to hand @-@ assemble the components as they arrived and instruct the fitters on the sets .
Watt was waiting for the order , and in 1938 had arranged for production of the transmitters at Metrovick and receivers at A.C. Cossor . These turned out to be the wrong products : Metrovick had been told to directly copy ( " Chinese " ) the 1937 design by Percy Hibberd , but Bawdsey had delivered the wrong prototype to Metrovick , who copied it . The Cossor receivers were found to be unusable , weighing as much as the entire transmitter and receiver , and having sensitivity about half that of the EMI lash @-@ up .
= = = Pye strip = = =
It was at this point that the team had yet another stroke of luck . Bowen 's former thesis advisor at King 's College , London , was Edward Appleton , who had worked with Watt and Harold Pye during the 1920s . Pye had since gone on to form his own radio company , Pye Ltd . , and was active in the television field . They had recently introduced a new television set , using an innovative vacuum tube developed by Philips of Holland , the EF50 pentode . Appleton mentioned the Pye design to Bowen , who found it to be a great improvement over the EMI version , and was happy to learn there had been a small production run that could be used for their experiments . The design became widely known as the Pye strip .
The Pye strip was such an advance on the EMI unit that the EF50 became a key strategic component . As a German invasion of the west loomed in 1940 , the British contacted Philips and arranged a plan to remove the company 's board of directors to the UK , along with 25 @,@ 000 more EF50s and another 250 @,@ 000 bases , onto which Mullard , Philip 's UK subsidiary , could build complete tubes . A destroyer , HMS Windsor , was dispatched to pick them up in May , and left the Netherlands only days before the German invasion on 15 May 1940 . The Pye strip , and its 45 MHz intermediate frequency , would be re @-@ used in many other wartime radar systems .
New Blenheims eventually arrived at Martlesham , these having been experimentally converted to heavy fighters with the addition of four .303 British Browning machine guns and four 20mm Hispano autocannon , while removing the mid @-@ upper turret to reduce weight by 800 lb ( 360 kg ) and drag by a small amount . These arrived without any of the racking or other fittings required to mount the radar , which had to be constructed by local fitters . Further deliveries were not the Blenheim Mk . IF and IIF models originally provided , but the new Mk . IVF versions with a longer and redesigned nose . The gear had to be re @-@ fitted for the new aircraft , and the receivers and CRTs were mounted in the enlarged nose , allowing the operator to indicate corrections to the pilot through hand signals as a backup if the intercom failed .
By September , several Blenheims were equipped with what was now officially known as AI Mk . I and training of the crews began with No. 25 Squadron at RAF Northolt . Robert Hanbury Brown , a physicist who would later work on radar in the US , and Keith Wood joined them in August 1939 , helping fitters keep the systems operational , and coming up with useful methods for interception . Near the end of August , Dowding visited the base and saw the radars in the nose and pointed out to Bowen that the enemy gunners would see the light from the CRTs and shoot the operator . The sets were re @-@ fitted once again , returning to the rear of the fuselage , which caused more delays .
With the units in the rear , the only communications method was via the intercom but the TR9D sets used in RAF aircraft used the channel for 15 seconds every minute for the pip @-@ squeak system , blocking communications . Even when modified sets were supplied that addressed this , the radar was found to interfere strongly with the intercom . A speaking tube was tried but found to be useless . Newer VHF radios being developed through this same period did not suffer these problems , and the Blenheims were moved to the front of the queue to receive these units .
= = = Emergency move = = =
Bawdsey , right on the eastern coast in a relatively secluded location , could not effectively be protected from air attack or even bombardment from boats offshore . The need to move the team to a more protected location on the opening of hostilities had been identified long before the war . During a visit to his alma mater at Dundee University , Watt approached the rector to ask about potentially basing the team there , on short notice . When the Germans invaded Poland and war was declared on 3 September 1939 , the research teams packed up and arrived in Dundee to find the rector only dimly recalling the conversation and having nothing prepared for their arrival . Students and professors had since returned after the summer break , and only two small rooms were available for the entire group .
The AI group and their experimental aircraft of D Flight , A & AEE , moved to an airport some distance away at Perth , Scotland . The airport was completely unsuitable for the fitting work , with only a single small hangar available for aircraft work while a second was used for offices and labs . This required most of the aircraft to remain outside while others were worked on inside . Nevertheless , the initial group of aircraft was completed by October 1939 . With this success , more and more aircraft arrived at the airport to have the AI team fit radars , most of these being the ASV units for patrol aircraft like the Lockheed Hudson and Short Sunderland , followed by experimental fittings to Fleet Air Arm Fairey Swordfish and Supermarine Walrus .
Bernard Lovell joined the radar team at the personal suggestion of P.M.S. Blackett , an original member of the Tizard Committee . He arrived at Dundee and met Sidney Jefferson , who told him he had been transferred to the AI group . The conditions at Perth were so crude that it was clearly affecting work , and Lovell decided to write to Blackett about it on 14 October . Among many concerns , he noted that ;
Blackett removed any direct reference to Lovell and passed it to Tizard , who discussed the issue with Rowe during his next visit to Dundee . Rowe immediately surmised who had written the letter and called Lovell in to discuss it . Lovell thought little of it at the time , but later learned that Rowe had written back to Tizard on 26 October :
Rowe surmised from the conversation that the main problem was that Perth was simply not suitable for the work . He decided that most of the research establishment , now known as the Air Ministry Research Establishment ( AMRE ) , would remain in Dundee while the AI team should be moved to a more suitable location . This time the chosen location was RAF St Athan , about 15 miles ( 24 km ) from Cardiff . St Athan was a large base that also served as an RAF training ground , and should have been an ideal location .
When the AI team arrived on 5 November 1939 , they found themselves being housed in a disused hangar with no office space . A small amount of relief was found by using abandoned Heyford wings as partitions , but this proved largely useless as the weather turned cold . As the main doors of the hangar were normally left open during the day , it was often too cold to hold a screwdriver . Bowen complained that the conditions " would have produced a riot in a prison farm . "
Ironically , Bawdsey was ignored by the Germans for the entire war , while St Athan was attacked by a Junkers Ju 88 only weeks after the team arrived . The single bomb struck the runway directly , but failed to explode .
= = = Mk . II = = =
With October 's deliveries , the Air Ministry began plans for a production AI Mk . II . This differed largely by the addition of a new timebase system , which it was hoped would reduce the minimum range to a very useful 400 feet ( 120 m ) . When the new units were installed , it was found the minimum range had increased to 1000 feet . This problem was traced to unexpectedly high capacitance in the tubes , and with further work they were only able to return to the Mk . I 's 800 feet . Blenheims from a number of squadrons were fitted with the Mk . II , with three aircraft each being allotted to No. 23 , 25 , 29 , 219 , 600 and 604 Squadrons in May 1940 .
Two experimental versions of the Mk . II were tested . The AIH unit used GEC VT90 Micropup valves in place of the Acorns for additional power , the H standing for high power of about 5 kW . A test unit fitted to a Blenheim IF proved promising in March and a second was delivered in early April but development was ended for unknown reasons . The AIL had a locking timebase , which improved maximum range , at the cost of a greatly increased minimum range of 3 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 500 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 – 1 @.@ 07 km ) and work was abandoned .
While aircraft were being delivered , Bowen , Tizard and Watt pressed the Air Ministry to appoint someone to command the entire night fighting system , from ensuring aircraft delivery and radar production to the training of pilots and ground crew . This led to the formation of the Night Interception Committee ( so @-@ named in July 1940 ) under the direction of Richard Peirse . Peirse raised the Night Interception Unit at RAF Tangmere on 10 April 1940 ; it was later renamed the Fighter Interception Unit ( FIU ) .
Bowen led a series of lectures at Bentley Priory , on the theory of radar guided night interception and concluded that the fighter would require a speed advantage of 20 to 25 % over its target . The main Luftwaffe bombers — the Junkers Ju 88 , Dornier Do 17Z , and Heinkel He 111 — were capable of flying at about 250 miles per hour ( 400 km / h ) , at least with a medium load . This implied a fighter would need to fly at at least 300 miles per hour ( 480 km / h ) and the Blenheim , fully loaded , was capable of only 280 miles per hour ( 450 km / h ) . Bowen 's concerns over the poor speed of the Blenheim were proved right in combat .
= = = Mk . III = = =
The Mk . II was used for only a short time when the team replaced its transmitter section with one from the ASV Mk . I , which used the new Micropup valves . The new AI Mk . III sets were experimentally fitted to about twenty Blenheim IFs in April 1940 , where they demonstrated an improved maximum range of 3 to 4 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 – 6 @.@ 4 km ) . However , they still suffered from a long minimum range , from 800 to 1 @,@ 500 ft depending on how the receiver was adjusted .
This led to what Hanbury Brown describes as " the great minimum range controversy " . From October 1939 , working around the clock to install the remaining Mk . I sets at Perth and St Athan , the team had had no time for further development of the electronics . They were aware that the minimum range was still greater than was satisfactory but Bowen and Hanbury Brown were convinced there was a simple solution they could implement once the initial installations were completed . Meanwhile , the current sets continued to be installed , although all were aware of their problems . On 24 January 1940 Arthur Tedder admitted to Tizard that :
The issue of minimum range continued to be raised , working its way through the Air Ministry and eventually to Harold Lardner , head of what was then known as the Stanmore Research Centre . Rowe and his deputy Bennett Lewis were called to meet with Lardner to discuss the issue . Apparently without informing Lardner of Bowen and Hanbury Brown 's potential solution , or the fact that they could not work on it due to the ongoing installations , they agreed to have Lewis investigate the matter . Lewis then sent a contract to EMI to see what they could do . According to both Bowen and Hanbury Brown , Rowe and Lewis instigated these events deliberately to pull control of the AI project from the AI team .
At Dundee , Lewis raised the issue and two solutions to improving the range were considered . The Mk . IIIA consisted of a set of minor changes to the transmitter and receiver with the goal of reducing the minimum range to about 800 feet ( 240 m ) . Lewis ' own solution was the Mk . IIIB , which used a second transmitter that broadcast a signal that mixed with the main one to cancel it out during the end of the pulse . He believed this would reduce the minimum range to only 600 feet ( 180 m ) . Two copies of the IIIA entered tests in May 1940 and demonstrated little improvement , with the range reduced to only 950 feet ( 290 m ) , but at the cost of significantly reduced maximum range of only 8 @,@ 500 feet ( 2 @.@ 6 km ) . Tests of the IIIB waited while the AI team moved from St Athan to Worth Matravers in May , and were eventually overtaken by events . Development of both models was cancelled in June 1940 .
Word that Lewis was developing his own solutions to the minimum range problem reached the AI team at St Athan some time in early 1940 . Bowen was extremely upset . He had become used to the way the researchers had been put into an ill @-@ advised attempt at production but now Rowe was directly removing them from the research effort as well . Tizard heard of the complaints and visited Dundee in an attempt to smooth them over , which evidently failed . On 29 March 1940 a memo from Watt 's DCD office announced a reorganization of the Airborne Group . Gerald Touch would move to the RAE to help develop production , installation and maintenance procedures for the Mk . IV , several other members would disperse to RAF airfields to help train the ground and air crews directly on the units , while the rest of the team , including Lovell and Hodgkin , would re @-@ join the main radar research teams in Dundee . Bowen was notably left out of the reorganization ; his involvement in AI ended . In late July , Bowen was invited to join the Tizard Mission , which left for the US in August 1940 .
= = = Prototype use = = =
Mk . III went into extensive testing at No. 25 Sqn in May 1940 and another troubling problem was found . As the target aircraft moved to the sides of the fighter , the error in the horizontal angle grew . Eventually , at about 60 degrees to the side , the target was indicated as being on the other side of the fighter . Hanbury Brown concluded that the problem was due to reflections between the fuselage and engine nacelles , due to the change to the long @-@ nose IVF from the short @-@ nose IF and IIF . In previous examples they had used the fuselage of the aircraft as the reflector , positioning and angling the antennas to run along the nose or wing leading edges .
He tried moving the horizontal antennas to the outside of the nacelles , but this had little effect . Another attempt using vertically oriented antennas " completely cured the problem " , and allowed the antennas to be positioned anywhere along the wing . When he later tried to understand why the antennas had always been horizontal , he found this had come from the ASV trials where it was found this reduced reflections from the waves . Given the parallel development of the ASV and AI systems , this arrangement had been copied to the AI side without anyone considering other solutions .
At a meeting of the Night Interception Committee on 2 May it was decided that the bomber threat was greater than submarines , and the decision was made to move 80 of the 140 ASV Mk . I transmitters to AI , adding to 70 being constructed by EKCO ( E.K. Cole ) . These would be turned into 60 IIIA 's and 40 IIIB 's . At a further meeting on 23 May , Tizard , perhaps prompted by comments from Director of Signals ( Air ) , suggested that the units were not suitable for operational use , especially due to low reliability , and should be confined to daylight training missions .
By 26 July 70 Blenheims were equipped with Mk . III and the RAE wrote an extensive report on the system . They too had concerns about what they called " partially reliable " systems and pointed out that a significant problem was due to the unreliable antenna connections and cabling . But they went further and stated that the self @-@ exciting concept would simply not work for a production system . These systems used transmitter circuitry as an oscillator to produce the operating frequency , but they had the disadvantage of taking some time to stabilize and then shut down again . Hanbury Brown agreed with this assessment , as did Edmund Cook @-@ Yarborough who had led work on the IIIB at Dundee .
= = = Mk . IV = = =
The RAE 's comments about the self @-@ exciting transmitter were not random : they were referring to work that was just coming to fruition at EMI as a direct result of Lewis ' earlier contract . EMI engineers Alan Blumlein and Eric White had developed a system that dispensed with a self @-@ exciting transmitter circuit and instead used a separate modulator that fed the signal into the transmitter for amplification . The oscillator signal was also sent to the receiver , using it to damp its sensitivity . The combined effect was to sharpen the transmitted pulse , while reducing ' ringing ' in the receiver . In a test in May 1940 , Hanbury Brown was able to clearly see the return at a range of 500 feet ( 150 m ) , and could still make it out when they approached to 400 .
Touch , now at RAE Farnborough and having delivered improved versions of ASV , quickly adapted the new oscillator to the existing Mk . III transmitter . Adapting the vertical transmitting " arrowhead " , folded twin @-@ dipole antenna design on the nose of the aircraft , from Hanbury Brown 's work with the Mk . III eliminated any remaining problems . In its first operational tests in July 1940 , the new AI Mk . IV demonstrated the ability to detect another Blenheim at a range of 20 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 km ) and continued to track it down to a minimum of 500 . Hanbury Brown stated that " it did everything that we had originally hoped that airborne radar would do for night @-@ fighting " . He went on to note that even though Mk . IV arrived only one year after the first Mk . I 's , it felt like they had been working for ten years .
A production contract for 3 @,@ 000 units was immediately started at EMI , Pye , and EKCO . When they left for the USA in August , the Tizard Mission team took a Mk . IV , ASV Mk . II and IFF Mk . II with them , via the National Research Council ( Canada ) . During the following discussions , it was agreed that the US would produce AI , while Canada would produce ASV . Western Electric arranged a production license for the Mk . IV in the US , where it was known as the SCR @-@ 540 . Deliveries began for the P @-@ 70 ( A @-@ 20 Havoc ) and PV @-@ 1 aircraft in 1942 .
= = Operational use = =
= = = Early operations = = =
Throughout the development of the Mk . I to III , various units had been flying the systems in an effort to develop suitable interception techniques . Very early on it was decided to dispense with the full reporting chain of the Dowding system and have the radar operators at the Chain Home ( CH ) sites talk to the fighters directly , greatly reducing delays . This improved matters , and on an increasing number of occasions aircraft received direction from the CH stations towards real targets .
The crews were bound to get lucky eventually , and this came to pass on the night of 22 / 23 July 1940 , when a Blenheim IF of the FIU received direction from the Poling CH station and picked up the target at 8 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) range . The CH radar operator directed them until the observer visually spotted a Do 17 . The pilot closed to 400 feet ( 120 m ) before opening fire , continuing to close until they were so close that oil spewing from the target covered their windscreen . Breaking off , the Blenheim flipped upside down , and with no visibility the pilot didn 't recover until reaching 700 feet ( 210 m ) . The target crashed off Bognor Regis , on the south coast of England . This was the first confirmed successful use of airborne radar known to history .
In spite of this success , it was clear the Blenheim was simply not going to work as a fighter . On several occasions the CH stations directed the fighters to a successful radar capture , only to have the target slowly pull away from the fighter . In one case the Blenheim was able to see the target , but when it spotted them the aircraft increased power and disappeared . From 1 to 15 October 1940 Mk . III @-@ equipped fighters from RAF Kenley made 92 flights , performed 28 radar interceptions , and made zero kills .
The arrival of the Mk . IV in July 1940 improved matters , but it was the delivery of the Bristol Beaufighter starting in August that produced a truly effective system . The Beaufighter had considerably more powerful engines , speed that allowed it to catch its targets , and a powerful gun pack of four 20 mm cannon that could easily destroy a bomber in a single pass . Squadron use began in October , and its first victory came soon after on 19 / 20 November when a Beaufighter IF of No. 604 Squadron destroyed a Ju 88A @-@ 5 near Chichester , very close to the first success of the Mk . III .
= = = Dowding and AI = = =
Through August and September 1940 the Luftwaffe met the Dowding system in the Battle of Britain , and in spite of great effort , failed to defeat Fighter Command . Tizard 's letter of 1936 proved prophetic ; with their loss during the day , the Luftwaffe moved to a night campaign . The Blitz began in earnest in September .
Dowding had been under almost continual criticism from all quarters long before this point ; he was still in power after the normal retirement age for officers , had a prickly personality that earned him the nickname " Stuffy " , and kept tight @-@ fisted control over Fighter Command . He was also criticized for his inactivity in ending the fight between Keith Park and Trafford Leigh @-@ Mallory , commanders of 11 and 12 Group around London . Nevertheless , he had the favour of Winston Churchill and the demonstrated success of the Battle of Britain , which rendered most complaints moot .
The Blitz changed everything . In September 1940 the Luftwaffe flew 6 @,@ 135 night sorties , leading to only four combat losses . The Dowding system was incapable of handling night interceptions in a practical manner , and Dowding continued to state that the only solution was to get AI into operation . Seeking alternatives , the Chief of the Air Staff , Cyril Newall , convened a review committee under the direction of John Salmond . Salmond built a heavyweight panel including Sholto Douglas , Arthur Tedder , Philip Joubert de la Ferté , and Wilfrid Freeman .
At their first series of meetings on 14 September , the Night Defence Committee began collecting a series of suggestions for improvements , which were discussed in depth on 1 October . These were passed on to Dowding for implementation , but he found that many of their suggestions were already out of date . For instance , they suggested building new radars that could be used over land , allowing the fight to continue throughout the raid . A contract for this type of radar had already been sent out in June or July . They suggested that the filter room at RAF Bentley Priory be devolved down to the Group headquarters to improve the flow of information , but Dowding had already gone a step further and devolved night interception to the Sector level at the airfields . Dowding accepted only four of the suggestions .
This was followed by another report at the request of Churchill , this time by Admiral Tom Phillips . Phillips returned his report on 16 October , calling for standing patrols by Hawker Hurricane fighters guided by searchlights , the so @-@ called cat 's eye fighters . Dowding replied that the speed and altitude of modern aircraft made such efforts almost useless , stating that Phillips was proposing to " merely revert to a Micawber @-@ like method of ordering them to fly about and wait for something to turn up . " He again stated that AI was the only solution to the problem . Phillips had not ignored AI , but pointed out that " At the beginning of the war , AI was stated to be a month or two ahead . After more than a year , we still hear that in a month or so it may really achieve results . "
Dowding 's insistence on waiting for AI led directly to his dismissal on 24 November 1940 . Many historians and writers , including Bowen , have suggested his dismissal was unwise , and that his identification of AI radar as the only practical solution was ultimately correct . While this may be true , the cat 's eye force did result in a number of kills during the Blitz , although their effectiveness was limited and quickly overshadowed by the night fighter force . In May 1941 cat 's eye fighters claimed 106 kills to the night fighters ' 79 , but flew twice as many sorties to do so .
= = = GCI = = =
In spite of best efforts , AI 's maximum range remained fixed at the aircraft 's altitude , which allowed Luftwaffe aircraft to escape interception by flying at lower altitudes . With a five @-@ mile ( 8 km ) accuracy in the ground direction , that meant anything below 25 @,@ 000 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 km ) would be subject to this problem , which accounted for the vast majority of Luftwaffe sorties . The lack of coverage over land was another serious limitation .
On 24 November 1939 , Hanbury Brown wrote a memo on Suggestions for Fighter Control by RDF calling for a new type of radar that would directly display both the target aircraft and the intercepting fighter , allowing ground controllers to directly control the fighter without need for interpretation . The solution was to mount a radar on a motorized platform so it rotated continually , sweeping the entire sky . A motor in the CRT display would rotate the beam deflection plates in synchronicity , so blips seen when the antenna was at a particular angle would be displayed at the same angle on the scope display . Using a phosphor that lasted at least one rotation , blips for all targets within range would be drawn on the display at their correct relative angles , producing a map @-@ like image known as a PPI . With both the bombers and fighters now appearing on the same display , the radar operator could now direct an intercept directly , eliminating all of the delays .
The problem was finding a radar that was suitably small ; CH radar 's huge towers obviously could not be swung about in this fashion . By this time the Army had made considerable progress on adapting the AI electronics to build a new radar for detecting ships in the English Channel , CD , with an antenna that was small enough to be swung in bearing . In 1938 , RAF pilots noted they could avoid detection by CH while flying at low altitudes , so in August 1939 , Watt ordered 24 @-@ CD sets under the name Chain Home Low ( CHL ) , using them to fill gaps in CH coverage . These systems were initially rotated by pedalling on a bicycle frame driving a gear set . A joke of the era " was that one could always identify one of the W.A.A.F. R.D.F. operators by her bulging calf muscles and unusually slim figure " . Motorized controls for CHL were introduced in April 1941 .
By late 1939 it was realized that the rotation of the beam on the radar display could be accomplished using electronics . In December 1939 , G.W.A Dummer began development of such a system , and in June 1940 a modified CHL radar was motorized to continually spin in bearing , and connected to one of these new displays . The result was a 360 degree view of the airspace around the radar . Six copies of the prototype Ground Control Interception radars ( GCI ) were hand @-@ built at AMES ( Air Ministry Experimental Station ) and RAE during November and December 1940 , and the first went operational at RAF Sopley on New Year 's Day 1941 , with the rest following by the end of the month . Prior to their introduction in December 1940 the interception rate was 0 @.@ 5 % ; by May 1941 , with a number of operational GCI stations and better familiarity , it was 7 % , with a kill rate of around 2 @.@ 5 % .
= = = End of The Blitz = = =
It was only the combination of AI Mk . IV , the Beaufighter and GCI radars that produced a truly effective system , and it took some time for the crews of all involved to gain proficiency . As they did , interception rates began to increase geometrically :
In January 1941 , three aircraft were shot down
In February , this improved to four , including the first kill by a Beaufighter
In March , twenty @-@ two aircraft were shot down
In April , this improved to forty @-@ eight
In May , this improved to ninety @-@ six
The percentage of these attributed to the AI equipped force continued to rise ; thirty @-@ seven of the kills in May were by AI equipped Beaus or Havocs , and by June these accounted for almost all of the kills .
By this point , the Luftwaffe had subjected the UK to a major air campaign and caused an enormous amount of destruction and displacement of civilians . However , it failed to bring the UK to peace talks , nor had any obvious effect on economic output . At the end of May the Germans called off The Blitz , and from then on the UK would be subject to dramatically lower rates of bombing . How much of this was due to the effects of the night fighter force has been a matter of considerable debate among historians . The Germans were turning their attention eastward , and most of the Luftwaffe was sent to support these efforts . Even in May , the losses represent only 2 @.@ 4 % of the attacking force , a tiny number that was easily replaceable by the Luftwaffe .
= = = Baedeker Blitz = = =
Arthur Harris was appointed Air Officer Commanding @-@ in @-@ Chief of RAF Bomber Command on 22 February 1942 , and immediately set about implementing his plan to destroy Germany through dehousing . As part of their move to area attacks , on the night of 28 March a force dropped explosives and incendiaries on Lübeck , causing massive damage . Adolf Hitler and other Nazi leaders were enraged , and ordered retaliation .
On the night of 23 April 1942 , a small raid was made against Exeter , followed the next day by a pronouncement by Gustaf Braun von Stumm that they would destroy every location found in the Baedeker tourist guides that was awarded three stars . Raids of ever @-@ increasing size followed over the next week , in what became known in the UK as the Baedeker Blitz . This first series of raids ended in early May . When Cologne was greatly damaged during the first 1 @,@ 000 @-@ bomber raid , the Luftwaffe returned for another week of raids between 31 May to 6 June .
The first raids came as a surprise and were met by ineffective responses . On the first raid a Beaufighter from 604 Squadron shot down a single bomber , while the next three raids resulted in no kills , and the next a single kill again . But as the pattern of the attacks grew more obvious — short attacks against smaller coastal cities — the defense responded . Four bombers were shot down on the night of 3 / 4 May , two more on 7 / 8th , one on 18th , two on the 23rd . The Luftwaffe changed their tactics as well ; their bombers would approach at low altitude , climb to spot the target , and then dive again after releasing their bombs . This meant that interceptions with the Mk . IV were possible only during the bomb run .
In the end , the Baedeker raids failed to cause any reduction in the RAF 's raids over Germany . Civilian losses were considerable , with 1 @,@ 637 killed , 1 @,@ 760 injured , and 50 @,@ 000 homes destroyed or damaged . In comparison to The Blitz this was relatively minor ; 30 @,@ 000 civilians were killed and 50 @,@ 000 injured by the end of that campaign . Luftwaffe losses were 40 bombers and 150 aircrew . Although the night fighters were not particularly successful , accounting for perhaps 22 aircraft from late April to the end of June , their shortcomings were on the way to being addressed .
= = = AIS , replacement = = =
The Airborne Group had been experimenting with microwave systems as early as 1938 after discovering that a suitable arrangement of the acorn tubes could be operated at wavelengths as short as 30 cm . However , these had very low output , and operated well within the region of reduced sensitivity on the receiver side , so detection ranges were very short . The group gave up on further development for the time being .
Development continued largely at the urging of the Admiralty , who saw it as a solution to detecting the conning towers of partially submerged U @-@ Boats . After a visit by Tizard to GEC 's Hirst Research Centre in Wembley in November 1939 , and a follow @-@ up visit by Watt , the company took up development and developed a working 25 cm set using modified VT90s by the summer of 1940 . With this success , Lovell and a new addition to the Airborne Group , Alan Lloyd Hodgkin , began experimenting with horn @-@ type antennas that would offer significantly higher angular accuracy . Instead of broadcasting the radar signal across the entire forward hemisphere of the aircraft and listening to echoes from everywhere in that volume , this system would allow the radar to be used like a flashlight , pointed in the direction of observation . This would greatly increase the amount of energy falling on a target , and improve detection capability .
On 21 February 1940 , John Randall and Harry Boot first ran their cavity magnetron at 10 cm ( 3 GHz ) . In April , GEC was told of their work and asked if they could improve the design . They introduced new sealing methods and an improved cathode , delivering two examples capable of generating 10 kW of power at 10 cm , an order of magnitude better than any existing microwave device . At this wavelength , a half @-@ dipole antenna was only a few centimetres long , and allowed Lovell 's team to begin looking at parabolic reflectors , producing a beam only 5 degrees wide . This had the enormous advantage of avoiding ground reflections by simply not pointing the antenna downwards , allowing the fighter to see any target at its altitude or above it .
Through this period , Rowe finally concluded that Dundee was unsuitable for any of the researchers , and decided to move again . This time he selected Worth Matravers on the southern coast , where all of the radar teams could once again work together . Due to confused timing and better planning on the part of the AI team , they arrived at Worth Matravers from St Athan before the long convoy from Dundee could make its way south . This caused a traffic jam that further upset Rowe . Nevertheless , everything was set up by the end of May 1940 , with the AI team working primarily from huts south of Worth Matravers , and carrying out installations at a nearby airfield . With this move the entire group became the Ministry of Aircraft Production Research Establishment ( MAPRE ) , only to be renamed again as the Telecommunications Research Establishment ( TRE ) in November 1940 .
Soon after the move , Rowe formed a new group under Herbert Skinner to develop the magnetron into an AI system , at that time known as AI , Sentimetric ( AIS ) . Lovell adapted his parabolic antennas to the magnetron with relative ease , and the AIS team immediately detected a passing aircraft when they turned on the set for the first time on 12 August 1940 . The next day they were asked to demonstrate the set for managers , but no airplane happened to be flying by . Instead , they had one of the workers bicycle along a nearby cliff carrying a small plate of aluminum sheet . This neatly demonstrated its ability to detect objects very close to the ground . As AIS rapidly developed into the AI Mk . VII , development of the Mk . IV 's follow @-@ ons , the Mk . V , and Mk . VI ( see below ) saw vacillating support .
Considerable additional development of AIS was required , with the first production version arriving in February 1942 , and subsequently requiring an extended period of installation development and testing . The first kill by a Mk . VII set was on the night of 5 / 6 June 1942 .
= = = Serrate = = =
As microwave systems entered service , along with updated versions of aircraft carrying them , the problem arose of what to do with those aircraft carrying Mk . IV that were otherwise serviceable . One possibility , suggested as early as 1942 , was homing in on the Luftwaffe 's own radar sets . The basic operational frequencies of the Luftwaffe 's counterpart to the Mk . IV , the FuG 202 Lichtenstein BC radar , had been discovered in December 1942 . On 3 April 1943 the Air Interception Committee ordered the TRE to begin considering the homing concept under the codename Serrate . As luck would have it , this proved to be perfect timing . In the late afternoon of 9 May 1943 , a crew from IV / NJG.3 defected to the UK by flying their fully equipped Ju 88R @-@ 1 night fighter , D5 + EV , to RAF Dyce in Scotland , giving the TRE their first direct look at the Lichtenstein .
The antenna array of the original Mk . IV was limited by practical factors to be somewhat shorter than the 75 cm that would be ideal for their 1 @.@ 5 m signals . Lichtenstein operated at 75 cm , making the Mk . IV 's antennas almost perfectly suited to pick them up . Sending the signals through the existing motorized switch to a new receiver tuned to the Lichtenstein 's frequency produced a display very similar to the one created by the Mk . IV 's own transmissions . However , the signal no longer had to travel from the RAF fighter and back again ; instead , the signals would only have to travel from the German aircraft to the fighter . According to the radar equation this makes the system eight times as sensitive , and the system displayed its ability to track enemy fighters at ranges as great as 50 miles ( 80 km ) .
Homing on the enemy 's broadcasts meant that there was no accurate way to calculate the range to the target ; radar ranging measurements are based on timing the delay between broadcast and reception , and there was no way to know when the enemy 's signal was originally broadcast . This meant that the homing device could only be used for the initial tracking , and the final approach would have to be carried out by radar . The extra range of the Mk . VIII was not required in this role as Serrate would bring the fighter within easy tracking range , and the loss of a Mk . IV would not reveal the secret of the magnetron to the Germans . For this reason , the Mk . IV was considered superior to the newer radars for this role , in spite of any technical advantages of the newer designs .
Serrate was first fitted to Beaufighter Mk . VIF aircraft of No. 141 Squadron RAF in June 1943 . They began operations using Serrate on the night of 14 June , and by 7 September had claimed 14 German fighters shot down , for 3 losses . The squadron was later handed to No. 100 Group RAF , who handled special operations within Bomber Command including jamming and similar efforts . In spite of their successes , it was clear that the Beaufighter lacked the speed needed to catch the German aircraft , and Mosquitoes began to replace them late in 1943 .
The Germans became aware of their losses to night fighters , and began a rush program to introduce a new radar operating on different frequencies . This led to the lower @-@ VHF band FuG 220 Lichtenstein SN @-@ 2 , which began to reach operational units in small numbers between August and October 1943 , with about 50 units in use by November . In February 1944 , No. 80 Sqn noticed a marked decrease in FuG 202 transmissions . By this time the Germans had produced 200 SN @-@ 2 sets , and this had reached 1 @,@ 000 by May . This set deliberately selected a frequency close to that of their ground @-@ based Freya radar sets , in the hopes that these sources would swamp any wide @-@ band receiver set used on RAF aircraft . Early Serrate units were effectively useless by June 1944 , and their replacements were never as successful .
= = Further development = =
= = = Mk . IVA and Mk . V = = =
Experience demonstrated that the final approach to the target required fast action , too quick for the radar operator to easily communicate corrections to the pilot . In 1940 , Hanbury Brown wrote a paper On Obtaining Visuals from AI Contacts which demonstrated mathematically that the time delays inherent to the interception system were seriously upsetting the approach . In the short term he suggested the fighters make their approach to dead astern while still 2 @,@ 500 feet ( 760 m ) out , and then fly straight in . For the longer term , he suggested adding a pilot 's indicator that directly demonstrated the direction needed to intercept .
This led to Hanbury Brown 's work on the Mark IVA , which differed from the Mk . IV primarily by having an additional display unit in front of the pilot . The radar operator had an additional control , the strobe , which could be adjusted to pick out returns at a particular range . Only those returns were sent to the pilot 's display , resulting in much less clutter . Unlike the operator 's display , the pilot 's showed the target 's location as a single dot in a bore @-@ scope like fashion ; if the dot was above and to the right of the centre of the display , the pilot had to turn to the right and climb to intercept . The result was what was known as a flying spot indicator , a single selected target showing a direct indication of the target 's relative position .
Tests were carried out starting in October 1940 , and quickly demonstrated a number of minor problems . One of the minor issues is that the crosshairs on the tube that indicated the center would block the spot . A more serious concern was the lack of range information , which the FIU pilots considered critical . Hanbury Brown went to work on these issues , and returned an updated version in December . A U @-@ shaped reticle in the center of the display provided a centre location that left the spot visible . Additionally , the circuitry included a second timebase that produced a longer signal as the fighter approached its target . The output was timed so the line was centred horizontally on the dot . This presented the range in an easily understandable fashion ; the line looked like the wings of an aircraft , which naturally grow larger as the fighter approaches it .
The U @-@ shaped centring post was sized so the tips of the U were the same width as the range indication line when the target was at 2 @,@ 500 feet ( 0 @.@ 76 km ) , which indicated that the pilot should throttle back and begin his final approach . Two vertical lines to the sides of the display , the goal posts , indicated that the target was 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) ahead and it was time to look up to see it . Two smaller lines indicated a range of 500 feet ( 150 m ) , at which point the pilot should have seen the target , or had to break away to avoid collision .
At a meeting on 30 December 1940 , it was decided to begin limited production of the new indicators as an add @-@ on unit for existing Mk . IV systems , creating the AI Mk . IVA . The first examples arrived in January 1941 , with more units from ADEE and Dynatron following in early February . Hanbury Brown 's involvement with AI came to an abrupt end during testing of the new unit . During a flight in February 1941 at 20 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 km ) his oxygen supply failed and he suddenly awoke in an ambulance on the ground . He was no longer allowed to fly on tests , and moved to working on radar beacon systems .
Continued work displayed a number of minor problems , and the decision was made to introduce a redesigned unit with significant improvements in packaging , insulation , and other practical changes . This would become the AI Mk . V , which began to arrive from Pye in late February and immediately demonstrated a host of problems . By this time the microwave units were being designed , and the Mk . V was almost cancelled . A contract for over 1 @,@ 000 units was allowed to continue in case of delays in the new units . By May the issues with the Pye design were ironed out , and the FIU 's testing revealed it to be superior to the Mk . IV , especially in terms of maintenance . An RAE report agreed .
The first updated Mk . V sets arrived in April 1942 and were fitted to the de Havilland Mosquito as they became available . A Mk . V equipped Mosquito claimed its first kill on 24 / 25 June , when a Mosquito NF.II from No. 151 Squadron shot down a Dornier Do 217E @-@ 4 over the North Sea . In practice it was found that pilots had considerable difficulty looking up from the display at the last minute , and the system was used only experimentally . By this time the microwave units had started to arrive in small numbers , so Mk . V production was repeatedly delayed pending their arrival , and eventually cancelled .
Starting in the summer of 1942 the TRE development team began experimenting with systems to project the display onto the windscreen , and by October had combined this with an image of the existing GGS Mk . II gyro gunsight to produce a true head @-@ up display known as the Automatic Pilot 's Indicator , or API . A single example was fitted to a Beaufighter and tested through October , and numerous modifications and follow @-@ on examples were trialled over the next year .
= = = Mk . VI = = =
As AI began to prove itself through early 1940 the RAF realised that the radar supply would soon outstrip the number of suitable aircraft available . With large numbers of single @-@ engine single @-@ seat aircraft already in the night fighter units , some way to fit these with radar was desired , and the Air Ministry formed the AI Mk . VI Design Committee to study this in the summer of 1940 . The resulting AI Mk . VI design was essentially a Mk . IVA with an additional system that automatically set the strobe range . With no target visible , the system moved the strobe from its minimum setting to a maximum range of about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) and then started over at the minimum again . This process took about four seconds . If a target was seen , the strobe would stick to it , allowing the pilot to approach the target using his C @-@ scope . The pilot would fly under ground control until the target suddenly appeared on his pilot indicator , and then intercept it .
A prototype of the automatic strobe unit was produced in October , along with a new Mk . IVA @-@ like radar unit with a manual strobe for testing . EMI was then asked to provide another breadboard prototype of the strobe unit for air testing , which was delivered on 12 October . A raft of problems were found and addressed . Among these , it was found that the strobe would often stick to the ground reflection , and when it did not , would not stick until it had a strong signal at shorter ranges , or might stick to the wrong target . Eventually a panacea button was added to unstick the strobe in these cases .
As the Mk . IVA was modified into its improved Mk . V , the Mk . VI followed suit . But by early 1941 it was decided to make the Mk . VI an entirely new design , to more easily fit in small aircraft . EMI had already been awarded a contract for a dozen prototype units in October 1940 for delivery in February , but these continued changes made this impossible . Nevertheless , they presented a production contract for 1 @,@ 500 units in December . Between December and March , production examples began arriving and displayed an enormous number of problems , which the engineers worked through one @-@ by one . By July the systems were ready for use , and began being installed in the new Defiant Mk . II early in August , but these demonstrated a problem where the system would lock @-@ on to transmissions from other AI aircraft in the area , which resulted in further modifications . It was not until the beginning of December 1941 that these issues were fully solved and the units were cleared for squadron use .
By this point , supplies of the Beaufighter and the new Mosquito had improved dramatically , and the decision was made to remove all single @-@ engine designs from the night fighter force during 1942 . Two Defiant units did switch to the Mk . VI , but they operated for only about four months before converting to the Mosquito . Production for the AI role ended , and the electronics were converted to Monica tail warning radars for the bomber force , until the mid @-@ 1944 knowledge of the Germans ' Flensburg radar detector , which spotted Monica transmissions , was revealed to the British .
The Mk . VI had a brief overseas career . One of the early units was experimentally fitted to a Hurricane Mk . IIc , and this led to a production of a single flight of such designs starting in July 1942 . These conversions were given such a low priority that they were not complete until the spring of 1943 . Some of these aircraft were sent to Calcutta where they claimed a number of Japanese bombers . An experimental fit on Hawker Typhoon iA R7881 was carried out , with the system packed into a standard underwing drop tank . This was available in March 1943 and underwent lengthy trials lasting into 1944 , but nothing came of this work .
= = Description = =
The Mk . IV was a complex lash @-@ up of systems , known collectively in the RAF as the Airborne Radio Installation 5003 ( ARI 5003 ) . Individual parts included the R3066 or R3102 receiver , T3065 transmitter , Modulator Type 20 , Transmitter Aerial Type 19 , Elevation Aerial Type 25 , Azimuth Aerial Type 21 and 25 , Impedance Matching Unit Type 35 , Voltage Control Panel Type 3 , and Indicator Unit Type 20 or 48 .
= = = Antenna layout = = =
As the Mk . IV system worked on a single frequency , it naturally leant itself towards the Yagi antenna design , which had been brought to the UK when the Japanese patents were sold to the Marconi Company . " Yagi " Walters developed a system for AI use using five Yagi antennas .
Transmissions took place from a single arrowhead antenna mounted on the nose of the aircraft . This consisted of a folded dipole with a passive director in front of it , both bent rearward at about 35 degrees , projecting from the nosecone on a mounting rod . For vertical reception , the receiver antennas consisted of two half @-@ wave unipoles mounted above and below the wing , with a reflector behind them . The wing acted as a signal barrier , allowing the antennas to see only the portion of the sky above or below the wing as well as directly in front . These antennas were angled rearward at the same angle as the transmitter . The horizontal receivers and directors were mounted on rods projecting from the leading edge of the wing , the antennas aligned vertically . The fuselage and engine nacelles formed the barriers for these antennas .
All four receiver antennas were connected via separate leads to a motorized switch that selected each one of the inputs in turn , sending it into the amplifier . The output was then switched , using the same system , to one of four inputs into the CRTs . The entire radar dipole aerial setup for the AI Mk.IV was simple in comparison to the 32 @-@ dipole Matratze ( mattress ) transceiving array fitted to the noses of the earliest German night fighters to use AI radar , for their own UHF @-@ band Lichtenstein B / C airborne radar design from 1942 – 43 .
= = = Displays and interpretation = = =
The Mk . IV display system consisted of two 3 @-@ inch ( 7 @.@ 6 cm ) diameter cathode ray tubes connected to a common timebase generator normally set to cross the display in the time it would take to receive a signal from 20 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 km ) . The displays were installed beside each other at the radar operator 's station at the rear of the Beaufighter . The tube on the left showed the vertical situation ( altitude ) and the one on the right showed the horizontal situation ( azimuth ) .
Each receiver antenna was sent to one of the channels of the displays in turn , causing one of the displays to refresh . For instance , at a given instant the switch might be set to send the signal to the left side of the azimuth display . The timebase generator was triggered to start sweeping the CRT dot up the screen after the transmission ended . Reflections would cause the dot to be deflected to the left , creating a blip whose vertical location could be measured against a scale to determine range . The switch would then move to the next position and cause the right @-@ hand side of the display to be redrawn , but the signal inverted so the dot moved to the right . The switching occurred fast enough that the display looked continuous .
Because each antenna was aimed to be sensitive primarily in a single direction , the length of the blips depended on the position of the target relative to the fighter . For instance , a target located 35 degrees above the fighter would cause the signal in the upper vertical receiver to be maximized , causing a long blip to appear on the upper trace , and none on the lower trace . Although less sensitive directly forward , both vertical antennas could see directly in front of the fighter , so a target located dead ahead caused two slightly shorter blips , one on either side of the centreline .
For interception , the radar operator had to compare the length of the blips on the displays . If the blip was slightly longer on the right than left side of the azimuth display , for instance , he would instruct the pilot to turn right in an effort to centre the target . Interceptions normally resulted in a stream of left / right and up / down corrections while reading out the ( hopefully ) decreasing range .
The trailing edge of the transmitter pulse was not perfectly sharp and caused the receiver signals to ring for a short time even if they were turned on after the pulse was ostensibly complete . This leftover signal caused a large permanent blip known as the transmitter break through which appeared at the short @-@ range end of the tubes ( left and bottom ) . A control known as the Oscillator Bias allowed the exact timing of the receiver 's activation relative to the transmitter pulse to be adjusted , normally so the remains of the pulse were just visible .
Due to the wide pattern of the transmission antenna , some of the signal always hit the ground , reflecting some of it back at the aircraft to cause a ground return . This was so powerful that it was received on all of the antennas , even the upper vertical receiver which would otherwise be hidden from signals below it . As the shortest distance , and thus the strongest signal , was received from reflections directly below the aircraft , this caused a strong blip to appear across all the displays at the range of the fighter 's altitude . The ground further in front of the aircraft also caused returns , but these were increasingly distant ( see slant range ) and only some of the signal was reflected back at the aircraft while an increasing portion was scattered forward and away . Ground returns at further distances were thus smaller , resulting in a roughly triangular series of lines at the top or right side of the displays , known as the " Christmas tree effect " , beyond which it was not possible to see targets .
= = = Serrate operation = = =
Serrate used the Mk . IV equipment for reception and display , replacing only the receiver unit . This could be switched in or out of the circuit from the cockpit , which turned off the transmitter as well . In a typical interception , the radar operator would use Serrate to track the German fighter , using the directional cues from the displays to direct the pilot on an intercept course . Range was not supplied , but the operator could make a rough estimate by observing the signal strength and the way the signals changed as the fighter maneuvered . After following Serrate to an estimated range of 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 km ) , the fighter 's own radar would be turned on for the final approach .
= = = IFF use = = =
Starting in 1940 , British aircraft were increasingly equipped with the IFF Mk . II system , which allowed radar operators to determine whether a blip on their screen was a friendly aircraft . IFF was a responder that sent out a pulse of radio signal immediately on reception of a radio signal from a radar system . The IFF 's transmission mixed with the radar 's own pulse , causing the blip to stretch out in time from a small peak to an extended rectangular shape .
The rapid introduction of new types of radars working on different frequencies meant the IFF system had to respond to an ever @-@ increasing list of signals , and the direct response of the Mk . II required an ever @-@ increasing number of sub @-@ models , each turned to different frequencies . By 1941 it was clear that this was going to grow without bound , and a new solution was needed . The result was a new series of IFF units which used the indirect interrogation technique . These operated on a fixed frequency , different from the radar . The interrogation signal was sent from the aircraft by pressing a button on the radar , which caused the signal to be sent out in pulses synchronized to the radar 's main signal . The received signal was amplified and mixed into the same video signal as the radar , causing the same extended blip to appear .
= = = Homing systems = = =
Transponder systems used on the ground provide the ability to home in on the transponder 's location , a technique that was widely used with the Mk . IV , as well as many other AI and ASV radar systems .
Homing transponders are similar to IFF systems in general terms , but used shorter pulses . When a signal was received from the radar , the transponder responded with a short pulse on the same frequency , the original radar pulse would not be reflected so there was no need to lengthen the signal as in the case of IFF . The pulse was sent to the Mk . IV 's display and appeared as a sharp blip . Depending on the location of the transponder relative to the aircraft , the blip would be longer on the left or right of the azimuth display , allowing the operator to guide the aircraft to the transponder using exactly the same methods as a conventional aircraft intercept .
Due to the physical location of the transponder , on the ground , the receiver antenna with the best view of the transponder was the one mounted under the wing . The radar operator would normally pick up the signal on the lower side of the elevation display , even at very long distances . Since the signal from the beacon was quite powerful , the Mk . IV included a switch that set the timebase to 60 miles ( 97 km ) for long @-@ distance pickup . Once they approached the general area , the signal would be strong enough to begin to appear on the azimuth ( left @-@ right ) tube .
= = = BABS = = =
Another system used with the Mk . IV was the Beam @-@ Approach Beacon System , or BABS , which indicated the runway centreline .
The general concept pre @-@ dated the Mk . IV and was essentially a UK version of the German Lorenz beam system . Lorenz , or Standard Beam Approach as it was known in the UK , used a single transmitter located off the far end of the active runway that was alternately connected to one of two slightly directional antennas using a motorized switch . The antennas were aimed so they sent their signals to the left and right of the runway , but their signals overlapped down the centreline . The switch spent 0 @.@ 2 seconds connected to the left antenna ( as seen from the aircraft ) and then 1 second on the right .
To use Lorenz , a conventional radio was tuned to the transmission , and the operator would listen for the signal and try to determine if they heard dots or dashes . If they heard dots , the short 0 @.@ 2 s pulse , they would know they were too far to the left , and turned to the right in order to reach the centreline . Dashes indicated they should turn left . In the centre the receiver could hear both signals , which merged to form a steady tone , the equisignal .
For BABS , the only change was to change the broadcast 's transmissions to a series of short pulses rather than a continuous signal . These pulses were sent out when triggered by the AI radar 's signals and were powerful enough that they could be picked up by the Mk . IV receiver within a few miles . On reception , the Mk . IV would receive either the dots or dashes , and the operator would see an alternating series of blips centred in the display , popping out and then disappearing as the BABS antennas switched . The duration of the blip indicated whether the aircraft was to the left or right , and became a continuous blip on the centreline . This technique was known as AI beam approach ( AIBA ) .
Due to it being based on the same basic equipment as the original Mk . IV AI , BABS could also be used with the Rebecca equipment , originally developed to home on ground transponders for dropping supplies over occupied Europe . The later Lucero unit was essentially an adapter for a Rebecca receiver , mating it to any existing display ; AI , ASV , or H2S .
|
= It 's a Good Life , If You Don 't Weaken =
It 's a Good Life , If You Don 't Weaken is a graphic novel by Canadian cartoonist Seth . It appeared in a collected volume in 1996 after serialization from 1993 to 1996 in issues # 4 – 9 of Seth 's comic book series Palookaville . The mock @-@ autobiographical story tells of its author 's obsessive search for the work of a fictional forgotten cartoonist .
Seth presents the fictional book as a work of autobiography and features figures from his life such as his friend and fellow cartoonist Chester Brown . The minimalist artwork draws from the styles of the early New Yorker cartoonists , rendered in thick brushstrokes with heavy blacks against a greyish @-@ blue wash . The story unfolds with a nostalgic and melancholic tone , and several wordless scenes take the reader on a tour of Southern Ontarian city- and landscapes . The book gained Seth a reputation as part of an autobiographical comics trend in the 1990s . It won two Ignatz Awards in 1997 and ranked No. 52 of The Comics Journal 's " 100 Best Comics of the 20th Century " .
= = Background = =
Seth , a cartoonist then based in Toronto , first drew attention to his work in 1985 when he took over art duties from the Hernandez brothers for Mister X from Toronto publisher Vortex Comics . In April 1991 he launched his own comic book , Palookaville , with Montreal publisher Drawn and Quarterly . By this time , Seth 's artwork had evolved to a style inspired by The New Yorker cartoons of the 1930s and 1940s .
Self @-@ revelatory autobiography was a prominent genre in alternative comics in the early 1990s , drawing influence from the works of Robert Crumb , Harvey Pekar , Art Spiegelman , and others of the earlier underground comix generation . Seth had focused on autobiographical stories since Palookaville débuted . Friends of his appeared in it , most prominently fellow Toronto @-@ based cartoonists Chester Brown and Joe Matt , who also featured each other in their own autobiographical comics . Though a work of fiction , Seth presented It 's a Good Life , If You Don 't Weaken as another autobiographical story , an approach inspired in part by Lynda Barry , who mixed autobiography with fiction in her comics . Seth showed far more restraint in the content of his work than did Matt and Brown , whose comics revealed personal details such as their authors ' masturbation habits . The three share a melancholy worldview and a self @-@ deprecatory approach .
= = Synopsis = =
Seth is a cartoonist obsessived with collecting cartoons and other items from bygone eras . He rants about the modern world and criticizes himself , in particular to his friend and fellow cartoonist Chester " Chet " Brown . While searching for information on cartoonist Whitney Darrow , Jr . , Seth comes across a cartoon signed " Kalo " in The New Yorker . Fond of this older style of cartooning which resembles his own , Seth sets off to find more about this obscure cartoonist .
Seth begins a relation with a woman named Ruthie , whom he first spots while conducting a search at the Toronto Reference Library . He remains self @-@ absorbed and pays little attention to her interests , though she shows enthusiasm for his and discovers Kalo 's real name — Jack Kalloway . Seth learns Kalo had spent his life in Seth 's own childhood hometown of Strathroy in Southern Ontario ; when he makes a visit there he refuses to allow Ruthie to accompany him , and a month later breaks off the relationship , to his later regret .
After two years of no progress Seth finds out that Kalo had run a real estate business in Strathroy that his daughter inherited on his death in 1979 . He returns to Strathroy where he interviews Kalo 's daughter and 93 @-@ year @-@ old mother . He learns that Kalo spent years as a cartoonist in New York and gave up cartooning for real estate after returning to Strathroy and marrying . Kalo 's mother had kept a collection of her son 's work , but lost it when she moved to a nursing home . In the end , Seth has only the eleven cartoons he had found , which append the book .
= = Publication = =
It 's a Good Life , If You Don 't Weaken was serialized in issues # 4 ( December 1993 ) through # 9 ( June 1996 ) of Seth 's comic book Palookaville , published by Drawn and Quarterly . It appeared in collected form in September 1996 from the same publisher . Seth said his mother used the title phrase when he was growing up . On the cover , Seth labelled the work " a Picture @-@ Novella " ; this allowed him to avoid the term ' " graphic novel " and instead use " an antiquated @-@ sounding term " . He has used the term on all his later book @-@ length works of fiction .
The book has been translated into a number of languages . A French edition appeared first in 1998 , and then in an edition more faithful in production to the original English one — with blue wash on yellowed pages — and in a different translation in 2009 . An Italian version followed in 2001 . In 2004 , editions appeared in German , Spanish , and Dutch . Editions appeared in Danish in 2010 , Korean in 2012 , and Polish in 2014 .
= = Style and analysis = =
The story takes place in the 1980s and follows Seth , a cartoonist whose life revolves around cartooning and collecting nostalgic items . He feels ill @-@ at @-@ ease in the modern world and pines for bygone eras . His obsessions and cynicism alienate Seth from most of those around him .
By the time he began the serial , Seth had developed a style derivative of The New Yorker stylists of the 1930s and 1940s . In the book 's appendix Seth describes Peter Arno as " possibly The New Yorker 's greatest stylist " . Seth appropriates the sophisticated , jaded satirical mood , thick brushline , and compositional sense of Arno 's work . Seth 's brushline is simple and organic , and he gives attention to buildings , landscapes , weather conditions , and other background details . The brushstrokes broaden into thick black shadows , sometimes flattening figures to near @-@ abstract silhouettes . A greyish @-@ blue wash accents the otherwise black @-@ and @-@ white cartooning . The novel is printed on yellow paper , giving an aged feeling to the book .
Several wordless scenes unfold in an atmospheric panning through landscapes and cityscapes , with a particular focus on older buildings . The third section opens with such a sequence — tangential to the plot — in the Royal Ontario Museum . The detail in the buildings is much greater than in the simplified delineation of the characters .
In a self @-@ referential twist , the character of Seth at one point discusses his love of the New Yorker style with Chester Brown , while the story itself is drawn in such a manner . Brown expresses his appreciation for such cartoonists but disappoints Seth with his lack of enthusiasm . The cartoonist Kalo is fictional , though this is not revealed in the book . Seth produces the Kalo cartoons in a New Yorker style , yet distinct from the art in the rest of the book . Seth 's use of a real person to comment on Kalo 's work makes the fictional cartoonist 's existence seem more plausible , as does an actual photograph on the final page purporting to be of Kalo .
A strongly nostalgic and melancholic tone pervades the narrative as the Seth character searches for peace and meaning in his life . The narrative is presented as confessional and revelatory : it displays the protagonist 's intepersonal problems and self @-@ doubts , and at one point he is depicted as naked . He often talks of his obsession with the past — his own childhood and earlier eras — either through dialogue with friends or in captions as he wanders the streets . Seth 's interpersonal encounters tend to be one @-@ sided , revealing his reactions to and judgments of those around him .
Seth navigates the city on foot — cars , bicycles , and public transportation rarely even appear – as he talks with friends or rifles through used book shops . For literary theorist Barbara Postema , the character fits the archetype of Walter Benjamin 's flâneur — the wandering urban pedestrian out of touch with his own time and obsessed with the past . Seth pines for a past not his own and obsessively collects consumer items from earlier in the 20th century . His focus is primarily on the period from the 1930s to the 1950s , a time he feels particularly " Canadian " . He goes as far as to wear an old @-@ fashioned overcoat and broad @-@ rimmed hat , for which passing teenagers taunt him , saying he looks like Clark Kent or Dick Tracy . He declares to Chester : " I do think life was simpler then ... easier for people to find personal happiness . " Brown disagrees , saying , " I think it 's always been difficult for people to be happy . " Seth dreads the future and allows his memories of childhood to dominate his thoughts , but recognizes and criticizes his own obsessions : " There 's something in the decay of old things that provokes an evocative sadness for the vanished past . If those buildings were perfectly preserved it wouldn 't be the same . " Despite this consciousness , he continues to pursue his collecting .
Photographs recur as a motif , such as family portraits in Kalo 's scrapbooks or wedding shots in a diner on which the focus dwells . Another motif is an old apartment building , the image of which appears at moments when Seth questions his search for Kalo . For Postema , Kalo 's neglected work is similarly " unpreserved , unnoticed , and left to decay " .
A male @-@ centred viewpoint dominated English @-@ language comic books throughout the 20th century and , with few exceptions , placed women in subordinate roles as victims , helpers , or sex objects . To academic Katie Mullins , Seth 's narrative viewpoint follows from this tradition , though the book superficially has little in common with the masculine adventuring generally associated with mainstream comic books . The author 's female characters play peripheral roles , and the character 's obsessive collecting and self @-@ absorption alienate him from relationships with females , who at times encourage him to find meaning in life outside comics — advice he ignores . The book highlights the overwhelmingly masculine homosociality of the collector 's world , which Seth hints at with the name of the " Book Brothers " book store the character frequents . In one panel , the store sign is obscured so that only " Book Brothe " is visible , suggesting a " Book Brothel " , and thus evoking the fetishism inherent in collecting . The intelligent Ruthie provides a love interest that nevertheless manages only to feed Seth 's self @-@ absorption : he is attracted to her physically and also to her bookishness , but she takes second place in his life to his obsession with Kalo , whose real name she discovers for him . Seth finds he does not know her well enough to give a satisfactory answer to Chester 's " So what 's she like ? " Whenever she leads the conversation to her own thoughts and interests , Seth changes the subject . She ends by leaving him .
In every event and conversation , the protagonist draws parallels to something he has read in comics . He has a withdrawn personality averse to risk @-@ taking ; he declares himself a " true adherent of avoidism " , and quotes the character Linus from Charles M. Schulz 's comic strip Peanuts : " No problem is so big or so complicated that it can 't be run away from . " His mother 's home , which he calls " sealed in amber " as it never changes , provides him a safe berth from the ever @-@ changing modern world .
To comics scholar Bart Beaty , Kalo 's giving up cartooning for familial duties provides the protagonist an opportunity to evaluate his own life : his failed romances , his obsessive collecting , and his relationship with his family — in particular his mother , whose home is an emotional safety zone for him . The Seth character declares , " I used to like to get inside cardboard boxes and close them up behind me . I enjoyed being in that safe , confined space . My mother 's place is a lot like those boxes . "
Seth finds it hard to understand the fact that the cartoonist he admires could give up a cartooning career and still find happiness in the last twenty years of his life ; he come to accept it after a visit to Kalo 's mother in a nursing home . He discovers that his Kalo collection may always remain incomplete — though the family once had a scrapbook filled with Kalo 's cartoons , they long ago threw it away . By the end of the story , Seth has found a mere eleven of them . When Kalo 's mother reveals Kalo 's contentment with his choice to give up cartooning , Seth must face the anxiety of his life choices and what a " good life " may mean to him . As a mother who has outlived her son yet does not mire herself in the past , Mrs Kalloway provides an unsentimental contrast to how Seth views and deals with the world .
= = Reception and legacy = =
In the middle of its serialization , reviewer Kent Worcester called It 's a Good Life , If You Don 't Weaken " one of the very few essential exemplars of the potential of the medium " . On its publication , It 's a Good Life became a primary inspiration , after Art Spiegelman 's Maus , on the cartoonist Chris Ware 's efforts and thoughts on the potential for the graphic novel form .
The book won Seth two Ignatzes at the award 's inaugural ceremony in 1997 : one for Outstanding Artist and the other for Outstanding Graphic Novel or Collection . In 1999 , the book placed No. 52 on The Comics Journal 's " 100 Best Comics of the 20th Century " . The book appeared on GQ 's " 20 Graphic Novels You Should Read " list in 2009 and on the British journalist Rachel Cooke 's list of ten best graphic novels . It ranked No. 16 on the Scottish Herald 's " 50 Greatest Graphic Novels of all Time " list in 2013 and No. 25 on Rolling Stone 's list of the " 50 Best Non @-@ Superhero Graphic Novels " in 2014 .
Since the book 's publication , Seth has achieved a particularly high level of critical and popular recognition compared to other Canadian cartoonists . According to academic Nick Mount , it is " the first Canadian graphic novel to ... make the crossover from underground praise to mainstream praise " . In 2005 he was the first cartoonist to have a solo exhibit at the Art Gallery of Ontario in Toronto . By 2006 It 's a Good Life had sold 15 @,@ 000 copies in English .
Seth has called Charles M. Schulz his primary influence ; his reputation for design led in 2004 to Fantagraphics Books enlisting him as the designer for the Complete Peaunts . The New Yorker @-@ obsessed Seth has managed to have his work published in The New Yorker itself , including the cover to the March 2004 issue .
Seth followed It 's a Good Life with a similar work , the nostalgic and melancholic Clyde Fans , which began serialization in the following issue of Palookaville in 1997 ; it had yet to finish as of 2013 , and during its serialization Seth published a number of stand @-@ alone books .
|
= Hydnellum =
Hydnellum is a genus of tooth fungi of the family Bankeraceae in the order Thelephorales . Widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere , the genus contains around 40 species . The fruitbodies of its members grow by slowly enveloping nearby bits of grass and vegetation . There is great variability in the form of Hydnellum fruitbodies , which are greatly influenced by environmental conditions such as rainfall and humidity , drying winds , and temperature . They are too tough and woody to eat comfortably . Several species have become the focus of increasing conservation concern following widespread declines in abundance .
Hydnellum species produce pigments that have been used to dye textiles . Several chemical compounds — some with unique biological activity — have been isolated and identified from the genus .
One of the better @-@ known species is the unusual pinkish @-@ white Hydnellum peckii , also known as " strawberries and cream " or as the " bleeding tooth fungus " due to the red droplets that appear on the pinkish or whitish fruitbodies . Another species , H. suaveolens , has a strong odor of anise or peppermint .
= = Taxonomy = =
Hydnellum was circumscribed by Finnish mycologist Petter Adolf Karsten in 1879 with what was then known as Hydnum suaveolens as the type species . Before then , fungi with spines ( hydnoid fungi ) had been grouped in Hydnum by Elias Fries in his 1821 work Systema mycologicum . Karsten defined Hydnellum as having fruitbodies with a corky or leathery , tough cap , and a centrally attached stipe . Synonyms of Hydnellum include Calodon ( Karsten , 1881 ) , and Phaeodon ( Joseph Schröter , 1888 ) .
Hydnellum is classified in the family Bankeraceae , which was circumscribed by Marinus Anton Donk in 1961 . The genus was not in Donk 's original family concept , which included only Bankera and Phellodon , genera whose species made hyaline ( translucent ) , and ornamented spores . Donk left Hydnellum in the tribe Hydnelleae of the family Thelephoraceae , along with Sarcodon and Hydnodon . In 1981 , however , Walter Jülich emended Donk 's concept of the Bankeraceae , adding hydnoid genera that produced brown , lobed spores — Hydnellum and Sarcodon .
The name comes the Greek hydnum meaning spongy plant or fungus . The British Mycological Society , in their recommended list of common names for fungi in the United Kingdom , name Hydnellum fungi in the form " descriptor word " plus " tooth " , such as " gold tooth " ( H. auratile ) , " zoned tooth " ( H. concrescens ) , and " velvet tooth " ( H. spongiosipes ) .
= = Description = =
Hydnellum fruitbodies have caps and stipes , often with indeterminant growth forms , that may grow in spurts and decay over several weeks . Neighboring fruitbodies can coalesce , forming intricately intertwined caps and partially fused stipes . The flesh has a zoned appearance and is fibrous when fresh , but becomes hard and woody when dry . Zones in the flesh reflect differences in growth during periods of low daytime and high nighttime humidity , and give a fairly accurate record of daily growth . The spines are crowded closely together and typically decurrent ( extending down the length of the stipe ) . They may be a variety of colors , such as white to yellow , olive green , shades of orange , light brown , or dark brown in age .
Spores of Hydnellum are almost spherical to oblong and tuberculate , and are brown in mass . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are narrowly club @-@ shaped and usually four @-@ spored ; there are no cystidia in Hydnellum . Three types of hyphae are found in the flesh of Hydnellum : generative hyphae ( thin @-@ walled , not inflated ) ; skeletal hyphae ( thick @-@ walled and narrow ) ; and thin @-@ walled gloeoplerous @-@ like hyphae , which stain with methyl blue .
In conditions of high humidity , several species can form striking colored drops on the actively growing caps : red drops in H. peckii , H. diabolus , H. ferrugineum , and H. cruentum , yellow drops in H. caeruleum , and coffee @-@ colored drops in H. mirabile . The common names of H. peckii reflect its appearance : " strawberries and cream " and " bleeding tooth fungus " . Some Hydnellum species have a mealy odor ( e.g. H. mirabile and H. pineticola ) similar to freshly ground flour . H. zonatum smells like melilot , while H. suaveolens has an sweet odor resembling anise or peppermint . All are too tough and woody to be edible , and many have an acrid taste anyway .
Differences between Hydnellum species tend to be more distinguishable in younger specimens . Fruitbody development is greatly influenced by environmental factors such as levels of rainfall , drying winds , and temperature . The blue tooth ( H. caeruleum ) , for example , develops a deeper blue color when it grows during cooler autumn weather . Optimal growth occurs during periods of frequent light rains and high humidity ; if the habitat dries out , growth will stop , but may resume after further precipitation . This intermittent growth affects the fruitbodies of different species to variable extents , leading to large variations in form , surface texture , and color . The morphological variability of fruitbodies and the dependence of their appearance upon environmental conditions has made Hydnellum a difficult group to study . Canadian mycologist Kenneth A. Harrison , who described several new species from North America , noted " [ t ] he remarkable longevity of individual sporophores of many species and the changes in appearance that occur during the long period of their development have confused all workers studying this group . " For example , H. aurantiacum , initially white , becomes in turn shades of orange , rusty @-@ brown , and brownish @-@ black . Its fruitbody initially has a turbinate ( cushion @-@ like ) shape with a lumpy surface , later becoming flattened to funnel @-@ shaped with a smooth to corrugated surface texture .
The caps form from the top of the short stipe by the growth and expansion of a blunt margin and later as a thickening of the upper surface . Spines start to form when the cap hangs over the stipe slightly . They are white in many species , but become brown in maturity as the brown @-@ colored spores accumulate on the surface .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Hydnellum fungi are mycorrhizal , and are usually found in coniferous and mixed woods . Favored tree hosts include members of the Fagaceae and the Pinaceae . The genus is widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere , particularly Europe and North America , but some species are found in the tropical Asia . Harrison identified a dozen new species from North America in the 1960s . Rudolph Arnold Maas Geesteranus recognized European 16 species in his 1975 treatment of the genus .
Some Hydnellum species , including H. ferrugineum and H. scleropodium , form a tough mat of mycelia in the humus and upper soil of pine forests . This mycelial mat grows larger with old trees , and can cover an area of several square meters . These areas generally lack dwarf shrubs and promote the vigorous growth of mosses ; reindeer lichens often occur in the center of large mats . The presence of the fungus changes the nature of the soil , resulting in a thinner humus layer , decreased groundwater penetration , decreased soil pH , and increases in the level of root respiration as well as the quantity of roots . The fungus also decreases the organic carbon and nitrogen concentrations . Soil with the mycelium becomes more podzolized than the surrounding soil .
= = Conservation = =
Some Hydnellum species have been shown to be in decline in Europe , including the Czech Republic , the Netherlands , Norway , and Scotland . In the United Kingdom , several are listed in the biodiversity action plan for stiped hydnoid fungi : H. aurantiacum is classified as critically endangered ; H. caeruleum , H. ferrugineum are listed as endangered , while H. concrescens , H. spongiosipes , H. peckii , and H. scrobiculatum are considered vulnerable . H. ferrugineum and H. peckii are sensitive to the increased nitrogen deposition resulting from clear @-@ cutting , a forestry practice used in some areas of Europe .
Conservation efforts for Hydnellum are hindered by the fact that some species are difficult to discriminate in the field , making it hard to determine an appropriate conservation status . Techniques based on species @-@ specific PCR primers and DNA extraction from soil have been developed to detect the mycelia of various Hydnellum species without having to rely on the presence of fruitbodies , which may help conservation efforts as well as improve understanding of below @-@ ground ecology . Similar techniques have been used to show that , in the case of H. aurantiacum and H. caeruleum , the fungus can persist below the ground for at least four years without producing fruitbodies .
= = Bioactive compounds = =
Several chemical compounds — some with unique biological activity — have been isolated and identified from Hydnellum species . For example , H. peckii contains atromentin , a pigment with anticoagulant properties similar to heparin . Atromentin also possesses antibacterial activity , inhibiting the enzyme enoyl @-@ acyl carrier protein reductase ( essential for the biosynthesis of fatty acids ) in the bacteria Streptococcus pneumoniae .
Some species are used as dyes . H. caeruleum , used in North America and Scandinavia to dye silk and wool , produces a range of colors including tan , blue , and forest @-@ green , depending on the mordant that is used . H. peckii produces gray , brown , and olive colors . Hydnuferrugin and hydnuferruginin are pigments responsible for the coloration of H. ferrugineum and H. zonatum . Geogenin is a yellow pigment found in H. geogenium .
Thelephoric acid is present in several Hydnellum species . This compound , derived metabolically from the shikimic acid pathway , inhibits the enzyme prolyl endopeptidase , which is involved in deteriorating certain neuropeptides that are believed to contribute to memory and learning . Hydnellum caeruleum and H. concrescens have several para @-@ terphenyl derivatives named thelephantins , some of which can inhibit the enzyme alpha @-@ glucosidase . The compounds hydnellins A and B are terphenyls found in H. suaveolens and H. geogerirum . The chemicals responsible for the fragrant anise @-@ like aroma of H. suaveolens have been identified as coumarin and para @-@ anisaldehyde .
= = Species = =
Karsten 's original 1879 circumscription of Hydnellum contained 19 species . Joost Stalpers included 34 Hydnellum species in his 1993 monograph on the Thelephorales . The tenth edition of the Dictionary of the Fungi ( 2008 ) indicated 38 species in the genus . As of January 2015 , Index Fungorum lists 39 species of Hydnellum .
Hydnellum aurantiacum ( Batsch ) P.Karst. ( 1879 ) – Asia , Europe , North America
Hydnellum auratile ( Britzelm . ) Maas Geest . ( 1959 ) – Europe , North America
Hydnellum caeruleum ( Hornem . ) P.Karst. ( 1879 ) – Asia , Europe , North America
Hydnellum chrysinum K.A.Harrison ( 1964 ) – North America
Hydnellum coalitum Maas Geest . ( 1975 ) – Europe
Hydnellum compactum ( Pers . ) P.Karst. ( 1879 ) – Europe
Hydnellum complicatum Banker ( 1906 ) – North America
Hydnellum concrescens ( Pers . ) Banker ( 1906 ) – Asia , Europe , North America
Hydnellum conigenum ( Peck ) Banker ( 1906 ) – North America
Hydnellum cristatum ( Bres . ) Stalpers ( 1993 ) – Europe , North America
Hydnellum cruentum K.A.Harrison ( 1961 ) – Nova Scotia , Canada
Hydnellum crustulinum Maas Geest . ( 1971 ) – Punjab , India
Hydnellum cumulatum K.A.Harrison ( 1964 ) – Europe , North America
Hydnellum cyanodon K.A.Harrison ( 1964 ) – North America
Hydnellum cyanopodium K.A.Harrison ( 1964 ) – North America
Hydnellum earlianum Banker ( 1906 ) – North America
Hydnellum ferrugineum ( Fr . ) P.Karst. ( 1879 ) – North Africa , Asia , Europe , North America
Hydnellum floriforme ( Schaeff . ) Banker ( 1906 ) – North America
Hydnellum fraudulentum Maas Geest . ( 1971 ) – Australia
Hydnellum frondosum K.A.Harrison ( 1961 ) – Nova Scotia , Canada
Hydnellum geogenium ( Fr . ) Banker ( 1913 ) – Europe , North America
Hydnellum gracilipes ( P.Karst. ) P.Karst. ( 1879 ) – Europe
Hydnellum longidentatum Coker ( 1939 ) – United States
Hydnellum mirabile ( Fr . ) P.Karst. ( 1879 ) – Europe , North America
Hydnellum multiceps K.A.Harrison ( 1961 ) – Nova Scotia , Canada
Hydnellum nigellum K.A.Harrison ( 1964 ) – North America
Hydnellum papuanum Maas Geest . ( 1971 ) – Papua New Guinea
Hydnellum peckii Banker ( 1912 ) – Europe , North America
Hydnellum regium K.A.Harrison ( 1964 ) – North America
Hydnellum rickeri Banker ( 1913 ) – North America
Hydnellum scleropodium K.A.Harrison ( 1964 ) – North America
Hydnellum scrobiculatum ( Fr . ) P.Karst. ( 1879 ) – Asia , Europe , North America
Hydnellum septentrionale K.A.Harrison ( 1964 ) – North America
Hydnellum singeri Maas Geest . ( 1969 ) – Colombia
Hydnellum spongiosipes ( Peck ) Pouzar ( 1960 ) – Europe , North America
Hydnellum staurastrum Maas Geest . ( 1971 ) – Malaysia
Hydnellum suaveolens ( Scop . ) P.Karst. ( 1879 ) – Asia , Europe , North America
Hydnellum subzonatum K.A.Harrison ( 1961 ) – Nova Scotia , Canada
Hydnellum tardum Maas Geest . ( 1975 ) – Europe
= = = Cited works = = =
Harrison KA . ( 1961 ) . The Stipitate Hydnums of Nova Scotia . Publications of the Department of Agriculture Canada ( Report ) 1099 ( Ottawa , Canada : Research Branch , Canada Department of Agriculture ) . pp. 1 – 60 .
Stalpers JA . ( 1993 ) . " The Aphyllophoraceous fungi I. Keys to the species of the Thelephorales " . Studies in Mycology 35 : 1 – 168 .
|
= Sol Levi =
Solomon " Sol " Levi is a fictional character from EastEnders : E20 , an Internet spin @-@ off off the BBC soap opera EastEnders , played by Tosin Cole . Sol is a main character in series 2 , where he is joined by his older brother Asher Levi ( Heshima Thompson ) and their new friends Naz Mehmet ( Emaa Hussen ) and Stevie Dickinson ( Amanda Fairbank @-@ Hynes ) . Sol is described as loyal , shy , thoughtful and reserved . He is dependent on his brother , who has looked after him for most of this life . Throughout the series , he has a romance with Naz but it is threatened by his bad temper , falls out but later reunites with his brother , and performs a solo dance routine in the finale . Tosin will reprise the role in series 3 .
= = Storylines = =
Sol arrives in Walford with his brother Asher Levi ( Heshima Thompson ) after their mother Caroline ( Sandra Yaw ) throws them out of their home . Sol helps Naz Mehmet ( Emaa Hussen ) in an argument with Fatboy ( Ricky Norwood ) and is punched in the face by Leon Small ( Sam Attwater ) . Sol and Asher attend a dance audition for Skolla ( Tony Adigun ) but Sol messes up . They then move into Stevie Dickinson 's ( Amanda Fairbank @-@ Hynes ) flat with Naz . They attend a party where several people ask Sol for drugs , leaving him annoyed . Naz sells them fake drugs , but when they complain , Sol gives their money back and they leave . Back in Walford , Naz kisses Sol to avoid being seen by Ekin Beg ( Hemi Yeroham ) . Sol and Naz grow closer when she watches him do his dance routine , and they almost kiss twice but are interrupted both times , the second time by the arrival of Ekin who reveals he and Naz are engaged . Sol then argues with Naz about Ekin . He and Asher attend callbacks for the dance group but Skolla says Sol is too slow and gets him to perform solo , but Sol is put off but the audience and leaves . Asher later tells him he is a better dancer and the dance crew is their future , but Sol says it is Asher 's dream and he just wants to go home to his mother . After Asher tells Ekin to back off from Naz , Ekin asks Sol to tell Asher he is not Naz 's boyfriend , leading Sol to believe that Naz and Asher are seeing each other . Sol insults Naz and Asher who leave and go clubbing . Sol sends an apology via text message , and Stevie encourages him to find her . When he does , she is drunk . They reconcile but he is unaware that Naz and Asher have had sex .
Sol and Naz spend the night together but at later dance rehearsals , Asher gives Naz her necklace back , and Sol sees this . He confronts Naz about it and she reveals she had a one @-@ night stand with Asher but it meant nothing to her . Sol punches Asher , saying his brother has betrayed him , and a fight breaks out , but is broken up by Skolla and the other dancers . Skolla tells Sol and Asher they are both out of the group and reveals that Asher bought Sol 's place . Sol goes back home to his mother but a neighbour tells him she has been taken away . Back in Walford , Naz insists she did not receive Sol 's text message but he is still angry . Stevie attempts to get them to reconcile by locking them in the flat and pretending to swallow the key , but Naz reveals she is going to Turkey to meet Ekin 's family and Sol says she can stay there . Sol and Naz get close again but Asher interrupts them when he returns drunk . Stevie drops the key revealing she did not swallow it and Sol thinks Naz was in on the plan so he tells her to enjoy Turkey before leaving . Asher finds Sol with their mother in hospital , and tells Sol he is better off with him than their mother as she is schizophrenic and has stabbed Asher . Sol says Asher is the problem and leaves . Asher finds him and apologises for Naz and says she did not get Sol 's text message because he deleted it , and tells Sol that Naz loves him and he should do something about it . Sol returns to Walford again as Naz is leaving , and stops Ekin 's car . Naz gets out and they kiss . Asher tells him he can dance at the dance @-@ off , but when his name is called , he is unsure and calls for Asher , saying he needs him . Asher tells him he can do it on his own . Everyone cheers him after his routine and he is called one of the best dancers .
In series 3 , Naz and Sol are seen briefly together , and they are still a couple .
= = Creation , development and characterisation = =
Sol is one of four main characters from series two of EastEnders : E20 , created by its team of thirteen writers , along with Asher , Stevie and Naz . Tosin Cole was cast in the role , and said , " It 's a privilege to work on something so big but so different . Everyone is fantastic to work with . I 'm really excited . " He said that he found it exciting and weird to work with the EastEnders cast , but they made him feel comfortable . However , he admitted to feeling nervous about having to dance in front of professional dance group Flawless in the series finale , saying that learning to dance was " very , very , very stressful . " The character and casting were announced on 28 July 2010 . The show 's producer , Deborah Sathe , said " I am [ ... ] proud of what the writers have achieved . [ They ] have created four new faces for [ Albert ] Square and their reaction to Walford life is really exciting . "
Sol is Asher 's younger brother , and Asher has provided for him most of his life . Asher has been a father figure to Sol since a young age , and Sol depends on him . Looking after Sol takes a toll on Asher , however . Sol is loyal to his brother , but depends on him so much that he finds it difficult to function without him . Sol likes his family to be together , but they are fractured due to Asher being a troublemaker and their mother being mentally unstable and Sol wants to reunite them . Sol 's dependence on Asher also means he finds it difficult to establish his own identity . Asher is willing to put himself out to secure Sol 's success , such as being stabbed by his mother and giving away his father 's Rolex watch so Sol can get a place in the dance group , and has done things so that Sol would not have to do them himself . Thompson opined that Asher is not necessarily the best role model for Sol , but is a good brother even though the mistakes he makes override the good things he has done for Sol . Cole said that Sol is not a troublemaker but he gets into trouble without meaning to as trouble comes to him . Although he does not bring attention to himself , he has a bad temper and hides his feelings with violence . He gets into a few fights throughout the series , and makes situations worse by getting physical . Sol does not understand or think about what he is doing when he loses his temper . Cole also said that trust is an issue with Sol throughout the series .
Sol quickly falls for Naz when they meet , but his anger threatens their relationship . Sol has never met a girl like Naz before , and Cole said Naz probably has not met boys like Sol before either . Hussen said that there is something about Sol that attracts Naz . She is stronger than he is so Naz likes to take him in and teach him things . Cole explained that Sol is attracted to Naz because she is different from other girls and they are complete opposites. and Sol depends on him . Looking after Sol takes a toll on Asher , however . One of Cole 's first scenes to film was a kiss between Sol and Naz . Cole found it tough and awkward as the actors had only just met , and would have preferred it to be filmed later on , but said that the scene was awkward anyway so he did not have to act much for it . Sol has also been described as shy , caring , sweet , thoughtful , soft , easily hurt and reserved .
= = Other appearances = =
Sol also appears in extra video content on the E20 website . In one , he and Asher argue during filming of an advert for " SmasherDance " , as Sol is more interested in getting food . The full SmasherDance advert is also on YouTube . In another video , the four friends play a drinking game in the café but Sol loses and ends up being sick from too much drink . In another video he calls his mother and leaves a message saying he misses her and is worried about her .
|
= Hurricane Ethel ( 1960 ) =
Hurricane Ethel was one of two major hurricanes in the 1960 Atlantic hurricane season . The sixth known tropical cyclone , fifth named storm , and fourth hurricane of the season , Ethel developed from a disturbance in the Gulf of Mexico on September 14 . After becoming a tropical storm , Ethel rapidly intensified and became a hurricane six hours later . By early on September 15 , the storm reached major hurricane intensity when it became a Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . At 0600 UTC on September 15 , Ethel intensified to its peak as a Category 5 hurricane . However , shortly thereafter , Ethel rapidly weakened back to a Category 1 hurricane while brushing eastern Louisiana . Later on September 15 , Ethel weakened to a tropical storm . Early on the following day , Ethel made landfall in Pascagoula , Mississippi . The storm gradually weakened inland , before eventually dissipating over southern Kentucky on September 17 .
Because the storm rapidly weakened before landfall , a potential " worst @-@ case scenario " was avoided . In Louisiana , the western edge of the storm produced light rainfall and hurricane @-@ force winds , though no damage occurred in that state . Offshore of Mississippi , rough seas inundated Horn Island and split Ship Island . Tropical storm force winds in the southern portion of the state littered broken glass , trees , and signs across streets in Pascagoula , as well as down power lines , which caused some residents to lose electricity . In Alabama , winds damaged beach cottages in cities along the Gulf Coast , and damaged crops in five counties in the southern portion of the state . Although large amounts of precipitation fell in the extreme western portions of the state , no flooding occurred in Florida . A lightning strike to a power station near Tallahassee caused a briefly city @-@ wide blackout . The storm spawned four tornadoes in Florida , one of which destroyed 25 homes . Outside the Gulf Coast of the United States , rain fell in other states , but no damage is known to have occurred . Overall , Ethel caused 1 fatality and $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( 1960 USD ) in damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Ethel originated from a small tropical disturbance over the Gulf of Mexico on the morning of September 14 , 1960 . It is estimated that Ethel developed into a tropical storm at 1200 UTC on that day , with an initial intensity of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . The disturbance quickly developed within a region favoring intensification and the New Orleans Hurricane Warning Office issued their first advisory on the system , classifying it as an area of low pressure , at 1500 UTC . Roughly six hours after becoming a tropical storm , Ethel was upgraded to a hurricane as it underwent an intense phase of explosive deepening . By this time , gale @-@ force winds extended 150 miles ( 240 km ) to the north of the center and 80 miles ( 130 km ) to the south . Ethel further intensified into a major hurricane , as it approached the Gulf Coast of the United States .
Following a pass through the storm by a United States Navy reconnaissance plane , Ethel was declared a " severe hurricane " with winds reaching 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) , equivalent to a modern @-@ day Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . At the time these winds were measured , a barometric pressure of 972 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 7 inHg ) was recorded , the lowest in relation to the hurricane . However , shortly thereafter , cool , dry air began to entrain the storm , causing it to rapidly weaken . In a six @-@ hour span , the storm suddenly weakened to a Category 1 hurricane , a decrease of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) .
As Ethel neared landfall , forecasters within the United States Weather Bureau were unsure of the future track and intensity of the hurricane due to the unusual strengthening and weakening . Around 1100 UTC on September 15 , the center of Ethel brushed the coastline of Plaquemines Parish , Louisiana with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) . Continuing northward , the hurricane further weakened to a tropical storm as it was approaching the Gulf Coast of the United States . Shortly before 0000 UTC on September 16 , Ethel made landfall in Pascagoula , Mississippi with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . Gradual weakening took place as the storm moved inland over Mississippi and by 1800 UTC on September 16 , Ethel was further downgraded to a tropical depression . The remnants of the former hurricane continued moving towards the north @-@ northwest before dissipating on September 17 over southern Kentucky .
= = = Intensity = = =
Although the US Navy reconnaissance plane recorded winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) , the actual peak intensity of Ethel has been in dispute since . Due to an abnormally high minimum barometric pressure of 972 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 7 inHg ) , it is believed that Ethel may have only peaked as a Category 2 hurricane , which is calculated with the pressure to wind relationship . In addition , the extreme intensification and rapid weakening deems it more unlikely that Ethel had peaked as a Category 5 hurricane . Ethel is expected to be downgraded to a low @-@ end Category 3 hurricane , with peak maximum sustained winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) , as part of the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project .
= = Preparations = =
Prior to Ethel 's arrival , adequate warning allowed roughly 12 @,@ 000 residents along the Mississippi coastline to evacuate to shelters , set up at churches and schools . Along a 200 miles ( 320 km ) stretch of the Gulf Coastline , all fishing villages fully evacuated to safer places . In Louisiana , at least 2 @,@ 000 people had been evacuated from Grand Isle . Other towns were placed under emergency evacuations where Coast Guard boats were used to move residents to safer areas . Military aircraft were also moved from Keesler Air Force Base to other airfields across the country . Numerous schools and businesses were closed on September 15 in fears of a worst @-@ case scenario , a storm with 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) winds passing directly over Mobile , Alabama , a city of roughly 150 @,@ 000 people . In Florida , the National Weather Bureau stated that preparations were not being undertaken fast enough nor as extensive as warranted . According to the Red Cross , 48 @,@ 000 people in the threatened region sought refuge in shelters ; civil defense stated that 65 @,@ 000 residents moved to shelters .
= = Impact = =
Before the storm weakened rapidly , people feared a large storm surge over much of southeastern Louisiana . Preparing for the storm induced stress , which in one person contributed a fatal heart attack . In Louisiana , a compact , rapidly weakening Hurricane Ethel brought significant wind and rain primarily east and southeast of New Orleans . However , the storm caused a maximum surge of only 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) . Although Ethel weakened significantly , the hurricane still lashed far southeastern Louisiana . At the United States Coast Guard station in Quarantine in Plaquemines Parish , Louisiana , sustained winds reached 92 miles per hour ( 148 km / h ) . A weather station in Venice reported a sustained wind speed of 90 miles per hour ( 140 km / h ) and gusts to 105 miles per hour ( 169 km / h ) . Rainfall totals included 7 @.@ 45 inches ( 189 mm ) at Quarantine , 5 @.@ 66 inches ( 144 mm ) at Hopedale , 5 @.@ 50 inches ( 140 mm ) at Buras , 4 @.@ 85 inches ( 123 mm ) at Burrwood , and 2 @.@ 90 inches ( 74 mm ) at Port Sulfur .
Hurricane Ethel caused substantial beach erosion throughout the barrier islands of Mississippi but brought a relatively small storm surge of 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) along the populated coastline . Roughly 1 @.@ 8 miles ( 2 @.@ 9 km ) of the east end of Horn Island ( Mississippi ) was lost . The storm also split Ship Island into two islands , east and west Ship Islands . However , few knew of this split until Hurricane Camille in 1969 Atlantic hurricane season substantially widened the split . The sustained wind reached a maximum of 56 miles per hour ( 90 km / h ) in Biloxi , Mississippi . Throughout the Mississippi Gulf Coast , winds reached gusts approached 70 miles per hour ( 110 km / h ) . In Pascagoula , Mississippi , broken glass , fallen trees and signs covered the streets . Several areas were also flooded and power was lost in area where power lines were downed by high winds . Following the storm , Governor of Mississippi Ross Barnett ordered 100 Mississippi National Guard to Pascagoula and requested other troops in other areas .
High winds also affected Alabama , reaching 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) and gusts of 70 miles per hour ( 110 km / h ) at Fort Morgan ( Alabama ) . Slight damage to beach cottages occurred in Dauphin Island and Gulf Shores and along Mobile Bay . Minor crop losses were reported in Clarke , Escambia , Mobile , Monroe , and Washington counties . The storm spawned at least one tornado in the state , which demolished a barn , damaged a house , uprooted several trees , and destroyed a cotton field in Gosport .
Hurricane Ethel also brought heavy rains and strong winds to much of the Florida Panhandle . A maximum of 12 @.@ 94 inches ( 329 mm ) of rain fell at an agricultural experiment station near Milton , Florida , the highest total measured at an official station and attributed to this storm . Hurricane Donna struck Tampa , Florida , particularly hard earlier in the month , causing major flooding of Hillsborough River ( Florida ) at Zephyrhills , Florida on 12 September . People feared severe flooding of the Hillsborough River into Tampa , which did not occur . The highest wind gust in the state was 50 miles per hour ( 80 km / h ) , measured in both Pensacola and Apalachicola . A thunderstorm associated with Ethel produced lightning that hit a power station near Tallahassee , causing a city @-@ wide blackout for 10 minutes ( 600 s ) . According to Florida Highway Patrol , Ethel directly caused damage of $ 100 @,@ 000 ( 1960 USD ) in the state . Additionally Ethel spawned four tornadoes in Florida , one of which reached F2 intensity and damaged or destroyed 25 homes near Panama City .
Beyond the Gulf Coast of the United States , Ethel dropped rainfall in the states of Georgia , South Carolina , North Carolina , causing little if any damage . Throughout its path , Ethel caused $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( 1960 USD ) in damage and one indirect fatality .
|
= Brainwashing : The Science of Thought Control =
Brainwashing : The Science of Thought Control is a non @-@ fiction book analyzing brainwashing , thought reform and mind control , by neuroscientist and physiologist Kathleen Taylor . It was first published in hardcover on December 16 , 2004 by Oxford University Press . Taylor reviews the history of the term brainwashing , from its usage in 1950 by journalist Edward Hunter to its application to cults , marketing , influence , thought reform , torture and reeducation . She references the book Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism by psychiatrist Robert Jay Lifton and cites his research on indoctrination techniques experienced by prisoners of war during the Korean War .
Taylor explains the neurological basis for reasoning and cognition in the brain , and proposes that the self is changeable while describing the physiology of neurological pathways . She utilizes case studies including Patty Hearst , the Manson Family , and the mass murder / suicide of members of Peoples Temple at Jonestown , and compares the techniques of influence used by cults to those of totalitarian and communist societies . She lays out a model FACET - Freedom , Agency , Complexity , Ends @-@ not @-@ means , and Thinking - which she believes can be used to negate the influence of brainwashing techniques .
The book was " highly commended " and runner @-@ up in the 2005 Times Higher Education Supplement Young Academic Author Award , and was shortlisted for the 2005 MIND " Book of the Year Award " . It received positive reviews in The Guardian and Skeptical Inquirer , critical reviews in The Daily Telegraph and Financial Times , and has been used as a resource in books including Marketing Dictatorship and Democracy , Lifelong Learning and the Learning Society .
= = Author = =
Kathleen Taylor attended the University of Oxford and studied physiology and philosophy . She obtained a Masters degree in psychology from Stirling University , and received her doctorate in computational neuroscience from the University of Oxford . Her postdoctoral research was in neuroimmunology and cognitive neuroscience . She is a neuroscientist at the University of Oxford 's Department of Physiology , Anatomy and Genetics , researching physiology , psychology and the neuroscience of belief . In 2003 Taylor won first prize in both the Times Higher Education / Oxford University Press Science Essay competition and the THES Humanities and Social Sciences Writing Prize . She presented her research on brainwashing at the Edinburgh International Science Festival in 2005 .
= = Contents = =
Taylor provides background on the development of the term brainwashing , from its use in 1950 by journalist Edward Hunter and its later usage as applied to the spheres of cults , marketing , influence , thought reform , torture and reeducation . She references psychiatrist Robert Jay Lifton 's work Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism as a resource throughout the book . Lifton based his research on interviews he conducted with prisoners of war who had been subjected to indoctrination and torture during the Korean War . Taylor argues that the term brainwashing is useful to when used to refer to a more coercive form of persuasion .
She explains the neurological basis for reasoning and cognition in the brain , and brings the point across that the self itself is changeable . She describes the physiology behind neurological pathways which include webs of neurons containing dendrites , axons , and synapses ; and explains that certain brains with more rigid pathways will be less susceptible to new information or creative stimuli . Taylor utilizes neurological science to show that brainwashed individuals have more rigid pathways , and that rigidity can make it unlikely that the individual will rethink situations or be able to later reorganize these pathways . She explains that repetition is an integral part of brainwashing techniques because connections between neurons become stronger when exposed to incoming signals of frequency and intensity . She argues that people in their teenage years and early twenties are more susceptible to persuasion . Taylor explains that brain activity in the temporal lobe , the region responsible for artistic creativity , also causes spiritual experiences in a process known as lability .
In the Part I of the book , titled : " Torture and seduction " , Taylor analyzes how various parties have used certain techniques in influencing and brainwashing others , including a restriction of individual freedoms , deception , and methods that conflict with one 's decision @-@ making processes . She utilizes case studies including Patty Hearst , the Manson Family , and the mass murder / suicide of members of Peoples Temple at Jonestown to illustrate the neurology she explains in Part II , " The traitor in your skull " . In the case of the Manson Family followers of Charles Manson carried out multiple murders in 1969 , and with Peoples Temple over 900 followers of charismatic leader Jim Jones died in 1978 in Jonestown , Guyana after consuming cyanide . Taylor asserts that the techniques used by cults to influence others are similar to those used by other social groups , and compares similar totalitarian aspects of cults and communist societies . These techniques include isolating the individual and controlling their access to information , challenging their belief structure and creating doubt , and repeating messages in a pressurized environment .
According to Taylor , cults emphasize positive aspects of the group over negative aspects of outsiders , endlessly repeat simple ideas in " highly reductive , definitive - sounding phrases " , and refer to " abstract and ambiguous " ideas associated with " huge emotional baggage " . Taylor writes that brainwashing involves a more intense version of the way the brain traditionally learns . In the final portion of the book , Part III : " Freedom and Control " , Taylor describes an individual 's susceptibility to brainwashing and lays out an acronym " FACET " , a tool to combat influence and a totalist mindset . FACET stands for Freedom , Agency , Complexity , Ends @-@ not @-@ means , and Thinking . The FACET model is based on Lifton 's eight criteria for thought reform , and Taylor emphasizes education and freedom of thought as a way to negate some of these criteria .
= = Reception = =
Brainwashing was first published in hardcover format on December 16 , 2004 by Oxford University Press , and again in paperback format on August 24 , 2006 . The book was " highly commended " and runner @-@ up in the 2005 Times Higher Education Supplement Young Academic Author Award , and also made it to the shortlist for the 2005 MIND " Book of the Year Award " . The book also made it to the longlist of the 2005 Aventis " Science Book Prize " , where it was described as containing " elegant and accessible prose " .
PD Smith gave the book a positive review in The Guardian , and concluded : " Her ambitious and well @-@ written study celebrates human freedom through a history of attempts to destroy it . " Joseph Szimhart reviewed the book for Skeptical Inquirer , and wrote : " I enjoyed the book as a challenge to think about a sorely neglected topic . " Szimhart concluded : " Taylor 's concern is with any human venture ( be it science , religion , or politics ) that restricts brain function from creative ' stop and think ' activity , and which becomes little more than another exclusive cult . "
In a review of the book for The Daily Telegraph , British doctor and science writer James Le Fanu was critical , and commented that Taylor did not acknowledge " the explanatory gap " between current understanding of the brain 's structure and " what it does , how we think , feel and emote " . Le Fanu concluded , " The paradox of Brainwashing is that it would have been a much more interesting book if Dr Taylor had pursued the contrarian view of seeking to explain why that ' explanatory gap ' is not merely unbridged but , with the advance of the neurosciences , now seems to be unbridgeable . A brain that was simple enough to be fully known would be too simple to contain conscious observers who might know it . " Nigel Hawkes of The Times criticized what he saw as Taylor 's conclusion that " we are all a little bit brainwashed by our culture and experience " and noted that this assessment places Jim Jones of the Peoples Temple group in the same classification as the tabloid press . A review in Financial Times by Jerome Burne was also critical , and he commented that Taylor does not convey " a clear enough message " in the work .
|
= 1993 FA Charity Shield =
The 1993 Football Association Charity Shield was the 71st FA Charity Shield , an annual football match played between the winners of the previous season 's Premier League and FA Cup competitions . It was held at Wembley Stadium on 7 August 1993 . The match was played between Arsenal , who beat Sheffield Wednesday to win the 1993 FA Cup Final , and Manchester United , champions of the inaugural Premier League competition . Watched by a crowd of 66 @,@ 519 , Manchester United won the Shield 5 – 4 on penalties , after the match had finished at 1 – 1 after 90 minutes .
This was Arsenal 's 12th 's Charity Shield appearance and Manchester United 's 17th . The 1993 staging of the event was the first to feature players wearing permanent squad numbers ; this became common practise in time for the 1993 – 94 season . Roy Keane made his debut for Manchester United in the match ; he partnered Paul Ince in midfield . United began the match the brighter of the two teams and scored after eight minutes of play , through Mark Hughes . Striker Eric Cantona spurned two chances to extend United 's lead , by which point Arsenal 's midfield started to assert themselves . Five minutes before the interval , Ian Wright capitalised on a mistake by Ryan Giggs to score the equaliser . Arsenal started the second half strongly , which prompted Ferguson to tweak his formation and bring on Bryan Robson in place of Giggs . Eddie McGoldrick came on for his Arsenal debut in the 74th minute , and two minutes later , United were denied a penalty after Ince was brought down by John Jensen .
As there were no further goals , the match was decided by a penalty shoot @-@ out . Wright and Denis Irwin missed their penalties ; the decisive penalty , taken by Arsenal goalkeeper David Seaman , was saved by his opposite number , Peter Schmeichel . Arsenal manager George Graham admitted his surprise over how the game was decided and thought both clubs would share the trophy ; his counterpart Alex Ferguson , though delighted with his team 's victory , felt the sudden death aspect was unnecessary .
= = Background = =
The FA Charity Shield was founded in 1908 as a contest between the top professional and amateur teams of each season . It was played between the Football League champions and FA Cup winners for the first time in 1921 ; the formation of a new top @-@ tier division , the Premier League , in 1992 meant it displaced the Football League spot . Wembley Stadium acted as the home venue of the Shield , first hosting the event in 1974 . The Arsenal players in the 1993 staging of the Charity Shield were the first in the competition 's history to wear permanent squad numbers and names on the back of their shirts , while the Manchester United players used the traditional 1 – 11 numbering system without the names , which was phased out by the start of the 1993 – 94 FA Premier League season . The Premier League intended to introduce persistent squad numbers with names at the start of the 1992 – 93 season , but Manchester United vetoed plans as their laundry room " was too small to handle all the extra shirts " .
Arsenal qualified for the 1993 FA Charity Shield by defeating Sheffield Wednesday in a replay match of the 1993 FA Cup Final to win the cup . The club therefore completed a domestic cup double ; earlier in the season they beat Sheffield Wednesday 2 – 1 to win the 1993 Football League Cup Final . The other Charity Shield place went to Manchester United , winners of the inaugural Premier League competition . It was their first league title in 26 years and goalkeeper Peter Schmeichel felt the signing of striker Eric Cantona was a factor in the team 's success : " He has added an element of surprise , imagination , inventiveness . "
This was Manchester United 's first appearance in the Charity Shield in three years ; prior to this event they won 10 Shields outright ( 1908 , 1911 , 1952 , 1956 , 1957 , 1983 ) , shared four ( 1965 , 1967 , 1977 , 1990 ) and lost three ( 1948 , 1963 , 1985 ) . By contrast , Arsenal won seven previous Shields ( 1930 , 1931 , 1933 , 1934 , 1938 , 1948 , 1953 ) , shared one with Tottenham Hotspur in 1991 and lost four ( 1935 , 1936 , 1979 , 1989 ) . Both clubs had only once met before in the Shield , when Arsenal won by four goals to three in 1948 .
= = Pre @-@ match = =
Both managers approached the match with a view to win , in spite of the Shield 's friendly feel . Arsenal manager George Graham opined " Winning is a good habit , so why not start early ? " Graham lambasted those who found his team 's playing style tedious : " The criticism that we don 't pass the ball and we don 't have flair is overdone . We won two championships and in the second lost one game out of 38 . " However , Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson said " Winning means keeping your job , and it can be a delicate situation . But I tell myself I 'm not going to fail in this game . " Ferguson spoke in glowing terms of new signing Roy Keane , a midfielder who gave United " unbelievable options , a real edge to the squad " .
The match was scheduled for a 12 : 30pm kick off since Sky Sports televised the match in both Scotland and England ; they were unable to pick an afternoon slot because of the television blackout , which aimed to protect Scottish attendances . UEFA warned The Football Association in the lead @-@ up to the Charity Shield that a 3pm kick @-@ off would result in a minimum fine of £ 5 million . Deryk Brown of The Sunday Times wrote of the decision : " So , at least , the season is beginning as it will go on , at the mercy of television . " Tickets for the game were advertised at a cost of between £ 10 and £ 30 .
= = Match = =
= = = Team selection = = =
Arsenal lined up in a 4 – 4 – 2 formation ; Eddie McGoldrick was included in the matchday squad , while Kevin Campbell partnered Ian Wright up front . Ferguson deployed a 4 – 2 – 4 formation , with Paul Ince partnering debutant Keane in the midfield two . Andrei Kanchelskis was picked in favour of Lee Sharpe on the left wing .
= = = Summary = = =
Manchester United began the first half the better of the two teams and led from the eighth minute . Denis Irwin 's cross into Arsenal 's penalty area found Eric Cantona on the right side ; he lobbed the ball in Mark Hughes ' direction , who was surrounded by the Arsenal defenders . Hughes instinctively made a connection with the ball with an overhead shot that beat goalkeeper David Seaman at the near post . United fashioned another chance to score moments after ; Keane fed the ball to Cantona whose shot was blocked by Seaman . Kanchelskis created a further chance for Cantona ; the Frenchman 's effort once more was denied , this time by an Arsenal defender . " These proved costly misses " , opined Patrick Barclay , given United 's tempo weakened , and Arsenal 's John Jensen and Paul Davis started to impose themselves in midfield . United captain Steve Bruce coped well against Campbell and Wright , but the latter striker equalised for Arsenal in the 40th minute . A loose pass from Ryan Giggs was headed @-@ on by Davis and the ball fell to Wright . He , " some 20 yards out " , hit the ball first time , which dipped past the underside of the crossbar .
A tackle by Ince on Lee Dixon left the Arsenal defender with a damaged ankle ; he came off at half time and was replaced by Martin Keown . Arsenal 's performance improved after Wright 's goal ; Paul Merson , a quiet figure in the first half , influenced their play in the second . Ferguson responded to Arsenal 's newfound impetus by substituting Giggs for Bryan Robson . This tweaked United 's formation to 4 – 3 – 3 ; in spite of Ince 's well @-@ rounded performance , his partner Keane started to tire as the game went on and United 's game therefore suffered . Keane was shifted onto the right to accommodate Robson , who brought control to United 's play . In the meantime , Nigel Winterburn prevented Cantona from scoring , following good play by Kanchelskis . Arsenal 's service to Wright and Campbell was infrequent throughout the second half , but both players tested Schmeichel in goal . McGoldrick came on for his Arsenal debut in the 74th minute , a versatile player , able to " sweep , score from midfield or play wide " . Two minutes later , Seaman denied Keane from scoring with a one @-@ handed save . United continued to attack and a move was broken down after Jensen 's tackle brought Ince down in the Arsenal 's penalty area . Gerald Ashby refused to award a penalty – " the referee 's decision otherwise was not supported by television replays " .
No further goals meant the game was decided on a penalty shoot @-@ out . The first four penalties were scored – Ince and Bruce for United and Winterburn and Jensen for Arsenal , before Seaman saved Irwin 's effort . Wright missed his penalty , prompting jeers from the United supporters . The shoot @-@ out proceeded to sudden death ; Robson scored and Seaman " saw his gentle penalty saved by his opposite number " to give United a 5 – 4 win and thereby the Shield .
= = = Details = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
The Charity Shield was presented to Bruce by former Arsenal manager Billy Wright . Wright died barely a year later , aged 70 . Graham assumed both clubs would share the trophy , so when it came to a penalty shoot @-@ out he entrusted his players to decide their order . He described Wright 's goal as " brilliant " and felt it was " unfortunate " that Seaman missed : " For a goalkeeper , he normally takes great penalties . He normally hits them hard but he decided to try and place this one and it didn 't work . " Wright was unashamed of his penalty miss , " … just as long as I don 't do it when it is important " .
Ferguson remarked the Shield should not have been settled on penalties ; to him it was a " celebration of success " , though ultimately he was delighted his team won . He was pleased with the team 's start – " I thought in the first 25 minutes we were really good and could have tied the match up then " – and considered lining the team up in a 4 – 3 – 3 formation to begin with , though wanted to see " how Keane played with Ince , what the balance was like " . Ince believed he should have been awarded a penalty after Jensen fouled him : " I was past their last man and there was no way I would have dived from there . "
|
= Billboard ( magazine ) =
Billboard is an entertainment media brand owned by The Hollywood Reporter @-@ Billboard Media Group . It publishes news , video , opinion , reviews , events and style . It is known for music charts , including the Billboard Hot 100 and Billboard 200 , tracking the most popular songs and albums in different genres . It also hosts events , owns a publishing firm , and operates several TV shows .
Billboard was founded in 1894 by William Donaldson and James Hennegan as a trade publication for bill posters . Donaldson later acquired Hennegen 's interest in 1900 for $ 500 . In the 1900s , it covered the entertainment industry , such as circuses , fairs and burlesque shows . It also created a mail service for travelling entertainers . Billboard began focusing more on the music industry as the jukebox , phonograph and radio became commonplace . Many topics it covered were spun @-@ off into different magazines , including Amusement Business in 1961 to cover outdoor entertainment , so that it could focus on music .
After Donaldson died in 1925 , Billboard was passed down to his children and their children , until it was sold to private investors in 1985 . The magazine continued to change hands to Affiliated Publications ( 1987 ) , VNU / Nielsen ( 1994 ) and its current owner , Prometheus Global Media ( 2009 ) . As of 2016 , it has been shifting to more of a consumer focus .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The first issue of Billboard was published in Cincinnati , Ohio , on November 1 , 1894 by William Donaldson and James Hennegan . Initially , it covered the advertising and bill posting industry and was called Billboard Advertising . At the time , billboards , posters and paper advertisements placed in public spaces were the primary means of advertising . Donaldson handled editorial and advertising , while Hennegan , who owned Hennegan Printing Co . , managed magazine production . The first issues were just eight pages long . The paper had columns like " The Bill Room Gossip " and " The Indefatigable and Tireless Industry of the Bill Poster . " A department for agricultural fairs was established in 1896 . It was shortened to The Billboard in 1897 .
After a brief departure over editorial differences , Donaldson purchased Hennegan 's interest in the business in 1900 for $ 500 , to save it from bankruptcy . That May , Donaldson changed it from a monthly to a weekly paper with a greater emphasis on breaking news . He improved editorial quality and opened new offices in New York , Chicago , San Francisco , London and Paris . He also re @-@ focused the magazine on outdoor entertainment like fairs , carnivals , circuses , vaudeville and burlesque shows . A section devoted to circuses was introduced in 1900 , followed by more prominent coverage of outdoor events in 1901 . These types of events were the antecedents to the modern entertainment industry . Billboard covered topics including regulation , a lack of professionalism , economics and new shows . It had a " stage gossip " column covering the private lives of entertainers , a " tent show " section covering traveling shows and a sub @-@ section called " Freaks to order . " According to The Seattle Times , Donaldson also published news articles " attacking censorship , praising productions exhibiting ' good taste ' and fighting yellow journalism . "
As railroads became more developed , Billboard set up a mail forwarding system for traveling entertainers . The location of an entertainer was tracked in the paper 's Routes Ahead column , then Billboard would receive mail on the star 's behalf and publish a notice in its " Letter @-@ Box " column that it has mail for them . This service was first introduced in 1904 . It became one of Billboard 's largest sources of profit and celebrity connections . By 1914 , there were 42 @,@ 000 people using the service . It was also used as the official address of traveling entertainers for draft letters during World War I. In the 1960s , when it was discontinued , Billboard was still processing 1 @,@ 500 letters per week .
In 1920 , Donaldson made a then @-@ controversial move by hiring an African @-@ American journalist James Albert Jackson to write a weekly column devoted to African @-@ American performers . According to The Business of Culture : Strategic Perspectives on Entertainment and Media , the column identified discrimination against black performers and helped validate their careers . Jackson was the first black critic at a national magazine with a predominantly white audience . According to his grandson , Donaldson also established a policy against identifying performers by their race . Donaldson died in 1925 .
= = = Focus on music = = =
Billboard 's editorial changed focus as technology in recording and playback developed . It covered " marvels of modern technology " like the phonograph , record players and wireless radios . It began covering coin operated entertainment machines in 1899 and created a dedicated section for them called " Amusement Machines " in March 1932 . Billboard began covering the motion picture industry in 1907 , but ended up focusing on music due to competition from Variety . It created a Billboard radio broadcasting station in the 1920s .
The jukebox industry continued to grow through the Great Depression and advertised heavily in Billboard . This led to even more editorial focus on music . The proliferation of the phonograph and radio also contributed to its growing music emphasis . Billboard introduced a " Record Buying Guide " in January 1939 . In 1940 , it introduced " Chart Line " , which tracks the best @-@ selling records . This was followed by a chart for jukebox records in 1944 called Music BoxMachine charts . By the 1940s , Billboard was more of a music industry specialist publication . The number of charts it published grew after World War II , due to a growing variety of music interests and genres . It had eight charts by 1987 , covering different genres and formats , and 28 charts by 1994 .
By 1943 , it had about 100 employees . The magazine 's offices moved to Brighton , Ohio in 1946 , then to New York City in 1948 . A five @-@ column tabloid format was adopted in November 1950 and coated paper was first used in Billboard 's print issues in January 1963 , allowing for photojournalism . Billboard Publications Inc. acquired a monthly trade magazine for candy and cigarette machine vendors called Vend and , in the 1950s , acquired an advertising trade publication called Tide . By 1969 , Billboard Publications Inc. owned eleven trade and consumer publications , a publisher called Guptill Publications , a set of self @-@ study cassette tapes and four television franchises . It also acquired Photo Weekly that year .
Over time , the subjects Billboard still covered outside of music were spun @-@ off into separate publications . Funspot magazine was created in 1957 to cover amusement parks and Amusement Business was created in 1961 to cover outdoor entertainment . In January 1961 , Billboard was renamed to Billboard Music Week to emphasize its new exclusive interest in music . Two years later , it was renamed to just Billboard . According to The New Business Journalism , by 1984 , Billboard Publications was a " prosperous " conglomerate of trade magazines and Billboard had become the " undisputed leader " in music industry news . In the early 1990s , Billboard introduced Billboard Airplay Monitors , a publication for disc jockeys and music programmers . By the end of the 1990s , Billboard dubbed itself the " bible " of the recording industry .
= = = Changes in ownership = = =
Billboard struggled after its founder William Donaldson died in 1925 and within three years was once again heading towards bankruptcy . Donaldson 's son @-@ in @-@ law Roger Littleford took over in 1928 and " nursed the publication back to health . " His sons , Bill and Roger , became co @-@ publishers in 1946 and inherited the publication in the late 1970s after Roger Littleford 's death . They sold it to private investors in 1985 for an estimated $ 40 million . The investors cut costs and acquired a trade publication for the Broadway theatre industry called Backstage .
In 1987 , Billboard was sold again to Affiliated Publications for $ 100 million . Billboard Publications Inc. became a subsidiary of Affiliated Publications called BPI Communications . As BPI Communications , it acquired The Hollywood Reporter , Adweek , Marketing Week and Mediaweek . It purchased Broadcast Data Systems , which is a high @-@ tech firm for tracking music airtime . Private investors from Boston Ventures and BPI executives re @-@ purchased a two @-@ thirds interest in Billboard Publications for $ 100 million and more acquisitions followed . In 1993 , it created a division called Billboard Music Group for music @-@ related publications .
In 1994 , Billboard Publications was sold to a Dutch media conglomerate , Verenigde Nederlandse Uitgeverijen ( VNU ) , for $ 220 million . VNU acquired the Clio Awards in advertising and the National Research Group in 1997 , as well as Editor & Publisher in 1999 . In July 2000 , it paid $ 650 million for the publisher Miller Freeman . BPI was combined with other entities in VNU in 2000 to form Bill Communications Inc . By time CEO Gerald Hobbs retired in 2003 , VNU had grown substantially larger , but it had a large amount of debt from the acquisitions . An attempted $ 7 billion acquisition of IMS Health in 2005 prompted protests from shareholders that halted the deal . It eventually agreed to an $ 11 billion takeover bid from investors in 2006 .
VNU then changed its name to Nielsen in 2007 , the namesake of a company it acquired for $ 2 @.@ 5 billion in 1999 . New CEO Robert Krakoff divested some of the previously owned publications , restructured the organization , and planned some acquisitions before dying suddenly in 2007 to be replaced by Greg Farrar .
Nielsen owned Billboard until 2009 , when it was one of eight publications sold to e5 Global Media Holdings. e5 was formed by investment firms Pluribus Capital Management and Guggenheim Partners for the purpose of the acquisition . The following year , the new parent company was renamed to Prometheus Global Media . Three years later , Guggenheim Partners acquired Pluribus ' share of Prometheus and became the sole owner of Billboard . In December 2015 , Guggenheim Digital Media sold several media brands , including Billboard , to its own executive , Todd Boehly . He formed The Hollywood Reporter @-@ Billboard Media Group , which owns both Billboard and The Hollywood Reporter .
= = = 1990s – present = = =
Timothy White was appointed Editor in Chief in 1991 , a position he held until his unexpected death in 2002 . White wrote a weekly column promoting music with " artistic merit , " while criticizing music with violent or misogynistic themes . He reworked the publication 's music charts . Rather than rely on data from music retailers , new charts used data from store checkout scanners obtained from Nielsen SoundScan . He also wrote in @-@ depth profiles on musicians . The website , Billboard.com , was launched in 1995 . Keith Girard replaced White before being fired in May 2004 . He and a female employee filed a $ 29 million lawsuit alleging Billboard fired them unfairly with an intent to damage their reputations . The lawsuit claimed they experienced sexual harassment , a hostile work environment and a financially motivated lack of editorial integrity . Email evidence suggested human resources were given special instructions to watch minority employees . The case was settled out @-@ of @-@ court in 2006 for a non @-@ disclosed sum .
In the 2000s , economic decline in the music industry dramatically reduced readership and advertising from Billboard 's traditional audience . Circulation declined from 40 @,@ 000 in circulation in the 1990s to less than 17 @,@ 000 by 2014 . The publication 's staff and ownership were also undergoing frequent changes . In 2005 Billboard expanded its editorial outside the music industry into other areas of digital and mobile entertainment .
Bill Werde was named editorial director in 2008 , and was followed by Janice Min in January 2014 , who is also responsible for editorial at The Hollywood Reporter . The magazine has since been making changes to make it more of a general interest music news source , as opposed to solely an industry trade . It started covering more celebrity , fashion , and gossip . Min hired Tony Gervino as the publication 's editor , which was different than Billboard 's historical appointments , in that he did not have a background in the music industry . Tony Gervino was appointed Editor in Chief in April 2014 . An article in NPR covered a leaked version of Billboard 's annual survey , which it said had more gossip and focused on less professional topics than prior surveys . For example , it polled readers on a lawsuit pop @-@ star Kesha filed against her producer alleging sexual abuse .
= = News publishing = =
Billboard publishes a news website and weekly magazine that cover music , video and home entertainment . Most of the paper 's stories are written by staff writers , while some are written by industry experts . It covers news , gossip , opinion , and music reviews , but its " most enduring and influential creation " is the Billboard charts . The charts track music sales , radio airtime and other data about the most popular songs and albums . The Billboard Hot 100 chart of the top @-@ selling songs was introduced in 1955 . Since then , the Billboard 200 , which tracks the top @-@ selling albums , has become more popular as an indicator of commercial success . Billboard has also published books in collaboration with Watson @-@ Guptill and a radio and television series called American Top Forty , based on Billboard charts . A daily Billboard Bulletin was introduced in February 1997 and Billboard hosts about 20 industry events each year .
Billboard is considered one of the most reputable sources of music industry news . It has a print circulation of 17 @,@ 000 and an online readership of 1 @.@ 2 million unique monthly views . The website includes the Billboard Charts , news separated by music genre , videos , and a separate website . It also compiles lists , hosts a fashion website called Pret @-@ a @-@ Reporter , and publishes eight different newsletters . The print magazine 's regular sections include :
Hot 100 : A chart of the top 100 most popular songs that week
Topline : News from the week
The Beat : Hitmaker interviews , gossip and trends in the music industry
Style : Fashion and accessories
Features : In @-@ depth interviews , profiles and photography
Reviews : Reviews of new albums and songs
Backstage pass : information about events and concerts
Charts and CODA : More information about current and historical Billboard Charts
= = Archives = =
The scanning project by Google Books , in partnership with major libraries , includes back @-@ issues of Billboard . Aspects of the project were challenged in the 2nd Circuit Court of Appeals ( Authors Guild vs. Google , et al . ; 2005 ) . The upshot is that Google prevailed under the Fair Use doctrine .
Selected Billboard digital archives
1940 – 2010 archived online by Google Books
2005 – 2009 archived online by Billboard
1938 – 2009 ( missing issues ) , archived by American Radio History ( online : www.americanradiohistory.com ) , maintained by David Gleason ( né David Frackelton Gleason ; born 1946 ) of La Quinta , California
|
= Dial Meg for Murder =
" Dial Meg for Murder " is the 11th episode of season eight of the animated comedy series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on January 31 , 2010 , the day of the series ' eleventh anniversary from 1999 . The episode follows teenager Meg as she dates and falls in love with an inmate at the local prison . She eventually ends up hiding the fugitive in the Griffin family home , however , and is convicted and sent to jail . After returning home , she becomes a hardened criminal , who continually tortures her family . While starting a life away from home , Meg sees the magazine article that the family dog Brian wrote about her . Touched by what he wrote , Meg returns home and thanks Brian in return . Prior to her storyline , Meg 's father Peter attempts to win a local championship rodeo competition , but his attempts to sabotage the competition to ensure his win gets the best of him after getting assaulted by the bull he rode on .
First announced at the 2009 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , the episode was written by Alex Carter and Andrew Goldberg , and directed by Cyndi Tang @-@ Loveland . It received mostly positive reviews for its storyline , and cultural references , in addition to receiving criticism from the Parents Television Council . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 6 @.@ 21 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Dave Boat , Peter Chen , Chace Crawford , Camille Guaty , Victor J. Ho , Allison Janney , Rachael MacFarlane , and Lisa Wilhoit along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series . " Dial Meg for Murder " was released on DVD along with ten other episodes from the season on December 13 , 2011 .
= = Plot = =
When the news announces a local rodeo competition in Quahog , Peter decides to enter . He trains using Chris and Meg in various ways , such as using Chris as a bronco , or roping Meg and branding her , only to find he has been beaten to it by Mayor West , who takes her away . However , during the competition he quickly falls off his anthropomorphic bull , and ends up being raped , off @-@ screen , by the bull .
While that occurs , Brian meets the editor of Teen People ( Allison Janney ) , who gives him a job writing an article about the average American girl . When he starts following and spying on Meg with Stewie for research , they discover that she has fallen in love with a man in jail named Luke ( Chace Crawford ) , whom she met through a school pen @-@ pal project .
After Brian reveals Meg 's secret to Peter and Lois , who don 't want her seeing Luke again , he soon breaks out of jail during a prison riot and tries to hide in the Griffins ' house . When Brian comes to Meg 's room to apologize for what he did to her , he finds him just as Peter enters . Peter only knows what is happening when reading the episode 's plot synopsis in TV Guide ( the reason he entered the rodeo ) , and finds out who Luke is . As Luke escapes out the window , Peter alerts Joe , who apprehends Luke . Joe also arrests Meg for harboring a fugitive , and she is sent to prison . Luke is never heard from again in the episode .
Three months later , Meg returns home with the mind and attitude of a hardened criminal , complete with a new thuggish and rebellious look . She immediately begins abusing her family , retaliating to the many years of abuse she had endured under them , such as curb @-@ stomping Peter , raping him in the shower with a loofah , and using her mother 's shirts as toilet paper ( while also keeping a " poop bucket " next to her bed and refusing to empty it until it gets full ) . In addition , she continues habits she picked up in prison , and beats up the kids who make fun of her at school ( specifically Connie D 'Amico and her friends with a bag of full soda cans which she hits them with , cracking three of the popular kids ' skulls open and tongue @-@ kissing Connie afterwards ) for which she is suspended . Wanting to start a new life away from home , Meg ambushes Brian in his car and threatens him with a gun to drive to Mort 's Pharmacy so she can rob him . Brian , however , shows her the article he wrote , in which he describes her " far sweeter and kinder " than the typical American girl . Touched by the fact that Brian actually cares for her just as she was , Meg changes her mind and returns home with Brian ; having changed back her normal personality in the process . Back at home , she makes a bad joke involving Wesley Snipes , and Peter , presumably not amused at this , ends the episode by saying " Always end on a strong joke " .
= = Production and development = =
First touched upon by actress Mila Kunis at the 2009 Comic Con in San Diego , the episode was written by Alex Carter and Andrew Goldberg , and directed by former King of the Hill director Cyndi Tang @-@ Loveland , before the conclusion of the eighth production season , in her second episode for this season . Series regulars Peter Shin and James Purdum served as supervising directors , with Andrew Goldberg and Alex Carter working as staff writers for the episode .
" Dial Meg for Murder " , along with the eleven other episodes from Family Guy 's eighth season , was released on a three @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on December 13 , 2011 . The sets include brief audio commentaries by various crew and cast members for several episodes , a collection of deleted scenes and animatics , a special mini @-@ feature which discussed the process behind animating " And Then There Were Fewer " , a mini @-@ feature entitled " The Comical Adventures of Family Guy – Brian & Stewie : The Lost Phone Call " , and footage of the Family Guy panel at the 2010 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International .
In addition to the regular cast , actress Allison Janney voiced the editor for Teen People , actor Chace Crawford voiced Luke , voice actress Lisa Wilhoit voiced Connie D 'Amico , and voice actors Dave Boat , Peter Chen , Camille Guaty , Victor J. Ho , and Rachael MacFarlane guest starred as various characters in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Lori Alan , Johnny Brennan , writer Steve Callaghan , Chris Cox , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin and writer John Viener also made minor appearances . Recurring guest cast members Patrick Warburton and Adam West made guest appearances as well .
= = Cultural references = =
The title is a reference to the 1954 Alfred Hitchcock thriller Dial M for Murder . At the beginning of the episode , Stewie rhetorically asks whether or not he can call the television magazine TV Guide " The Guide " . In the scene where Brian spies on Meg for the Teen Journal article Stewie quickly warns Brian that " not all dogs go to heaven " , cutting to a quick scene with the Disney character Goofy from the Mickey Mouse shorts in hell with Satan claiming Goofy was part of the plotting of 9 / 11 . Goofy justified his part in the attacks by pointing out the United States ' support for Israel . Goofy is then thrown to the pit of fire , using his famous laugh . In one scene Stewie refers to Meg as " one of those crazy chicks , who hooks up with an even crazier guy , " with a photograph of Jenny McCarthy and Jim Carrey then being shown . The song " The Ballad of Billy the Kid " by singer and performer Billy Joel is used in depicting Peter 's flashbacks about being a cowboy . Meg mentions meeting Wesley Snipes in the episode , and mentions his movie Passenger 57 . The ending of the episode includes a reference to The Simpsons , in which Meg makes an unfunny joke , with Peter announcing he is not amused , responding by sarcastically stating " Always end on a strong joke . " The start of the closing credits that follow the statement is styled to match those used in The Simpsons credits .
= = Reception = =
In a significant decrease from the previous episode , the episode was viewed in 6 @.@ 21 million homes in its original airing , according to Nielsen ratings . The 52nd Grammy Awards and the Pro Bowl aired simultaneously to the Animation Domination block , resulting in lower than usual ratings . Despite this , the episode also acquired a 3 @.@ 2 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , surpassing The Simpsons , American Dad ! and The Cleveland Show , in both rating and total viewership .
Reviews of the episode were mostly positive , with critics finding " a lot to like about this episode . " Jason Hughes of TV Squad gave the episode a positive review , stating that " [ the writers ] finally found an angle for a Meg @-@ centric episode that was fully engaging and entertaining . " Ahsan Haque of IGN also praised the episode , saying that " the fact that the writers chose to focus on a coherent storyline that relied mostly on contextual humor always helps , " calling the ending " somewhat touching . " Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club criticized the storyline much more harshly , however , saying that it " relied too heavily on the show 's old fallbacks of politically incorrect humor , and ostensibly funny violence . "
The conservative Parents Television Council , a frequent critic of Family Guy and other Seth MacFarlane @-@ produced shows , named Dial Meg for Murder its " Worst TV Show of the Week " for the week ending February 5 , 2010 , due to excessive violence in scenes featuring Meg as both the victim and the instigator . Also cited was the sequence where Peter unsuccessfully fights off an angry bull , and later is shown in a fetal position while the bull stands over him , implying rape , calling it " sickening . "
|
= Union Station ( Erie , Pennsylvania ) =
Union Station is an Amtrak railroad station and mixed @-@ use commercial building in downtown Erie in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania . The Lake Shore Limited provides passenger service between Chicago , New York City , and Boston — Erie is the train 's only stop in Pennsylvania . The station 's ground floor has been redeveloped into commercial spaces , including The Brewerie at Union Station , a brewpub . The building itself is privately owned by the global logistics and freight management company Logistics Plus and serves as its headquarters .
The first railroad station in Erie was established in 1851 but was replaced with the Romanesque Revival @-@ style Union Depot in 1866 . Through a series of mergers and acquisitions by competing railroad companies , which started not long after the establishment of Erie 's first railroads , Union Depot became jointly owned and operated by the New York Central and Pennsylvania railroads . To meet the changing needs of the rapidly growing city , planners designed a more modern structure to replace the original depot . The new Art Deco Union Station , dedicated on December 3 , 1927 , was the first railroad station of that style in the United States .
While Union Station was busy from its opening and through World War II , passenger rail service began to dwindle after the war when air and highway travel became more popular . By the 1960s , the New York Central drastically cut service , while the Pennsylvania abandoned service to Erie altogether . Both railroads were merged in 1968 to form Penn Central , and passenger rail was transferred from Penn Central to Amtrak in 1971 . At one point , from 1972 to 1975 , even Amtrak service in Erie was suspended . With reduced demand for train travel , Union Station was largely neglected and allowed to decay until Logistics Plus bought it in 2003 . Since then , it has been restored and portions re @-@ purposed as commercial and retail space .
= = Design = =
Union Station is in downtown Erie on West 14th Street between Peach and Sassafras streets . Designed by architects Alfred T. Fellheimer and Steward Wagner , it was the first Art Deco railroad station to be designed and built in the United States . Previously , Fellheimer had been influential in the design of Grand Central Terminal in New York City , and both architects collaborated on several railroad stations for the New York Central Railroad , including Buffalo Central Terminal in 1929 and Cincinnati Union Terminal in 1933 .
The main building of Erie 's Union Station , three @-@ stories tall , is of steel and masonry construction . The entire exterior is clad in " rough brown " brick and sandstone layered in a Flemish bond , trimmed in terracotta , and lined with granite at the ground level . The main station building has a frontage of 116 feet ( 35 m ) along Peach Street and 206 feet ( 63 m ) on 14th Street ; a two @-@ story , narrow extension continues another 403 feet ( 123 m ) towards Sassafras before terminating at a small , attached office building . The extension eased the transfer of mail , baggage , and freight between trains and street level while the offices of the freight company were housed in the attached building at the Sassafras Street end of the station complex .
When the station initially opened , entrances from 14th Street open into a large , octagonal rotunda where ticket offices , checked baggage , and a newsstand were located . As the railroad tracks are grade separated behind Union Station , the platforms are accessed by pedestrian tunnel under the tracks with stairs that lead to the platforms . The tunnel entrance is directly across the rotunda from the street entrance — a portion of which is now used as the kitchen for a brewpub housed inside the station . The concourse , off the rotunda , led to the Peach Street entrances , and contained space for a soda fountain , a barber shop , and telegraph offices , as well as access to the station 's 111 @-@ by @-@ 35 @-@ foot ( 34 m × 11 m ) waiting room . Facing Peach Street , a dining room and lunch counter run by the Union News Company , which operated the majority of the dining services in New York Central stations , were at the opposite end of Union Station from the rotunda . The entire ground floor was laid with terrazzo featuring a mosaic border and Botticino marble paneling along the plaster walls . A green and tan color scheme was originally used throughout the entire building . Superintendents for both the New York Central and Pennsylvania railroads , as well as other railroad officials , had offices on the second floor of Union Station .
The station 's low @-@ level , concrete platforms are approximately 450 feet ( 137 m ) long covered by steel , " butterfly @-@ style " canopies with wooden roof decking . New York Central made use of four tracks situated on two island platforms ; the Pennsylvania Railroad used two tracks on a single island platform . A network of tunnels beneath the station facilitated the transfer of mail to and from the former Griswold Plaza Post Office nearby . A bomb shelter , still stocked with cases of " U.S. Civil Defense All @-@ Purpose Survival Crackers " from the early 1960s , is next to the station 's boiler room and its three , coal @-@ fed furnaces .
= = Services and facilities = =
Amtrak 's Lake Shore Limited arrives at Union Station twice daily , westbound from New York Penn Station and Boston South Station , and eastbound from Chicago Union Station , with scheduled arrivals in the middle of the night and in the early morning , respectively , as of January 11 , 2016 . Union Station is on the Lake Shore Subdivision , the CSX Transportation main line from Erie to Buffalo , New York , at railroad milepost 86 @.@ 9 . It is 436 miles ( 702 km ) east of Chicago , 523 miles ( 842 km ) west of New York City , and 723 miles ( 1 @,@ 164 km ) from Boston . The next station west of Erie is Cleveland Lakefront , and eastbound is Buffalo – Depew . The station was the 13th busiest in Pennsylvania during fiscal year 2015 with an annual ridership of 16 @,@ 633 passengers , a decrease of 9 @.@ 2 percent from the previous year .
Service on the Lake Shore Limited consists of reserved coach seating and Viewliner sleepers , as well as amenities like a dining car service . As the Erie station is not equipped with a ticket office , nor Amtrak 's Quik @-@ Trak ticket machines , all tickets from the station have to be pre @-@ paid . The station is , however , equipped with a waiting room and public restrooms . The Erie Metropolitan Transit Authority 's downtown circulator , the Bayliner Trolley , provides service between the station and downtown Erie . The trolley only operates , however , at the scheduled arrival time of the eastbound Lake Shore Limited .
= = History = =
During the 1840s and 1850s , a flurry of railroad @-@ building activity led eventually to the completion of four separate railroads converging in Erie . A break @-@ of @-@ gauge between the first two railroads — the Erie and North East Railroad and the Franklin Canal Company — ensured that the citizens of Erie profited from the delays necessary to transfer cargo between the lines . When it was proposed in 1853 to standardize the track gauge to allow through traffic , a conflict that became known as the Erie Gauge War ensued . The residents of Erie , who saw it as an affront to their desire that the city become a major lake port , dismantled railroad bridges and tore up railroad tracks in the city in an effort to prevent the impending standardization . As part of the dispute 's settlement , both railroads provided financial support for the construction of the Erie and Pittsburgh and Sunbury and Erie railroads . The Cleveland , Painesville and Ashtabula Railroad acquired the Franklin Canal Company in 1854 , and the Erie and North East was merged with the Buffalo and State Line to form the Buffalo and Erie Railroad a few years later . The Sunbury and Erie was renamed the Philadelphia and Erie Railroad in 1861 . The Pennsylvania Railroad soon acquired the Sunbury and Erie through a 999 @-@ year lease and funded completion of the line by 1864 .
= = = Predecessor stations = = =
The first railroad station in Erie was built in 1851 and consisted of a " clumsy looking " or " rude brick structure " . President @-@ elect Abraham Lincoln addressed a crowd outside of this station on February 16 , 1861 , while traveling to Washington , D.C. , for his inauguration . Construction on a new station was started in early 1865 as a joint venture between the Cleveland , Painesville and Ashtabula , and Buffalo and Erie railroads , and was completed in February 1866 . Both the Erie and Pittsburgh , and Philadelphia and Erie railroads also leased portions of the new station for their services as well . In addition to the leased space , the Philadelphia and Erie continued to maintain a freight station on State Street below Hamot Hospital for several years afterward .
The station , known as Union Depot , consisted of a brick , Romanesque Revival structure facing Peach Street between two sets of railroad tracks . It stood 40 feet ( 10 m ) tall , topped with a distinctive cupola , and its platforms extended 480 feet ( 150 m ) towards Sassafras Street along both sides of the depot . The depot was equipped with the modern amenities of the day including outdoor gas lighting , a barber shop , gentleman 's and ladies ' parlors , and a dining room ; the second floor contained offices and sleeping quarters for railroad officials .
The Cleveland , Painesville and Ashtabula became the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway in 1869 , and absorbed the Buffalo and Erie Railroad later that year . The Pennsylvania Railroad leased the Erie and Pittsburgh for 999 years in 1870 . On March 5 , 1902 , nearly 10 @,@ 000 people turned out at Union Depot to greet Prince Henry of Prussia during his tour of the United States ; the prince remained in Erie for approximately 10 minutes before his train continued to Buffalo and Niagara Falls , New York . On December 22 , 1914 , the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railroad was merged with the New York Central .
= = = Construction = = =
In 1913 , the city of Erie appointed a committee of city planners and civil engineers led by John Nolen that was tasked with determining the best course of action to support the continued growth of the city . In its final report , the committee recommended , among other civic improvements , that " for the improvement of the railroad facilities in Erie " a new Union Station be constructed , as well as the " abolition of all [ railroad ] crossings " . At the time the only streets in Erie where the railroad was grade separated were State , French , and Ash Streets , and Buffalo Road , while the remainder had level crossings . The committee felt it was desirable that , on account of Erie 's topography and the existing railroad grades , the tracks be raised in the downtown to accommodate new roadway underpasses . The city signed an agreement on September 30 , 1915 , with the New York Central and the Pennsylvania railroads to eliminate every level crossing between Ash and Cascade Streets through the construction of bridges or the closing of the streets . As compensation , both railroads pledged to replace Union Depot with a new station .
The work to re @-@ grade and install drainage on Peach and Sassafras Streets coincided with the building of the station from 1925 to 1927 , and cost the city approximately $ 110 @,@ 000 . A temporary station was also erected at 14th and French Streets , and was used after the old Union Depot was demolished in 1925 until the completion of the new station . Union Station was dedicated on December 3 , 1927 , in a ceremony presided over by the presidents of the New York Central and Pennsylvania railroads , the mayor of Erie Joseph Williams , and former mayor William Stern who helped initiate the project . The Griswold Plaza Post Office , on the north side of 14th Street , opened in 1932 along with the tunnel connecting it to Union Station .
= = = Operations = = =
When service from Union Station was inaugurated in 1928 , both eastbound and westbound trains were departing the station almost every hour bound for destinations across the United States . Passengers in the station 's expansive waiting room could patronize its news stand , telegraph office , barber shop , shoeshine stand , or its lunch counter and soda fountain . Train schedules were handwritten on a large blackboard , while station staff announced the arrival and impending departures of the trains by megaphone .
In the 1930s , the New York Central provided the majority of the service in Erie with over 20 trains daily , including the original Lake Shore Limited . The famed 20th Century Limited , however , passed through Union Station nightly without stopping . Union Station was on the New York Central 's main line , often referred to as the " Water Level Route " , with trains that traveled west to Cleveland , Toledo and Chicago , and east to Buffalo , New York City , and Boston . The New York Central also had service from Erie via a branch line to Youngstown , Ohio , with connections to the Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroad . Conversely , the Pennsylvania Railroad ran only a few trains from Erie — mainly the Northern and Southern Expresses to Harrisburg , Philadelphia , and Washington , D.C. , as well as a daily train to Pittsburgh .
The Bliley Electric Company , a manufacturer of crystal oscillators used in radio transmitters and receivers , moved from 8th and Peach streets to space on the second floor of Union Station in 1933 . Despite the possibility that soot and vibrations from passing locomotives could cause calibration problems for Bliley 's quartz crystals , Union Station 's proximity to the railroad provided " efficient transfers of [ the ] heavy crystal stock from the train to the [ crystal ] slicing department . " Bliley Electric soon grew to occupy the entire second and third floors of the station . During World War II , the company operated 24 hours a day and employed local women to grind and fashion the crystals ; the crystals used in the operation were stockpiled in the rail yard , where it and the entire complex were guarded by soldiers with Great Danes . Bliley Electric eventually moved its entire operation to a larger , purpose @-@ built facility in 1966 .
= = = Decline = = =
The post @-@ war boom in automobile travel and the construction of the Interstate Highway System , as well as competition from commercial airlines , led to the inevitable decline of passenger rail . The Pennsylvania Railroad eliminated passenger service between Erie and Pittsburgh in April 1948 . It eventually ended through service to Philadelphia , requiring passengers to transfer in Emporium , Pennsylvania , and discontinued service from Erie altogether on March 27 , 1965 . By 1968 , the number of New York Central trains was also reduced to five per day . The two railroads were merged on February 1 , 1968 , and formed the Penn Central Transportation Company . Penn Central continued to run the former New York Central passenger trains , until the last departed Union Station on April 30 , 1971 . The newly created National Passenger Rail Corporation , more commonly known as Amtrak , took over nationwide passenger rail operations the next day . Amtrak continued to operate a New York @-@ to @-@ Chicago train until January 1972 , the Lake Shore , which had a station stop in Erie starting in November 1971 . However , the poor condition of the track between Buffalo and Chicago , as well as the service 's general lack of profitability , led to the Lake Shore 's demise . Erie remained devoid of any passenger rail service until Amtrak reintroduced the former New York Central train , the Lake Shore Limited , on November 30 , 1975 .
During that time , upkeep of Union Station became neglected by the railroads , and the station gradually deteriorated from its heyday . The presence of dirt , trash , and human waste were a normal occurrence at the station . At one point , in 1973 , the Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry ordered Penn Central to close Union Station citing " sanitary reasons " ; at the time , it was only used by the crews of its freight trains . In the winter , the station often became an " unsanctioned shelter " for the homeless , who burned the station 's wooden doors for heat . The few passengers that did travel by train were often reluctant to use Amtrak 's makeshift waiting room in the station rotunda , due to the unsettling sights and fear of being accosted . Penn Central persisted with freight service until it declared bankruptcy and became a part of Conrail on April 1 , 1976 . Conrail , in turn , was dismantled on June 6 , 1998 , and the former New York Central rail lines were transferred to CSX , and Norfolk Southern Railway gained control of the former Pennsylvania lines .
= = = Renovation and restoration = = =
Union Station was purchased for $ 1 @.@ 5 million by the Erie @-@ based logistics and transportation firm Logistics Plus on October 30 , 2003 . The company renovated the station 's third floor and part of the second floor for use as its corporate headquarters , thus restoring a landmark and revitalizing the surrounding neighborhood . Chief executive officer of Logistics Plus , Jim Berlin , observed that the building 's transportation motif made the building ideal . " [ T ] hough Union Station will never be the center of transportation again , " he said , " it can be a place from which transportation — global transportation — can be managed " . The original proposed plan included revamping Union Station into an urban , mixed @-@ use development with retail spaces , a pedestrian mall and a museum similar to Pittsburgh 's Station Square . In May 2007 , Logistics Plus lined the parapet of Union Station with 50 flags symbolizing the locations it does business in and the home countries of its employees .
Since the 1990s , Union Station has also been " an incubator of Erie 's modern [ beer ] brewing " starting with the brewpub Hoppers , which operated in the station from 1994 to 1999 . When Hoppers relocated and became a full production brewery under the name of Erie Brewing Company , Porters , a fine dining restaurant and beer bar , opened in its place . The Brewerie at Union Station took over the space , and opened in October 2006 after the closure of the restaurant earlier that year . During the run @-@ up to the 2008 presidential election , Union Station was site of " whistle @-@ stop " by ABC 's Good Morning America news team on a charter Amtrak train . Sam Champion , Chris Cuomo , Robin Roberts , and Diane Sawyer , the news anchors , interviewed local residents at the Brewerie about campaign issues . The Good Morning America stop lasted about 30 minutes , and the resulting television segment aired on September 18 , 2008 .
As part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 , the Federal Railroad Administration identified ten regions for potential development as high @-@ speed rail corridors — Erie lies in a gap near three corridors : the Chicago Hub Network , the Empire Corridor , and the Keystone Corridor . The local passenger rail advocacy group , All Aboard Erie , proposed a feasibility study in 2014 for high @-@ speed rail service to connect to the corridors at Cleveland and Buffalo . The group also wants determine if rail service would be possible using the existing tracks and right of way between Erie , Youngstown and Pittsburgh .
= = Commercial tenants = =
Union Station serves as the corporate headquarters for Logistics Plus . It was formed in 1996 to manage domestic logistics for GE Transportation , the largest employer in Erie . The company 's offices were relocated from Jamestown , New York , to the station in 2004 . Logistics Plus occupies the 16 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 500 m2 ) third floor and 5 @,@ 000 square feet ( 500 m2 ) of the second floor . The rest of the building is leased out to a variety of tenants including Amtrak , the Brewerie , a hookah lounge , a wine shop , a hair salon , a banquet hall , and an art studio .
The Brewerie at Union Station is a microbrewery and restaurant — officially categorized as a " brewpub " by the Brewers Association — that operates out of Union Station . The brewpub makes use of a portion of the station 's ground floor and its octagonal rotunda . In 2013 , the Brewerie produced approximately 500 barrels of beer ( 15 @,@ 500 gal ; 59 @,@ 000 l ) from its 3 @.@ 5 @-@ barrel ( 109 gal ; 410 l ) Price @-@ Schonstrom brewing system .
|
= Age of Empires III =
Age of Empires III is a real @-@ time strategy video game developed by Microsoft Corporation 's Ensemble Studios and published by Microsoft Game Studios . The Mac version was ported over and developed and published by Destineer 's MacSoft Games . The PC version was released on October 18 , 2005 in North America and November 4 , 2005 in Europe , while the Mac version was released on November 21 , 2006 in North America and September 29 , 2006 in Europe . An N @-@ Gage version of the game developed by Glu Mobile was released on April 28 , 2009 . It is the third game of the Age of Empires series and the sequel to Age of Empires II : The Age of Kings .
The game portrays the European colonization of the Americas , between approximately 1492 and 1876 CE . There are fourteen total civilizations to play within the game . Age of Empires III has made several innovations in the series , in particular with the addition of the " Home City " , which combines real @-@ time strategy and role @-@ playing game features . Two expansion packs have been released : the first , Age of Empires III : The WarChiefs , was released on October 17 , 2006 , and introduced three Native American civilizations ; the second , Age of Empires III : The Asian Dynasties , was released on October 23 , 2007 , and included three Asian civilizations .
Age of Empires III has sold over 2 million copies as of May 2008 . As well as receiving favorable reviews , it has garnered awards , including GameSpy 's " Best RTS game of 2005 " , and was one of the best @-@ selling games of 2005 . In 2007 , Age of Empires III was the seventh best @-@ selling computer game , with over 313 @,@ 000 copies sold that year .
= = Gameplay = =
Players begin with a constructed town center or a wagon that will build into such , an armed explorer , and a modest number of villagers . Players explore the map and begin gathering resources used to build additional units and buildings and to research upgrades or technologies . Actions such as training units , constructing buildings , killing enemy units etc . , earn the player experience points . At certain experience point thresholds , players earn shipments that may be turned in for cards from the player 's Home City , which can include units , upgrades , or resources . The game progresses similar to most real @-@ time strategy games until one side resigns .
In Age of Empires III , the player advances through technological " Ages " , representing historical time periods ; these provide access to greater improvements , units , and buildings . They include the Discovery Age , which represents the discovery and exploration of the Americas by Europeans and allows the player to explore and develop their economy ; the Colonial Age , which represents the European Expansion into the " New World " and unlocks early military units ; the Fortress Age , which represents the fortification of the European colonies , unlocks forts , and allows the player to have a more complete military ; the Industrial Age , which triggers a strong economy , due in part to factories — advanced buildings that automatically produce resources or artillery — and unlocks all units and shipments ; and the Imperial Age , which unlocks all buildings and upgrades , and allows you to send unit and resource shipments a second time . All Ages cost food and coin to advance to , except the Colonial Age , which only costs food ( 800 ) . The price of age advancement is incremental , but does not vary between civilizations .
Similar to the " minor gods " system in Age of Mythology , Age of Empires III uses a " Politician System " to grant bonuses on a successful advancement to another age . When the player chooses to advance to the next age , who is given the choice of two or more " Politicians " that provide them with a different bonus on choosing them . The Politician is given a generalized title from the period that usually reflects the bonus that it gives : for example , " The Naturalist " gives the player four cows , while " The General " gives twelve musketeers and one piece of heavy artillery . As the player 's Home City increases in level , more Politicians are unlocked — at a rate of one for every ten Home City levels — up to level 60 .
= = = Nations = = =
Age of Empires III allows the player to play as eight different civilizations : Spanish , British , French , Portuguese , Dutch , Russian , German , and Ottoman . Each of the eight civilizations has its own strengths and weaknesses and unique units available only to that civilization . Specific units for each civilization are designated Royal Guard units , receiving greater bonuses on the Guard upgrade in the Industrial Age , but at an increased price . The player can change the name of their Home City , the Explorer name , and is given a pre @-@ named leader from part of the period ( for example , Napoleon Bonaparte for the French Colonial Empire , Suleiman the Magnificent for Ottoman Empire , and Ivan the Terrible for the Russian Empire ) . Each civilization has unique shipments to aid its economy and military ( for example , the Ottomans are able to order a shipment of gold for both them and their teammates ) .
There are other civilizations playable via the campaign , which include The Knights of St. John , John Black 's Mercenaries , and the United States of America , which are played as the Spanish , German and British civilizations , respectively , with slight modifications . Non @-@ playable campaign civilizations include the Pirates , Circle of Ossus and Native Americans , although these civilizations are playable using the Scenario Editor .
Twelve different tribes of Native Americans are in the game as well , but these are not in themselves playable factions . However , players can gain access to unique units and improvements by forming an alliance with the tribes by building a trading post at their camps . The native tribes featured are the Aztec , Carib , Cherokee , Comanche , Cree , Inca , Iroquois , Lakota , Maya , Nootka , Seminole , and Tupi . Three of these tribes were made playable in the expansion pack Age of Empires III : The WarChiefs : the Iroquois , Lakota ( under the name Sioux ) and Aztecs . These civilizations were removed as the smaller , alliance based tribes and were replaced by the Huron , Cheyenne , and Zapotec , respectively . In The Asian Dynasties another three civilizations were added , along with several new native tribes . The civilizations are the Indian , the Japanese , and the Chinese .
= = = Home Cities = = =
Age of Empires III is the first game in the series to introduce the " Home City " concept . The Home City functions as a second city , a powerhouse that is separated from the active game . It cannot be attacked or destroyed , although an Imperial Age upgrade called " Blockade " stops the player 's opponents from receiving Home City shipments . Similar to a role @-@ playing game character , the Home City is persistent between games , meaning that upgrades gained through separate games can be applied and stay applied for as long as that particular city exists . Multiple Home Cities can be created and maintained , although each supports only one civilization .
The Home City is composed of five main buildings from which the player chooses their new shipment cards and customizations : The New World Trading Company , the Military Academy , the Cathedral , the Manufacturing Plant and the Harbor . Players can also access the Home City during a match by clicking on the " Home City " button represented on the HUD as the nation 's flag . The Home City functions differently inside a game . Instead of customizing a Home City or choosing cards , a player can ship cards chosen before the game ( and added to a deck ) .
During the course of a game , players gain XP ( experience ) by completing actions such as constructing buildings , training units , killing enemies and collecting treasures . Whenever a certain amount of experience points are gained , the player can make use of a shipment from their respective Home City . Shipments slow as the game goes on , since more XP is required with every consecutive shipment . This XP is also added directly to the home city and is collected over multiple games , allowing it to level up over time . Players can gear their cards into three different combinations : " Boom " ( economic combinations ) , " Rush " ( military combinations ) , or " Turtle " ( defensive combinations ) . The first few cards chosen are automatically added to the player 's portfolio , where it can be copied onto a deck for use in a game . Later in the game , cards have to be manually chosen because of the limit of cards in one deck . Most cards are available to all civilizations , but some are unique to one . If the Home City being played has more than one deck , the player must select which to use when the first shipment is sent . During a game , players keep this initial deck ; this feature encourages players to build decks that are customized for the map being played on , or that counter other civilizations . The decks support twenty cards . As the Home City improves by level , you may gain an extra card slot for the decks for every 10 levels .
= = = Units = = =
The units of Age of Empires III are based , as in previous iterations of the game , around military classes of the historic time period . The player controls a variety of civilian and military units , and uses them to expand and develop their civilization , as well as wage war against opponents . The base unit of a game is the settler , responsible for gathering resources and constructing buildings , in order to improve the economy of the civilization . The number of units a player can control in a scenario is limited by a " population limit " , a common real @-@ time strategy game mechanic . Houses and town centers raise the starting limit , to a maximum of 200 , while each unit that is produced increases the population count . Basic units such as settlers and infantry count as 1 , but others , including most cavalry and mercenary infantry count as 2 . More powerful units , especially artillery or mercenary cavalry , can count for a population as high as 7 . Native warriors , explorers , tamed and grazing animals , hot air balloons and warships do not count towards the population limit , but generally have a build limit , allowing the player to deploy only a certain number of those specific units at a time .
Military units are used for combat against other players . Infantry are the cheapest unit type and all are land based , using weapons ranging from crossbows to early muskets to more advanced rifles . The heavier artillery classes also make use of ranged weapons , primarily cannon and mortars ; however , there is also artillery armed with grenades . Mounted troops are also present , and are armed with either hand weapons , such as swords , or ranged weapons , such as pistols . These units also have significant features , such as skirmishers which do bonus damage against infantry , and ranged cavalry does bonus damage against other cavalry . A new unit introduced in Age of Empires III is the explorer , which is chiefly responsible for scouting and gathering treasure but is also capable of building Trading Posts and has a special attack , used at the player 's command . This unit cannot be killed , but can be rendered unconscious , to be revived when friendly units are in range ; also , a ransom can be paid to have it reappear at the player 's town center . This ransom is credited to the player that disabled him , when applicable . Some shipment cards increase the explorer 's effectiveness in gameplay ; for example , providing it with " war dogs " can aid scouting and combat . In Age of Empires III , ships are available on most maps . Military ships makes use of cannon or flaming arrows , while some ships can collect resources or transport land units .
Mercenaries may aid the player in their campaigns in the New World . Mercenaries are not trained like standard units ; instead they can be shipped from the Home City or hired from saloons for much coin , so that only economically powerful players can employ them . Most are powerful , but hiring them does not provide experience points , so mercenaries cannot effectively replace the player 's standard army , and can negatively affect a player 's economy if used excessively . Incidentally , along with hero / explorer units , Mercenaries were vulnerable to assassin units such as spies , agents and ninjas . In most cases , a selection of Native American tribes populate game maps , and support their own brand of military units that can be trained once an alliance has been formed . Some Native American military units use mêlée weapons , a few use indigenous ranged weapons , such as bows and arrows or atl @-@ atls , while still others adopt ranged European gunpowder weapons . These units usually pertain to the infantry or cavalry classes , but , on maps with water , canoes are also available to the player through the dock .
= = = Buildings = = =
Buildings play a big role in gameplay , as they are used for training civilian and military units , researching improvements , supporting population , providing structural defense or as resource providers . The buildings portrayed in Age of Empires III resemble the architectural design of that era . All of the games in the series share several buildings , including the Town Center and Docks . The appearance and attributes of a building change as the player advances through the Ages , and some civilizations have their own unique buildings . The appearance of these buildings depends on the civilization . Some buildings can only be built at certain times like the defensive towers .
There are certain architectural styles present in the game ; architectural styles determine the appearance of in @-@ game buildings . Each civilization is automatically assigned its architectural style . These three architectural styles are the Western European , which consists of classical styled wooden buildings and is shared by the British , French and Dutch ; the Eastern European , which consists of wooden and straw structures and is shared by the Germans and Russians , and the Mediterranean , which consists of buildings made of stucco cement and dry brick , which is shared by the Spanish , Portuguese and Ottomans .
= = Plot = =
The story @-@ based campaign mode consists of related scenarios with preset objectives , such as destroying a given building . In Age of Empires III , the campaign follows the fictional Black family in a series of three " Acts " , which divide the story arc into three generations . All three acts are narrated by Amelia Black ( Tasia Valenza ) .
Instead of playing as one of the standard civilizations , the player takes command of a special civilization that is linked to the character or period that each Act portrays . Most units of the player civilizations speak in English language , with the exception of unique units such as Spanish Rodeleros , Spanish Lancers , German Ulhans and German War Wagons .
= = = Act I : Blood = = =
During Act I , the player assumes command of the Knights of St. John , which resembles the Spanish civilization ( even though the faction played is actually Maltese ) . The Spanish had numerous colonies in the area played throughout the Act .
Set in the late 16th century , the first act of the single @-@ player campaign begins with the player in the role of Morgan Black — of the Knights of Saint John — defending the last stronghold on Malta from Sahin " The Falcon " of the Ottoman Empire ( in a telling of the Great Siege of Malta ) . Morgan is ordered by his superior Alain Magnan to hold Sahin on the beach , which he manages to do until the Ottomans bring up their great bombards . Morgan then lights a signal fire to call in supporting cavalry led by Alain , who drive the Turks back and they defend the base .
Using a captured Ottoman cannon , Morgan and Alain then drive the Ottomans from Malta and detonate Ottoman weapon caches in the nearby caves . Inside , they discover that the Ottomans were really interested in a hidden stone library telling the story of the Lake of the Moon , which contains the Fountain of Youth , a secret Native American relic which is told that it has the ability to give eternal life , and the secret society , called the Circle of Ossus , who seek it for their own gain . Alain orders Morgan to sail to the New World to search for the Lake , but Morgan is attacked by the Pirate Elizabet Ramsey ( Lizzie the Pirate ) and is forced to land in the Caribbean islands . After re @-@ engaging and defeating Lizzie , Morgan 's men find some navigation charts which guide them safely to New Spain .
In Yucatan , Morgan confronts Sahin and the Ottomans searching for the Lake and destroys the Ottoman base . However the Spanish conquistador , Francisco Juan Delgado de Leon , captures Sahin and some other Ottoman soldiers before Morgan can . Morgan is then forced to fight and defeat the Spanish , who are attacking Morgan 's new allies , the Aztecs . After his battle to defend the Aztecs , Morgan realizes that Delgado and the Spanish were after the map to the Lake of the Moon disguised as the mosaic in the Aztecs ' town square . The mosaic shows the Lake of the Moon being in Florida .
Morgan sets sail for Florida , hoping to beat the Spanish there , but his fleet is damaged by an oncoming hurricane and he is forced to dock in Cuba , where he leaves his ship in Havana . There he earns the respect of Lizzie the Pirate and strikes a deal , promising Lizzie the gold from the Spanish treasure fleet if she takes him to Florida .
In Florida , Morgan and Lizzie are met by Alain Magnan , who orders Morgan to capture the Spanish treasure ships while he rushes ahead to capture the lake . Together Morgan and Lizzie capture the fleet , killing Delgado in the process , and capture Sahin . Sahin tells Morgan that the Circle believes the Lake of the Moon is the Fountain of Youth and that his intention from the beginning was to prevent the Circle from obtaining the Fountain .
Alain Magnan returns from the Lake and orders Morgan to execute his native allies and Sahin as heathens , but Sahin and Lizzie convince Morgan that Alain is actually the leader of the Circle of Ossus . Therefore , the knight , the Turk , and the pirate decide to work together to destroy the Fountain of Youth and stop the Circle 's plans for domination of the New World permanently .
Upon reaching the Lake of the Moon , the group captures and retains an enormous stationary cannon called a " Fixed Gun " from a Circle 's town across their fort . Using the Fixed Gun , Lizzie 's fleet of fire ships made from captured treasure ships loaded with Sahin 's explosives , and Morgan 's ground forces holding off the Circle 's elite Boneguard , they destroy the Fountain . As damage to the Fountain increases , Alain Magnan personally leads a force of Boneguard in a counterattack and is killed during the fighting .
After the Fountain is destroyed and the Circle defeated , Sahin returns to Turkey , and Lizzie , with all her Spanish gold sunk to the bottom of the lake , leaves for the Caribbean : however , it is ambiguously stated that she and Morgan reunited several years later and a romance eventually blossomed between them , implying that she was the mother of Morgan 's children , making her also an ancestor of all future Blacks featured in the campaign . Morgan is last seen wondering about the significance of the Fountain and whether it really was the Fountain of Youth , and is seen refilling his empty canteen from the water of the lake .
= = = Act II : Ice = = =
During Act II , the player plays as John Black 's Mercenaries , which is modeled after the German civilization with occasional elements of the French civilization . At the time , the French were involved in the fur trade in North America , and German mercenaries were in great use .
In the mid @-@ eighteenth century , Morgan 's grandson , John Black , and his Mohawk friend Kanyenke are on their way through the Carolinas to Brunswick with their band of mercenaries after being called for by the colony 's governor , John 's uncle , Stuart Black . After defending the colony against Cherokee raiders , John and Kanyenke attack the Cherokee war camps , forcing the Cherokee to arrange a peace settlement . But while John , Kanyenke , and most of the colony 's garrison are away at the negotiations both they and Brunswick are attacked by a British army under General Warwick , who capture the town . Warwick captures Stuart and begins questioning him about the location of the Lake of the Moon .
John and Kanyenke return and drive Warwick 's forces from Brunswick , but Warwick and Stuart are gone . John realizes that the Circle of Ossus has returned . Kanyenke believes that his sister , Nonahkee , could be in danger , too , and the pair leaves for New England . Kanyenke 's suspicions prove correct and they confront Warwick again when he attacks Nonahkee 's village hoping to extract John 's location from her . After the battle it is revealed that John Black and Nonahkee are in love , but are keeping it a secret from Kanyenke until a more peaceful time , although it is seen that Kanyenke is aware of this .
John and Kanyenke then take their mercenaries in pursuit of Warwick 's fleeing army , and ally with the French in the Seven Years ' War against Warwick . When Colonel George Washington tells them that Warwick is a renegade and has been hunted by the British as well , John agrees to track him down for the British . John leads his mercenaries and Washington 's forces and destroys Warwick 's base in the Great Lakes region . The presence of the Circle of Ossus ' Boneguard prove to John the existence of the Circle and that Warwick is the current Circle 's leader . In the ruins of the Circle 's base John finds the decapitated body of his uncle Stuart . John then demands that Nonahkee be kept at home while they pursue Warwick , who has again escaped and fled to the Rocky Mountains . Kanyenke agrees and reveals that he knows about John 's relationship with Nonahkee . He tells him that he would not have chosen John as her husband , but he accepts it because he knows that she decides who she loves .
John and Kanyenke then set out to follow Warwick , first earning the respect of the Great Plains tribes by good deeds and helping to defend them against Warwick 's forces , then they intercept Warwick 's supply train and destroy a fortified Circle base in the mountains . They soon discover that Warwick and his soldiers have fled even farther west , to act as a checkpoint at Alaska , where they notice the Circle 's new ally , the Russians . They realize that the Circle plans to capture British and French colonies and towns while their soldiers are at war with one another , and that Warwick wants the Circle of Ossus as the new leader of the New World .
With the help of some miners , John and Kanyenke bring down large rock bridges to stop the Russians ' large cannons from getting through . John then sends Kanyenke and the remainder of his mercenaries back east as he plants explosives to cause an avalanche and bury the Russians in the mountains . In the end , as John is setting up the dynamite , Warwick and several Boneguard approach him . Warwick attempts to kill John but John uses a barrel of gunpowder as a shield ( knowing that Warwick won 't risk detonating it by shooting at him ) , jumps to the trigger , and pushes it , detonating the mountainside ; killing himself , the soldiers , and Warwick ; and causing an avalanche . The avalanche buries the Russians and sets the Circle of Ossus back so far that they cause no problems for many years .
By spring , Kanyenke has returned to his village , where he learns that his sister has given birth to John 's son Nathaniel , whom he begins to help raise .
= = = Act III : Steel = = =
During Act III , the player plays as the U.S. civilization ( only available in the campaign ) , which resembles the British civilization .
In 1817 ( five years after Nathaniel 's funeral in 1812 , his death date according to the The WarChiefs campaign ) , the narrative shifts to Amelia Black , the granddaughter of John Black and Nathaniel 's daughter , and heiress owner of The Falcon Company ( possibly named after Sahin ) , a railroad company whose sights are set on expanding new railroad operations in the United States since the compensation given by the British and Americans for John Black 's sacrifice has been exhausted by John 's son Nathaniel financing the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War .
After defeating a rival railroad company and laying track to supply the US Cavalry near the Mexican border , Amelia meets a French prospector named Pierre Beaumont , who helps her and US Cavalry commander , Major Cooper , defeat a Mexican army attacking a fort . He then lures Amelia to a mine in Colorado where a surprise visit from an aged Kanyenke , who has brought Cooper and the cavalry with him , reveals Beaumont as the leader of Circle of Ossus . Amelia , Kanyenke , and Cooper chase Beaumont through the mines , where they find a map to the Lake of the Moon .
The three travel to Florida , but find that the Lake has dried up and is now a swamp filled with gold from the sunken treasure fleet last seen in Act I. There , they destroy a Circle base in the swamp . Cooper finds and attempts to capture Beaumont , but Beaumont commands two wolves to attack him . Cooper shoots one of them with his pistol , but the other kills him . Amelia , now wanting to avenge Cooper , learns from the local Seminoles that there is an Inca city in Pacamayo Valley where several barrels of the Fountain 's water have been stored .
Amelia and Kanyenke immediately sail to South America , where they help Simón Bolívar defeat the Spanish . Bolívar offers them guides and , with the Circle 's army close behind they make a dangerous passage through the bitingly cold Andes and discover the Inca city in Pacamayo Valley . After helping to defend the city from the Circle in a hardfought battle , Amelia finds that Beaumont has once again escaped , this time with the hijacked barrels of the Fountain 's water .
Amelia and Kanyenke next fight the Circle at their last stronghold in Cuba , and , after allying with the Spanish colony of Havana and awaiting the arrival of the U.S. Navy , they destroy the Ossuary and the fixed guns guarding it . As the battle is ending , Amelia and Kanyenke pass under an archway in which Beaumont is concealed . Beaumont jumps down and attempts to stab Amelia but Kanyenke pushes her out of the way . All three tumble to the ground . Beaumont charges at Amelia , about to stab her , but when Beaumont gets near , Amelia kicks him and pushes him backwards . He quickly charges at her again , but she grabs her shotgun and shoots him . Amelia later uses the Circle 's stored treasure to revive the Falcon Company and succeeds in building railroads to the west coast .
During the credits , there is a final cut scene between Amelia and an Old Coot first introduced earlier in the campaign . At first , his comments regarding how her family must be proud of her seem out of place — then he makes a reference to the Circle and how she was able to defeat them in only one lifetime , hinting that he is indeed the original Morgan Black . As the Old Coot walks away , his voice grows deeper with a more exaggerated Scottish accent , further supporting this idea . It appears he has lived longer than the average person because he drank from the Fountain of Youth after Act I. Amelia then asks what he just said , he replies with a knowing , " Don 't miss your train , " and then he walks away .
= = Development = =
= = = Technical features = = =
Age of Empires III builds on and introduces new features to the Age of Mythology engine , called Bang ! Engine . One new feature is the inclusion of the Havok physics simulation middleware engine on the Windows version and the similar PhysX engine on Mac OS X. This means that many events such as building destruction and tree falls will not be pre @-@ created animations , but will be calculated according to the physics engine , in an innovation for the series . Other graphical features of the game include bloom lighting and support for pixel shader 3 @.@ 0 .
= = Audio = =
The Age of Empires III Original Soundtrack features an original musical score composed by Ensemble Studios musicians Stephen Rippy and Kevin McMullan , whose previous work includes other games in the Age of Empires series as well as Age of Mythology . It was released on November 11 , 2005 by Sumthing Else Music Works . Stephen Rippy , music and sound director at Ensemble Studios , said , " Age of Empires III is a game with an epic topic — it covers the colonization of the Americas over a period of some three hundred years , so it needed to have an epic @-@ sounding score to match . Using a full orchestra and choir as well as some more period @-@ inspired instrumentation , the music follows the story of Morgan Black and his descendants as they battle the Circle of Ossus for a foothold in the New World . " The soundtrack also features a bonus DVD that includes fourteen tracks remixed in 5 @.@ 1 surround , a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes video of the studio session , the Age of Empires III cinematic trailer and five exclusive bonus tracks .
Unlike previous versions of Age of Empires the AI nations in single player skirmish mode will send voice messages to the player at various points in the game , taunting them if they are selected as an enemy to the player or sharing military plans with a player who is allied with them . All the AI characters have different personalities and many different quotes exist in the game . The feature can be easily removed if required .
= = Release history = =
Following the announcement of the game on January 4 , 2005 , a trial version was released on September 7 , 2005 . This contained a cut @-@ down version of the game , introducing new features , such as two campaign scenarios , two random map scenarios ( New England and Texas ) and access to two civilizations ( British and Spanish ) , and a variety of modifications . An updated demo version was made available with the game 's release on September 22 , 2005 .
The release of the game on September 22 , 2005 saw two separate editions being made available . The standard edition included the game and manual , a collector 's edition version in a presentation box that includes the official soundtrack , extra documentation , a hardback book titled Art of Empires that contains concept art and 3D renders from the game and a DVD entitled The Making of Age of Empires III .
The release of the game has been followed by a series of patches that have fixed minor bugs in the software or added new features .
Ensemble Studios released an expansion for the game named Age of Empires III : The WarChiefs on October 17 , 2006 . It contains three new native civilizations that can be completely controlled : The Iroquois Confederation , the Great Sioux Nation , and the Aztecs . New content for existing European civilizations , maps and gameplay additions ( such as the " revolution " feature , in which players can " revolt " from their mother country and start an active military coup in the game ) was added . Both the original game and the first expansion were made available in a single " gold " edition on October 23 , 2007 .
A second expansion pack , Age of Empires III : The Asian Dynasties , was announced on May 18 , 2007 and features three Asian civilizations : the Indians , Chinese , and Japanese . It was released on October 23 , 2007 .
A Mac OS X port of the game was released on November 13 , 2006 by MacSoft , followed by the first expansion on June 18 , 2007 .
In 2009 , when Ensemble Studios was closed and no support was to expect by the successor company Robot Entertainment , the game community tried to provide game support and fixes of remaining issues themselves , for instance with fan patches .
On November 21 , 2010 Microsoft sold the game including its two expansion packs as a part of its relaunch of its Games for Windows Live platform for 10 cents or 10 Microsoft points . The overwhelming and unanticipated demand created a shortage of account keys leaving some of those who had purchased the game through the promotion unable to install the game . Microsoft remedied this issue by assuring all customers who purchased the game that account keys would be generated within one week and automatically uploaded to each profile . As a result of this promotion the overall sales of the game have sharply increased .
= = Reception = =
Age of Empires III was well received by critics and reviewers . The game received an average score of 82 % according to Game Rankings . Age of Empires III was listed as the eighth best @-@ selling PC game of 2005 , and over two million copies of it had been sold by May 2007 . GameSpot pointed out that " Age of Empires III has some very big shoes to fill , " and GameSpy remarked that it " may not redefine real @-@ time strategy gaming , but it sets the bar so high that we will be comparing games to this for years . " IGN also commented on the game , saying " Age of Empires III is a superbly balanced and polished game , " and that " Discounting a few niggles in the interface , the whole presentation is rock solid . " Game Revolution said that it is " as detailed as a history book , and about as much fun , " while GameZone stated it is " one purchase you will not come to regret . "
Age of Empires III was the eighth best @-@ selling PC game of 2005 despite its late release , and sold over 2 million copies by May 2007 .
= = = Graphics = = =
The game 's visuals were highly praised by reviewers . In a preview , IGN said that " After seeing the screenshots , our jaws hit the floor at the amount of detail , " while in their review , 1UP.com described it as " one of the most beautiful games you will put on your computer for the foreseeable future ; " GameSpy agreed , stating , " Age III 's graphics are unmatched in the strategy genre . " GameSpot also admired the graphics , but had a negative comment as well ; they said , " Were it not for the awkward unit behavior ... Age of Empires III would look truly amazing . " GameSpy awarded Age of Empires III the " Best Graphics " award at GameSpy 's " Game of the Year 2005 " , mentioning that the graphics engine boasted " all the high @-@ end technology you would normally find in first @-@ person shooters . "
= = = Sound effects = = =
GameZone praised the game 's sound effects , saying that " you will feel the explosions of the cannon balls , the muskets firing their endless volleys , and the destruction of a building . It all sounds extremely realistic , and makes the game come that much more alive . " Eurogamer said " AoE3 ... sounds fantastic , " while Game Revolution mentioned that " The ambient sounds , music and voice work all suit the colonial theme . "
= = = Single @-@ player campaign = = =
Reviewers were divided about the single @-@ player campaign . GameSpot thought it was " standard for a real @-@ time strategy game " , but also complained that it had " less @-@ than @-@ stellar voice work and awkward cutscenes ; " GameSpy agreed that " Age of Empires III 's campaign is not revolutionary " , but thought that " the voice acting is great . " IGN praised the campaign 's story , in that it gave the player a " nice sense of purpose " ; they thought " The 24 @-@ mission campaign is very well designed . " Eurogamer said the campaign lacked originality , stating , though " well @-@ written and imaginatively framed , " the campaign " offers exactly the same kind of challenges that RTS campaigns have been offering for years ; " Game Revolution disliked the campaign more than the other reviewers . Comparing it to Age of Empires II 's campaign , they said : " The plot actually got worse . Age of Empires III ... avoids all the interesting and prickly issues like genocide , epidemics and slavery , instead subbing in a wimpy tale of a family destined to protect the Holy Grail from a Satanic Cult . "
= = = Multiplayer = = =
Age of Empires III 's multiplayer was the first in the series to be integrated into the game interface and was highly lauded , as was the Home City concept . The topic of multiplayer was touched by GameZone , who said " this game demands multiplayer mode , and Ensemble Studios provided this for the players , " while at 1UP , the reviewer commented similarly , stating , " Multiplayer support has been significantly upgraded with a slick interface , support for clans and a number of other useful features . " GameSpy commented on the Home City as well , saying , " the ' home city ' system creates long @-@ term depth and strategy . " EuroGamer , however , stated : " Stop with the gifts ! ... You do not need to let me flick to a home city screen every few minutes so that I can select a free unit or resource windfall . I 'm not some spoilt toddler that needs to be bribed with endless sweeties . " Age of empires III uses the ESO server for multiplayer .
= = = Awards = = =
The game was presented with two awards by GameSpy in 2005 : " Real @-@ time strategy game of the year " and " Best Graphics " . GameSpy highly praised the game overall , giving it 5 stars in its review , which particularly noted the graphics and multiplayer experience . The game was named fifth @-@ best game of 2005 by GameSpy .
Other awards , including an " Outstanding " from GameZone , reflect the positive critical reception of the game .
The game was given an ' honorable mention ' in the ' Best Music ' category .
Yahoo ! ' s report differed , but still had many positive features . Like GameSpy , Yahoo ! also praised the effort put into the graphics and physics , but maintained that these are essentially eye @-@ candy . Both Yahoo ! and Eurogamer were disappointed by the traditional economics @-@ based strategy of the game and believed that this , with the lack of useful formation and tactics , meant that the game does not stand up to other modern real @-@ time strategy games . Eurogamer shared these final thoughts and described the new Home City shipments , along with all the treasures scattered around the map , as silly and childish ways of trying to complement the game 's lack of strategy and tactical choices . However , Eurogamer recognized that Ensemble Studios was brave to implement " something quite different " from other real time strategy games — the Home City concept .
|
= Hurricane Leslie ( 2012 ) =
Hurricane Leslie was an Atlantic tropical cyclone that had minor effects in Bermuda and Atlantic Canada in September 2012 . The twelfth tropical cyclone of the annual hurricane season , Leslie developed from a tropical wave located nearly 1 @,@ 500 miles ( 2 @,@ 400 km ) east of the Leeward Islands on August 30 . About twelve hours later , it strengthened into Tropical Storm Leslie . Tracking steadily west @-@ northwestward , it slowly intensified due to only marginally favorable conditions . By September 2 , the storm curved north @-@ northwestward while located north of the Leeward Islands . Thereafter , a blocking pattern over Atlantic Canada caused Leslie to drift for four days . Late on September 5 , Leslie was upgraded to a Category 1 hurricane . However , due to its slow movement , the storm causing upwelling , which decreased sea surface temperatures ( SST 's ) , weakening Leslie back to a tropical storm on September 7 .
The storm drifted until September 9 , when it accelerated while passing east of Bermuda . Relatively strong winds on the island caused hundreds of power outages and knocked down tree branches , electrical poles , and other debris . Slight re @-@ intensification took place , with Leslie becoming a hurricane again , before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone near Newfoundland on September 11 . In Atlantic Canada , the storm brought heavy rainfall to both Nova Scotia and Newfoundland . In the latter , localized flooding occurred , especially in the western portions of the province . Also in Newfoundland , strong winds from Leslie ripped off roofs , destroyed trees , and left 45 @,@ 000 homes without power . Additionally , a partially built house was destroyed and several incomplete homes were damaged in Pouch Cove . Overall , Hurricane Leslie caused $ 10 @.@ 1 million ( 2012 USD ) in damage and no fatalities .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave , which was accompanied by a broad surface low pressure area , emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa late on August 26 . Tracking generally westward , the system remained disorganized for the next several days . By August 29 , the system became increasingly organized as showers and thunderstorms concentrated toward the center . Based on Dvorak satellite classifications and scatterometer surface wind data , it is estimated that Tropical Depression Twelve developed at 0000 UTC on August 30 , while located about 1 @,@ 495 miles ( 2 @,@ 406 km ) east @-@ southeast of the northern Leeward Islands . Situated to the south of a subtropical ridge , the system tracked west @-@ northwestward over warm waters . As a result , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Leslie by 1200 UTC on August 30 .
After becoming a tropical storm on August 30 , the subtropical ridge caused Leslie to turn west @-@ northwestward . By the early on August 31 , the storm featured well @-@ define outflow in all directions and the center of circulation was close to the main area of convection . Intensity estimates around that time indicated sustained wind speeds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . However , intensification halted later on August 31 as wind shear increased over the storm , causing convection to become displaced from the center . Early on September 1 , an eye @-@ like feature appeared on satellite imagery ; however , there was uncertainty as to whether or not the feature was displaced from the low @-@ level center . The storm became increasingly disorganized , with the circulation displaced from the main convective area several hours later .
Relentless wind shear caused Leslie to weaken to slightly to a 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) tropical storm , despite sea surface temperatures ( SSTs ) exceeding 84 ° F ( 29 ° C ) . Early on September 3 , the storm decelerated and curved northwestward , while approaching a weakness in Bermuda high pressure ridge . Eventually , Leslie turned to a more northerly motion . A blocking pattern over Atlantic Canada caused the storm to drift at forward speeds under 5 mph ( 8 @.@ 0 km / h ) for four days . Wind shear also decreased , allowing Leslie to re @-@ organize and strengthen into a hurricane at 1200 UTC on September 5 . Six hours later , Leslie attained its maximum sustained wind speed of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . However , the slow movement of the storm caused upwelling – a process by which warm SSTs are replaced with colder waters . As a result , Leslie slowly began to weaken and fell to tropical storm intensity by early on September 8 . Despite weakening , the storm 's circulation expanded to a radius of more than 1 @,@ 150 miles ( 1 @,@ 850 km ) ; the wind field also expanded , with tropical storm force winds reaching about 175 miles ( 282 km ) in diameter from the center .
By early on September 9 , the blocking pattern diminished as a broad mid- to upper @-@ level trough and associated cold front moved off the East Coast of the United States . As a result , Leslie accelerated north @-@ northeastward . Later that day , the storm passed about 130 miles ( 210 km ) east of Bermuda . After leaving the region of upwelled waters , Leslie began to re @-@ strengthen and became a hurricane again at 1200 UTC on September 10 . Early on the following day , the storm reached its minimum barometric pressure of 968 mbar ( 28 @.@ 6 inHg ) . However , a combination of cold SSTs , strong wind shear , and merging with a cold front caused the storm to become an extratropical cyclone at 0900 UTC on September 11 , while located about 85 miles ( 137 km ) south of St. Lawrence , Newfoundland . Leslie was operationally considered a tropical cyclone when it made landfall on the Burin Peninsula of Newfoundland . The remnants of Leslie moved rapidly across Newfoundland and re @-@ emerged into the Atlantic later on September 11 . At 0600 UTC on the following day , the remnants of Leslie merged with another extratropical low pressure area over the Labrador Sea .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Bermuda = = =
A few tropical cyclone warnings and watches were implemented in relation to Leslie . At 2100 UTC on September 6 , a tropical storm watch was issued for Bermuda . The watch was upgraded to a tropical storm warning at 0900 UTC on September 8 . By early on September 10 , the warning was discontinued . On September 6 , officials in Bermuda urged residents to " prepare for the worst " . Schools prepared to close Friday as residents got ready for the approaching storm . " Leslie could be a historic storm for Bermuda as it is very large and forecast to intensify rapidly as it approaches , " the Bermuda Emergency Measures Organization said . " The island could experience hurricane force winds for a sustained period of time , possibly up to two days . "
However , the storm passed further east of Bermuda than initially predicted , causing only minor impact . Nonetheless , sustained winds of 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) and a gust up to 54 mph ( 87 km / h ) was reported in St. David 's Island . At the same location , 3 @.@ 15 inches ( 80 mm ) of precipitation was recorded . Throughout Bermuda , scattered power outages affected hundreds of residents and tree branches and other debris fell on roads ; at least one street pole was toppled in Hamilton .
= = = Canada = = =
At 0600 UTC on September 10 , a tropical storm watch was issued from Indian Harbour southward to Stones Cove , Newfoundland , and from Fogo Island to Charlottetown . Simultaneously , a hurricane watch was put into effect from Stones Cove to Charlottetown . By 1500 UTC on September 10 , the tropical storm watches were discontinued . Around that time , a tropical storm warning was implemented from Indian Harbour to Triton . By late on September 11 , all watches and warnings were discontinued . As a precaution , the town of Badger declared a state of emergency .
While still a tropical cyclone , Leslie produced 2 to 4 inches ( 51 to 102 mm ) of rain across much of Nova Scotia , peaking at 6 @.@ 5 inches ( 170 mm ) in Shubenacadie . The rainfall likely contributed to the ongoing flooding in some areas of Nova Scotia . Similarly , 2 to 4 inches ( 51 to 102 mm ) of precipitation was reported throughout much of Newfoundland , with a peak total of 4 @.@ 25 inches ( 108 mm ) in Cow Head . Localized flooding left some roads and bridges impassable and briefly isolated the Port au Port Peninsula from the mainland of Newfoundland . Due to winds up to 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) , Leslie ripped off roofs , destroyed trees , and left 45 @,@ 000 homes without power , particularly on the Avalon Peninsula , in the southeast portion of Newfoundland . In Pouch Cove on the Avalon Peninsula , the storm destroyed a partially built house and damaged incomplete homes in the Pleasantville neighborhood of St. John 's . Within the latter , several streets were closed , as crews cleaned up scattered debris . A portion of Memorial University of Newfoundland 's campus was closed after glass littered a pedestrian walk . Later , the remnants of Leslie brought rainfall to Nunavut , bring 1 @.@ 4 inches ( 36 mm ) of precipitation to Iqaluit during a three @-@ day period . Damage in Atlantic Canada reached 10 million CAD ( $ 10 @.@ 1 million USD ) .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
While passing to north of the Lesser Antilles , Leslie generated rough surf on various Leeward Islands , the Virgin Islands , and Puerto Rico . Leslie , combined with the remnants of Hurricane Isaac , also produced rip currents along the east coast of Florida , mainly from Nassau County south to Martin County . Additionally , the storm also brought rip currents to coastal Delaware and New Jersey between September 5 and September 6 .
|
= John Triscari =
John Triscari ( born 4 August 1957 ) is an Australian wheelchair basketball coach and school teacher . He was the coach of the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team at the 2012 Summer Paralympics , where the team won a silver medal . Since 2007 , he has been the coach of the Perth Western Stars , which won the Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League ( WNWBL ) championship in 2013 .
= = Personal life = =
John Triscari was born on 4 August 1957 . He is in charge of physical education and health at Rockingham Senior High School in Perth , Western Australia . He coached the Rockingham Flames and Mandurah Magic in Western Australian State Basketball League .
= = Wheelchair basketball = =
= = = Perth Western Stars = = =
Triscari was appointed the coach of the Perth Western Stars in the Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League ( WNWBL ) in 2007 . " Basically , " he told the media , " my goal is to develop the women 's team to get them winning finals . " This goal proved to be elusive . Fronted by young talents Cobi Crispin and Amber Merritt , the Western Stars made the WNWBL grand final in 2008 , only to be beaten by the dominant Sydney @-@ based Hills Hornets . The Hornets delivered a second grand final loss to the Stars in 2009 . The Western Stars went into the grand final as favourites in 2010 , but suffered yet another defeat at the hands of the Sydney team , now renamed the Syney Uni Flames . In 2012 , the Western Stars made in the grand final again , only to be defeated this time by the Victoria @-@ based Dandenong Rangers . Finally , in the 2013 grand final , the Western Stars came from being nine points down at three quarter time to claim their first ever WNWBL championship .
= = = Gliders = = =
In 2009 , Triscari was named as the coach of the Australian women 's national wheelchair basketball team , commonly known as the Gliders . At the same time , Ben Ettridge was named as head of the men 's team , the Rollers . Ettridge had worked for Triscari as a physical education teacher at Rockingham three years before , but had since become the coach of an Italian team . Ettridge had then become West Australian director of elite coaching and player development at Basketball Australia , thereby becoming Triscari 's boss .
Triscari 's first tournament as Gliders coach was the 2009 Osaka Cup in Japan in February 2009 . It was an auspicious start , with the Gliders beating the 2008 Summer Paralympics champions , the USA team , 57 – 38 . Despite a losses to Canada and the host nation , the Gliders came back to defeat the USA again and claim the Osaka Cup . The Gliders would win the Osaka Cup again under Triscai in 2010 and 2012 , and would be runners @-@ up in 2011 .
The Gliders competed in the 2010 Wheelchair Basketball World Championship in Birmingham , where they finished fourth , and the Four Nations Tournament in Canada in July and August 2010 , where they defeated the USA 55 – 37 to claim the gold medal . A major hurdle was qualifying for the 2012 Summer Paralympic Games in London . The team had to finish first or second at the 2011 Asia Oceania Zone Championship in Goyang , South Korea . A loss to Japan meant that the Gliders had to beat Korea to qualify for London , which they did , 84 – 11 . In the run @-@ up to the London games in 2012 , the Gliders won the Osaka Cup in Japan , came second in another four @-@ nations tournament in Frankfurt , defeated Germany in the Gliders World Challenge in Sydney , and the United States in the BT Paralympic World Cup in Manchester .
The Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team at the 2012 Summer Paralympics posted wins against Brazil , Great Britain , and the Netherlands , but lost to Canada . It was enough to advance the Gliders to the quarter @-@ finals , where they beat Mexico . The Gliders then defeated the United States by a point to set up a final clash with Germany . The Gliders lost 44 – 58 , and earned a silver medal .
Triscari received a Coach of the Year Award from the Western Australian Department of Sports and Recreation in 2012 , and again in 2013 . He was succeeded as head coach of the Gliders by Tom Kyle in May 2013 .
|
= HMS Ben @-@ my @-@ Chree =
HMS Ben @-@ my @-@ Chree ( Manx : " Woman of My Heart " ) was a packet steamer and a Royal Navy ( RN ) seaplane carrier of the First World War . She was originally built in 1907 by Vickers for the Isle of Man Steam Packet Company and was intended for use on the England – Isle of Man route . She was the third vessel to bear her name . To this day Ben @-@ my @-@ Chree holds the crossing speed record from Liverpool to Douglas for a steamship at under three hours .
She was chartered by the RN at the beginning of 1915 and participated in several abortive attacks on Germany in May . The ship was transferred to the Dardanelles in June to support the Gallipoli Campaign . One of her aircraft made the first ship @-@ launched aerial torpedo attack on a ship in August . After Gallipoli was evacuated at the end of the year , Ben @-@ my @-@ Chree became flagship of the East Indies and Egypt Seaplane Squadron that operated in the Eastern Mediterranean , performing reconnaissance missions and attacking Turkish facilities and troops . She was sunk by Turkish artillery while anchored at the recently occupied island of Kastellorizo in early 1917 , five members of her crew being injured . The ship was salvaged in 1920 and broken up in 1923 . Ben @-@ my @-@ Chree also holds the distinction of being the only aviation vessel of either side to be sunk by enemy action during the war .
= = Description and construction = =
SS Ben @-@ my @-@ Chree had a tonnage of 2 @,@ 651 gross register tons ( GRT ) . The ship was 390 feet ( 118 @.@ 9 m ) long overall and 375 feet ( 114 @.@ 3 m ) long between perpendiculars . She had a beam of 46 feet ( 14 @.@ 0 m ) and a depth of 18 feet 6 inches ( 5 @.@ 64 m ) from her main deck to the top of her keel . Ben @-@ my @-@ Chree had five decks and a capacity of 2 @,@ 549 passengers with a crew of 119 .
The ship was powered by three license @-@ built Parsons direct @-@ drive steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft . They were powered by steam provided by four cylindrical boilers at a working pressure of 170 psi ( 1 @,@ 172 kPa ; 12 kgf / cm2 ) that gave her a speed of 24 @.@ 2 knots ( 44 @.@ 8 km / h ; 27 @.@ 8 mph ) . Her engines burnt up to 95 long tons ( 97 t ) of coal a day , which made her an expensive ship to run .
She was ordered in 1907 by the Isle of Man Steam Packet Company and was built at the Vickers shipyard in Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness at a cost of GB £ 112 @,@ 000 . The ship was launched on 23 March 1908 and completed on 8 August . Ben @-@ my @-@ Chree was normally laid up , because of her expense , except for the three busiest months of the year when she had a full complement of passengers .
= = Royal Navy modifications and service = =
SS Ben @-@ my @-@ Chree was chartered by the Royal Navy on 1 January 1915 and she began her conversion into a seaplane carrier at the Cammell Laird shipyard in Birkenhead the following day . Part of her aft superstructure was removed and replaced by a hangar , aft of her rear funnel , that housed four to six seaplanes . The aircraft were lifted in and out of the water by derricks fore and aft . A dismountable 60 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 18 m ) flying @-@ off platform was installed forward of her superstructure ; it was equipped with a trolley and rails to allow a seaplane to take off .
In RN service the ship displaced 3 @,@ 888 long tons ( 3 @,@ 950 t ) , was 387 feet ( 118 @.@ 0 m ) long overall , and had a draught of 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) . Ben @-@ my @-@ Chree 's turbines generated 14 @,@ 500 shaft horsepower ( 10 @,@ 800 kW ) and she was credited with a speed of 24 @.@ 5 knots ( 45 @.@ 4 km / h ; 28 @.@ 2 mph ) although that speed was exceeded in service . The ship could carry 502 long tons ( 510 t ) of coal . Her crew consisted of approximately 250 officers and enlisted men .
Her armament consisted of four quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 12 @-@ pounder 18 cwt guns , and two Vickers three @-@ pounder AA guns . Ben @-@ my @-@ Chree carried 130 rounds per 12 @-@ pounder and 64 rounds for each three @-@ pounder . In May 1916 , one 12 @-@ pounder AA gun , a three @-@ pounder , and a 2 @-@ pounder pom @-@ pom , each on army carriages , were added .
She was initially assigned to the Harwich Force , under the command of Commander Cecil L 'Estrange Malone , where on 3 May she took part in an abortive air raid on Norddeich that had to be abandoned because of thick fog . On 6 May , while on another unsuccessful mission to attack Norddeich , she was accidentally rammed by the destroyer Lennox in thick fog , although damage was slight . Another attempt was made on 11 May , but was again abandoned because of heavy fog . During this raid , Ben @-@ my @-@ Chree attempted to launch her Sopwith Schneider from a trolley off the fore deck , but the engine backfired , wrecking its starter , and breaking the pilot 's wrist as the starter handle was in the cockpit .
= = = To the Dardanelles = = =
In May 1915 , she sailed for the Dardanelles , carrying two Short Type 184 torpedo bombers , and arrived at Lesbos on 10 June . Her aircraft were mainly involved in spotting for ships providing naval gunfire support for troops ashore , although they also conducted reconnaissance missions of the area . On 11 August , one of these missions had spotted a Turkish ship off the north coast of the Sea of Marmora and , on the following day , Flight Commander Charles Edmonds attacked it flying a Short 184 seaplane . He left his observer behind and flew with a reduced fuel load to lighten his aircraft enough to carry a 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) , 810 @-@ pound ( 370 kg ) torpedo . He successfully dropped his aerial torpedo at a distance of about 800 yards ( 730 m ) and an altitude of 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) . It turned out that his target had been beached after having been torpedoed by the British submarine E14 . This was followed by a successful attack on 17 August against a 5 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 5 @,@ 100 t ) ship by Edmonds . Flight Lieutenant George Dacre accompanied Edmonds on his flight in his own aircraft , but suffered engine troubles and had to land in the Dardanelles . He was taxiing on the water when he encountered a large steam tugboat , which he promptly torpedoed . After taxiing for several miles he was able to get airborne again and was within gliding distance of Ben @-@ my @-@ Chree when his engine failed permanently .
On 2 September , she helped to rescue Australian troops from the torpedoed troopship HMT Southland off Lemnos . The ship was transferred to Port Said , Egypt after the end of the Gallipoli Campaign . Ben @-@ my @-@ Chree became the flagship of the East Indies and Egypt Seaplane Squadron when it was formed in January 1916 . The squadron was under the command of the General Officer Commanding , Egypt and its primary duty was to watch Turkish positions and movements in southern Palestine and the Sinai . SS Uganda collided with her on 11 February and badly damaged the ship 's bow . Permanent repairs took were made at Suez from 13 March to 25 April . Commander Charles Samson replaced L 'Estrange Malone as captain on 14 May . A few days later , Lieutenant William Benn joined the ship as an observer . Ben @-@ my @-@ Chree was based at Aden later in 1916 .
= = = Loss = = =
French troops occupied the Greek island of Kastellorizo , off the southwest coast of Turkey , on 20 December 1916 to use it as an advance base against the Turks . Not pleased at the presence of the French , the Turks secretly deployed an artillery battery of four 155 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 1 in ) and twelve 77 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns within range of the island . The French commander requested a seaplane carrier to conduct reconnaissance in the area and Ben @-@ my @-@ Chree was sent in response . She arrived on 11 January 1917 and anchored in the harbor which faced the mainland . The Turkish guns opened fire about two hours later , hitting the carrier with their third shot . Subsequent shells disabled her steering and started a fire in her hangar that spread across her upper deck .
The crew was ordered to abandon ship after about forty minutes of the bombardment using the only remaining operable motor lifeboat of the three stowed on board . One officer and four enlisted men were injured , but no one was killed . The Turks continued their bombardment for five hours until Ben @-@ my @-@ Chree listed to starboard and sank in shallow water . Later in the day , the captain and the chief engineer returned to the ship to rescue the ship 's mascots , a cat and dog which had both survived the attack .
Ben @-@ my @-@ Chree 's wreck remained in place until 1920 when it was refloated by the salvage ship Vallette and towed to the port of Piraeus . The ship proved to be a constructive total loss and was broken up in Venice , Italy in 1923 .
During her short career she operated Sopwith Type 860 , Schneider , and Baby , as well as Short Type 830 and Type 184 floatplanes .
|
= Paper Mario : The Thousand @-@ Year Door =
Paper Mario : The Thousand @-@ Year Door , originally released in Japan as Paper Mario RPG ( ペーパーマリオRPG ) , is a role @-@ playing video game developed by Intelligent Systems and published by Nintendo for the GameCube . The Thousand @-@ Year Door is the second game in the Paper Mario series .
The Thousand @-@ Year Door borrows many gameplay elements from its predecessor , such as a paper @-@ themed universe and a turn @-@ based battle system with an emphasis on action . For the majority of the game the player controls Mario , although Bowser and Princess Peach are playable at certain points . The plot follows Mario 's quest as he tries to retrieve the seven Crystal Stars and rescue Peach from the X @-@ Nauts .
The game was well received by critics , attaining an average score of 88 percent from Game Rankings . Critics generally praised the game 's engaging plot and gameplay , but criticised it for not being a big progression from its predecessor . The Thousand @-@ Year Door won the " Role Playing Game of the Year " award at the 2005 Interactive Achievement Awards .
= = Gameplay = =
The Thousand @-@ Year Door has a unique visual style . The graphics consist of a mixture of 3 @-@ Dimensional environments and 2 @-@ Dimensional characters who look as if they are made of paper . At different points in the game , Mario is " cursed " with abilities that enable special moves in the overworld , all of which are based on the paper theme . Mario can fold into a boat or a paper airplane by standing on a special activation panel , and roll up into a scroll of paper or become paper @-@ thin . The game 's environments also follow this theme ; for example , illusory objects that conceal secret items or switches can be blown away by a gust of wind due to the environment 's paper @-@ like qualities . In certain parts of the game , the player controls Bowser in multiple side @-@ scrolling levels based on the original Super Mario Bros .. Additionally , the player controls Peach in the X @-@ Naut Fortress at the completion of most game chapters .
Battles in The Thousand @-@ Year Door borrow elements from the original Paper Mario and Super Mario RPG . The turn @-@ based system , in which players select an attack , defense , or item from a menu , is augmented by timed button presses that can result in substantial attack or defence bonuses when performed correctly . A similar " action command " was also used in all released Mario RPG games . In The Thousand @-@ Year Door , each of Mario 's party members now have their own heart points ( HP ) and may receive any attack that Mario can receive . When a partner 's heart points are reduced to 0 , the partner becomes inactive for the rest of that battle and later battles until recovery . If Mario 's Heart Points are reduced to 0 , however , the game ends . Flower Points — which are required for special moves — are shared among Mario and his party members . Defeating enemies awards various numbers of Star Points to Mario ; for every 100 Star Points , Mario is able to level up . Mario can choose to upgrade his heart points ( HP ) , flower points ( FP ) , or his badge points ( BP ) . The battles take place on a stage in front of an audience ; if the player performs well in a battle , the audience can assist Mario by replenishing star power , throwing helpful items on @-@ stage , or inflicting damage on the opponent . Conversely , the audience may throw damage @-@ causing items at the player or leave if the player performs poorly in a battle . For every 10 levels , the stage will increase by fifty audience members for a total of 200 after level 30 .
Outside of battle , the game contains some strong role @-@ playing video game traditions . For example , Mario 's strength is determined by multiple statistical fields and status @-@ boosting items that can be used in and outside of combat . The effects of these items range from healing Mario or his partner to damaging the opponent . Mario can also purchase badges from non @-@ player characters or occasionally obtain them from defeated enemies ; when equipped , these badges can permanently enhance a particular skill or aspect , or , in some cases , give Mario new moves , including Power Jump and Quake Hammer . Throughout the game , Mario is permanently assisted by a party member . Each party member has a specialised skill , some of which are required to solve puzzles to advance progression in the game . More party members are gained as the player advances through the game .
= = Plot = =
The Thousand @-@ Year Door is not set in the Mushroom Kingdom , but in a cursed land across an unnamed ocean far away . The majority of locations are not featured in previous Mario games . Most locations consist of a set theme ; Glitzville , for example , is a floating city centered around a fighting arena known as the Glitz Pit . The enemies and town inhabitants in the game range from recurring Mario characters , like Boo , to characters exclusive to the game , such as the X @-@ Nauts . For many stages in the game , the story is presented in the context of a novel , and is divided into eight chapters ( nine counting the prologue ) .
= = = Characters = = =
The Thousand @-@ Year Door contains several characters , the majority of whom are not playable . Progression in the game is sometimes dependent on interaction with non @-@ player characters , although many are used in the game 's various subquests . In particular , the Goomba Professor Frankly , who knows the most about the mysteries relating to Rogueport , must be visited every time Mario retrieves a Crystal Star . The game continues the tradition of Paper Mario , in which Mario can be accompanied by one assistant character at a set time . There are seven party members in total : Goombella the Goomba , Koops the Koopa , Madame Flurrie the wind spirit , a Yoshi ( named by the player ) , Vivian the Shadow Siren , Admiral Bobbery the Bob @-@ omb , and Ms. Mowz , who is available as an optional character .
Mario is the main character of The Thousand @-@ Year Door , although the game will frequently cut to Princess Peach in the X @-@ Naut Fortress . Much time is spent on her interaction with the computer TEC , which has suffered from a glitch and has fallen in love with Peach to her surprise . The main antagonist of the Mario series , Bowser , tries to collect the Crystal Stars before Mario does instead of directly opposing Mario . Luigi 's role in the game consists of recounting his adventure , which also involves the use of secondary characters in the form of party members .
= = = Story = = =
The game opens with an introduction about a seaside town which was damaged by a cataclysm and consequently sunk into the depths of the earth . A town named Rogueport was later built at this site , with the fortunes of the lost kingdom fabled to exist behind the eponymous Thousand @-@ Year Door , located in the ruins of the old town . Mario becomes involved when Princess Peach contacts him about a treasure map that she bought in Rogueport , but becomes part of a larger adventure after learning that Peach has gone missing . With the help of Goombella and Professor Frankly , Mario learns that the map can potentially reveal the location of the 7 legendary Crystal Stars , which are required to unlock the Thousand @-@ Year Door . Under the assumption that Peach herself is trying to find the Crystal Stars , he uses the map in an attempt to locate her .
In actuality , Peach has been kidnapped by the Secret Society of X @-@ Nauts ( " X @-@ Nauts " for short ) , a group led by Sir Grodus that are also searching for the Crystal Stars . While held captive , Peach uses e @-@ mail via the main base 's computer , TEC , to inform Mario about the quest and consequently help him to attain all 7 Crystal Stars and locate the treasure . However , the " treasure " is actually the Shadow Queen , a demon responsible for the ancient cataclysm that destroyed the original town 1 @,@ 000 years ago . The X @-@ Nauts had kept Peach so that her body could be possessed by the Shadow Queen in a bid to recover her full power . This happens , but the arcane power of the Crystal Stars is then used to separate Peach from her possessor . The game ends when Mario defeats the Shadow Queen and returns home with Peach .
= = Release and lawsuit = =
Nintendo first revealed The Thousand @-@ Year Door at the Game Developers Conference of 2003 . Before its release , the game was confirmed to be a direct sequel to the N64 game Paper Mario and was known tentatively as Mario Story 2 in Japan and Paper Mario 2 in North America . A preview of the game was available at E3 2004 ; it included Hooktail Castle and a Bowser bonus level as playable stages . The game was released on October 11 , 2004 , in North America .
A sequel to the game , Super Paper Mario , was developed by Intelligent Systems and released for the Wii in 2007 . It has a stronger emphasis on platforming than its predecessor . Super Paper Mario 's plot is unrelated to the story of The Thousand @-@ Year Door , but it contains many easter eggs referencing characters from the previous two games .
In 2008 Morgan Creek Productions filed a lawsuit against Nintendo alleging that they illegally used the song " You 're So Cool " from the film True Romance in an advertisement for the game . Morgan Creek dropped the case six days later , after Nintendo revealed that the advertising agency , Leo Burnett USA , Inc . , had licensing for the song .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Paper Mario : The Thousand @-@ Year Door received largely favorable reviews from critics . They particularly praised the plot ; GameSpot 's Greg Kasavin stated that " each [ chapter ] provides a thrill of discovery . " Similarly , Eurogamer welcomed the whimsical storyline in comparison to traditional role @-@ playing games , commenting that " [ it is ] something closer to Finding Nemo than Final Fantasy , which is very much a compliment . " The game 's characters were also well received , with reviewers complimenting the use of NPCs and text . Despite this , some commentators complained that the story developed slowly in the game 's beginning stages . Eurogamer rated the high level of text as " the only major stumbling block " of the game .
One of The Thousand @-@ Year Door 's main features , the use of a paper @-@ based universe , was welcomed by reviewers . When referring to the paper theme , 1UP commented that " It 's a cohesive , clever approach that turns the game 's visual style into more than just a look . " Critics also commented extensively on the game 's battle system , which deviated from traditional RPGs . GameSpy praised the use of timing in the battle system , stating that " these twitch elements were designed to be fun and engaging , and they succeed wonderfully at this . " Reviewers also praised the concept of having an audience to reward or berate Mario during battle .
The game 's visuals received a mixed response from critics . GameSpot enjoyed the game 's presentation , writing that " it exhibits a level of visual artistry and technical prowess matched or exceeded by few other GameCube games . " Conversely , other reviewers complained that the graphics were not much of a visual upgrade from its predecessor , Paper Mario . For the game 's use of audio , IGN declared it " game music at its purest " , but proceeded to question the absence of voice acting in the text based game . RPGamer commented that the music " for the most part is done very well " , but that the perceived repetitive battle music was " one of the biggest flaws " of the game . The game won " Role Playing Game of the Year " at the 2005 Interactive Achievement Awards . The game was ranked 56th in Official Nintendo Magazine 's " 100 Greatest Nintendo Games " feature .
In its first week of release in Japan , The Thousand @-@ Year Door was the best @-@ selling game , selling about 159 @,@ 000 units . It proceeded to sell 409 @,@ 000 units in the country and 1 @.@ 23 million copies in North America . The game has since been included in the Player 's Choice line .
|
= Alec Douglas @-@ Home =
Alexander Frederick Douglas @-@ Home , Baron Home of the Hirsel , KT , PC ( / ˈhjuːm / ; 2 July 1903 – 9 October 1995 ) was a British Conservative politician who served as Prime Minister from October 1963 to October 1964 . He is notable for being the last Prime Minister to hold office while being a member of the House of Lords , before renouncing his peerage and taking up a seat in the House of Commons for the remainder of his premiership . His reputation , however , rests more on his two spells as the UK 's foreign secretary than on his brief premiership .
Within six years of first entering the House of Commons in 1931 , Douglas @-@ Home ( then called by the courtesy title Lord Dunglass ) became parliamentary aide to Neville Chamberlain , witnessing at first hand Chamberlain 's efforts as Prime Minister to preserve peace through appeasement in the two years before the outbreak of the Second World War . In 1940 Dunglass was diagnosed with spinal tuberculosis and was immobilised for two years . By the later stages of the war he had recovered enough to resume his political career , but lost his seat in the general election of 1945 . He regained it in 1950 , but the following year he left the Commons when , on the death of his father , he inherited the earldom of Home and thereby became a member of the House of Lords . Under the premierships of Winston Churchill , Anthony Eden and Harold Macmillan he was appointed to a series of increasingly senior posts , including Leader of the House of Lords and Foreign Secretary . In the latter post , which he held from 1960 to 1963 , he supported United States resolve in the Cuban Missile Crisis and was the United Kingdom 's signatory of the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in August 1963 .
In October 1963 Macmillan was taken ill and resigned as Prime Minister . Home ( pronounced ' Hume ' ) was chosen to succeed him . By the 1960s it was generally considered unacceptable for a Prime Minister to sit in the House of Lords , and Home renounced his earldom and successfully stood for election to the House of Commons . The manner of his appointment was controversial , and two of Macmillan 's cabinet ministers refused to take office under him . He was criticised by the Labour Party as an aristocrat , out of touch with the problems of ordinary families , and he came over stiffly in television interviews , by contrast with the Labour leader , Harold Wilson . The Conservative Party , in office since 1951 , had lost standing as a result of the Profumo affair , a sexual scandal involving a defence minister in 1963 , and at the time of Home 's appointment as Prime Minister seemed headed for heavy electoral defeat . Home 's premiership was the second briefest of the twentieth century , lasting two days short of a year . Among the legislation passed under his government was the abolition of resale price maintenance , bringing costs down for the consumer against the interests of producers of food and other commodities .
After narrow defeat in the general election of 1964 Douglas @-@ Home resigned the leadership of his party , having instituted a new and less secretive method of electing the party leader . From 1970 to 1974 he served in the cabinet of Edward Heath as Secretary of State at the Foreign and Commonwealth Office , an expanded version of the post of Foreign Secretary , which he had held earlier . After the defeat of the Heath government in 1974 he returned to the House of Lords as a life peer , and retired from front @-@ line politics .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early years = = =
Douglas @-@ Home was born in Mayfair , London , the first of seven children of Lord Dunglass ( the eldest son of the 12th Earl of Home ) and his wife , the Lady Lilian Lambton ( daughter of The 4th Earl of Durham ) . The boy 's first name was customarily abbreviated to " Alec " . Among the couple 's younger children was the playwright William Douglas @-@ Home .
In 1918 the 12th Earl of Home died , Dunglass succeeded him in the earldom , and the courtesy title passed to Alec Douglas @-@ Home , who was styled Lord Dunglass until 1951 . The young Lord Dunglass was educated at Ludgrove School , followed by Eton College . At Eton , his contemporaries included Cyril Connolly , who later described him as :
a votary of the esoteric Eton religion , the kind of graceful , tolerant , sleepy boy who is showered with favours and crowned with all the laurels , who is liked by the masters and admired by the boys without any apparent exertion on his part , without experiencing the ill @-@ effects of success himself or arousing the pangs of envy in others . In the 18th century he would have become Prime Minister before he was 30 . As it was , he appeared honourably ineligible for the struggle of life .
After Eton , Dunglass went to Christ Church , Oxford , where he graduated with a third @-@ class honours BA degree in modern history in 1925 .
Dunglass was a talented sportsman . In addition to representing Eton at Fives , he was a capable cricketer at school , club and county level , and was unique among British prime ministers in having played first @-@ class cricket . Coached by George Hirst , he became in Wisden 's phrase " a useful member of the Eton XI " that included Percy Lawrie and Gubby Allen . Wisden observed , " In the rain @-@ affected Eton @-@ Harrow match of 1922 he scored 66 , despite being hindered by a saturated outfield , and then took 4 for 37 with his medium @-@ paced out @-@ swingers " .
At first @-@ class level he represented the Oxford University Cricket Club , Middlesex CCC and MCC . Between 1924 and 1927 he played ten first @-@ class matches , scoring 147 runs at an average of 16 @.@ 33 with a best score of 37 not out . As a bowler he took 12 wickets at an average of 30 @.@ 25 with a best of 3 for 43 . Three of his first @-@ class games were internationals against Argentina on the MCC " representative " tour of South America in 1926 – 27 .
Dunglass began serving in the Territorial Army when in 1924 he was commissioned a Lieutenant in the Lanarkshire Yeomanry , then promoted Captain in 1928 , and Major in 1933 .
= = = Member of Parliament ( 1931 – 37 ) = = =
The courtesy title Lord Dunglass did not carry with it membership of the House of Lords , and Dunglass was eligible to seek election to the House of Commons . Unlike many aristocratic families , the Douglas @-@ Homes had little history of political service . Uniquely in the family the 11th earl , Dunglass 's great @-@ grandfather , had held government office , as Under @-@ secretary at the Foreign Office in Wellington 's 1828 – 30 government . Dunglass 's father stood , reluctantly and unsuccessfully , for Parliament before succeeding to the earldom .
Dunglass had shown little interest in politics while at Eton or Oxford . He had not joined the Oxford Union as budding politicians usually did . However , as heir to the family estates he was doubtful about the prospect of life as a country gentleman : " I was always rather discontented with this role and felt it wasn 't going to be enough . " His biographer David Dutton believes that Dunglass became interested in politics because of the widespread unemployment and poverty in the Scottish lowlands where his family lived . Later in his career , when he had become Prime Minister , Dunglass ( by then Sir Alec Douglas @-@ Home ) wrote in a memorandum : " I went into politics because I felt that it was a form of public service and that as nearly a generation of politicians had been cut down in the first war those who had anything to give in the way of leadership ought to do so " . His political thinking was influenced by that of Noel Skelton , a member of the Unionist party ( as the Conservatives were called in Scotland between 1912 and 1965 ) . Skelton advocated " a property @-@ owning democracy " , based on share @-@ options for workers and industrial democracy . Dunglass was not persuaded by the socialist ideal of public ownership . He shared Skelton 's view that " what everybody owns nobody owns " .
With Skelton 's support Dunglass secured the Unionist candidacy at Coatbridge for the 1929 general election . It was not a seat that the Unionists expected to win , and he lost to his Labour opponent with 9 @,@ 210 votes to Labour 's 16 @,@ 879 . It was , however , valuable experience for Dunglass , who was of a gentle and uncombative disposition and not a natural orator ; he began to learn how to deal with hostile audiences and get his message across . When a coalition " National Government " was formed in 1931 to deal with a financial crisis Dunglass was adopted as the pro @-@ coalition Unionist candidate for Lanark . The electorate of the area was mixed , and the constituency was not seen as a safe seat for any party ; at the 1929 election Labour had captured it from the Unionists . With the backing of the pro @-@ coalition Liberal party , which supported him rather than fielding its own candidate , Dunglass easily beat the Labour candidate .
Membership of the new House of Commons was overwhelmingly made up of pro @-@ coalition MPs , and there was therefore a large number of eligible members for the government posts to be filled . In Dutton 's phrase , " it would have been easy for Dunglass to have languished indefinitely in backbench obscurity . " However , Skelton , appointed as Under @-@ secretary at the Scottish Office , offered Dunglass the unpaid post of unofficial parliamentary aide . This was doubly advantageous to Dunglass . Any MP appointed as official Parliamentary Private Secretary ( PPS ) to a government minister was privy to the inner workings of government but was expected to maintain a discreet silence in the House of Commons . Dunglass achieved the first without having to observe the second . He made his maiden speech in February 1932 on the subject of economic policy , advocating a cautiously protectionist approach to cheap imports . He countered Labour 's objection that this would raise the cost of living , arguing that a tariff " stimulates employment and gives work [ and ] increases the purchasing power of the people by substituting wages for unemployment benefit . "
During four years as Skelton 's aide Dunglass was part of a team working on a wide range of issues , from medical services in rural Scotland to land settlements , fisheries , education , and industry . Dunglass was appointed official PPS to Anthony Muirhead , junior minister at the Ministry of Labour , in 1935 , and less than a year later became PPS to the Chancellor of the Exchequer , Neville Chamberlain .
In 1936 Dunglass married Elizabeth Alington ; her father , Cyril Alington , had been Dunglass 's headmaster at Eton , and was from 1933 Dean of Durham . The service was at Durham Cathedral , conducted by Alington together with William Temple , Archbishop of York and Hensley Henson , Bishop of Durham . In addition to the large number of aristocratic guests , the household and estate staffs of the Douglas @-@ Home properties at Douglas Castle and the Hirsel were invited . There were four children of the marriage : Caroline , Meriel , Diana and David . The last was Dunglass 's heir , inheriting the earldom of Home in 1995 .
= = = Chamberlain and war = = =
By the time of Dunglass 's appointment Chamberlain was generally seen as the heir to the premiership , and in 1937 the incumbent , Stanley Baldwin , retired , and Chamberlain succeeded him . He retained Dunglass as his PPS , a role described by the biographer D R Thorpe as " the right @-@ hand man ... the eyes and ears of Neville Chamberlain " , and by Dutton as " liaison officer with the Parliamentary party , transmitting and receiving information and [ keeping ] his master informed of the mood on the government 's back benches . " This was particularly important for Chamberlain , who was often seen as distant and aloof ; Douglas Hurd wrote that he " lacked the personal charm which makes competent administration palatable to wayward colleagues – a gift which his parliamentary private secretary possessed in abundance . " Dunglass admired Chamberlain , despite his daunting personality : " I liked him , and I think he liked me . But if one went in at the end of the day for a chat or a gossip , he would be inclined to ask ' What do you want ? ' He was a very difficult man to get to know . "
As Chamberlain 's aide Dunglass witnessed at first @-@ hand the Prime Minister 's attempts to prevent a second world war through appeasement of Adolf Hitler 's Germany . When Chamberlain had his final meeting with Hitler at Munich in September 1938 , Dunglass accompanied him . Having gained a short @-@ lived extension of peace by acceding to Hitler 's territorial demands at the expense of Czechoslovakia , Chamberlain was welcomed back to London by cheering crowds . Ignoring Dunglass 's urging he made an uncharacteristically grandiloquent speech , claiming to have brought back " Peace with Honour " and promising " peace for our time . " These words were to haunt him when Hitler 's continued aggression made war unavoidable less than a year later . Chamberlain remained Prime Minister from the outbreak of war in September 1939 until May 1940 , when , in Dunglass 's words , " he could no longer command support of a majority in the Conservative party . " After a vote in the Commons , in which the government 's majority fell from more than two hundred to eighty @-@ one , Chamberlain made way for Winston Churchill . He accepted the non @-@ departmental post of Lord President of the Council in the new coalition government ; Dunglass remained as his PPS , having earlier declined the offer of a ministerial post as Under @-@ secretary at the Scottish Office . Although Chamberlain 's reputation never recovered from Munich , and his supporters such as R A Butler suffered throughout their later careers from the " appeasement " tag , Dunglass largely escaped blame . Nevertheless , Dunglass firmly maintained all his life that the Munich agreement had been vital to the survival of Britain and the defeat of Nazi Germany by giving the UK an extra year to prepare for a war that it could not have contested in 1938 .
Within months of his leaving the premiership Chamberlain 's health began to fail ; he resigned from the cabinet , and died after a short illness in November 1940 . Dunglass had volunteered for active military service , seeking to rejoin the Lanarkshire Yeomanry shortly after Chamberlain left Downing Street . The consequent medical examination revealed that Dunglass had a hole in his spine surrounded by tuberculosis in the bone . Without surgery he would have been unable to walk within a matter of months . An innovative and hazardous operation was performed in September 1940 , lasting six hours , in which the diseased bone in the spine was scraped away and replaced with healthy bone from the patient 's shin .
For all of Dunglass 's humour and patience , the following two years were a grave trial . He was encased in plaster and kept flat on his back for most of that period . Although buoyed up by the sensitive support of his wife and family , as he later confessed , " I often felt that I would be better dead " . Towards the end of 1942 he was released from his plaster jacket and fitted with a spinal brace , and in early 1943 he was mobile for the first time since the operation . During his incapacity he read voraciously ; among the works he studied were Das Kapital , and works by Engels and Lenin , biographies of nineteenth and twentieth century politicians , and novels by authors from Dostoyevsky to Koestler .
In July 1943 Dunglass attended the House of Commons for the first time since 1940 , and began to make a reputation as a backbench member , particularly for his expertise in the field of foreign affairs . He foresaw a post @-@ imperial future for Britain and emphasised the need for strong European ties after the war . In 1944 , with the war now turning in the Allies ' favour , Dunglass spoke eloquently about the importance of resisting the Soviet Union 's ambition to dominate eastern Europe . His boldness in publicly urging Churchill not to give in to Joseph Stalin was widely remarked upon ; many , including Churchill himself , observed that some of those once associated with appeasement were determined that it should not be repeated in the face of Russian aggression . Labour left the wartime coalition in May 1945 and Churchill formed a caretaker Conservative government , pending a general election in July . Dunglass was appointed to his first ministerial post : Anthony Eden remained in charge of the Foreign Office , and Dunglass was appointed as one of his two Under @-@ secretaries of State .
= = = Postwar and House of Lords ( 1945 – 57 ) = = =
At the July 1945 general election Dunglass lost his Parliamentary seat in the landslide Labour victory . It was widely assumed that as his father , the 13th earl , was in his seventies , Dunglass 's political career was behind him , as he would soon inherit the earldom . There being at that time no provision for peers to disclaim their peerages , this would bring with it an obligatory seat in the House of Lords , with no option of remaining in the Commons , where most political power resided . Dunglass was appointed a director of the Bank of Scotland in 1946 , and although he never considered banking as a long @-@ term occupation he gained valuable first @-@ hand experience in commerce and finance . He remained with the bank until 1951 .
In 1950 , Clement Attlee , the Labour Prime Minister , called a general election . Dunglass was invited to stand once again as Unionist candidate for Lanark . Having been disgusted at personal attacks during the 1945 campaign by Tom Steele , his Labour opponent , Dunglass did not scruple to remind the voters of Lanark that Steele had warmly thanked the Communist Party and its members for helping him take the seat from the Unionists . By 1950 , with the Cold War at its height , Steele 's association with the communists was a crucial electoral liability . Dunglass regained the seat with one of the smallest majorities in any British constituency : 19 @,@ 890 to Labour 's 19 @,@ 205 . Labour narrowly won the general election , with a majority of five .
In July 1951 the 13th earl died . Dunglass succeeded him , inheriting the title of Earl of Home together with the extensive family estates , including the Hirsel , the Douglas @-@ Homes ' principal residence . The new Lord Home took his seat in the Lords ; a by @-@ election was called to appoint a new MP for Lanark , but it was still pending when Attlee called another general election in October 1951 . The Unionists held Lanark , and the national result gave the Conservatives under Churchill a small but working majority of seventeen .
Home was appointed to the new post of Minister of State at the Scottish Office , a middle @-@ ranking position , senior to Under @-@ secretary but junior to James Stuart , the Secretary of State , who was a member of the cabinet . Stuart , previously an influential chief whip , was a confidant of Churchill , and possibly the most powerful Scottish Secretary in any government . Thorpe writes that Home owed his appointment to Stuart 's advocacy rather than to any great enthusiasm on the Prime Minister 's part ( Churchill referred to him as " Home sweet Home " ) . In addition to his ministerial position Home was appointed to membership of the Privy Council , an honour granted only selectively to ministers below cabinet rank .
Throughout Churchill 's second term as Prime Minister ( 1951 – 55 ) Home remained at the Scottish Office , although both Eden at the Foreign Office and Lord Salisbury at the Commonwealth Relations Office invited him to join their ministerial teams . Among the Scottish matters with which he dealt were hydro @-@ electric projects , hill farming , sea transport , road transport , forestry , and the welfare of crofters in the Highlands and the Western Isles . These matters went largely unreported in the British press , but the question of the royal cypher on Post Office pillar boxes became front @-@ page news . Because Elizabeth I of England was never queen of Scotland , some nationalists maintained when Elizabeth II came to the British throne in 1952 that in Scotland she should be styled " Elizabeth I " . Churchill said in the House of Commons that considering the " greatness and splendour of Scotland " , and the contribution of the Scots to British and world history , " they ought to keep their silliest people in order " . Home nevertheless arranged that in Scotland new pillar boxes were decorated with the royal crown instead of the full cypher .
When Eden succeeded Churchill as Prime Minister in 1955 he promoted Home to the cabinet as Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations . At the time of this appointment Home had not been to any of the countries within his ministerial remit , and he quickly arranged to visit Australia , New Zealand , Singapore , India , Pakistan and Ceylon . He had to deal with the sensitive subject of immigration from and between Commonwealth countries , where a delicate balance had to be struck between resistance in some quarters in Britain and Australia to non @-@ white immigration on the one hand , and on the other the danger of sanctions in India and Pakistan against British commercial interests if discriminatory policies were pursued . In most respects , however , when Home took up the appointment it seemed to be a relatively uneventful period in the history of the Commonwealth . The upheaval of Indian independence in 1947 was well in the past , and the wave of decolonising of the 1960s was yet to come . However , it fell to Home to maintain Commonwealth unity during the Suez Crisis in 1956 , described by Dutton as " the most divisive in its history to date " . Australia , New Zealand and South Africa backed the Anglo @-@ French invasion of Egypt to regain control of the Suez Canal . Canada , Ceylon , India and Pakistan opposed it .
There appeared to be a real danger that Ceylon , India and , particularly , Pakistan might leave the Commonwealth . Home was firm in his support of the invasion , but used his contacts with Jawaharlal Nehru , V. K. Krishna Menon , Nan Pandit and others to try to prevent the Commonwealth from breaking up . His relationship with Eden was supportive and relaxed ; he felt able , as others did not , to warn Eden of unease about Suez both internationally and among some members of the cabinet . Eden dismissed the latter as the " weak sisters " ; the most prominent was Butler , whose perceived hesitancy over Suez on top of his support for appeasement of Hitler damaged his standing within the Conservative party . When the invasion was abandoned under pressure from the US in November 1956 , Home worked with the dissenting members of the Commonwealth to build the organisation into what Hurd calls " a modern multiracial Commonwealth " .
= = = Macmillan 's government = = =
Eden resigned in January 1957 . In 1955 he had been the obvious successor to Churchill , but this time there was no clear heir apparent . Leaders of the Conservative party were not elected by ballot of MPs or party members , but emerged after informal soundings within the party , known as " the customary processes of consultation " . The chief whip , Edward Heath , canvassed the views of backbench Conservative MPs , and two senior Conservative peers , the Lord President of the Council , Lord Salisbury , and the Lord Chancellor , Lord Kilmuir , saw members of the cabinet individually to ascertain their preferences . Only one cabinet colleague supported Butler ; the rest , including Home , opted for Macmillan . Churchill , whom the Queen consulted , did the same . Macmillan was appointed Prime Minister on 10 January 1957 .
In the new administration Home remained at the Commonwealth Relations Office . Much of his time was spent on matters relating to Africa , where the futures of Bechuanaland and the Central African Federation needed to be agreed . Among other matters in which he was involved were the dispute between India and Pakistan over Kashmir , assisted emigration from Britain to Australia , and relations with Archbishop Makarios of Cyprus . The last unexpectedly led to an enhanced cabinet role for Home . Makarios , leader of the militant anti @-@ British and pro @-@ Greek movement , was detained in exile in the Seychelles . Macmillan , with the agreement of Home and most of the cabinet , decided that this imprisonment was doing more harm than good to Britain 's position in Cyprus , and ordered Makarios 's release . Lord Salisbury strongly dissented from the decision and resigned from the cabinet in March 1957 . Macmillan added Salisbury 's responsibilities to Home 's existing duties , making him Lord President of the Council and Leader of the House of Lords . The first of these posts was largely honorific , but the leadership of the Lords put Home in charge of getting the government 's business through the upper house , and brought him nearer to the centre of power . In Hurd 's phrase , " By the imperceptible process characteristic of British politics he found himself month by month , without any particular manoeuvre on his part , becoming an indispensable figure in the government . "
Home was generally warmly regarded by colleagues and opponents alike , and there were few politicians who did not respond well to him . One was Attlee , but as their political primes did not overlap this was of minor consequence . More important was Iain Macleod 's prickly relationship with Home . Macleod , Secretary of State for the Colonies from 1959 – 61 , was , like Butler , on the liberal wing of the Conservative party ; he was convinced , as Home was not , that Britain 's colonies in Africa should have majority rule and independence as quickly as possible . Their spheres of influence overlapped in the Central African Federation .
Macleod wished to push ahead with majority rule and independence ; Home believed in a more gradual approach to independence , accommodating both white minority and black majority opinions and interests . Macleod disagreed with those who warned that precipitate independence would lead the newly independent nations into " trouble , strife , poverty , dictatorship " and other evils . His reply was , " Would you want the Romans to have stayed on in Britain ? " He threatened to resign unless he was allowed to release the leading Nyasaland activist Hastings Banda from prison , a move that Home and others thought unwise and liable to provoke distrust of Britain among the white minority in the federation . Macleod had his way , but by that time Home was no longer at the Commonwealth Relations Office .
= = = Foreign Secretary ( 1960 – 63 ) = = =
In 1960 the Chancellor of the Exchequer , Derick Heathcoat @-@ Amory , insisted on retiring . Macmillan agreed with Heathcoat @-@ Amory that the best successor at the Treasury would be the current Foreign Secretary , Selwyn Lloyd . In terms of ability and experience the obvious candidate to take over from Lloyd at the Foreign Office was Home , but by 1960 there was an expectation that the Foreign Secretary would be a member of the House of Commons . The post had not been held by a peer since Lord Halifax in 1938 – 40 ; Eden had wished to appoint Salisbury in 1955 , but concluded that it would be unacceptable to the Commons .
After discussions with Lloyd and senior civil servants , Macmillan took the unprecedented step of appointing two Foreign Office cabinet ministers : Home , as Foreign Secretary , in the Lords , and Edward Heath , as Lord Privy Seal and deputy Foreign Secretary , in the Commons . With British application for admission to the European Economic Community ( EEC ) pending , Heath was given particular responsibility for the EEC negotiations as well as for speaking in the Commons on foreign affairs in general .
The opposition Labour party protested at Home 's appointment ; its leader , Hugh Gaitskell , said that it was " constitutionally objectionable " for a peer to be in charge of the Foreign Office . Macmillan responded that an accident of birth should not be allowed to deny him the services of " the best man for the job – the man I want at my side " . Hurd comments , " Like all such artificial commotions it died down after a time ( and indeed was not renewed with any strength nineteen years later when Margaret Thatcher appointed another peer , Lord Carrington , to the same post ) " . The Home – Heath partnership worked well . Despite their different backgrounds and ages – Home an Edwardian aristocrat and Heath a lower @-@ middle class meritocrat raised in the inter @-@ war years – the two men respected and liked one another . Home supported Macmillan 's ambition to get Britain into the EEC , and was happy to leave the negotiations in Heath 's hands .
Home 's attention was mainly concentrated on the Cold War , where his forcefully expressed anti @-@ communist beliefs were tempered by a pragmatic approach to dealing with the Soviet Union . His first major problem in this sphere was in 1961 when on the orders of the Soviet leader , Nikita Khrushchev , the Berlin Wall was erected to stop East Germans escaping to West Germany via West Berlin . Home wrote to his American counterpart , Dean Rusk , " The prevention of East Berliners getting into West Berlin has never been a casus belli for us . We are concerned with Western access to Berlin and that is what we must maintain . " The governments of West Germany , Britain and the US quickly reached agreement on their joint negotiating position ; it remained to persuade President de Gaulle of France to align himself with the allies . During their discussions Macmillan commented that de Gaulle showed " all the rigidity of a poker without its occasional warmth . " An agreement was reached , and the allies tacitly recognised that the wall was going to remain in place . The Soviets for their part did not seek to cut off allied access to West Berlin through East German territory .
The following year the Cuban Missile Crisis threatened to turn the Cold War into a nuclear one . Soviet nuclear missiles were brought to Cuba , provocatively close to the US . The American president , John F Kennedy , insisted that they must be removed , and many thought that the world was on the brink of catastrophe with nuclear exchanges between the two super @-@ powers . Despite a public image of unflappable calm , Macmillan was by nature nervous and highly strung . During the missile crisis , Home , whose calm was genuine and innate , strengthened the Prime Minister 's resolve , and encouraged him to back up Kennedy 's defiance of Soviet threats of nuclear attack . The Lord Chancellor ( Lord Dilhorne ) , the Attorney General ( Sir John Hobson ) and the Solicitor General , ( Sir Peter Rawlinson ) privately gave Home their opinion that the American blockade of Cuba was a breach of international law , but he continued to advocate a policy of strong support for Kennedy . When Khrushchev backed down and removed the Soviet missiles from Cuba , Home commented :
There has been a good deal of speculation about Russia 's motives . To me they are quite clear . Their motive was to test the will of the United States and to see how the President of the United States , in particular , would react against a threat of force . If the President had failed for one moment in a matter which affected the security of the United States , no ally of America would have had confidence in United States protection ever again .
The principal landmark of Home 's term as Foreign Secretary was also in the sphere of east – west relations : the negotiation and signature of the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1963 . He got on well with his American and Soviet counterparts , Rusk and Andrei Gromyko . The latter wrote that whenever he met Home there were " no sudden , still less brilliant , breakthroughs " but " each meeting left a civilised impression that made the next meeting easier . " Gromyko concluded that Home added sharpness to British foreign policy . Gromyko , Home and Rusk signed the treaty in Moscow on 5 August 1963 . After the fear provoked internationally by the Cuban Missile Crisis , the ban on nuclear testing in the atmosphere , in outer space and under water was widely welcomed as a step towards ending the cold war . For the British government the good news from Moscow was doubly welcome for drawing attention away from the Profumo affair , a sexual scandal involving a senior minister , which had left Macmillan 's administration looking vulnerable .
= = = Successor to Macmillan = = =
In October 1963 , just before the Conservative party 's annual conference , Macmillan was taken ill with a prostatic obstruction . The condition was at first thought more serious than it turned out to be , and he announced that he would resign as Prime Minister as soon as a successor was appointed . Three senior politicians were considered likely successors , Butler ( First Secretary of State ) , Reginald Maudling ( Chancellor of the Exchequer ) and Lord Hailsham ( Lord President of the Council and Leader of the House of Lords ) . The Times summed up their support :
Mr. Butler can no doubt be sure of a majority inside the Cabinet , where the main initiative must now be taken . Mr. Maudling , when Parliament dispersed at the beginning of August , could have commanded a majority among backbenchers in the Commons . Lord Hailsham , as his reception showed today on his first appearance before the conference , continues to be the darling of the constituency associations .
In the same article , Home was mentioned in passing as " a fourth hypothetical candidate " on whom the party could compromise if necessary .
It was assumed in the Times article , and by other commentators , that if Hailsham ( or Home ) was a candidate he would have to renounce his peerage . This had been made possible for the first time by recent legislation . The last British Prime Minister to sit in the House of Lords was the third Marquess of Salisbury in 1902 . By 1923 , having to choose between Baldwin and Lord Curzon , George V decided that " the requirements of the present times " obliged him to appoint a Prime Minister from the Commons . His private secretary recorded that the King " believed he would not be fulfilling his trust were he now to make his selection of Prime Minister from the House of Lords " . Similarly , after the resignation of Neville Chamberlain in 1940 there were two likely successors , Churchill and Halifax , but the latter ruled himself out for the premiership on the grounds that his membership of the House of Lords disqualified him . In 1963 , therefore , it was well established that the Prime Minister should be a member of the House of Commons . On 10 October Hailsham announced his intention to renounce his viscountcy .
The " customary processes " once again took place . The usual privacy of the consultations was made impossible because they took place during the party conference , and the potential successors made their bids very publicly . Butler had the advantage of giving the party leader 's keynote address to the conference in Macmillan 's absence , but was widely thought to have wasted the opportunity by delivering an uninspiring speech . Hailsham put off many potential backers by his extrovert , and some thought vulgar , campaigning . Maudling , like Butler , made a speech that failed to impress the conference . Senior Conservative figures such as Lord Woolton and Selwyn Lloyd urged Home to make himself available for consideration .
Having ruled himself out of the race when the news of Macmillan 's illness broke , Home angered at least two of his cabinet colleagues by changing his mind . Macmillan quickly came to the view that Home would be the best choice as his successor , and gave him valuable behind @-@ the @-@ scenes backing . He let it be known that if he recovered he would be willing to serve as a member of a Home cabinet . He had earlier favoured Hailsham , but changed his mind when he learned from the British ambassador to the US that the Kennedy administration was uneasy at the prospect of Hailsham as Prime Minister , and from his chief whip that Hailsham , seen as a right @-@ winger , would alienate moderate voters .
Butler , by contrast , was seen as on the liberal wing of the Conservatives , and his election as leader might split the party . The Lord Chancellor , Lord Dilhorne , conducted a poll of cabinet members , and reported to Macmillan that taking account of first and second preferences there were ten votes for Home , four for Maudling , three for Butler and two for Hailsham .
The appointment of a Prime Minister remained part of the royal prerogative , on which the monarch had no constitutional duty to consult an outgoing Prime Minister . Nevertheless , Macmillan advised the Queen that he considered Home the right choice . Little of this was known beyond the senior ranks of the party and the royal secretariat . On 18 October The Times ran the headline , " The Queen May Send for Mr. Butler Today " . The Daily Telegraph and The Financial Times also predicted that Butler was about to be appointed . The Queen sent for Home the same day . Aware of the divisions within the governing party , she did not appoint him Prime Minister , but invited him to see whether he was able to form a government .
Home 's cabinet colleagues Enoch Powell and Iain Macleod , who disapproved of his candidacy , made a last @-@ minute effort to prevent him from taking office by trying to persuade Butler and the other candidates not to take posts in a Home cabinet . Butler , however , believed it to be his duty to serve in the cabinet ; he refused to have any part in the conspiracy , and accepted the post of Foreign Secretary . The other candidates followed Butler 's lead and only Powell and Macleod held out and refused office under Home . Macleod commented , " One does not expect to have many people with one in the last ditch " . On 19 October Home was able to return to Buckingham Palace to kiss hands as Prime Minister . The press was not only wrong @-@ footed by the appointment , but generally highly critical . The pro @-@ Labour Daily Mirror said on its front page :
A nice chap and a polite peer . But Caligula 's appointment of his horse as a consul was an act of prudent statesmanship compared with this gesture of sickbed levity by Mr. Macmillan . ... Alec ( not Smart Alec – just Alec ) is playing chess with a Cabinet containing at least four members of greater stature , brain @-@ power , personality and potential than himself . Butler has been betrayed , Maudling insulted , Macleod ignored , Heath treated with contempt , and Hailsham giggled out of court by the jester in hospital .
The Times , generally pro @-@ Conservative , had backed Butler , and called it " prodigal " of the party to pass over his many talents . The paper praised Home as " an outstandingly successful Foreign Secretary " , but doubted his grasp of domestic affairs , his modernising instincts and his suitability " to carry the Conservative Party through a fierce and probably dirty campaign " at the general election due within a year . The Guardian , liberal in its political outlook , remarked that Home " does not look like the man to impart force and purpose to his Cabinet and the country " and suggested that he seemed too frail politically to be even a stop @-@ gap . The Observer , another liberal @-@ minded paper , said , " The overwhelming – and damaging – impression left by the events of the last two weeks is that the Tories have been forced to settle for a second @-@ best . ... The calmness and steadiness which made him a good Foreign Secretary , particularly at times of crisis like Berlin and Cuba , may also be a liability . "
In January 1964 , and in the absence of any other information , Macleod now editor of The Spectator , used the pretext of a review of a book by Randolph Churchill to publicise his own different and very detailed version of the leadership election . He described the " soundings " of five Tory grandees , four of whom , like Home and Macmillan had been to school at Eton , as a stitch up by an Etonian ' magic circle . ' The article received wide publicity convincing Anthony Howard , who later declared himself " deeply affronted ... and never more affronted than when Alec Douglas @-@ Home became leader of the Conservative Party . "
= = = Prime Minister ( 1963 – 64 ) = = =
On 23 October 1963 , four days after becoming Prime Minister , Home disclaimed his earldom and associated lesser peerages . Having been made a knight of the Order of the Thistle in 1962 , he was known after stepping down from the Lords as Sir Alec Douglas @-@ Home . The safe Unionist seat of Kinross and West Perthshire was vacant , and Douglas @-@ Home was adopted as his party 's candidate . Parliament was due to meet on 24 October after the summer recess , but its return was postponed until 12 November pending the by @-@ election . For twenty days Douglas @-@ Home was Prime Minister while a member of neither house of Parliament , a situation without modern precedent . He won the by @-@ election with a majority of 9 @,@ 328 ; the Liberal candidate was in second place and Labour in third .
The Parliamentary leader of the opposition Labour party , Harold Wilson , attacked the new Prime Minister as " an elegant anachronism " . He asserted that nobody from Douglas @-@ Home 's background knew of the problems of ordinary families . In particular , Wilson demanded to know how " a scion of an effete establishment " could lead the technological revolution that Wilson held to be necessary : " This is the counter @-@ revolution ... After half a century of democratic advance , of social revolution , the whole process has ground to a halt with a fourteenth earl ! " Douglas @-@ Home pooh @-@ poohed this as inverted snobbery , and observed , " I suppose Mr Wilson , when you come to think of it , is the fourteenth Mr Wilson . " He called Wilson " this slick salesman of synthetic science " and the Labour party " the only relic of class consciousness in the country " . The opposition retreated , with a statement in the press that " The Labour Party is not interested in the fact that the new Prime Minister inherited a fourteenth Earldom – he cannot help his antecedents any more than the rest of us . "
Douglas @-@ Home inherited from Macmillan a government widely perceived as in decline , " becalmed in a sea of satire and scandal " , in Hurd 's phrase . Douglas @-@ Home was the target of satirists on BBC television and in Private Eye magazine . Unlike Wilson , he was not at ease on television , and came across as less spontaneous than his opponent .
In international affairs the most dramatic event during Douglas @-@ Home 's premiership was the assassination of President Kennedy in November 1963 . Douglas @-@ Home , clearly moved , broadcast a tribute on television . He had liked and worked well with Kennedy , and did not develop such a satisfactory relationship with Lyndon Johnson . Their governments had a serious disagreement on the question of British trade with Cuba . Under Douglas @-@ Home the colonies of Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland gained independence , though this was as a result of negotiations led by Macleod under the Macmillan government .
In Britain there was economic prosperity ; exports " zoomed " , according to The Times , and the economy was growing at an annual rate of four per cent . Douglas @-@ Home made no pretence to economic expertise ; he commented that his problems were of two sorts : " The political ones are insoluble and the economic ones are incomprehensible . " On another occasion he said , " When I have to read economic documents I have to have a box of matches and start moving them into position to simplify and illustrate the points to myself . " He left Maudling in charge at the Treasury , and promoted Heath to a new business and economic portfolio . The latter took the lead in the one substantial piece of domestic legislation of Douglas @-@ Home 's premiership , the abolition of resale price maintenance .
The Resale Prices Bill was introduced to deny manufacturers and suppliers the power to stipulate the prices at which their goods must be sold by the retailer . At the time , up to forty per cent of goods sold in Britain were subject to such price fixing , to the detriment of competition and to the disadvantage of the consumer . Douglas @-@ Home , less instinctively liberal on economic matters than Heath , would probably not have sponsored such a proposal unprompted . However , he gave Heath his backing , in the face of opposition from some cabinet colleagues , including Butler , Hailsham and Lloyd , and a substantial number of Conservative backbenchers . They believed the change would benefit supermarkets and other large retailers at the expense of proprietors of small shops . The government was forced to make concessions to avoid defeat . Retail price maintenance would continue to be legal for some goods ; these included books , on which it remained in force until market forces led to its abandonment in 1995 . Manufacturers and suppliers would also be permitted to refuse to supply any retailer who sold their goods at less than cost price , as a loss leader . The bill had a difficult Parliamentary passage during which the Labour party generally abstained , leaving the Conservatives to vote for or against their own government . The bill received the royal assent in July 1964 , but did not become operative until 1965 , by which time Douglas @-@ Home , Heath and their colleagues were out of office .
A plot to kidnap Douglas @-@ Home in April 1964 was foiled by the Prime Minister himself . Two left @-@ wing students from the University of Aberdeen followed him to the house of John and Priscilla Buchan , where he was staying . He was alone at the time and answered the door , where the students told him that they planned to kidnap him . He responded , " I suppose you realise if you do , the Conservatives will win the election by 200 or 300 . " He gave his intending abductors some beer , and they abandoned their plot .
The term of the Parliament elected in 1959 was due to expire in October 1964 . Parliament was dissolved on 25 September and after three weeks of campaigning the general election took place on 15 October . The Conservatives under Douglas @-@ Home did much better than widely predicted , but Labour under Wilson won with a narrow majority . Labour won 317 seats , the Conservatives 304 and the Liberals 9 .
= = = In Opposition ( 1964 – 70 ) = = =
As Leader of the Opposition , Douglas @-@ Home persuaded Macleod and Powell to rejoin the Conservative front bench . Within weeks of the general election Butler retired from politics , accepting the post of Master of Trinity College , Cambridge together with a life peerage . Douglas @-@ Home did not immediately allocate shadow portfolios to his colleagues , but in January 1965 he gave Maudling the foreign affairs brief and Heath became spokesman on Treasury and economic affairs . There was no immediate pressure for Douglas @-@ Home to hand over the leadership to a member of the younger generation , but by early 1965 a new Conservative group called PEST ( Pressure for Economic and Social Toryism ) had discreetly begun to call for a change . Douglas @-@ Home either did not know , or chose to ignore , the fact that Heath had made a donation to PEST . He decided that the time was coming for him to retire as leader , with Heath as his preferred successor .
Determined that the party should abandon the " customary processes of consultation " , which had caused such rancour when he was appointed in 1963 , Douglas @-@ Home set up an orderly process of secret balloting by Conservative MPs for the election of his immediate and future successors as party leader . In the interests of impartiality the ballot was organised by the 1922 Committee , the backbench Conservative MPs . Douglas @-@ Home announced his resignation as Conservative leader on 22 July 1965 . Three candidates stood for the vacancy : Heath , Maudling and Powell . Heath won with 150 votes ( one of them cast by Douglas @-@ Home ) to 133 for Maudling and 15 for Powell .
Douglas @-@ Home accepted the foreign affairs portfolio in Heath 's shadow cabinet . Many expected this to be a short @-@ lived appointment , a prelude to Douglas @-@ Home 's retirement from politics . It came at a difficult time in British foreign relations : events in the self @-@ governing colony of Rhodesia ( formerly Southern Rhodesia ) , which had been drifting towards crisis for some years , finally erupted into open rebellion against British sovereignty . The predominantly white minority government there opposed an immediate transfer to black majority rule before the colony had achieved sovereign statehood , and in November 1965 it unilaterally declared independence . Douglas @-@ Home won the approval of left @-@ wing Labour MPs such as Wedgwood Benn for his unwavering opposition to the rebel government , and for ignoring those on the right wing of the Conservative party who sympathised with the rebels on racial grounds .
In 1966 Douglas @-@ Home became president of the MCC , which was then the governing body of English and world cricket . The presidency had generally been a largely ceremonial position , but Douglas @-@ Home became embroiled in two controversies , one of them with international implications . This was the so @-@ called " D 'Oliveira affair " , in which the inclusion of a non @-@ white player in the England team to tour South Africa led to the cancellation of the tour by the apartheid regime in Pretoria . In his account of the affair , the political journalist Peter Oborne criticises Douglas @-@ Home for his vacillating attitude towards the South African Prime Minister , B J Vorster with whom , says Oborne , " he was no more robust than Chamberlain had been with Hitler thirty years earlier " . Douglas @-@ Home 's advice to the MCC committee not to press the South Africans for advance assurances on D 'Oliveira 's acceptability , and his optimistic assurances that all would be well , became a matter of much criticism from a group of MCC members led by the Rev David Sheppard . The second controversy was not one of race but of social class . Brian Close was dropped as England captain in favour of Colin Cowdrey . Close was dropped after using delaying tactics when captaining Yorkshire in a county match , but the move was widely seen as biased towards cricketers from the old amateur tradition , which had officially ended in 1963 .
Wilson 's small majority after the 1964 general election had made the transaction of government business difficult , and in 1966 he called another election in which Labour gained a strong working majority of 96 . Some older members of Heath 's team , including Lloyd , retired from the front bench , making room for members of the next generation . Heath moved Maudling to the foreign affairs portfolio , and Douglas @-@ Home took over Lloyd 's responsibilities as spokesman on Commonwealth relations . Heath was widely seen as ineffective against Wilson , and as the 1970 general election approached there was concern within the party that he would lose , and that Powell would seek to replace him as leader . Maudling and the chief whip , William Whitelaw , believed that if Heath had to resign Douglas @-@ Home would be the safest candidate to keep Powell out . Douglas @-@ Home shared their view that Labour would win the 1970 election , and that Heath might then have to resign , but he declined to commit himself . To the surprise of almost everyone except Heath , the Conservatives won the election , with a majority of 31 seats .
Douglas @-@ Home received an Honorary Doctorate from Heriot @-@ Watt University in 1966 .
= = = Foreign and Commonwealth secretary ( 1970 – 74 ) = = =
Heath invited Douglas @-@ Home to join the cabinet , taking charge of Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs . In earlier centuries it had not been exceptional for a former Prime Minister to serve in the cabinet of a successor , and even in the previous fifty years Arthur Balfour , Stanley Baldwin , Ramsay MacDonald and Neville Chamberlain had done so . As of 2016 , Douglas @-@ Home is the last former premier to have served under a successor . Of Balfour 's appointment to Asquith 's cabinet in 1916 , Lord Rosebery , who had been Prime Minister in 1894 – 95 , said that having an ex @-@ premier in the cabinet was " a fleeting and dangerous luxury " . Thorpe writes that Heath 's appointment of Douglas @-@ Home " was not a luxury but an essential buttress to his administration . "
The Wilson administration had merged the Colonial Office and the Commonwealth Relations Office in 1966 into the Commonwealth Office , which , two years later , was merged with the Foreign Office , to form the Foreign and Commonwealth Office ( FCO ) . Heath appointed Douglas @-@ Home to head the department , with , once again , a second cabinet minister , this time Anthony Barber , principally responsible , as Heath had been in the 1960s , for negotiations on Britain 's joining the EEC . This time , however , both ministers were in the Commons ; Barber 's cabinet post was officially Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster .
Within weeks of the election Barber was moved from the FCO to the Treasury to take over as Chancellor from Iain Macleod , who died suddenly on 20 July . Though they had never enjoyed an easy relationship , Douglas @-@ Home recognised his colleague 's stature , and felt his loss politically as well as personally . Some commentators have maintained that Macleod 's death and replacement by the less substantial figure of Barber fatally undermined the economic success of the Heath government .
Barber was replaced at the FCO by Geoffrey Rippon , who handled the day @-@ to @-@ day negotiations , under the direction of Heath . Douglas @-@ Home , as before , concentrated on east – west and Commonwealth matters . He was in agreement with Heath 's policy on the EEC , and did much to persuade doubters on the right wing of the Conservative party of the desirability of Britain 's entry . Hurd writes :
By temperament and background he was some distance removed from Heath 's passionate commitment to a united Europe . All the more important was his steadfast support for British entry , which he based on a clear assessment of Britain 's place in the modern world , and in particular her relationship with France and Germany on the one hand and the United States on the other ... thus providing the right of the Conservative Party with much needed assurance .
In east – west relations , Douglas @-@ Home continued his policy of keeping the Soviet Union at bay . In September 1971 , after receiving no satisfactory results from negotiations with Gromyko about the flagrant activities of the KGB in Britain , he expelled 105 Soviet diplomats for spying . In addition to the furore arising from this , the Soviets felt that the British government 's approach to negotiations on détente in Europe was over @-@ cautious , even sceptical . Gromyko was nonetheless realistic enough to maintain a working relationship with the British government . Within days of the expulsions from London he and Douglas @-@ Home met and discussed the Middle East and disarmament . In this sphere of foreign policy , Douglas @-@ Home was widely judged a success .
In negotiations on the future of Rhodesia Douglas @-@ Home was less successful . He was instrumental in persuading the rebel leader , Ian Smith , to accept proposals for a transition to African majority rule . Douglas @-@ Home set up an independent commission chaired by a senior British judge , Lord Pearce , to investigate how acceptable the proposals were to majority opinion in Rhodesia . After extensive fieldwork throughout Rhodesia , the commission reported , " We are satisfied on our evidence that the proposals are acceptable to the great majority of Europeans . We are equally satisfied ... that the majority of Africans rejected the proposals . In our opinion the people of Rhodesia as a whole do not regard the proposals as acceptable as a basis for independence . " To Douglas @-@ Home 's disappointment there was no resolution , and Rhodesia remained a rebel regime long after he left office .
= = = Retirement and death ( 1974 – 95 ) = = =
At the February 1974 general election the Heath government was narrowly defeated . Douglas @-@ Home , then aged 71 , stepped down at the second election of that year , called in October by the minority Labour government in the hope of winning a working majority . He returned to the House of Lords at the end of 1974 when he accepted a life peerage , becoming known as Baron Home of the Hirsel , of Coldstream in the County of Berwick .
Between 1977 and 1989 Home was Governor of I Zingari , the nomadic cricket team . In retirement he published three books : The Way The Wind Blows ( 1976 ) , described by Hurd as " a good @-@ natured autobiography , with perhaps more anecdotes than insights " , Border Reflections ( 1979 ) , and his correspondence with his grandson Matthew Darby , Letters to a Grandson ( 1983 ) . In the 1980s Home increasingly spent his time in Scotland , with his family . He was a keen fisherman and enjoyed shooting . Hurd writes that " there was no sudden moment when he abandoned politics " , rather that " his interventions became fewer and fewer . " His last speech in the House of Lords was in 1989 , when he spoke against Hurd 's proposals for prosecuting war criminals living in Britain : " After such a lapse of time justice might not be seen to be done . It would be dangerous to rely on memories of events that occurred so long ago . It was too late to reopen the issue . " His withdrawal from public affairs became more marked after the death of his wife in 1990 , after 56 years of marriage .
Home died on 9 October 1995 at the Hirsel , at the age of 92 . He was buried in Lennel churchyard , Coldstream .
= = Reputation = =
Home 's premiership was short and not conspicuous for radical innovation . Hurd remarks , " He was not capable of Macmillan 's flights of imagination " , but he was an effective practical politician . At the Commonwealth Relations Office and the Foreign Office he played an important role in helping to manage Britain 's transition from imperial power to European partner . Both Thorpe and Hurd quote a memo that Macmillan wrote in 1963 , intended to help the Queen choose his successor :
Lord Home is clearly a man who represents the old governing class at its best ... He is not ambitious in the sense of wanting to scheme for power , although not foolish enough to resist honour when it comes to him ... He gives that impression by a curious mixture of great courtesy , and even if yielding to pressure , with underlying rigidity on matters of principle . It is interesting that he has proved himself so much liked by men like President Kennedy and Mr Rusk and Mr Gromyko . This is exactly the quality that the class to which he belongs have at their best because they think about the question under discussion and not about themselves .
Douglas Hurd , once Home 's private secretary , and many years later his successor ( after seven intermediate holders of the post ) as Foreign and Commonwealth Secretary , wrote this personal comment : " The three most courteous men I knew in politics were Lord Home , King Hussein of Jordan , and President Nelson Mandela . All three had ease of birth , in the sense that they never needed to worry about who they themselves were and so had more time to concern themselves with the feelings of others . "
Although some in the Conservative party agreed with Wilson ( and Jo Grimond , the Liberal leader ) that the Conservatives would have won the 1964 election if Butler had been Prime Minister , The Times observed , " it should not be overlooked that in October 1963 Home took over a Government whose morale was shattered and whose standing in the opinion polls was abysmal . A year later Labour won the general election , with an overall majority of only four seats . That [ Home ] recovered so much ground in so short a time was in itself an achievement . " However , looking back across Home 's career , The Times considered that his reputation rested not on his brief premiership , but on his two spells as Foreign Secretary : " He brought to the office ... his capacity for straight talking , for toughness towards the Soviet Union and for firmness ( sometimes interpreted as a lack of sympathy ) towards the countries of Africa and Asia . But he brought something else as well : an unusual degree of international respect . "
= = Cabinet ( 1963 – 64 ) = =
The Home cabinet , announced on 20 October 1963 , was :
Lord Home [ Sir Alec Douglas @-@ Home from 23 October ] : Prime Minister and First Lord of the Treasury
R A Butler : Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs
Quintin Hogg : Lord President of the Council and Minister for Science
Lord Dilhorne : Lord Chancellor
Reginald Maudling : Chancellor of the Exchequer
Henry Brooke : Secretary of State for the Home Department
Duncan Sandys : Secretary of State for the Colonies and Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations
Edward Heath : Secretary of State for Industry , Trade , and Regional Development and President of the Board of Trade
Peter Thorneycroft : Minister of Defence
Selwyn Lloyd : Lord Privy Seal
Lord Blakenham : Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster
Christopher Soames : Minister of Agriculture , Fisheries and Food
Ernest Marples : Minister of Transport
John Boyd @-@ Carpenter : Chief Secretary to the Treasury and Paymaster @-@ General
Michael Noble : Secretary of State for Scotland
Sir Edward Boyle : Minister of Education
Joseph Godber : Minister of Labour
Sir Keith Joseph : Minister of Housing and Local Government and Minister for Welsh Affairs
Frederick Erroll : Minister of Power
Anthony Barber : Minister of Health
Geoffrey Rippon : Minister of Public Building and Works
W F Deedes : Minister without Portfolio
Lord Carrington : Minister without Portfolio , Leader of the House of Lords
Changes
April 1964 : Quintin Hogg became Secretary of State for Education and Science . Sir Edward Boyle left the cabinet
= = Ancestry = =
|
= Pilot ( The Drew Carey Show ) =
" Pilot " is the first episode and the series premiere of the American sitcom The Drew Carey Show . It first aired on September 13 , 1995 on the ABC network in the United States . The premise of the show revolves around the life Drew Carey would have lived if he had not become a stand @-@ up comedian . The pilot introduces the main characters of Drew ( Carey ) , Kate ( Christa Miller ) , Lewis ( Ryan Stiles ) and Oswald ( Diedrich Bader ) , as well as Drew 's workplace , the fictional Winfred @-@ Lauder department store , and enemy Mimi Bobeck ( Kathy Kinney ) .
The pilot was written by series co @-@ creators Carey and Bruce Helford , while Michael Lessac directed . It was shot in April 1995 at the Warner Bros. Television studios in Burbank , California . The episode ranked joint 29th in television programs with the most viewers for the week of September 11 – 17 , 1995 . Critical response was mixed , with many comparing the show to the NBC sitcom Friends . Ray Richmond from the Los Angeles Daily News praised Carey 's performance , but thought the episode did not click , while Variety 's Tony Scott liked the opening sequence and Lessac 's " inventive " direction .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens with Drew ( Drew Carey ) and his friends Lewis Kiniski ( Ryan Stiles ) and Oswald Lee Harvey ( Diedrich Bader ) in their local bar , the Warsaw Tavern , discussing Brad Pitt . The following day , Drew 's best friend Kate O 'Brien ( Christa Miller ) tells him that she has broken up with her boyfriend , who then fired her from her job as a receptionist at his body shop . Desperate for a job , Kate asks Drew to hire her at the Winfred @-@ Louder department store where he is the assistant director of personnel . Drew insists that he cannot hire his friends . At Winfred @-@ Louder , Drew 's boss Mr. Bell ( Kevin Pollak ) asks him to hire someone for a position at the cosmetics counter . While conducting interviews , Drew meets Mimi Bobeck ( Kathy Kinney ) , a hostile woman who wears too much eye shadow . Drew tries to be polite , but Mimi soon realises he is not going to give her the job and accuses Drew of being sexist . Mimi complains to Mr. Bell about Drew , getting him into trouble .
Later at the Warsaw Tavern , Drew is hanging out with his friends when Mimi walks in and confronts him . Drew talks to her honestly about why she did not get the job , telling her that her attitude is the problem and she has to deal with the fact that her looks might stop her from getting some jobs . Mimi does not like Drew 's advice and leaves the bar . Needing to fill the cosmetics position quickly , Drew believes he has found an ideal candidate in Natalie ( Natasha Silver ) until Kate turns up to apply for the job . Drew admits that he is worried that Kate will hate him if he has to fire her . However , Mr. Bell insists Drew hire Kate , having seen her in the lobby and Drew agrees . Kate later comes to Drew 's house to ask him , Lewis and Oswald which perfume samples to promote . The episode ends with Drew playing pool in his garden in the rain , while the others watch through the window .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and writing = = =
Drew Carey and Bruce Helford co @-@ created The Drew Carey Show . Having worked together twice before on The Good Life and Someone Like Me , Carey joined up with Helford and told him he wanted to develop his own show . They each came up with various ideas and created The Drew Carey Show . Carey later told a group of television critics at the network launch that the series was originally going to be called The Drew F ... ing Carey Show , saying " We were going to call it The Drew F. Carey Show and see if anybody at home could figure it out ! "
The show revolved around the life Carey would have lived if he had not become a stand @-@ up comedian . Carey told Helford that he thought he would have been employed in a mid @-@ level management job , which was a relatable job for most Americans at the time . Carey wanted a show that was about regular people . He also wanted to set the show in Cleveland as it was his home town and it was not getting a lot of attention . Carey and Helford drove to the city together in January 1995 to do some research . They toured the local bars to try to get the right look for the show 's bar the Warsaw Tavern . Carey and Helford also heard the song " Moon Over Parma " in one of the bars and it was used during the title sequence .
Carey and Helford co @-@ wrote the pilot episode together . Helford had expected The Drew Carey Show to air at 8 : 30pm . When ABC placed the show in the 7 : 30pm slot , Helford agreed to soften the language in the pilot . An executive from Standards and Practices had asked for nine words deemed offensive to be removed from the script , as well as a mention of Jack Daniel 's and a line that implied one of the characters was going to buy and use drugs .
= = = Casting = = =
Carey plays a fictionalized version of himself . Drew is an assistant director of personnel at the Winfred @-@ Lauder department store . Carey explained " I wanted a white @-@ collar job with no authority and a bad boss . Someone to do all the work and get no credit . He could 've worked in a bank , in insurance . " Carey said it was " a no @-@ brainer " on settling on the character , saying " It 's just me . " While Christa Miller was trying out for the role of Drew 's close friend Kate O 'Brien , ABC thought she might be too inexperienced for the role and they asked to see her appearance in the Seinfeld episode " The Doodle " . The episode had yet to be aired and Miller had to beg the show 's co @-@ creator Larry David for a rough cut to show to ABC . Miller went on to secure the role of Kate and Helford considered her to be the only person right for the role .
Ryan Stiles won the role of " hapless janitor " Lewis Kiniski . Despite being well known for his role on the British improve show Whose Line Is It Anyway ? , Stiles still had to go through the audition process along with everybody else . He said , " I don 't even think Drew was really even aware of Whose Line at that time because it hadn 't been on the air ( in the U.S. ) that many years . I think it was only on Comedy Central at that time . " Stiles admitted that he liked to have fun with his character and not psychoanalyze him . Following his appearance in The Beverly Hillbillies , Diedrich Bader realised he needed a regular income and decided to return to television . He tested out for The Drew Carey Show , but did not initially want to be cast in it . He told Kevin Smith that he wanted to drive up his price for the pilot of Partners . Bader lost out on the role of Bob to Jon Cryer and then learned The Drew Carey Show wanted to hire him to play Oswald Lee Harvey .
The role of Mimi Bobeck went to Kathy Kinney . The actress was originally intended to be a one episode guest star , but became a series regular when Helford noticed during editing of the pilot that the funniest scenes were those featuring Mimi . Kinney was hired for a further seven episodes , but eventually appeared in every episode . Robin Rauzi , writing for The Sun @-@ Herald , branded Mimi " a moving visual assault with a personality to match " because of her painted @-@ on eyebrows , bright eyeshadow and gaudy clothes . After relocating from Chicago , Ian Gomez spent a year auditioning for various shows , before being cast in the recurring role of Larry Almada in 1995 . Other actors who appear in the pilot are Alaina Reed Hall , David St. James , Lauren Katz , Vic Helford and Natasha Silver .
= = = Filming = = =
The pilot was shot in April 1995 and directed by Michael Lessac . Although set in Cleveland , the show was actually filmed at the Warner Bros. Television studios in Burbank , California . Helford had noticed that the cast did not look at each other while saying their lines and he tried to encourage them to look at one another , so they would laugh . Helford told Lessac to bring the cast in on a weekend , where there was no pressure , so they could " goof around " and relax . Drew 's job required him to work from a cubicle and Helford stated that no one had really done a show dealing with that situation , as producers and networks felt it was too confined . Helford disagreed and had a set where an accessible cubicle was the center piece designed and built . The Memphis Plaza Lounge in Old Brooklyn was the inspiration for the show 's bar The Warsaw Tavern . The owner of the Lounge refused to sell the naming rights to Warner Bros , but he did agree that they could film the front of the building . The crew shot the building in 1995 and temporarily replaced The Memphis Plaza Lounge sign with their own Warsaw Tavern one . The sign was hung in the front window for two years before Warner Bros. took it down .
= = Reception = =
The episode finished joint 29th among 108 prime @-@ time shows in the Nielsen ratings for the week of September 11 – 17 , 1995 . It came second both in households and among adults 18 – 49 with a 10 @.@ 8 / 18 and 7 @.@ 2 rating / share , respectively .
" Pilot " received mixed reviews from television critics . Ray Richmond from the Los Angeles Daily News branded the show a " Friends clone " , but praised Carey , calling him " the season 's quirkiest , most uproarious talent " . He also thought that he was " immensely lovable " . Richmond added " The pilot never quite clicks , but you can feel the potential . And spread inside an Ellen / Grace Under Fire sandwich , it 'll be difficult for it to miss . " Lon Grahnke from the Chicago Sun @-@ Times thought the show would be a " probable hit " based on the " Pilot " . He also observed that the show is " a Cleveland variation of Friends , and thought the early time slot was a turn off , as it required the language to be toned @-@ down . David Zurawik from The Baltimore Sun awarded the episode a C + and branded it " a blue @-@ collar Friends .
The Boston Globe 's Frederic M. Biddle gave the episode one and a half stars and commented " Carey always keeps you watching , although he 's always threatening to be funnier than he is . But more than any other Friends ripoff , this show 's supporting actors slow down the central character – they 're set decoration . Comic scenes involving the full cast build , then trip over themselves . " Alan Pergament , writing for The Buffalo News , included The Drew Carey Show in his Top 10 new shows , noting " Carey is a lovable goof and his male buddy show has the chance of becoming the male version of Designing Women . " Pergament cited the lack of prominent female characters and " a reliance on too many risque @-@ language jokes " as the weaknesses of the show . The Washington Post 's Tom Shales found the episode funny , adding " The Drew Carey Show bucks all the prevailing sitcom trends and does it endearingly . "
Tony Scott , a critic for Variety , thought the characters were " amiable enough " , but they needed " sharper dialogue and fresher observations . " Scott did not think the car pool segment worked , but he liked the opening sequence in the bar . He also praised Lessac 's direction , calling it " inventive " . Peter Weiniger from The Age was prepared to give the series a chance based on the episode , saying " Like most American sitcoms , The Drew Carey Show has its share of snappy one @-@ liners but it gives the impression of trying a little too hard . To be fair , this is the first of a series , and we have yet to see the characters develop . Even Seinfeld took a little time to become essential viewing . "
|
= Army of the Rhine and Moselle =
The Army of the Rhine and Moselle ( French : Armée de Rhin @-@ et @-@ Moselle ) was one of the field units of the French Revolutionary Army . It was formed on 20 April 1795 by merging the Army of the Rhine and the Army of the Moselle .
The army figured in two principal campaigns in the War of the First Coalition , although the unsuccessful 1795 campaign concluded with the removal of Jean @-@ Charles Pichegru from command . In 1796 , the army , under command of Jean Victor Marie Moreau , proved itself more successful . By this time , many of the changes inaugurated by the French military reform of 1794 had taken hold .
On 29 September 1797 the Army of the Rhine and Moselle merged with the Army of Sambre @-@ et @-@ Meuse to form the Army of Germany .
= = Purpose and formation = =
Military planners in Paris understood that the upper Rhine Valley , the south @-@ western German territories , and Danube river basin were strategically important for the defense of the Republic . The Rhine was a formidable barrier to what the French perceived as Austrian aggression , and the state that controlled its crossings controlled the river itself . Finally , ready access across the Rhine and along the Rhine bank between the German states and Switzerland , or through the Black Forest , gave access to the upper Danube river valley . For the French , control of the Upper Danube or any point in between , offered an immense strategic value and would give the French a reliable approach to Vienna .
Undoubtedly by 1793 the armies of the French Republic were in a state of disruption ; experienced soldiers of the Ancien Régime fought side by side with raw volunteers , urged on by revolutionary fervor from the special representatives , agents of the legislature sent to insure cooperation among the military . Many of the old officer class had emigrated , and the cavalry in particular suffered from their departure . The artillery arm , considered by the old nobility to be an inferior assignment , was less affected by emigration , and survived intact . The problems would become even more acute following the introduction of mass conscription , the levée en massee , in 1793 . French commanders walked a fine line between the security of the frontier and clamor for victory ( which would protect the regime in Paris ) on the one hand , and the desperate condition of the army on the other , while they themselves were constantly under suspicion from the representatives of the new regime . The price of failure or disloyalty was the guillotine .
= = = Evolution = = =
After successes , particularly in 1792 and 1794 , in the northern theater of war ( Flanders Campaign ) , the right flank of the armies of the Center ( later the army of the Moselle ) , the army of the North and the army of the Ardennes were combined to form the Army of Sambre & Meuse . The remaining center and left flank of the Army of the Moselle and the Army of the Rhine were united , initially on 29 November 1794 , and formally on 20 April 1795 , under command of Pichegru .
= = Order of Battle = =
At its formation , the Army included 66 battalions and 79 squadrons , for a total of 65 @,@ 103 men ( 56 @,@ 756 infantry , 6 @,@ 536 cavalry and 1 @,@ 811 artillery ) . This was its standing on 1 June 1796 :
Commander in Chief ( 1796 ) Jean Victor Marie Moreau
Chief of Staff : Jean Louis Ebénézer Reynier
Commander of Artillery : Jean @-@ Baptiste Eblé
Commander of Engineers : Dominique @-@ André de Chambarlhac
= = Campaign of 1795 = =
The Rhine Campaign of 1795 ( April 1795 to January 1796 ) saw two Habsburg Austrian armies under the overall command of François Sébastien Charles Joseph de Croix , Count of Clerfayt defeat an attempt by two Republican French armies to cross the Rhine River and capture the Fortress of Mainz . At the start of the campaign the French Army of Sambre @-@ et @-@ Meuse led by Jean @-@ Baptiste Jourdan confronted Clerfayt 's Army of the Lower Rhine in the north , while the French Army of Rhin @-@ et @-@ Moselle under Jean @-@ Charles Pichegru lay opposite Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser 's Army of the Upper Rhine in the south . In August Jourdan crossed and quickly seized Düsseldorf . The Army of Sambre @-@ et @-@ Meuse advanced south to the Main River , completely isolating Mainz . Pichegru 's army made a surprise capture of Mannheim so that both French armies held significant footholds on the east bank of the Rhine . The French fumbled away the promising start to their offensive . Pichegru bungled at least one opportunity to seize Clerfayt 's supply base in the Battle of Handschuhsheim . With Pichegru strangely inert , Clerfayt massed against Jourdan , beat him at Höchst in October and forced most of the Army of Sambre @-@ et @-@ Meuse to retreat to the west bank of the Rhine . About the same time , Wurmser sealed off the French bridgehead at Mannheim . With Jourdan temporarily out of the picture , the Austrians defeated the left wing of the Army of Rhin @-@ et @-@ Moselle at the Battle of Mainz and moved down the west bank . In November , Clerfayt gave Pichegru a drubbing at Pfeddersheim and successfully wrapped up the Siege of Mannheim . In January 1794 , Clerfayt concluded an armistice with the French , allowing the Austrians to retain large portions of the west bank . During the campaign Pichegru entered into traitorous contact with French Royalists . It is debatable whether Pichegru 's treason or his bad generalship was the actual cause of the French failure .
= = Campaign in 1796 = =
The armies of the First Coalition included the imperial contingents and the infantry and cavalry of the various states , amounting to about 125 @,@ 000 ( including the three autonomous corps ) , a sizable force by eighteenth century standards but a moderate force by the standards of the Revolutionary wars . In total , though , Charles ’ troops stretched in a line from Switzerland to the North Sea and Wurmser ’ s troops stretched from the Swiss @-@ Italian border to the Adriatic ; furthermore , a portion of the troops in Fürstenberg ’ s corps were pulled in July to support Wurmser ’ s activities in Italy . Habsburg troops comprised the bulk of the army but the thin white line of Habsburg infantry could not cover the territory from Basel to Frankfurt with sufficient depth to resist the pressure of the opposition . In spring 1796 , drafts from the free imperial cities , and other imperial estates , augmented the Habsburg force with perhaps 20 @,@ 000 men at the most . It was largely guesswork where they would be placed , and Charles did not like to use the militias , which were untrained and unseasoned . Compared to French coverage , Charles had half the number of troops covering a 211 @-@ mile front , stretching from Renchen near Basel to Bingen . Furthermore , he had concentrated the bulk of his force , commanded by Count Baillet Latour , between Karlsruhe and Darmstadt , where the confluence of the Rhine and the Main river made an attack most likely , as it offered a gateway into eastern German states and ultimately to Vienna , with good bridges crossing the relatively well @-@ defined river bank . To the north , Wilhelm von Wartensleben ’ s autonomous corps stretched in a thin line between Mainz and Giessen .
The French citizen ’ s army , created by mass conscription of young men and systematically divested of old men who might have tempered the rash impulses of teenagers and young adults , had already made itself onerous , by reputation and rumor at least , throughout France . Furthermore , it was an army entirely dependent for support upon the countryside . After April 1796 , pay was made in metallic value , but pay was still in arrears . Throughout the spring and early summer , the unpaid French army was in almost constant mutiny : in May 1796 , in the border town of Zweibrücken , the 74th revolted . In June , the 17th was insubordinate ( frequently ) and in the 84th , two companies rebelled . An assault into the German states was essential , as far as French commanders understood , not only in terms of war aims , but also in practical terms : the French Directory believed that war should pay for itself , and did not budget for the payment or feeding of its troops .
At the battles of Altenkirchen ( 4 June 1796 ) and at Wetzlar saw two Republican French divisions commanded by Jean Baptiste Kléber attack a wing of the Habsburg army led by Duke Ferdinand Frederick Augustus of Württemberg . A frontal attack combined with a flanking maneuver forced the Austrians to retreat . Three future Marshals of France played significant roles in the engagement at Altenkirchen : François Joseph Lefebvre as a division commander , Jean @-@ de @-@ Dieu Soult as a brigadier and Michel Ney as leader of a flanking column . The battle occurred during the War of the First Coalition , part of a larger conflict called the Wars of the French Revolution . Altenkirchen is located in the state of Rhineland @-@ Palatinate in Germany about 50 kilometers ( 31 mi ) east of Bonn . Wetzlar is located in the Landgraviate of Hesse @-@ Kassel , a distance of 66 kilometers ( 41 mi ) north of Frankfurt .
The opening of the Rhine Campaign of 1796 began with Kléber 's attack south out of his bridgehead at Düsseldorf . After Kléber won sufficient maneuver room on the east bank of the Rhine River , Jean Baptiste Jourdan was supposed to join him with the remainder of the Army of Sambre @-@ et @-@ Meuse . But this was only a distraction . When the Austrians under Archduke Charles , Duke of Teschen moved north to oppose Jourdan , Jean Victor Marie Moreau would cross the Rhine far to the south with the Army of Rhin @-@ et @-@ Moselle . Kléber carried out his part of the scheme to perfection , allowing Jourdan to cross the Rhine at Neuwied on 10 June . This was part of a plan to lure Archduke Charles to the north so that the Army of Rhin @-@ et @-@ Moselle under Jean Victor Marie Moreau could breach the Rhine defenses in the south . The strategy worked as designed . When Charles came north with heavy forces to drive back Jourdan , Moreau successfully mounted an assault crossing of the Rhine at Kehl near Strasbourg .
On 22 June , the French executed simultaneous crossings at Kehl and Hüningen . At Kehl , Moreau ’ s advance guard , 10 @,@ 000 , preceded the main force of 27 @,@ 000 infantry and 3 @,@ 000 cavalry directed at the several hundred Swabian pickets on the bridge . The Swabian force consisted of recruits provided by the members of the Swabian Circle and most of them were literally raw recruits , field hands and day laborers drafted for service in the spring of that year . The Swabians were hopelessly outnumbered and could not be reinforced . Most of the Imperial Army of the Rhine was stationed further north , by Mannheim , where the river was easier to cross , but too far away to support the smaller force at Kehl . Neither the Condé ’ s troops in Freiburg nor Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg 's force in Rastatt could reach Kehl in time to relieve the Swabian troops . Within a day , Moreau had four divisions across the river . Unceremoniously thrust out of Kehl , the Swabian contingent reformed at Rastatt by 5 July . There they managed to hold the city until reinforcements arrived , although Charles could not move much of his army away from Mannheim or Karlsruhe , where the French had also formed across the river .
At Hüningen , near Basel , Ferino executed a full crossing , and advanced east along the German shore of the Rhine with the 16th and 50th Demi @-@ brigades , the 68th , 50th and 68th line infantry , and six squadrons of cavalry that included the 3rd and 7th Hussars and the 10th Dragoons . The Habsburg and Imperial armies were in danger of encirclement : the French pressed hard at Rastatt and Ferino moved quickly east along the shore of the Rhine via which they could encircle the Coalition army from the east .
To prevent this , Charles executed an orderly withdrawal in four columns through the Black Forest , across the Upper Danube valley , and toward Bavaria , trying to maintain consistent contact with all flanks as each column withdrew through the Black Forest and the Upper Danube . By mid @-@ July , the column encamped near Stuttgart . The third column , which included the Condé ’ s Corps , retreated through Waldsee to Stockach , and eventually Ravensburg . The fourth Austrian column , the smallest ( three battalions and four squadrons ) , under General Wolff , marched the length of the Bodensee ’ s northern shore , via Überlingen , Meersburg , Buchhorn , and the Austrian city of Bregenz .
Given the size of the attacking force , Charles had to withdraw far enough into Bavaria to align his northern flank in a perpendicular line with Wartensleben 's autonomous corps . His own front would prevent Moreau from flanking Wartensleben from the south and together they could resist the French onslaught . In the course of this withdrawal , most of the Swabian Circle was abandoned to the French . At the end of July , eight thousand of Charles ' men executed a dawn attack on the camp of the remaining three thousand Swabian and French immigrant troops , disarmed them , and impounded their weapons . As Charles withdrew further east , the neutral zone expanded , eventually encompassing most of southern German states and the Ernestine Duchies .
= = = Summer of 1796 = = =
The summer and fall included various conflicts throughout the southern territories of the German states as the armies of the Coalition and the armies of the Directory sought to flank each other.By mid @-@ summer , the situation looked grim for the Coalition : Wartensleben continued to withdraw to the east @-@ northeast despite Charles ' orders to unite with him . It appeared probable that Jourdan or Moreau would succeed in flanking Charles or driving a wedge between his force and that of Wartensleben . At Neresheim on 11 August , Moreau crushed Charles ' force , forcing him to withdraw further east . At last , however , Wartensleben recognized the danger and changed direction , moving his corps to join at Charles ' northern flank . At Amberg on 24 August , Charles inflicted a defeat on the French ; that same day , his commanders lost a battle to the French at Friedberg . Regardless , the tide had turned in the Coalition 's favor . Both Jourdan and Moreau had overstretched their lines , moving far into the German states , and were separated too far from each other for one to offer the other aid or security . The Coalition 's concentration of troops forced a wider wedge between the two armies of Jourdan and Moreau , similar to what the French had tried to do to Charles and Wartensleben . As the French withdrew toward the Rhine , Charles and Wartensleben pressed forward . On 3 September at Würzburg , Jourdan attempted to halt the retreat . Once Moreau received word of this defeat , he had to withdraw from southern Germany . He pulled his troops back through the Black Forest , with Ferino supervising the rear guard . The Austrian corps commanded by Latour drew too close to Moreau at Biberach and lost 4000 prisoners , some standards and artillery , and Latour followed at a more sensible distance . The two armies clashed again at Emmendingen , where Wartensleben was mortally wounded in the Coalition victory . After Emmendingen , the French withdrew to the south and west , and formed for battle by Schliengen .
= = = Principal actions of Summer – Fall 1796 = = =
= = Organizational and command problems = =
The Army of the Rhine and Moselle experienced excruciating command problems in its early operations . The campaign of 1795 was entirely a French failure and the difficulties the army faced , especially in 1795 , had much to do with Pichegru 's own situation : his competition with both Moreau and Jourdan and his disaffection with the direction in which the revolution was headed . Originally a dedicated Jacobin , by 1794 , his own intrigues had placed him in command after he had undermined Lazare Hoche the previous year , insuring his own appointment as commander of this army . As the revolution waxed and waned in its ardency , so did Pichegru : by late 1794 , he was leaning heavily toward the royalist cause . The Directory replaced him with Desaix , and later Moreau . Pichegru 's actions sometimes seemed inexplicable : although an associate , even a friend , of the recently executed Saint @-@ Just , Pichegru offered his services to the Thermidorian Reaction , and , after having received the title of Sauveur de la Patrie ( " Saviour of the Motherland " ) from the National Convention , subdued the sans @-@ culottes of Paris , when they rose in insurrection against the Convention on the bread riots of 1 April 1795 .
Undeniably a capable , possibly brilliant , and popular commander , Pichegru began his second campaign by crossing the Meuse on 18 October , and , after taking Nijmegen , drove the Austrians back across the Rhine . Then , instead of going into winter quarters , he prepared his army for a winter campaign , always a difficult proposition in the eighteenth century . On 27 December , three brigades crossed the Meuse on the ice , and stormed the Bommelerwaard . On 10 January the army crossed the Waal near Zaltbommel , entered Utrecht on 13 January , which surrendered on the 16th . The Prussian and the British armies withdrew behind the IJssel and then fled to the safety of Hanover and Bremen . Pichegru , who succeeded in avoiding the frozen Dutch Water Line arrived in Amsterdam on 20 January , after its revolution . The French occupied the rest of the Dutch Republic in the next month . This major victory , the expulsion of the Coalition from the Low Countries and the successful occupation and alliance with the new Batavian Republic , was marked by unique episodes , such as the capture of the Dutch fleet , which was frozen in Den Helder , by French hussars , and exceptional discipline of the French battalions in Amsterdam , who , although faced with the opportunity of plundering the richest city in Europe , showed remarkable self @-@ restraint . Consequently , when Pichegru then took united command of the armies of the North , the Sambre @-@ and @-@ Meuse , and the Rhine , and crossed the Rhine in force in May 1795 , he held the enviable position as hero of the Revolution . He took Mannheim in May 1795 , but inexplicably he allowed his colleague Jourdan to be defeated ; by 1797 it was well @-@ understood in Paris that he betrayed all his plans to the enemy , and , over the following eighteen months , participated in a conspiracy for the return and coronation of Louis XVIII as King of France .
= = = School for marshals = = =
The campaigns in which the Army of the Rhine and Moselle participated also provided exception experience for a cadre of extraordinary young officers . In his five volume analysis of the Revolutionary Armies , Ramsey Weston Phipps emphasized the importance of experience under these conditions . His object was to show how the training received in the early years of the war varied not only with the theater in which they served but also with the character of the army to which they belonged . The experience of young officers under the tutelage of such experienced men as Pichegru , Moreau , Lazar Hoche , Lefebvre , Jourdan , and even the unfortunate Nicolas Luckner , Adam Philippe , comte de Custine , and Jean Nicolas Houchard ( all had been arrested and guillotined in 1794 ) . Participation in this army , particularly in the contrasting campaigns of 1795 , which was a disaster , and 1796 , which had mixed success , provided young officers – some , like Ney , only captains at the time – with valuable experience . Furthermore , they had been tested against first class enemy commanders : Wurmser , Clerfayt , Archduke Charles , Wartensleben , for example .
Phipps ' analysis is not singular , although his lengthy volumes address in detail the value of this " school for marshals . " In 1895 , Richard Phillipson Dunn @-@ Pattison had also singled out the French Revolutionary army as " the finest school the world has yet seen for an apprenticeship in the trade of arms . " The resurrection of the marchalate , the ancien regime civil dignity allowed Emperor Napoleon I to strengthen his newly created power by rewarding the most valuable of the generals who had served under his command during his campaigns in Italy and Egypt or soldiers who had held significant commands during the French Revolutionary Wars . Subsequently , other senior generals were promoted on six different occasions , mainly following major battlefield victories .
Of the members of the Army of the Rhine and Moselle , and its subsequent incarnations , Jourdan , de Soult , and Massena were among the first to be named as Marshals in Napoleon 's regime in 1804 . The army included five future Marshals of France : Jean @-@ Baptiste Jourdan , its commander @-@ in @-@ chief , Jean @-@ Baptiste Drouet , Laurent de Gouvion Saint @-@ Cyr , and Édouard Adolphe Casimir Joseph Mortier . François Joseph Lefebvre , by 1804 an old man , was named an honorary marshal , but not awarded a field position . Michel Ney , in the 1795 – 1799 campaigns an intrepid cavalry commander , came into his own command under the tutelage of Moreau and Massena in the south German and Swiss campaigns . Jean de Dieu Soult had served under Moreau and Massena , becoming the latter 's right @-@ hand man during the Swiss campaign of 1799 – 1800 . Jean Baptiste Bessieres , like Ney , had been a competent and sometimes inspired regimental commander in 1796 . MacDonald , Oudinot and Gouvion Saint @-@ Cyr , participants in the 1796 campaign , all received honors in the third , fourth and fifth promotions ( 1809 , 1811 , 1812 ) .
= = Commanders = =
|
= Orchestral Works by Tomas Svoboda =
Orchestral Works by Tomas Svoboda ( sometimes abridged as Orchestral Works ) is a classical music album by the Oregon Symphony under the artistic direction of James DePreist , released by the record label Albany in 2003 . The album was recorded at the Arlene Schnitzer Concert Hall in Portland , Oregon during three performances in January and June 2000 . It contains three works by Tomáš Svoboda , a Czech @-@ American composer who taught at Portland State University for more than 25 years : Overture of the Season , Op. 89 ; Concerto for Marimba and Orchestra , Op. 148 ; and Symphony No. 1 ( of Nature ) , Op. 20 . The album 's executive producers were Peter Kermani , Susan Bush , and Mark B. Rulison ; Blanton Alspaugh served as the recording producer .
Overture of the Season and Concerto for Marimba and Orchestra were commissioned by the Oregon Symphony . The latter was dedicated to principal percussionist Niel DePonte , who encouraged Svoboda to compose the work and who is featured on marimba ; it was the first concerto commissioned by the orchestra for one of its musicians . Though the album received a mixed critical reception , DePonte 's performance earned him a Grammy Award nomination for Best Instrumental Soloist Performance with Orchestra . Selected tracks from the album have been broadcast by classical music radio stations throughout the United States .
= = Background and composition = =
Orchestral Works by Tomas Svoboda , released by Albany Records in July 2003 , was recorded under the artistic direction of James DePreist and contains three works by Czech @-@ American composer Tomáš Svoboda : Overture of the Season , Op. 89 ; Concerto for Marimba and Orchestra , Op. 148 ; and Symphony No. 1 ( of Nature ) , Op. 20 . Svoboda has been regarded as Oregon 's " most prolific and performed " classical composer . Following his education at the Prague Conservatory ( 1954 – 1962 ) , the Academy of Music in Prague ( 1962 – 1964 ) and the University of Southern California ( 1966 – 1969 ) , Svoboda taught composition and music theory at Portland State University for more than 25 years .
Overture of the Season and Concerto for Marimba and Orchestra were recorded at the Arlene Schnitzer Concert Hall in downtown Portland on January 9 – 10 , 2000 ; Symphony No. 1 was recorded at the same venue on June 13 , 2000 . Concerto for Marimba and Orchestra features principal percussionist Niel DePonte , who joined the orchestra in 1977 at age 24 , on marimba . Peter Kermani , Susan Bush and Mark B. Rulison served as the album 's executive producers . Blanton Alspaugh served as the recording producer . John Newton was the recording engineer , and mastering was conducted by Mark Donahue . Svoboda is credited for the album 's cover art . The album 's liner notes also credit Wendy Leher , Pavlina Honcova @-@ Summers and Henry Hillman for photography , and Dave McLaughlin for graphic design . Mixing console mastering occurred at Soundmirror , based in Massachusetts .
The recording was funded by Mary Ausplund Tooze , a longtime philanthropist and patron of Portland 's arts community , who specifically requested the inclusion of Concerto for Marimba and Orchestra for being a " good , solid piece and one you find out more about each time you hear it " . Tooze considered the concerto the " real star " of the recording .
= = = Works = = =
Overture of the Season was commissioned by the Oregon Symphony for its 83rd season ; the work 's world premiere was presented by the orchestra on October 7 , 1978 . In 1994 , the classical music writer for Philadelphia Daily News said the composition had been performed by 55 orchestras within the three previous seasons . According to Svoboda 's website , as of May 2013 the work has been performed 270 times by 141 orchestras , under the direction of 93 conductors . The " festive " overture , which is approximately eight minutes in length , employs flutes , piccolo , oboes , clarinets , bassoons , horns , trumpets , trombones , tuba , timpani , percussion , and strings .
Concerto for Marimba and Orchestra was commissioned by the orchestra in 1993 in conjunction with its centennial celebration . It features solo marimba and a " keyboard " quintet ( piano , harp , celeste , orchestra bells and crotales ) , with parts for flutes , piccolo , oboes , clarinets , bassoons , horns , trumpets , trombones , tuba , timpani , and strings . According to Svoboda , the work took a year to compose and marks the first concerto commissioned by the Oregon Symphony for one of its musicians . Concerto for Marimba and Orchestra is dedicated to DePonte , who encouraged Svoboda to compose a marimba concerto . For the album 's liner notes , Svoboda wrote :
" My approach to this work is to expose the beauty of the marimba . The gentle and majestic sounds found in the instrumental mixture within the orchestra is always respectful of the somewhat limited powers of projection of the solo instrument . Overall the concerto is stylistically lyrical and neo @-@ romantic . The energy and vitality of the marimba is highlighted through the rhythmic vitality of the composition , while marimba 's warm and resonant sound , emanating from its rosewood keyboard , is ideally suited for the lyrical sections of the piece . "
When the concerto is performed , according to Svoboda , instruments on stage are separated into three contrasting sections : the solo marimba , the quintet , and the remainder of the orchestra . The quintet is placed near the conductor and solo marimba , " which is the prominent voice of this uncommon ensemble " . The composition contains several instances where the quintet plays for extended periods , referred to as " islands " by Svoboda , which create " concerto grosso @-@ like interplay " with the orchestra .
Symphony No. 1 was completed in 1956 and premiered in Prague on September 7 , 1957 . Inspired by Svoboda 's exposure to nature within a pastoral setting , the composition was commissioned anonymously 25 years later ( 1982 ) , providing Svoboda an opportunity to make revisions . The work was influenced by Ludwig van Beethoven , Antonín Dvořák , and Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky ; it features polyphonic textures and asymmetrical and harmonic rhythmic elements . The symphony consists of four movements : " Moderato " , " Presto " , " Andante " , and " Allegro – Moderato " . The first , considered a chorale , is in the key of C @-@ sharp minor and features a theme performed by flute . The second movement , a scherzo , features a " quick , motoric " triple rhythm and meter . The third is a pastorale that highlights the woodwind section and incorporates a piece called " The Bird " , composed by Svoboda in 1949 at age nine . The final movement , a rondo , was influenced by Czech folk music and mixes themes supplied by earlier movements .
= = Reception and broadcasts = =
The album received a mixed reception . Blair Sanderson of AllMusic found Svoboda 's compositions to be imitative , specifically comparing Over of the Season to work by Leoš Janáček and Symphony No. 1 to " equal parts " of Hugo Alfvén and Jean Sibelius , with " just a dash " of Carl Nielsen . Sanderson criticized the harmonic language of Concerto for Marimba and Orchestra and found DePonte 's performance to be admirable but " weakly planned " . Similarly , Robert Dettmer of Classical CD Review found Svoboda 's work to be derivative and " expressively sterile " , and " no more engaging than any other marimba concerto " . However , Dettmer acknowledged that the marimba was one of his least favorite solo instruments . Dettmer wrote that DePriest " serves the composer dutifully , but not as enliveningly as one might have expected " .
For his marimba performance , DePonte earned a Grammy Award nomination for Best Instrumental Soloist Performance with Orchestra , the first time that the Oregon Symphony or any of its musicians had been recognized by the Recording Academy . Following the announcement , DePonte admitted that he was surprised by the nomination and had not felt similar emotions since learning of his invitation to join the orchestra 26 years earlier : " I am completely overwhelmed . I had no idea the recording had been submitted . " DePriest said : " The credit goes to Mary Tooze for making the recording possible , to Niel for his fine playing and to Tomas for writing such a wonderful piece . I am thrilled for everyone concerned . " Svoboda said of the nomination : " The prestige goes to the orchestra . This is a great moment for our symphony . " The Oregon Symphony 's director of public relations commented : " The running joke is that forever more , the name of this organization is ' The Grammy @-@ nominated Oregon Symphony Orchestra . ' The Grammy acknowledgment is recognized as a mark of great artistic achievement . To be nominated is about as good as it gets . "
Selected tracks from the album have been broadcast by classical music radio stations . Concerto for Marimba and Orchestra was aired by WFMT ( Chicago ) in March 2012 , WWFM ( Trenton , New Jersey ) in September 2013 , and KUAF ( Fayetteville , Arkansas ) in November 2013 . Symphony No. 1 was broadcast by Interlochen Public Radio in August 2012 and by WRTI ( Philadelphia ) in November 2013 . WNYC ( New York City ) has aired the marimba concerto and Symphony No. 1 as recently as January 2011 and January 2014 , respectively .
= = Track listing = =
All works by Tomáš Svoboda .
Overture of the Season , Op. 89 – 8 : 42
Concerto for Marimba and Orchestra , Op. 148
" Con moto " – 8 : 48
" Adagio " – 8 : 08
" Vivace " – 8 : 39
Symphony No. 1 ( of Nature ) , Op. 20
" Moderato " – 10 : 08
" Presto " – 8 : 13
" Andante " – 6 : 56
" Allegro – Moderato " – 10 : 18
Track listing adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from AllMusic .
= = = Orchestra roster = = =
Orchestra roster adapted from the album 's liner notes .
" * " designates acting orchestra members ; " * * " designates musicians on a leave of absence ; " * * * " designates extra musicians ; " * * * * " designates contract musicians .
|
= Confiscated Armenian properties in Turkey =
The confiscation of Armenian properties by the Ottoman and Turkish governments involved seizure of the assets , properties and land of the country 's Armenian community . Starting with the Hamidian massacres in the mid @-@ 1890s and peaking during the Armenian Genocide , the confiscation of the Armenian property lasted continuously until the Istanbul pogrom of 1955 and with renewed efforts in 1974 . Much of the confiscations during the Armenian Genocide were made after the Armenians were deported into the Syrian Desert with the government declaring their goods and assets left behind as " abandoned " . Virtually all properties owned by Armenians living in their ancestral homeland in Western Armenia were confiscated and later distributed among the local Muslim population . Renewed efforts were introduced in 1974 where the property acquired by the Armenian community after the property declaration of 1936 was confiscated .
Historians argue that the mass confiscation of Armenian properties was an important factor in forming the economic basis of the Turkish Republic while endowing Turkey 's economy with capital . The appropriation led to the formation of a new Turkish bourgeoisie and an exclusive middle class .
= = History = =
= = = Confiscation as part of the Armenian Genocide = = =
On 16 May 1915 , while the Armenian Genocide was underway , a secret directive was promulgated entitled " administrative instruction regarding movable and immovable property abandoned by Armenians deported as a result of the war and unusual political circumstances . " Once enacted , the directive established special commissions , known as the " Abandoned Property Commissions " ( Turkish : Emvâl @-@ i Metrûke İdare Komisyonları ) and the " Liquidation Commissions " ( Turkish : Tasfiye Komisyonu ) , which were tasked with providing detailed information and appraising the value of assets " abandoned " by deportees under the guise of " safeguarding " them . The number of these commissions rose to 33 by January 1916 . After the departure of the deportees , goods and livestock that were deemed " perishable " were prioritized as the first items that must be sold using public auctions , while the profits from these auctions were to be safeguarded under the entitlement of the owners . After providing documentation of the property ( copies provided to the owners and the Ottoman Treasury ) , the directive specified that muhajirs ( Turkish refugees mainly from the Balkan wars ) were to be settled in the vacant lands and properties belonging to the deportees . Once settled , the refugees had to register the land and houses , while other assets that were affixed to the property , such as olive groves and vineyards , were to be allocated amongst them . Unwanted items and assets were to be sold in public auctions . According to historian Dickran Kouymjian , the settlement of muhajirs into the lands and properties of deported Armenians implies that local authorities had firsthand knowledge that the deportees were to never return .
On 29 May 1915 , the Committee of Union and Progress ( CUP ) Central Committee passed the Tehcir Law authorizing the deportation of " persons judged to be a threat to national security . " The Tehcir Law emphasized that the deportees must not sell their assets , but instead provide a detailed list and submit the list to the local authorities :
Leave all your belongings — your furniture , your beddings , your artifacts . Close your shops and businesses with everything inside . Your doors will be sealed with special stamps . On your return , you will get everything you left behind . Do not sell property or any expensive item . Buyers and sellers alike will be liable for legal action . Put your money in a bank in the name of a relative who is out of the country . Make a list of everything you own , including livestock , and give it to the specified official so that all your things can be returned to you later . You have ten days to comply with this ultimatum .
While the Tehcir law was being carried out , the Directorate for the Settlement of Tribes and Refugees ( Turkish : Iskan @-@ i Asairin Muhacirin Muduriyeti ) , under the Ministry of Internal Affairs , was tasked in June 1915 to deal with the property left behind by deported or killed Armenians . This commission , whose salaries were provided by property confiscated by Armenians , produced the " Temporary Law of Expropriation and Confiscation ( " Abandoned Properties " law ) and published in the official register on 27 September ( 13 September according to the Islamic calendar ) and passed a further directive for implementation of the law on 8 November . The objectives of the laws were simultaneously to reduce Armenian property ownership , enrich national politicians , and to resettle Turkish Muslim refugees in property which was seized . The property confiscated included personal property ( including land , buildings , and bank accounts ) , businesses , and also community property ( e.g. churches ) . Items that were considered useful for the immediacy of the war effort were prioritized and immediately confiscated with a separate decree . Under the law , property and asset transactions were forbidden prior to the deportation thereby preventing the owners from having the opportunity to keep his or her property . Although the law was called " Temporary " , the provisions within it seemed to aim toward the permanent transformation of the ethnicity of communities from Armenian to Turkish Muslim .
These resettlement laws did contain formal reporting of property to national authorities and contained procedures for those who had property taken to sue , but the specifics of the law made these provisions serve the larger goal to " Turkify " regions and economic sectors . The property records and revenue generated from the sale or rent of confiscated property were all recorded and deposited with the Ministry of Financial Affairs to provide for the possible return of property to owners . In addition , the law provided that those whose property had been confiscated to sue for return of the property ( and payment for any damages which occurred ) . However , the law required property owners to sue and be present themselves ( not allowing the power of attorney ) , an impossibility when property owners had been killed or deported . In addition , the defendant in any case would be the state which made the chances of success in any lawsuit extremely unlikely . Finally , the law provided that the confiscated property be sold at auction ; however , because the law specified that " anybody other than Turkish Muslim refugees can only acquire property in Turkey with the approval of the Ministry of Internal Affairs " , the result was that non @-@ Turkish Muslims were effectively excluded . Property was provided often to national and local political elites , who eventually gave them to Turkish Muslim refugees .
The impacts of these laws were immediate . According to a report in June 1916 by the German ambassador stationed in Constantinople , the goods of the Armenians " have long since been confiscated , and their capital has been liquidated by a so @-@ called commission , which means that if an Armenian owned a house valued at , say , £ T100 , a Turk – a friend or member [ of the Ittihad and Terakki ] – could have it for around £ T2 . "
The only notable domestic opposition was by Ottoman parliamentary representative Ahmed Riza , who stated :
It is unlawful to designate the Armenian assets as " abandoned goods " for the Armenians , the proprietors , did not abandon their properties voluntarily ; they were forcibly , compulsorily removed from their domiciles and exiled . Now the government through its efforts is selling their goods ... Nobody can sell my property if I am unwilling to sell it . Article 21 of the Constitution forbids it . If we are a constitutional regime functioning in accordance with constitutional law we can 't do this . This is atrocious . Grab my arm , eject me from my village , then sell my goods and properties , such a thing can never be permissible . Neither the conscience of the Ottomans nor the law can allow it .
Formal directives were made to have much of the properties and businesses confiscated from the Armenians to be transferred into the hands of Muslims . On 6 January 1916 , Talaat Pasha , the Interior Minister of the Ottoman Empire , decreed :
The movable property left by the Armenians should be conserved for long @-@ term preservation , and for the sake of an increase of Muslim businesses in our country , companies need to be established strictly made up of Muslims . Movable property should be given to them under suitable conditions that will guarantee the business 's steady consolidation . The founder , the management , and the representatives should be chosen from honorable leaders and the elite , and to allow tradesmen and agriculturists to participate in its dividends , the vouchers need to be half a lira or one lira and registered to their names to preclude that the capital falls in foreign hands . The growth of entrepreneurship in the minds of Muslim people needs to be monitored , and this endeavor and the results of its implementation need to be reported to the ministry step by step .
In addition to churches and monasteries , other community owned properties confiscated were schools and educational facilities . The Interior Ministry had ordered such educational facilities to be assigned to Muslims :
It is necessary to appropriate the schools of the towns and villages that have been emptied of Armenians to Muslim immigrants to be settled there . However , the present value of the buildings , the amount and value of its educational materials needs to be registered and sent to the department of general recordkeeping .
Following the decree , private Armenian schools became Ottoman Turkish schools and school supplies were distributed to the Turkish Muslim population . Abraham Harutiunian , a priest living in Zeitun , notes in his memoirs that the school in Zeitun was confiscated by the government and that " the Armenians no longer had any right to education , and the campus was now filled with hundreds of Turkish children . "
By the early 1930s , all properties belonging to Armenians who were subject to deportation had been confiscated . Since then , no restitution of property confiscated during the Armenian Genocide has taken place . The laws concerning abandoned property remained in effect for 73 years until it was finally abolished on 11 June 1986 . The mass confiscation of properties provided the opportunity for ordinary lower class Turks ( i.e. peasantry , soldiers , and laborers ) to rise to the ranks of the middle class . Contemporary Turkish historian Uğur Ümit Üngör asserts that " the elimination of the Armenian population left the state an infrastructure of Armenian property , which was used for the progress of Turkish ( settler ) communities . In other words : the construction of an étatist Turkish " national economy " was unthinkable without the destruction and expropriation of Armenians . "
= = = = Extent of Ottoman confiscation = = = =
Although the exact extent of confiscated property during the Armenian Genocide is unknown , according to Talaat Pasha 's private documents , the chief initiator of the Tehcir Law , a total of 20 @,@ 545 buildings were confiscated including 267 @,@ 536 acres of land along with other parcels of agricultural and tillable lands such as 76 @,@ 942 acres of vineyards , 703 @,@ 941 acres of olive groves , and 4 @,@ 573 acres of mulberry gardens .
During the Paris Peace Conference , the Armenian delegation presented an assessment of $ 3 @.@ 7 billion ( about $ 51 billion today ) worth of material losses owned solely by the Armenian church . During the conference in February 1920 , the Armenian community presented an additional demand for the restitution of property and assets seized by the Ottoman government . The joint declaration , which was submitted to the Supreme Council by the Armenian delegation and prepared by the religious leaders of the Armenian community , claimed that the Ottoman government had destroyed 2 @,@ 000 churches and 200 monasteries and had provided the legal system for giving these properties to other parties . The declaration also provided a financial assessment of the total losses of personal property and assets of both Turkish and Russian Armenia with 14 @,@ 598 @,@ 510 @,@ 000 and 4 @,@ 532 @,@ 472 @,@ 000 Francs respectively ; totaling to an estimated $ 328 billion today . Furthermore , the Armenian community asked for the restitution of church owned property and reimbursement of its generated income . The Ottoman government never responded to this declaration and so restitution did not occur .
The issue of confiscated Armenian property came about in a number of treaties signed between the First Republic of Armenia and the Ottoman Empire . Both the Treaty of Batum ( signed 4 June 1918 ) and the Treaty of Sevres ( signed 10 August 1920 ) contained provisions related to the restitution for confiscated properties of Armenians . The Treaty of Sevres under Article 144 specified that the Abandoned Property commissions and Liquidation commissions must be abolished and the laws of confiscation be annulled . Meanwhile , however , those who seized the assets and properties of Armenians turned to support the Turkish national movement since the dissolution of the Ottoman government would mean that the properties and assets would be protected under their name . Thus , on 8 May 1920 , the first law promulgated by the newly established parliament was to pardon those charged of massacre and expropriation of property by the Turkish Courts @-@ Martial of 1919 @-@ 20 . Furthermore , with the establishment of the Turkish republic and the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne ( 24 July 1923 ) , the provisions of the Treaty of Sevres eventually never took effect and the liquidation committees involved with the confiscation of Armenian property resumed operations .
In addition to confiscated property , large sums of money and precious metals belonging to Armenians were also seized and deposited into the treasuries of the Ottoman government or in various German or Austrian banks during the war . Such sums were believed to be withdrawn from the bank accounts of deported and killed Armenians . An official memorandum prepared by former British Prime Ministers Stanley Baldwin and H. H. Asquith was sent to then Prime Minister of Great Britain Ramsay MacDonald describing such seizures and deposits :
The sum of 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 Turkish gold pounds ( representing about 30 @.@ 000 kilograms of gold ) deposited by the Turkish government at the Reichsbank in Berlin in 1916 , and taken over by the Allies after the Armistice , was in large part ( perhaps wholly ) Armenian money . After the forced deportation of the Armenians in 1915 , their current and deposit accounts were transferred , by government order , to the State Treasury in Constantinople .
Much of the money deposits into banks and other financial institutions have also been subsequently seized in the immediate aftermath of the deportations . Once a deposit was made , a certificate was given to the depositor as a proof of deposit . However , once the deportations began , withdrawals were prohibited . Much of the deportees who had held deposits were left with only certificates in their possession . Many of the depositors still carry the certificates of deposit today . Historian Kevork Baghdjian states that the worth of these deposits " should rise to astronomical sums today , " with the " deposited capital and interests combined . "
= = = Confiscation during the Turkish Republic = = =
Following the Turkish War of Independence and the creation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923 , the confiscation resumed with most Armenians having been deported or killed . During the early Republican era , the legal terminology was changed from " transported persons " to " persons who lost or fled from the country . "
On 15 April 1923 , just before the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne , the Turkish government enacted the " Law of Abandoned Properties " which confiscated properties of any Armenian who was not present on their property , regardless of the circumstances of the reason . While local courts were authorized to appraise the value of any property and provide an avenue for property owners to make claims , the law prohibited the use of any power of attorney by absent property holders , preventing them from filing suit without returning to the country . In addition , the defendant in the case would be the state of Turkey which had created specially tasked committees to deal with each case .
In addition to this law , the Turkish government continued revoking the citizenship of many people with a law on 23 May 1927 which stated that " Ottoman subjects who during the War of Independence took no part in the National movement , kept out of Turkey and did not return from 24 July 1923 to the date of the publication of this law , have forfeited Turkish nationality . " Additionally , a further law passed on 28 May 1928 stipulated that those who had lost their citizenship would be expelled from Turkey , not allowed to return , and that their property would be confiscated by the Turkish government , and Turkish migrants would be resettled in the properties .
In the preparation for possible entry into World War II , the Turkish government introduced a tax , the Varlik Vergisi , which disproportionately targeted Turkey 's non @-@ Muslim residents . Many Armenians , and other non @-@ Muslim populations , were forced to sell their property at significantly reduced prices through public auctions in order to pay for the sudden tax hike or have the properties confiscated by the state . In addition , the law allowed authorities to confiscate the property of any relative of a taxed person in order to pay the tax . From this tax , the Turkish government collected 314 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 liras or about US $ 270 million ( 80 % of the state budget ) from the confiscation of non @-@ Muslim assets .
This period coincided with further confiscations of private property belonging to Armenians . Special commissions were created to separate the evictions of non @-@ Muslims from others . The investigators of this commission usually expedited the evacuation and eventual confiscation of the non @-@ Muslim property in question .
The Varlik Vergisi was followed by the Istanbul pogrom a few years later , where an organized mob attacked Greeks and Armenians on 6 – 7 September 1955 . The material damage was considerable , with damage to 5317 properties ( including 4214 homes , 1004 businesses , 73 churches , 2 monasteries , 1 synagogue , and 26 schools ) . Estimates of the economic cost of the damage range from the Turkish government 's estimate of 69 @.@ 5 million Turkish lira ( equivalent to 24 @.@ 8 million US $ ) , the British estimate of 100 million GBP ( about 200 million US $ ) , the World Council of Churches ' estimate of 150 million US $ , and the Greek government 's estimate of 500 million US $ . The pogrom eventually lead to an exodus of non @-@ Muslims out of the country , resulting in a significant amount of " abandoned " properties . The property left behind by those who fled were confiscated by the Turkish state after ten years .
In the 1960s , new laws were passed , which made it impossible for Armenians to establish new foundations nor to buy or bequeath additional properties . One such law code ( Law no . 903 ) adopted in 1967 , along with a second paragraph amended to the Turkish Civil Code ( no . 743 ) declared that , " The registration of foundations that are in violation of law , morality , tradition or national interests , or that were established to support a political belief , a certain race or members of a minority will not be approved . " Such laws are considered by legal experts as a violation of articles concerning minority rights found in the Treaty of Laussane , the Turkish constitution , and Article 11 of the European Convention on Human Rights , which grants the " freedom to establish foundations and hold meetings . " The new amendment and law code became the basis for a new series of confiscations that significantly obstructed the daily lives of Armenians in Turkey .
In 1974 new legislation was passed that stated that non @-@ Muslim trusts could not own more property than that which had been registered under their name in 1936 . As a result , more than 1 @,@ 400 assets ( included churches , schools , residential buildings , hospitals , summer camps , cemeteries , and orphanages ) of the Istanbul Armenian community since 1936 were retrospectively classified as illegal acquisitions and seized by the state . Under the legislation , the Turkish courts rendered Turkish citizens of non @-@ Turkish descent as " foreigners " , thereby placing them under the same legal regulations of any foreign company or property holder living outside of Turkey who was not a Turkish national . The provisions further provided that foundations belonging to non @-@ Muslims are a potential " threat " to national security . The process involved returning any property acquired after 1936 , whether through lottery , will , donation , or purchase , to their former owners or inheritors . If former owners had died leaving no inheritors , the property was to be transferred to specified governmental agencies such as the Treasury or the Directorate General of Foundations .
On 11 June 1986 , the laws concerning " abandoned " properties during the Armenian Genocide were abrogated , which ended 73 years of effectiveness . Throughout the Republican period , the laws continued to provide a legal basis for the confiscation of additional property that belonged to the deportees . Though the laws were abolished in 1986 , the General Directorate of Land Registry and Cadastre ( Turkish : Tapu ve Kadastro Genel Müdürlüğü ) issued an order on 29 June 2001 which effectively transferred all the leftover " abandoned " properties to the government . The order also forbid the disclosure of any information regarding the title or the documentation of the properties . As a result , the owners or their heirs could not make claims to the property since it was now securely sanctioned under Turkish law and had become property of the state .
= = = Current developments = = =
Terminology of former legislation and civil codes have not significantly changed since the 1960s and 70s , ultimately subjugating the assets and properties of the Armenian community to further confiscations . Though terminology has slightly changed , the current civil codes still have enough executive powers to confiscate property under the basis of protecting the " national unity " of the Republic of Turkey .
Due to such regulations and law codes , no church was ever constructed in the history of the Republic of Turkey . All churches in existence today were built before the establishment of the Republic in 1923 . A permit for the construction of a Syriac church was granted in December 2012 , however , it was refused by the Assyrian community since the land used to be a Latin cemetery .
In an attempt by the ruling Justice and Development Party ( AKP ) to comply with European Union standards , the opening up of the Ottoman land registry and deed records to the public were considered . However , on 26 August 2005 , the National Security Committee of the Turkish Armed Forces forbid such attempts by stating :
The Ottoman records kept at the Land Register and Cadaster Surveys General Directorate offices must be sealed and not available to the public , as they have the potential to be exploited by alleged genocide claims and property claims against the State Charitable Foundation assets . Opening them to general public use is against state interests .
On 15 June 2011 , the United States House Foreign Affairs Committee of the 112th Congress passed House Resolution 306 by a vote of 43 to one which demanded from the Republic of Turkey " to safeguard its Christian heritage and to return confiscated church properties . " Turkish @-@ American organizations attempted to block the bill from passing but ultimately failed .
= = Contemporary analysis = =
= = = Istanbul = = =
After two years of research , the Hrant Dink Foundation published a book , some 400 pages long , describing the current situation of seized assets and properties of the Armenian community . With the help of government deed and title records , the members of the Hrant Dink foundation have uncovered the title records of all the properties owned by various foundations and have produced the book replete with photographs , charts , maps , and other illustrations which describe the seized properties and assets and its current status . The Hrant Dink foundation states that 661 properties in Istanbul alone were confiscated by the Turkish government , leaving only 580 of the 1 @,@ 328 properties owned by the 53 Armenian foundations ( schools , churches , hospitals , etc . ) . The current circumstances of the remaining 87 could not be determined . Out of the 661 confiscated properties , 143 ( 21 @.@ 6 % ) have been returned to the Armenian foundation .
The Hrant Dink foundation researched confiscations and provided descriptions , photographs and boundary lines on its online interactive mapping resource .
= = Notable confiscations = =
|
= Old Money ( The Simpsons ) =
" Old Money " is the seventeenth episode of The Simpsons ' second season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 28 , 1991 . In the episode , Grampa 's wealthy girlfriend at the Retirement Castle passes away and leaves him with $ 106 @,@ 000 . He heads for a casino to spend the money , but is stopped by Homer , so he decides to spend the inheritance money on renovating the retirement home instead .
The episode was written by Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky and directed by David Silverman . Audrey Meadows guest starred in it as Beatrice " Bea " Simmons , Grampa 's new girlfriend . Professor Frink also makes his debut in the episode . It features cultural references to films such as Tom Jones and If I Had a Million , and the Star Wars and Batman film franchises . Since airing , the episode has received mixed reviews from television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 3 , and was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
After another Sunday with the Simpsons , Grampa meets Beatrice " Bea " Simmons , a resident at the Springfield Retirement Castle . They go on a date and fall in love . When Bea 's birthday arrives on a Sunday , Homer makes Grampa come on a family outing . The outing causes Grampa to miss Bea 's birthday . Grampa returns home expecting to see Bea . However , Jasper tells Grampa that Bea died of a burst ventricle while Grampa was out with the family . Left deeply depressed by her death , Grampa attends her funeral , where he angrily lashes out at Homer and refuses to speak to him .
Grampa receives Bea 's inheritance of $ 106 @,@ 000 . After time contemplating how to spend the money , Grampa soon forgives Homer , and decides to spend the inheritance on improving the retirement home .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky and directed by David Silverman . The discount lion safari in the episode that the Simpson family visits was based on the drive @-@ through Lion Country Safari , located in Loxahatchee , Palm Beach County , Florida , that Kogen used to visit when he was younger . " Old Money " was the first episode to feature Grampa 's full name , Abraham Simpson . Matt Groening , creator of The Simpsons , named the main characters after his own family members ( except for Bart , an anagram of brat , which he substituted for his own name ) , but refused to name Grampa after his grandfather , Abram Groening . He left it to the writers to choose a name and they chose " Abraham " , not knowing that it was also the name of Groening 's grandfather .
The now recurring character Professor Frink makes his first appearance on the show in this episode . Frink was originally written as a mad scientist , but when cast member Hank Azaria ad @-@ libbed a voice for Frink , he did an impression of Jerry Lewis 's The Nutty Professor character , and the writing staff started making Frink more of a parody of Lewis . Frink was named after The Simpsons writer John Frink ; however , that was before he became a writer for the show . The episode features a guest appearance from American actress Audrey Meadows as Bea . Al Jean , a writer on the show , said Meadows was perfect for the role because she was very sweet , and the staff had a lot of fun during the recording sessions with her . This is the only episode to date where the closing credits actually states which characters each actor voices . This was done because the staff often received questions from fans regarding what characters each voice actor provided the voice for .
= = Cultural references = =
The scene with Grampa and Bea eating their pills seductively is a reference to the 1963 film Tom Jones . Two of the people waiting in line to ask for Grampa 's money are Darth Vader and the Joker . When the family is suggesting places they could go , Homer suggests the Springfield Mystery Spot , a reference to the Mystery Spot in California — although Lisa says that the Springfield Spot is simply a puddle of mud . They eventually decide to go the Discount Lion Safari , however . The Diz @-@ Nee @-@ Land amusement park that Grampa visits with Bea 's money has a sign that reads " Diz @-@ Nee @-@ Land — Not affiliated with Disneyland , Walt Disney World , or anything else from the Walt Disney Company " . The shot of Grampa sitting at a diner resembles the 1942 American painting Nighthawks . Before Grampa attempts to bet all of his money on Roulette he quotes the poem " If — " by Rudyard Kipling . The climax scenes , where Grampa uses the money to fix up the Springfield Retirement Castle , is a reference to the ending of the 1932 film If I Had a Million . Dr. Marvin Monroe 's ' Monroe Box ' is meant to be a spoof of B. F. Skinner 's Skinner Box .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Old Money " finished thirty @-@ sixth in the ratings for the week of March 25 – 31 , 1991 , with a Nielsen Rating of 12 @.@ 4 . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week . The episode was released in video collection on May 4 , 1994 , called The Simpsons Collection , together with the episode " Dancin ' Homer " .
Since airing , the episode has received mixed reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote : " A wonderful episode , very sad but ultimately uplifting , with great one @-@ liners ( particularly from Grampa ) . " Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide was not as positive . He said , " With ' Old Money ' , we find easily the crummiest episode of season two . Actually , I ’ d call this clunker the only bad show of the year . " He went on to say , " I guess ' Old Money ' wasn ’ t a truly terrible episode , as it included a few funny moments . However , it seemed like one of the sappiest Simpsons episodes ever . The program became inundated with sentiment , and it did little to leaven that tide . In a generally strong season , ' Old Money ' stands out as the only real clunker . "
|
= Kansas Saloon Smashers =
Kansas Saloon Smashers is a 1901 comedy short film produced and distributed by Edison Studios . Directed by Edwin S. Porter , it is a satire of American activist Carrie Nation . The film portrays Nation and her followers entering and destroying a saloon . After the bartender retaliates by spraying Nation with water , policemen order them out ; the identities of the actors are not known . Inspiration for the film was provided by an editorial cartoon which appeared in the New York Evening Journal .
Kansas Saloon Smashers became a success upon its March release , and inspired other films about Nation to be produced by Lubin Manufacturing Company and Biograph Company . It was not the only film produced by Edison Studios to mock Nation ; released the same year , Why Mr. Nation Wants a Divorce parodied the relationship between Nation and her husband . A print of the film is preserved in the Library of Congress , and it was released on DVD in 2007 .
= = Plot = =
A bartender is working at a saloon , serving drinks to customers . After he fills a stereotypically Irish man 's bucket with beer , Carrie Nation and her followers burst inside . They assault the Irish man , pulling his hat over his eyes and then dumping the beer over his head . The group then begin wrecking the bar , smashing the fixtures , mirrors , and breaking the cash register . The bartender then sprays seltzer water in Nation 's face before a group of policemen appear and order everybody to leave .
= = Production = =
After American activist Carrie Nation first attacked a saloon in December 1900 , silent motion pictures dealing with the subject of alcohol began to be produced , a testament to Nation 's national notoriety and her influence over studios at the time . Kansas Saloon Smashers was produced by Edison Studios as a parody of Nation 's crusade . Charles Musser , a film historian , writes that " the front page of the New York Journal was an excellent indicator of events considered worthy of the Kinetograph Department 's attention throughout 1901 @-@ 1902 . "
The director of Kansas Saloon Smashers was Edwin S. Porter , a projectionist who came to work for Edison as a cameraman in 1900 . Eventually , Porter became the director responsible for all of Edison Studios ' output . Porter based the set off of a photograph of a wrecked saloon which appeared in the Journal , while the characters and plot were based on editorial cartoons published in the paper . Porter frequently read the publication when he wanted inspiration on topics that filmgoers would be interested in .
With production supervised by James H. White , Porter was assisted by George S. Fleming during the creation of Kansas Saloon Smashers . Fleming was an actor and scenic designer at Edison Studios , who had joined the studio in January 1901 . Porter operated the camera for the film , and also developed the footage . Kansas Saloon Smashers marked one of the first short films to be created under Fleming and Porter 's partnership . While none of the identities of the people who appeared in the picture are recorded , it is known the women in the film were played by men in drag , rendering them sexually unattractive .
Kansas Saloon Smashers features stop action techniques , used to portray Nation destroying the bar ; it was shot in black @-@ and @-@ white . A copyright was filed for the film on February 2 , 1903 . The finished product comprised around 60 to 65 feet ( around 18 m ) of 35 mm film . Kansas Saloon Smashers was not the only satire of Nation to be produced by Edison Studios . Why Mr. Nation Wants a Divorce , a comedy picture released the same year , was inspired by news articles on Nation 's husband requesting a divorce .
= = Critical analysis = =
Kansas Saloon Smashers has been categorized as burlesque , re @-@ enactment , and political satire . Being based on a recent news event , it is noted as helping further the " visual newspaper " style of film . The short portrays saloons as positive , sanitary places rather than immoral establishments . In Musser 's book The Emergence of Cinema , he writes that " the women 's invasion of a male refuge is seemingly attributed to sexual frustration and the concomitant need for revenge , " while author Karen Blumenthal opined that Kansas Saloon Smashers suggests women were only attacking due to a few miscreants being present in the establishments .
Film critic Dave Kehr noted in a 2007 The New York Times article that , along with Why Mr. Nation Wants a Divorce , the film now seems dated due to the fact that " the evil influence of liquor is no longer the burning question it was " . Critic Alan Scherstuhl wrote in Village Voice that the film worked as " evidence that the first things our visual mass @-@ media culture sold to its audience were comic licentiousness — and the impulse to clean such filth up . "
= = Release = =
Initially advertised as Mrs. Carrie Nation and Her Hatchet Brigade , Kansas Saloon Smashers was distributed by Edison Studios and first released on March 16 , 1901 . A unique publicity still was created for the film , a rare occasion at the time . Upon release , the film was screened at Bradenburgh 's Ninth and Arch Street Museum in Philadelphia , where it received an entire bill . Nevertheless , the short made Nation and her followers incensed , and Nation found the view of saloons Porter 's film offered to be " disturbing " .
The film proved to be very successful , inspiring other films about Nation to be produced by other studios ; Biograph Company made Carrie Nation Smashing a Saloon in April , while Lubin Manufacturing Company had produced a film entitled Mrs. Nation and Her Hatchet Brigade by early March . Siegmund Lubin had attempted to capitalize on the success of Kansas Saloon Smashers by making a film where Nation herself appeared ; when he was unable to contact her , an actress was hired to play her . Lubin arranged with a Camden bar owner to film a staged destruction scene ; however , the actress proved so convincing that bystanders began to destroy the bar for real and Lubin was forced to pay up to seven hundred dollars damage .
Kansas Saloon Smashers film is now in the public domain , and a paper print is preserved in the Library of Congress . This paper print was used to recover the film for a 2007 DVD release , as part of the compilation Social Issues in American Film 1900 – 1934 . The compilation , part of the Treasures from American Film Archives produced by the National Film Preservation Foundation , features several films from the period which had particular focus on common issues at their releases . The other Edison @-@ produced Nation film , Why Mr. Nation Wants a Divorce , is also included .
|
= Père Goriot =
Le Père Goriot ( French pronunciation : [ lə pɛʁ ɡɔʁjo ] , Old Goriot or Father Goriot ) is an 1835 novel by French novelist and playwright Honoré de Balzac ( 1799 – 1850 ) , included in the Scènes de la vie privée section of his novel sequence La Comédie humaine . Set in Paris in 1819 , it follows the intertwined lives of three characters : the elderly doting Goriot ; a mysterious criminal @-@ in @-@ hiding named Vautrin ; and a naive law student named Eugène de Rastignac .
Originally published in serial form during the winter of 1834 / 35 , Le Père Goriot is widely considered Balzac 's most important novel . It marks the first serious use by the author of characters who had appeared in other books , a technique that distinguishes Balzac 's fiction . The novel is also noted as an example of his realist style , using minute details to create character and subtext .
The novel takes place during the Bourbon Restoration , which brought profound changes to French society ; the struggle by individuals to secure a higher social status is a major theme in the book . The city of Paris also impresses itself on the characters – especially young Rastignac , who grew up in the provinces of southern France . Balzac analyzes , through Goriot and others , the nature of family and marriage , providing a pessimistic view of these institutions .
The novel was released to mixed reviews . Some critics praised the author for his complex characters and attention to detail ; others condemned him for his many depictions of corruption and greed . A favorite of Balzac 's , the book quickly won widespread popularity and has often been adapted for film and the stage . It gave rise to the French expression " Rastignac " , a social climber willing to use any means to better his situation .
= = Background = =
= = = Historical background = = =
Le Père Goriot begins in June 1819 , following Napoleon 's defeat at Waterloo , after the House of Bourbon had been restored to the throne of France . Tension was mounting between the aristocracy , which had returned with King Louis XVIII , and the bourgeoisie produced by the Industrial Revolution . During this era , France saw a tightening of social structures , with a lower class steeped in overwhelming poverty . By one estimate , almost three @-@ quarters of Parisians did not make the 500 – 600 francs a year required for a minimal standard of living . At the same time , this upheaval made possible a social mobility unthinkable during the Ancien Régime of previous centuries . Individuals willing to adapt themselves to the rules of this new society could sometimes ascend into its upper echelons from modest backgrounds , much to the distaste of the established wealthy class .
= = = Literary background = = =
When Balzac began writing Le Père Goriot in 1834 , he had written several dozen books , including a stream of pseudonymously published potboiler novels . In 1829 he published Les Chouans , the first novel to which he signed his own name ; this was followed by Louis Lambert ( 1832 ) , Le Colonel Chabert ( 1832 ) , and La Peau de chagrin ( 1831 ) . Around this time , Balzac began organizing his work into a sequence of novels that he eventually called La Comédie humaine , divided into sections representing various aspects of life in France during the early 19th century .
One of these aspects which fascinated Balzac was the life of crime . In the winter of 1828 – 29 , a French grifter @-@ turned @-@ policeman named Eugène François Vidocq published a pair of sensationalized memoirs recounting his criminal exploits . Balzac met Vidocq in April 1834 , and used him as a model for a character named Vautrin he was planning for an upcoming novel .
= = Writing and publication = =
In the summer of 1834 Balzac began to work on a tragic story about a father who is rejected by his daughters . His journal records several undated lines about the plot : " Subject of Old Goriot – A good man – middle @-@ class lodging @-@ house – 600 fr. income – having stripped himself bare for his daughters who both have 50 @,@ 000 fr. income – dying like a dog . " He wrote the first draft of Le Père Goriot in forty autumn days ; it was published as a serial in the Revue de Paris between December and February . It was released as a novel in March 1835 by the publishing house of Werdet , who also published the second edition in May . A much @-@ revised third edition was published in 1839 by Charpentier . As was his custom , Balzac made copious notes and changes on proofs he received from publishers , so that the later editions of his novels were often significantly different from the earliest . In the case of Le Père Goriot , he changed a number of the characters into persons from other novels he had written , and added new paragraphs filled with detail .
The character Eugène de Rastignac had appeared as an old man in Balzac 's earlier philosophical fantasy novel La Peau de chagrin . While writing the first draft of Le Père Goriot , Balzac named the character " Massiac " , but he decided to use the same character from La Peau de chagrin . Other characters were changed in a similar fashion . It was his first structured use of recurring characters , a practice whose depth and rigor came to characterize his novels .
In 1843 Balzac placed Le Père Goriot in the section of La Comédie humaine entitled " Scènes de la vie parisienne " ( " Scenes of life in Paris " ) . Quickly thereafter , he reclassified it – due to its intense focus on the private lives of its characters – as one of the " Scènes de la vie privée " ( " Scenes of private life " ) . These categories and the novels in them were his attempt to create a body of work " depicting all society , sketching it in the immensity of its turmoil " . Although he had prepared only a small predecessor for La Comédie humaine , entitled Études de Mœurs , at this time , Balzac carefully considered each work 's place in the project and frequently rearranged its structure .
= = Plot summary = =
The novel opens with an extended description of the Maison Vauquer , a boarding house in Paris ' rue Neuve @-@ Sainte @-@ Geneviève covered with vines , owned by the widow Madame Vauquer . The residents include the law student Eugène de Rastignac , a mysterious agitator named Vautrin , and an elderly retired vermicelli @-@ maker named Jean @-@ Joachim Goriot . The old man is ridiculed frequently by the other boarders , who soon learn that he has bankrupted himself to support his two well @-@ married daughters .
Rastignac , who moved to Paris from the south of France , becomes attracted to the upper class . He has difficulty fitting in , but is tutored by his cousin , Madame de Beauséant , in the ways of high society . Rastignac endears himself to one of Goriot 's daughters , Delphine , after extracting money from his own already @-@ poor family . Vautrin , meanwhile , tries to convince Rastignac to pursue an unmarried woman named Victorine , whose family fortune is blocked only by her brother . He offers to clear the way for Rastignac by having the brother killed in a duel .
Rastignac refuses to go along with the plot , balking at the idea of having someone killed to acquire their wealth , but he takes note of Vautrin 's machinations . This is a lesson in the harsh realities of high society . Before long , the boarders learn that police are seeking Vautrin , revealed to be a master criminal nicknamed Trompe @-@ la @-@ Mort ( " Cheater of Death " ) . Vautrin arranges for a friend to kill Victorine 's brother , in the meantime , and is captured by the police .
Goriot , supportive of Rastignac 's interest in his daughter and furious with her husband 's tyrannical control over her , finds himself unable to help . When his other daughter , Anastasie , informs him that she has been selling off her husband 's family jewelry to pay her lover 's debts , the old man is overcome with grief at his own impotence and suffers a stroke .
Delphine does not visit Goriot as he lies on his deathbed , and Anastasie arrives too late , only once he has lost consciousness . Before dying , Goriot rages about their disrespect toward him . His funeral is attended only by Rastignac , a servant named Christophe , and two paid mourners . Goriot 's daughters , rather than being present at the funeral , send their empty coaches , each bearing their families ' respective coat of arms . After the short ceremony , Rastignac turns to face Paris as the lights of evening begin to appear . He sets out to dine with Delphine de Nucingen and declares to the city : " À nous deux , maintenant ! " ( " It 's between you and me now ! " )
= = Style = =
Balzac 's style in Le Père Goriot is influenced by the American novelist James Fenimore Cooper and Scottish writer Walter Scott . In Cooper 's representations of Native Americans , Balzac saw a human barbarism that survived through attempts at civilization . In a preface to the second edition in 1835 , Balzac wrote that the title character Goriot – who made his fortune selling vermicelli during a time of widespread hunger – was an " Illinois of the flour trade " and a " Huron of the grain market " . Vautrin refers to Paris as " a forest of the New World where twenty varieties of savage tribes clash " – another sign of Cooper 's influence .
Scott was also a profound influence on Balzac , particularly in his use of real historical events as the backdrop for his novels . Although history is not central to Le Père Goriot , the post @-@ Napoleonic era serves as an important setting , and Balzac 's use of meticulous detail reflects the influence of Scott . In his 1842 introduction to La Comédie humaine , Balzac praises Scott as a " modern troubadour " who " vivified [ literature ] with the spirit of the past " . At the same time , Balzac accused the Scottish writer of romanticizing history , and tried to distinguish his own work with a more balanced view of human nature .
Although the novel is often referred to as " a mystery " , it is not an example of whodunit or detective fiction . Instead , the central puzzles are the origins of suffering and the motivations of unusual behavior . Characters appear in fragments , with brief scenes providing small clues about their identity . Vautrin , for example , slips in and out of the story – offering advice to Rastignac , ridiculing Goriot , bribing the housekeeper Christophe to let him in after hours – before he is revealed as a master criminal . This pattern of people moving in and out of view mirrors Balzac 's use of characters throughout La Comédie humaine .
Le Père Goriot is also recognized as a bildungsroman , wherein a naive young person matures while learning the ways of the world . Rastignac is tutored by Vautrin , Madame de Beauséant , Goriot , and others about the truth of Parisian society and the coldly dispassionate and brutally realistic strategies required for social success . As an everyman , he is initially repulsed by the gruesome realities beneath society 's gilded surfaces ; eventually , however , he embraces them . Setting aside his original goal of mastering the law , he pursues money and women as instruments for social climbing . In some ways this mirrors Balzac 's own social education , reflecting the distaste he acquired for the law after studying it for three years .
= = = Recurring characters = = =
Le Père Goriot , especially in its revised form , marks an important early instance of Balzac 's trademark use of recurring characters : persons from earlier novels appear in later works , usually during significantly different times of life . Pleased with the effect he achieved with the return of Rastignac , Balzac included 23 characters in the first edition of Le Père Goriot that would recur in later works ; during his revisions for later editions the number increased to 48 . Although Balzac had used this technique before , the characters had always reappeared in minor roles , as nearly identical versions of the same people . Rastignac 's appearance shows , for the first time in Balzac 's fiction , a novel @-@ length backstory that illuminates and develops a returning character .
Balzac experimented with this method throughout the thirty years he worked on La Comédie humaine . It enabled a depth of characterization that went beyond simple narration or dialogue . " When the characters reappear " , notes the critic Samuel Rogers , " they do not step out of nowhere ; they emerge from the privacy of their own lives which , for an interval , we have not been allowed to see . " Although the complexity of these characters ' lives inevitably led Balzac to make errors of chronology and consistency , the mistakes are considered minor in the overall scope of the project . Readers are more often troubled by the sheer number of people in Balzac 's world , and feel deprived of important context for the characters . Detective novelist Arthur Conan Doyle said that he never tried to read Balzac , because he " did not know where to begin " .
This pattern of character reuse had repercussions for the plot of Le Père Goriot . Baron de Nucingen 's reappearance in La Maison Nucingen ( 1837 ) reveals that his wife 's love affair with Rastignac was planned and coordinated by the baron himself . This new detail sheds considerable light on the actions of all three characters within the pages of Le Père Goriot , complementing the evolution of their stories in the later novel .
= = = Realism = = =
Balzac uses meticulous , abundant detail to describe the Maison Vauquer , its inhabitants , and the world around them ; this technique gave rise to his title as the father of the realist novel . The details focus mostly on the penury of the residents of the Maison Vauquer . Much less intricate are the descriptions of wealthier homes ; Madame de Beauséant 's rooms are given scant attention , and the Nucingen family lives in a house sketched in the briefest detail .
At the start of the novel , Balzac declares ( in English ) : " All is true " . Although the characters and situations are fictions , the details employed – and their reflection of the realities of life in Paris at the time – faithfully render the world of the Maison Vauquer . The rue Neuve @-@ Sainte @-@ Geneviève ( where the house is located ) presents " a grim look about the houses , a suggestion of a jail about those high garden walls " . The interiors of the house are painstakingly described , from the shabby sitting room ( " Nothing can be more depressing " ) to the coverings on the walls depicting a feast ( " papers that a little suburban tavern would have disdained " ) – an ironic decoration in a house known for its wretched food . Balzac owed the former detail to the expertise of his friend Hyacinthe de Latouche , who was trained in the practice of hanging wallpaper . The house is even defined by its repulsive smell , unique to the poor boardinghouse .
= = Themes = =
= = = Social stratification = = =
One of the main themes in Le Père Goriot is the quest to understand and ascend society 's strata . The Charter of 1814 granted by King Louis XVIII had established a " legal country " which allowed only a small group of the nation 's most wealthy men to vote . Thus , Rastignac 's drive to achieve social status is evidence not only of his personal ambition but also of his desire to participate in the body politic . As with Scott 's characters , Rastignac epitomizes , in his words and actions , the Zeitgeist in which he lives .
Through his characters and narration , Balzac lays bare the social Darwinism of this society . In one particularly blunt speech , Madame de Beauséant tells Rastignac :
The more cold @-@ blooded your calculations , the further you will go . Strike ruthlessly ; you will be feared . Men and women for you must be nothing more than post @-@ horses ; take a fresh relay , and leave the last to drop by the roadside ; in this way you will reach the goal of your ambition . You will be nothing here , you see , unless a woman interests herself in you ; and she must be young and wealthy , and a woman of the world . Yet , if you have a heart , lock it carefully away like a treasure ; do not let any one suspect it , or you will be lost ; you would cease to be the executioner , you would take the victim 's place . And if ever you should love , never let your secret escape you !
This attitude is further explored by Vautrin , who tells Rastignac : " The secret of a great success for which you are at a loss to account is a crime that has never been discovered , because it was properly executed . " This sentence has been frequently – and somewhat inaccurately – paraphrased as : " Behind every great fortune is a great crime . "
= = = Influence of Paris = = =
The novel 's representations of social stratification are specific to Paris , perhaps the most densely populated city in Europe at the time . Traveling only a few blocks – as Rastignac does continually – takes the reader into vastly different worlds , distinguished by their architecture and reflecting the class of their inhabitants . Paris in the post @-@ Napoleonic era was split into distinct neighborhoods . Three of these are featured prominently in Le Père Goriot : the aristocratic area around the Boulevard Saint @-@ Germain , the newly upscale quarter of the rue de la Chaussée @-@ d 'Antin , and the run @-@ down area on the eastern slope of the Montagne Sainte @-@ Geneviève .
These quartiers of the city serve as microcosms which Rastignac seeks to master ; Vautrin , meanwhile , operates in stealth , moving among them undetected . Rastignac , as the naive young man from the country , seeks in these worlds a new home . Paris offers him a chance to abandon his far @-@ away family and remake himself in the city 's ruthless image . His urban exodus is like that of many people who moved into the French capital , doubling its population between 1800 and 1830 . The texture of the novel is thus inextricably linked to the city in which it is set ; " Paris " , explains critic Peter Brooks , " is the looming presence that gives the novel its particular tone " .
= = = Corruption = = =
Rastignac , Vautrin , and Goriot represent individuals corrupted by their desires . In his thirst for advancement , Rastignac has been compared to Faust , with Vautrin as Mephistopheles . Critic Pierre Barbéris calls Vautrin 's lecture to Rastignac " one of the great moments of the Comédie humaine , and no doubt of all world literature " . France 's social upheaval provides Vautrin with a playground for an ideology based solely on personal advancement ; he encourages Rastignac to follow suit .
Still , it is the larger social structure that finally overwhelms Rastignac 's soul – Vautrin merely explains the methods and causes . Although he rejects Vautrin 's offer of murder , Rastignac succumbs to the principles of brutality upon which high society is built . By the end of the novel , he tells Bianchon : " I 'm in Hell , and I have no choice but to stay there . "
While Rastignac desires wealth and social status , Goriot longs only for the love of his daughters : a longing that borders on idolatry . Because he represents bourgeois wealth acquired through trade – and not aristocratic primitive accumulation – his daughters are happy to take his money , but will see him only in private . Even as he is dying in extreme poverty , at the end of the book , he sells his few remaining possessions to provide for his daughters so that they might look splendid at a ball .
= = = Family relations = = =
The relations between family members follow two patterns : the bonds of marriage serve mostly as Machiavellian means to financial ends , while the obligations of the older generation to the young take the form of sacrifice and deprivation . Delphine is trapped in a loveless marriage to Baron de Nucingen , a money @-@ savvy banker . He is aware of her extramarital affairs , and uses them as a means to extort money from her . Anastasie , meanwhile , is married to the comte de Restaud , who cares less about the illegitimate children she has than the jewels she sells to provide for her lover – who is conning her in a scheme that Rastignac has heard was popular in Paris . This depiction of marriage as a tool of power reflects the harsh reality of the unstable social structures of the time .
Parents , meanwhile , give endlessly to their children ; Goriot sacrifices everything for his daughters . Balzac refers to him in the novel as the " Christ of paternity " for his constant suffering on behalf of his children . That they abandon him , lost in their pursuit of social status , only adds to his misery . The end of the book contrasts Goriot 's deathbed moments with a festive ball hosted by Madame de Beauséant – attended by his daughters , as well as Rastignac – suggesting a fundamental schism between society and the family .
The betrayal of Goriot 's daughters is often compared to that of the characters in Shakespeare 's King Lear ; Balzac was even accused of plagiarism when the novel was first published . Discussing these similarities , critic George Saintsbury claims that Goriot 's daughters are " as surely murderesses of their father as [ Lear 's daughters ] Goneril and Regan " . As Herbert J. Hunt points out in Balzac 's Comédie humaine , however , Goriot 's tale is in some ways more tragic , since " he has a Regan and a Goneril , but no Cordelia " .
The narrative of Goriot 's painful relations with his children has also been interpreted as a tragicomic parable of Louis XVI 's decline . At a crucial moment of filial sentiment in Balzac 's novel , Vautrin breaks in singing " O Richard , O mon roi " — the royalist anthem that precipitated the October Days of 1789 and the eventual downfall of Louis XVI — a connection that would have been powerful to Balzac 's readers in the 1830s . An ill @-@ founded faith in paternal legitimacy follows both Goriot and Louis XVI into the grave .
Rastignac 's family , off @-@ stage , also sacrifices extensively for him . Convinced that he cannot achieve a decent status in Paris without a considerable display of wealth , he writes to his family and asks them to send him money : " Sell some of your old jewelry , my kind mother ; I will give you other jewels very soon . " They do send him the money he requests , and – although it is not described directly in the novel – endure significant hardship for themselves as a result . His family , absent while he is in Paris , becomes even more distant despite this sacrifice . Although Goriot and Vautrin offer themselves as father figures to him , by the end of the novel they are gone and he is alone .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Le Père Goriot is widely considered Balzac 's essential novel . Its influence on French literature has been considerable , as shown by novelist Félicien Marceau 's remark : " We are all children of Le Père Goriot . " Brooks refers to its " perfection of form , its economy of means and ends " . Martin Kanes , meanwhile , in his book Le Pére Goriot : Anatomy of a Troubled World , calls it " the keystone of the Comédie humaine " . It is the central text of Anthony Pugh 's voluminous study Balzac 's Recurring Characters , and entire chapters have been written about the detail of the Maison Vauquer . Because it has become such an important novel for the study of French literature , Le Père Goriot has been translated many times into many languages . Thus , says Balzac biographer Graham Robb , " Goriot is one of the novels of La Comédie humaine that can safely be read in English for what it is . "
Initial reviews of the book were mixed . Some reviewers accused Balzac of plagiarism or of overwhelming the reader with detail and painting a simplistic picture of Parisian high society . Others attacked the questionable morals of the characters , implying that Balzac was guilty of legitimizing their opinions . He was condemned for not including more individuals of honorable intent in the book . Balzac responded with disdain ; in the second preface of 1835 , he wrote with regard to Goriot : " Poor man ! His daughters refused to recognize him because he had lost his fortune ; now the critics have rejected him with the excuse that he was immoral . "
Many critics of the time , though , were positive : a review in Le Journal des femmes proclaimed that Balzac 's eye " penetrates everywhere , like a cunning serpent , to probe women 's most intimate secrets " . Another review , in La Revue du théâtre , praised his " admirable technique of details " . The many reviews , positive and negative , were evidence of the book 's popularity and success . One publisher 's critique dismissed Balzac as a " boudoir writer " , although it predicted for him " a brief career , but a glorious and enviable one " .
Balzac himself was extremely proud of the work , declaring even before the final installment was published : " Le Père Goriot is a raging success ; my fiercest enemies have had to bend the knee . I have triumphed over everything , over friends as well as the envious . " As was his custom , he revised the novel between editions ; compared to other novels , however , Le Père Goriot remained largely unchanged from its initial version .
In the years following its release , the novel was often adapted for the stage . Two theatrical productions in 1835 – several months after the book 's publication – sustained its popularity and increased the public 's regard for Balzac . In the 20th century , a number of film versions were produced , including adaptations directed by Travers Vale ( 1915 ) , Jacques de Baroncelli ( 1922 ) , and Paddy Russell ( 1968 ) . The name of Rastignac , meanwhile , has become an iconic sobriquet in the French language ; a " Rastignac " is synonymous with a person willing to climb the social ladder at any cost .
Another well known line of this book by Balzac is when Vautrin tells Eugene , " In that case I will make you an offer that no one would decline . " This has been reworked by Mario Puzo in the novel The Godfather ( 1969 ) and its film adaptation ( 1972 ) ; " I 'm gonna make him an offer he can 't refuse " . It was ranked as the second most significant cinematic quote in AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes ( 2005 ) by the American Film Institute .
|
= Hurricane Cindy ( 1959 ) =
Hurricane Cindy impacted the Carolinas , the Mid @-@ Atlantic states , New England , and the Canadian Maritime Provinces during the 1959 Atlantic hurricane season . The third storm of the season , Cindy originated from a low @-@ pressure area associated with a cold front located east of northern Florida . The low developed into a tropical depression on July 5 while tracking north @-@ northeastward , and became Tropical Storm Cindy by the next day . Cindy turned westward because of a high @-@ pressure area positioned to its north , and further intensified into a weak hurricane off the coast of the Carolinas on July 8 . Early on July 9 , Cindy made landfall near McClellanville , South Carolina , and re @-@ curved to the northeast along the fall line as a tropical depression . It re @-@ entered the Atlantic on July 10 , quickly restrengthening into a tropical storm while it began to move faster . On July 11 , Cindy passed over Cape Cod , while several other weather systems helped the storm maintain its intensity . Cindy transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on July 12 as it neared the Canadian Maritime Provinces .
Overall structural damage from Cindy was minimal . One driver was killed in Georgetown , South Carolina after colliding with a fallen tree , and five indirect deaths were caused by poor road conditions wrought by the storm in New England . Many areas experienced heavy rains , and several thousand people evacuated . Other than broken tree limbs , shattered windows and power outages , little damage occurred . Cindy brought a total of eleven tornadoes with it , of which two caused minor damage in North Carolina . The heaviest rainfall occurred in north central South Carolina , where rainfall amounted to 9 @.@ 79 inches ( 249 mm ) . Tides ranged from 1 to 4 feet ( 0 @.@ 30 to 1 @.@ 22 m ) above normal along the coast . As drought @-@ like conditions were present in the Carolinas at the time , the rainfall produced by Hurricane Cindy in the area was beneficial . After becoming extratropical over the Canadian Maritimes , the cyclone produced heavy rains and strong winds that sunk one ship . Damage caused by Cindy was estimated at $ 75 @,@ 000 ( 1959 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Cindy can be attributed to a deepening low @-@ pressure area that tracked from the Great Lakes as a related cold front traveled southeastward and became stationary over the Atlantic , extending from northern Florida to Bermuda . On July 5 , the front spawned a separate cut @-@ off cold @-@ core low off the coast of the Carolinas . This complex scenario resulted in the formation of a tropical depression later during the day , which slowly meandered north @-@ northeastward . Tropical cyclones of this origin typically remain at a small size and evolve slowly , and Cindy complied to this pattern .
Convection began to increase on July 6 , supported on the basis that many showers were observed to the north of the depression . An anticyclone — a large mass of air rotating clockwise — intensified within the depression 's vicinity , resulting in a tighter pressure gradient and increasing winds to the north of the center of the depression . The depression intensified into Tropical Storm Cindy early on July 7 , and a reconnaissance flight into the storm late during the afternoon observed maximum sustained winds of 60 – 65 mph ( 95 – 100 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 997 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 44 inHg ) . Cindy began to curve westward late on July 7 as it reached peak intensity , with a minimum central pressure of 996 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 41 inHg ) , and drifted due west early on July 8 as a result of a maturing surface high to its north . Steady intensification continued throughout the day , and the storm attained hurricane status during the morning of July 8 .
At approximately 2 : 45 UTC on July 9 , the hurricane made landfall near McClellanville , South Carolina . Shortly thereafter , Cindy began re @-@ curving northwestward along the fall line , and eventually weakened to a tropical depression . The depression abruptly turned toward the east @-@ northeast over North Carolina during the afternoon hours of July 9 . Cindy then began to accelerate as it curved slightly towards the northeast , and eventually regained tropical storm status late on July 10 as it emerged into the Atlantic . Cindy scraped the southern fringe of the Delmarva Peninsula near the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay at approximately 00 : 00 UTC on July 11 , and rapidly traveled northeastward during the day . Cindy passed over Cape Cod near the mid @-@ morning of July 11 , during which a series of shortwave troughs passed near the storm , producing high @-@ level outflow that helped Cindy maintain intensity . Later on July 11 , Cindy moved ashore in New Brunswick and made landfall over Prince Edward Island the following day . The storm subsequently moved over Quebec and Labrador , where it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Cindy prompted a hurricane watch and gale warnings for areas extending from Cape Hatteras , North Carolina , to Charleston , South Carolina , and a hurricane warning for areas between Beaufort and Georgetown , South Carolina , on July 8 . A preliminary alert was issued for naval and marine areas in the Carolinas from Norfolk , Virginia . Special forecasts from the Weather Bureau office in Columbia , South Carolina were activated on the radio at 16 : 50 UTC on July 8 . Several thousand people evacuated in areas of South Carolina , including Folly Beach , Sullivan 's Island , Isle of Palms , and Pawleys Island . The issuance of an emergency flood forecast for Columbia , South Carolina occurred as a result of Cindy .
The highest rainfall total measured was 9 @.@ 79 inches ( 249 mm ) in Winnsboro , South Carolina , although unofficial sources east of Columbia , South Carolina , measured rainfall totals of up to 15 inches ( 380 mm ) . Tides ranged from 1 to 4 feet ( 0 @.@ 30 to 1 @.@ 22 m ) above normal . A total of eleven tornadoes were reported in association with Cindy . Only one direct death was caused by Cindy , in addition to five indirect deaths . Little damage was attributed to the hurricane , other than downed tree limbs and broken windows . Damage from Cindy was estimated at $ 75 @,@ 000 ( 1959 USD ) .
= = = South Carolina = = =
A driver was killed in Georgetown on U.S. Route 17 after colliding with a fallen tree . Along the main street of Georgetown , the Sampit River topped its banks , resulting in flooding that impacted business in the area . At Georgetown , tides were about 2 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 76 m ) above normal during Cindy , while at McClellanville , the point of landfall , tides were approximately 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) above normal . At Folly Beach , Sullivan 's Island , and Isle of Palms , only 600 people of the normal population of approximately 6 @,@ 500 chose not to evacuate . Strong winds that accompanied Cindy snapped tree limbs , shattered a few windows , damaged roofs , and knocked power out in Charleston , but little other damage was wrought . Several points throughout the state measured at least 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of rainfall , including Columbia , Charleston , Myrtle Beach , and Sumter .
The Congaree River rose dramatically near Columbia during the hurricane , where rainfall totaled 5 @.@ 82 inches ( 148 mm ) , although some reliable unofficial sources state the figure to be 15 inches ( 380 mm ) . Several thousand sought safety in Red Cross shelters in schools and armories , though the Weather Bureau announced it was safe for evacuees in Charleston to return to their homes shortly after the storm came ashore . Most of the rainfall produced by Cindy was beneficial to drought @-@ stricken regions , albeit not enough to provide significant relief .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
As Cindy moved inland , tornadoes touched down in North Carolina , Virginia , and Maryland along the outer bands of the storm . A tornado was observed near Nags Head around 17 : 40 UTC on July 10 , and a second was observed 25 minutes later . Both tornadoes caused minimal damage – the first damaged four buildings and the second uprooted trees and toppled power poles . In addition , two waterspouts were noted offshore North Carolina , of which one was near New Topsail Beach in the mid @-@ morning of July 8 and another near Sneads Ferry . No damage was reported from the waterspouts .
Prior to the storm 's landfall in the Carolinas , tides at Wilmington , North Carolina , were 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) above normal ; tides were near the same level at other areas of the southern fringes of North Carolina . In New England , five indirect deaths resulted from traffic accidents on highways as a result of the slippery conditions on roads wrought by Cindy 's rains . At Boston , 2 @.@ 37 inches ( 60 mm ) of rainfall was measured , while 2 @.@ 85 inches ( 72 mm ) fell at Bedford . Between the cities of Atlantic City , New Jersey , and Eastport , Maine , tides were 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) above normal . Rainfall in the Mid @-@ Atlantic peaked at 8 @.@ 43 inches ( 214 mm ) at Belleplain State Forest in New Jersey , while rainfall in New England peaked at 3 @.@ 85 inches ( 98 mm ) at Lake Konomoc , Connecticut . Rainfall was also recorded in Georgia , Delaware , Pennsylvania , New York , Connecticut , Rhode Island , Vermont , New Hampshire , and Maine .
Most impacts in Canada occurred after the hurricane transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . Cindy brought strong winds and downpours along the coast of Nova Scotia . Many small vessels sought safety , but the ship Lady Godiva sank near North West Arm ; the two people on board were later rescued . No damage was reported on the island itself . In New Brunswick , up to 2 inches ( 50 mm ) of rainfall was produced by Cindy , although no damage is known to have been reported .
|
= Eight Miles High =
" Eight Miles High " is a song by the American rock band the Byrds , written by Gene Clark , Jim McGuinn ( a.k.a. Roger McGuinn ) , and David Crosby and first released as a single on March 14 , 1966 ( see 1966 in music ) . Musically influenced by Ravi Shankar and John Coltrane , " Eight Miles High " , along with its McGuinn and Crosby @-@ penned B @-@ side " Why " , was influential in developing the musical styles of psychedelic rock , raga rock , and psychedelic pop . Accordingly , critics often cite " Eight Miles High " as being the first bona fide psychedelic rock song , as well as a classic of the counterculture era .
The song was subject to a U.S. radio ban shortly after its release , following allegations published in the broadcasting trade journal the Gavin Report regarding perceived drug connotations in its lyrics . The band strenuously denied these allegations at the time , but in later years both Clark and Crosby admitted that the song was at least partly inspired by their own drug use . The failure of " Eight Miles High " to reach the Billboard Top 10 is usually attributed to the broadcasting ban , but some commentators have suggested that the song 's complexity and uncommercial nature were greater factors .
" Eight Miles High " reached number 14 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and number 24 in the UK Singles Chart . The song was also included on the band 's third album , Fifth Dimension , which was released on July 18 , 1966 . " Eight Miles High " became the Byrds ' third and final U.S. Top 20 hit , and was also their last release before the departure of Gene Clark , the band 's principal songwriter at the time .
= = History = =
= = = Composition = = =
The song 's lyrics are , for the most part , about the group 's flight to London in August 1965 and their accompanying English tour , as hinted at by the opening couplet : " Eight miles high and when you touch down , you 'll find that it 's stranger than known . " Although commercial airliners fly at an altitude of six to seven miles , it was felt that " eight miles high " sounded more poetic than six and also recalled the title of the Beatles ' song " Eight Days a Week " .
According to Clark , the lyrics were primarily his creation , with a minor contribution being David Crosby 's line , " Rain grey town , known for its sound " , a reference to London as home to the British Invasion , which was then dominating U.S. music charts . Other lyrics in the song that explicitly refer to the Byrds ' stay in England include the couplet : " Nowhere is there warmth to be found / Among those afraid of losing their ground " , which is a reference to the hostile reaction of the UK music press and to the English group the Birds serving the band with a copyright infringement writ , due to the similarities in name . In addition , " Round the squares , huddled in storms / Some laughing , some just shapeless forms " describes fans waiting for the band outside hotels , while the line " Sidewalk scenes and black limousines " refers to the excited crowds that jostled the band as they exited their chauffeur @-@ driven cars .
Although the basic idea for the song had been discussed during the band 's flight to England , it didn 't actually begin to take shape until the Byrds ' November 1965 tour of the U.S. To alleviate the boredom of traveling from show to show during the tour , Crosby had brought along cassette recordings of Ravi Shankar 's music and the John Coltrane albums Impressions and Africa / Brass , which were on constant rotation on the tour bus . The influence of these recordings on the band would manifest itself in the music of " Eight Miles High " and its B @-@ side " Why " .
Clark began writing the song 's lyrics on November 24 , 1965 , when he scribbled down some rough ideas for later development , following a discussion with guitarist Brian Jones , before the Byrds made a concert appearance supporting the Rolling Stones . Over the following days , Clark expanded this fragment into a full poem , eventually setting the words to music and giving them a melody . Clark then showed the song to McGuinn and Crosby , with the former suggesting that the song be arranged to incorporate Coltrane 's influence . Since Clark 's death , however , McGuinn has contended that it was he who conceived the initial idea of writing a song about an airplane ride and that he and Crosby both contributed lyrics to Clark 's unfinished draft . In his book , Mr. Tambourine Man : The Life and Legacy of the Byrds ' Gene Clark , author John Einarson disputes this claim and ponders whether McGuinn 's story would be the same were Clark still alive .
= = = Recording = = =
The master recording of " Eight Miles High " was recorded on January 24 and 25 , 1966 , at Columbia Studios in Hollywood , with record producer Allen Stanton guiding the band through the recording process . John Einarson has noted that the influence of Coltrane 's saxophone playing and , in particular , his song " India " from the Impressions album , can be clearly heard in " Eight Miles High " — most noticeably in McGuinn 's recurring twelve @-@ string guitar solo . In addition to this striking guitar motif , the song is also highlighted by Chris Hillman 's driving and hypnotic bass line , Crosby 's chunky rhythm guitar playing and the band 's ethereal harmonies .
" Eight Miles High " also exhibits the influence of sitarist Ravi Shankar , particularly in the droning quality of the song 's vocal melody and in McGuinn 's guitar playing . However , the song does not actually feature the sound of the sitar , despite the Byrds having appeared brandishing the instrument at a contemporary press conference held to promote the single . In a 1966 promotional interview , which was added to the expanded CD reissue of the Fifth Dimension album , Crosby said that the song 's ending made him " feel like a plane landing . "
An earlier version of " Eight Miles High " was recorded at RCA Studios in Los Angeles on December 22 , 1965 , but Columbia Records refused to release that recording because it had not been produced at a Columbia @-@ owned studio . McGuinn has since stated that he believes this original version of the song to be more spontaneous sounding than the better known Columbia release . That opinion was echoed by Crosby , who commented " It was a stunner , it was better , it was stronger . It had more flow to it . It was the way we wanted it to be . " This original version of " Eight Miles High " initially saw release on the 1987 archival album Never Before and was also included as a bonus track on the 1996 Columbia / Legacy CD reissue of Fifth Dimension .
= = Release and legacy = =
= = = U.S. radio ban = = =
" Eight Miles High " was released on March 14 , 1966 in the U.S. and May 29 , 1966 in the UK , reaching number 14 on the Billboard Hot 100 , and number 24 on the UK Singles Chart . Following its release , the band faced allegations of advocating the use of recreational drugs from Bill Gavin 's Record Report , a weekly newsletter circulated to U.S. radio stations . This resulted in " Eight Miles High " being banned in a number of states within a week of the report being published , a factor which contributed to the single 's failure to break into the Billboard Top 10 . The Byrds and their publicist , Derek Taylor , countered by strenuously denying that the song was drug @-@ related , with Taylor issuing an indignant press release unequivocally stating that the song was about the band 's trip to England and not drug use . However , by the early 1980s , both Crosby and Clark were prepared to admit that the song was not entirely as innocent as they had originally declared , with the former stating " Of course it was a drug song ! We were stoned when we wrote it . " Clark was less blunt , explaining in interview that " it was about a lot of things . It was about the airplane trip to England , it was about drugs , it was about all that . A piece of poetry of that nature is not limited to having it have to be just about airplanes or having it have to be just about drugs . It was inclusive because during those days the new experimenting with all the drugs was a very vogue thing to do . "
Research analyst Mark Teehan , writing for Popular Musicology Online , has challenged the widely held view among critics , music historians and the Byrds themselves that the U.S. radio ban hurt sales of " Eight Miles High " . Having examined the local music surveys and the Billboard regional retail sales charts , as they relate to the national charting of " Eight Miles High " , Teehan has uncovered evidence suggesting that the progressive and uncommercial nature of the song was a much bigger factor in its failure to reach the Billboard Top 10 . The author 's research revealed that " Eight Miles High " failed to reach the Top Five in any of his sample of 23 regional markets , and most telling , among the thirty radio stations included within this sample , it reached the Top 10 on only seven of them ( 23 % ) .
Teehan points out that although the Gavin Report recommended that radio stations withdraw the single from airplay , many stations did not comply with this request . In addition , Teehan notes that the radio ban was not suggested by the Gavin Report until April 29 , 1966 , almost seven weeks after the single had initially been released — ample time for it to have made its mark on the charts . Teehan has uncovered evidence showing that " Eight Miles High " was already decelerating on the national charts before the end of April 1966 . He concludes that the groundbreaking song lacked strong commercial appeal by virtue of its complexity , unique sound , and excessive length ( commercial radio stations were reluctant to play songs that were over two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes long during the mid @-@ 1960s ) , and that it suffered from uncoordinated and inefficient promotion by Columbia Records .
= = = Influence and reception = = =
The song 's use of Indian and free @-@ form jazz influences , along with its impressionistic lyrics , were immediately influential on the emerging genre of psychedelic rock . Accordingly , some authors and music historians , including Eric V. D. Luft , Domenic Priore , and Dwight Rounds , have described " Eight Miles High " as being the first bona fide psychedelic rock song . In his book Riot On Sunset Strip : Rock ' n ' Roll 's Last Stand in Hollywood , Priore cites " Eight Miles High " as being the record that kicked off the psychedelic craze , explaining " prior to ' Eight Miles High , ' there were no pop records with incessant , hypnotic basslines juxtaposed by droning , trance @-@ induced improvisational guitar . "
The song was responsible for the naming of the musical subgenre raga rock , when journalist Sally Kempton , in her review of the single for The Village Voice , used the term to describe the record 's experimental fusion of eastern and western music . However , although Kempton was the first person to use the term raga rock in print , she had actually borrowed the phrase from the promotional material that the Byrds ' press office had supplied to accompany the " Eight Miles High " single release . In a 1968 interview for the Pop Chronicles radio documentary , McGuinn denied that the song was in fact an example of raga rock , while Crosby , speaking in 1998 , dismissed the term entirely , stating " they kept trying to label us ; every time we turned around , they came up with a new one ... it 's a bunch of bullshit . " Nonetheless , the experimental nature of the song placed the Byrds firmly at the forefront of the burgeoning psychedelic movement , along with the Yardbirds , the Beatles , Donovan and the Rolling Stones , who were all exploring similar musical territory concurrently .
Contemporary reviews for the single were mostly positive , with Billboard magazine describing the song as a " Big beat rhythm rocker with soft lyric ballad vocal and off @-@ beat instrumental backing . " Record World magazine also praised the song , commenting " It 's an eerie tune with lyrics bound to hypnotize . Will climb heights . " In the UK , Music Echo described the song as " wild and oriental but still beaty " . The publication also suggested that with the release of " Eight Miles High " the Byrds had jumped ahead of the Beatles in terms of creativity , stating " [ By ] getting their single out now they 've beaten the Beatles to the punch , for Paul [ McCartney ] admitted recently that the Liverpool foursome are working on a similar sound for their new album and single . " In recent years , Richie Unterberger , writing for the Allmusic website , has described " Eight Miles High " as " one of the greatest singles of the ' 60s . "
In 1999 , the song was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame , an honor reserved for " recordings of lasting qualitative or historical significance that are at least 25 years old . " In 2004 , Rolling Stone magazine ranked " Eight Miles High " at number 151 on their list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time and in March 2005 , Q magazine placed the song at number 50 on their list of the 100 Greatest Guitar Tracks .
= = Post @-@ release = =
During the same month that " Eight Miles High " was released as a single , the Byrds ' main songwriter , Gene Clark , left the band . His fear of flying was stated as the official reason for his departure , but other factors , including his tendency toward anxiety and paranoia , as well as his increasing isolation within the group , were also at work . Following the release of " Eight Miles High " and Clark 's departure , the Byrds never again managed to place a single in the Billboard Top 20 .
The Byrds performed " Eight Miles High " on a number of television programs during the 1960s and 1970s , including Popside , Drop In , Midweek , and Beat @-@ Club . The song would go on to become a staple of the band 's live concert repertoire , until their final disbandment in 1973 . A sixteen @-@ minute live version of " Eight Miles High " was included on the Byrds ' ( Untitled ) album in 1970 , and another live version was released as part of the 2008 album , Live at Royal Albert Hall 1971 . The song was performed live by a reformed lineup of the Byrds featuring Roger McGuinn , David Crosby , and Chris Hillman in January 1989 .
The song would remain a favorite of Clark 's during his post @-@ Byrds solo career and would often be performed live at his concert appearances until his death , in 1991 . McGuinn also continues to perform an intricate acoustic guitar rendition of the song in his live concerts . Crosby has revisited " Eight Miles High " infrequently during his post @-@ Byrds career , but it was performed during Crosby , Stills , Nash & Young 's reunion tour of 2000 , with Neil Young handling McGuinn 's guitar solo , while the other three members sang the song 's three @-@ part harmonies . Additionally , the Byrds ' bass player , Chris Hillman , recorded an acoustic version of " Eight Miles High " as part of his 2005 album , The Other Side .
In addition to its appearance on the Fifth Dimension album , " Eight Miles High " also appears on several Byrds ' compilations , including The Byrds ' Greatest Hits , History of The Byrds , The Original Singles : 1965 – 1967 , Volume 1 , The Byrds , The Very Best of The Byrds , The Essential Byrds and There Is a Season .
= = Cover versions and media references = =
" Eight Miles High " has been covered by many different bands and artists , including , the Ventures , Leathercoated Minds , Lighthouse , Leo Kottke , Roxy Music , Ride , Stewart / Gaskin , Robyn Hitchcock , Rockfour , Les Fradkin , The Kennedys , and the Postmarks . In addition , Hüsker Dü released the song as a single prior to the release of their Zen Arcade LP in 1984 . The song was also covered in 1969 by Golden Earring , who put a nineteen @-@ minute version on their Eight Miles High album . The Emerson , Lake & Palmer spinoff group 3 recorded the song with revised lyrics on their 1988 album , To the Power of Three . Crowded House have also covered the song with ex @-@ Byrd Roger McGuinn , on their I Feel Possessed EP .
Don McLean 's song " American Pie " makes reference to " Eight Miles High " with the lines " The Birds [ sic ] flew off with a fall @-@ out shelter / Eight miles high and falling fast . " The First Edition 's 1968 hit , " Just Dropped In ( To See What Condition My Condition Was In ) " , contains a reference to the song with the line " I tripped on a cloud and fell a @-@ eight miles high . " The independent rock band Okkervil River references " Eight Miles High " in its song " Plus Ones " , on the 2007 album The Stage Names . Bruce Springsteen 's song " Life Itself " , from his 2009 album Working on a Dream , features guitar playing and production techniques reminiscent of " Eight Miles High " by the Byrds .
The Byrds ' version of " Eight Miles High " was featured in the 1983 film Purple Haze . It also appears in both the " Le Voyage dans la Lune " and " The Original Wives Club " episodes of the television miniseries From the Earth to the Moon .
|
= Demonstration ( Tinie Tempah album ) =
Demonstration is the second studio album by British rapper Tinie Tempah . The album was released on 4 November 2013 as the follow @-@ up to his commercially successful debut album , Disc @-@ Overy ( 2010 ) . In December 2010 , Tempah announced he was writing for his second album , saying there would be a more electronic and live feel to it . It was originally intended for a late 2011 release , however it had since suffered from continuous delays . The first two singles from the album , " Trampoline " and " Children of the Sun " , were released in the run @-@ up to the album and both managed to enter the top ten of the UK Singles Chart . The album features collaborations with producers and guest artists such as Labrinth and Diplo and sees Tempah experimenting with new musical genres .
Demonstration received generally positive reviews , with music critics praising the choice of producers and Tempah 's evolution as a musician . The album entered the UK Albums Chart at number three , making it less successful than Disc @-@ Overy . It was beaten to a top two chart position by The Marshall Mathers LP 2 and James Arthur . The album was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry on 21 February 2014 .
= = Background and recording = =
During an interview , Tempah commented on his second album : " I always like to work with different people on each project I do , just so you get a different sound and angle . I will be working with some of the same people I did for the first album , you know what they say ‘ if it ain 't broke then don ’ t try and fix it ’ . " Tempah hoped to collaborate with other artists : " I really want to collaborate with Toronto 's very own Drake . I think he 's amazing at what he does . I 'd also like to collaborate with Adele , Sleigh Bells , Lykke Li , The Script , Dev , James Blake ― those are the few that I 'd really like to work with . " Tempah asked a number of artists to appear on the album , including Gary Barlow , Chris Martin , Dizzee Rascal , and The Script . At the 2012 BRIT Awards , Tempah announced his second album would be called Demonstration . On 24 June 2012 , Tempah performed on the main stage at Radio 1 's Hackney Weekend , performing two of his newest songs : " Mosh Pit " and " Drinking from the Bottle " , the latter of which he features on with Calvin Harris as the lead artist , and features on Harris ' 2012 album 18 Months . In interviews , other artists announced that they were working on his album such as Labrinth , Dizzee Rascal , Big Sean and Emeli Sandé . Previous collaborators Naughty Boy and Labrinth have produced multiple tracks for the album , following their appearances on Disc @-@ Overy . Chase & Status were on additional production duties for " Mosh Pit " . They had previously worked with Tinie on their album No More Idols for the single " Hitz " . Tempah 's vocals from the song are also sampled on the hidden track " 5 Minutes " .
Originally the album was slated for a 2011 release but was pushed back until November 2013 due to " a few key finishing touches " to the album that needed to be made before releasing it . The album artwork was premiered on 4 September 2013 . On 7 September , Eshraque " iSHi " Mughal confirmed the completion of the album. iSHi produced the album 's second single " Children of the Sun " ( which was released a week prior to the album ) as well as the album track " Someday ( Place in the Sun ) " . The album was released in different regions worldwide throughout November , starting on 1 November 2013 .
= = Writing and composition = =
= = = Influences and themes = = =
In an interview with MistaJam , Tempah cites Dizzee Rascal and So Solid Crew as influences for the album , who 've influenced him since his childhood . He also told Capital that Daft Punk influenced the album . Speaking about the album title Demonstration , Tinie said that it was about him compromising to make an album that was both true to where he came from and follows the trappings of mainstream hip hop : " Anyone who wants to take inspiration from it can have a sort of example based on my experiences of how to do this . So basically , do something that still nods to where you 've come from , still feels very London , still feels very British , but kind of meets the criteria of what a mainstream record needs . " He also commented oh how things change when signing with a record label and how the process of making albums : " The first time around , you don 't really know . All you do is you get this record deal and you 're like whoa ! Like , I 'm signed ! This is amazing ! And you 're just recording and before you know it the album 's done . This time around , I had to think about so much more things , you know : edits , production things that I didn 't like , going back and forth on mixing . ... I was very hands @-@ on this time . "
= = = Music and lyrical content = = =
" Someday ( Place in the Sun ) " is about how Tinie started in the cold , harsh streets of London and had to face many obstacles to get to where he is today ( his ' place in the sun ' ) . " Don 't Sell Out " incorporates elements of Tamil Cinema that meld into the hip hop and trap genres throughout the song . Tinie wrote it after hearing " Kalasala Kalasala " by Vaali and S. S. Thaman and thinking the words sounded like ' don 't sell out ' . Balistiq sampled the song and sent the track to Tinie , who used this as a basis for the song . He decided to create a song poking fun at the term " selling out " , due to how frequently and foolishly it is used . " Looking Down the Barrel " follows on from where Disc @-@ Overy track " Obsession " left off : it 's the second track where Tempah 's spoken his random thoughts on fame , life , relationships and success . He decided to fill the track with ' random retorts and different tangents he was going off on ' . The song was produced by Tom Rowlands of The Chemical Brothers , and the song 's sample was selected by Rowlands .
" Witch Doctor " is based on a true story where Tinie met a girl at a show who he took with him on the tour bus and showed what it 's like to live his life . " It 's OK " and " Lover Not a Fighter " are two songs that feature vocals and production from Labrinth . " It 's OK " is a contrast from the " intro and fun , random bouncy things " according to Okogwu . He added " it 's very unorthodox in the sense that people wouldn 't have heard or even expect us to make a song like this because it 's very slow and ballad @-@ y . It 's very reminiscent to me of the Fugees or something because it just sounds different and very soulful as well . " He wrote the song in Jamaica and wanted it to feel rustic and urban . Tinie wanted to " push the envelope " with what you 're used to hearing from him and Labrinth . " Lover Not a Fighter " is a feel @-@ good , radio @-@ friendly song that incorporates hip hop and electronic music , along with rap rock , and is about good vibes and " doing your thing " . " I 'm a lover , not a fighter . I 've just come to do my thing and enjoy myself so don 't try and get on to me about it or try and make me feel bad about everything that 's going on in my life " , said Tinie to SB.TV.
" Tears Run Dry " was originally an instrumental by Crada and later on strings were added . The song is a ' venting ' record , where Tinie shares personal thoughts and then turns into a heavier finale . According to Tinie it was amended about 37 times due to constant adjustments and improvements . " Lost Ones " is about a couple splitting up but trying to maintain their pride , and then realising that in reality they do regret it . Paloma Faith recorded an " eerie " vocal for the chorus . Apparently Tinie wanted a part of the album to be motivational , and conveys this with the songs " Children of the Sun " , " A Heart Can Save the World " and " Heroes " . Emeli Sandé features on " A Heart Can Save the World " , and also wrote Laura Mvula 's chorus for " Heroes " . Sandé also appeared on the Disc @-@ Overy track " Let Go " . All three tracks are produced by Naughty Boy , a frequent collaborator with Sandé .
= = Singles = =
The lead single from Demonstration , " Trampoline " was premiered on MistaJam 's BBC Radio 1Xtra show on 2 July 2013 . The lyric video was premiered shortly afterwards . It features 2 Chainz and is produced by Diplo . The song was released on 4 August 2013 in the United Kingdom , and peaked at number three in the UK Singles Chart making it his fourth most successful single to date . On 16 September , to promote his UK arena tour , the album track " Don 't Sell Out " live at the O2 Arena was uploaded to O2 's YouTube channel , before being made available to purchase via iTunes when you pre @-@ ordered the album . The promotional video was shot in collaboration with Dockers and Complex and premiered on 8 October 2013 at a total length of 3 minutes and 11 seconds . The song entered the UK Singles Chart at number 70 . The second single from the album , " Children of the Sun " , featuring John Martin , premiered on Zane Lowe 's BBC Radio 1 show on 12 September . It was released on 28 October 2013 in the United Kingdom . The track was produced by iSHi and reached number six on the UK Singles Chart . Upon the album 's release , " Someday ( Place in the Sun ) " charted at number 87 and " It 's OK " charted at number 180 .
The album 's third single , " Lover Not a Fighter " , features Labrinth and was released on 2 February . The music video for the song was shot from 20 – 21 November 2013 and released on 12 December 2013 . Due to the video release and airplay , the song rose up the UK Singles Chart to number 18 prior to independent release , later peaking at number 16 . On 24 April 2014 , the music video for a promotional single , " 5 Minutes " , premiered on YouTube . The album 's fourth single , " Tears Run Dry " , was released on 22 July 2014 following the premiere of its music video the previous day .
= = Promotion = =
A series of short trailers for " Trampoline " , getting gradually longer in length , teased different sections of the instrumental and music video . Each teaser features the Demonstration insignia , which is a horizontal red stripe going through the centre of the artwork . The first teaser was five seconds long and simply a synth and sub drop . The second is seventeen seconds long and shows a hanging microphone , accompanied by slightly more of the track . The third shows a hooded Tinie , accompanied by a different section of the track . At the end Tinie says " yeah " . The fourth and final trailer was released a day prior to the premiere of the track , and includes part of the chorus . It shows Tinie walking up to the camera and grinning . The album artwork and artwork for each of the singles feature the red stripe , and even the colour two @-@ tone vinyl has a red stripe going across it . The stripe also features on the physical disc . Tinie teamed up with Warner Music Group to develop the Tinie Tempah : Rap Demonstration app for the iTunes Store , released on 5 February 2014 . The app uses recordings of Tempah 's mouth rapping the album in its entirety , and the idea is that you can rap along to it .
Tinie has made several appearances on award ceremonies and TV shows to help promote the album . He performed a medley of " Lover Not a Fighter " and " Children of the Sun " at the 2014 BRIT Awards launch party , " Children of the Sun " at BBC Radio 1 's Teen Awards , " Lover Not a Fighter " alongside Labrinth on The Graham Norton Show and solo on BBC 's Live Lounge , as well as performing " Heroes " with Laura Mvula on The Jonathan Ross Show and the 2014 BAFTAs . The latter sparked reaction from the media because Tinie high fived Prince William mid @-@ performance . At the ceremony the duo also presented the Best Original Music award .
= = = Tour = = =
On 8 October , Tinie Tempah announced he was going on a UK and Ireland arena tour in support of Demonstration . He played eleven dates , beginning with Wolverhampton Civic Hall and finishing at The O2 Dublin . The tour was originally due to last from 2 to 18 December 2013 , however it was rescheduled from 25 March to 9 April 2014 due to lack of preparation . Tour dates in Aberdeen , Glasgow , Leeds and Newcastle upon Tyne were cancelled altogether . He was supported by Big Sean , Krept and Konan and G FrSH .
= = Critical response = =
Upon its release , Demonstration was met with generally favorable reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 69 , based on ten reviews . David Jeffries of AllMusic gave the album four out of five stars , commenting that " guest shots from Paloma Faith , Emeli Sandé , Dizzee Rascal , and others make this one crowded album , but figuring out what to drop is nearly impossible as everyone hits the mark . " Gigwise 's Nick Scott gave the album eight out of ten stars , saying that " It would be wrong to compare Disc @-@ Overy to Demonstration ; this is the Tinie Tempah of now . It is a statement of his evolution as an artist and how his maturity and experience have now made him better than ever . " The Guardian 's Caroline Sullivan gave the album four stars , describing the production as " stark electronics that recall his teen years as a grime MC " and describing some lyrics as " observant " and " sheer British genius " . She questioned the commercial success of the album , claiming that " rather than creating radio @-@ loving hooks , Tinie has expended his energies on honing lyrics and flow " .
Chris Cottingham of NME gave the album six out of ten , saying that " Tinie is most definitely a star , second only to Dizzee Rascal on the UK scene , perhaps even above him following Dizzee 's dismal ‘ The Fifth ’ album . So perhaps it 's no surprise Tinie 's brimming with confidence on record number two . " However , Cottingham dismissed the quality of some lyrics as " all great fun for him , no doubt , but in the past he didn ’ t trade in this lowest common denominator stuff . " Robert Copsey of Digital Spy gave the album three out of five stars , describing the album as " inoffensive grime @-@ pop for the masses that makes all the right moves , but lacks any serious bite . " Larry Day of musicOMH gave the album two and half out of five stars , commenting " this is a massive collaborative project . That 's probably the reason it 's such a chaotic , unwieldy mess . " On the other hand , he praised the promotional single " Don 't Sell Out " , saying " crunchy handclaps and jerky hooks work a kiss of life on the record , and Tempah 's lyrics are fascinating to listen to – he compares himself to Othello and nods to everything from the Queen to Celebrity Juice – if utterly misogynistic . " Day concluded the review with " Tempah has gone from rapping with a knowing wink or a glint in his eye to unloading a lewd spiel sans wit . "
= = Commercial performance = =
Demonstration debuted at number three on the UK Albums Chart , behind The Marshall Mathers LP 2 by Eminem and the self @-@ titled debut studio album by James Arthur . The record was eventually certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry , recognizing shipments of 100 @,@ 000 shipments in the country . It additionally charted within the top 40 of several additional territories , surpassing the chart positions Disc @-@ Overy held in several of them . The record debuted at number 13 in Ireland , eleven positions higher than its predecessor , and spent seven weeks on that chart . It reached number 22 in Australia ( whereas Disc @-@ Overy had peaked at number 96 ) , and number 29 in Switzerland ( whereas his previous album charted at number 73 ) . However , it charted eight spots lower than Disc @-@ Overy in New Zealand , having entered at number 40 in the country .
= = Track listing = =
The album is available in four different editions : CD , digital download , 180 g vinyl LP and a 180 g two @-@ tone vinyl LP limited to 500 copies worldwide .
Notes
Track listing and credits from album booklet .
^ a signifies a co @-@ producer
^ b signifies an additional producer
" Don 't Sell Out " features uncredited vocals from Candice Pillay .
" 5 Minutes " features uncredited vocals from J. Warner .
Sample credits
" Don 't Sell Out " contains samples of " Kalasala Kalasala " , written and performed by Vaali and S. S. Thaman and featuring vocals by L. R. Eswari , T. Rajendar and Solar Sai Silambarasan .
" Looking Down the Barrel " contains samples of " Betty Jean 's Mama " , written and performed by Gator Creek .
" 5 Minutes " contains samples of " Mama Said Knock You Out " , written by Marley Marl and Bobby " Bobcat " Ervin and performed by LL Cool J and samples of " Hitz " written and performed by Chase & Status and Tinie Tempah .
= = Credits and personnel = =
= = = Recording = = =
Audio mastering by Stuart Hawkes at Metropolis Mastering Studios in London , UK .
Audio mastering for tracks 3 and 7 by Tom Coyne at Sterling Sound in New York , USA .
= = = Management and creative = = =
= = = Vocals = = =
= = = Songwriters = = =
= = = Musicians and technicians = = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
|
= 1930 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1930 Atlantic hurricane season was the second least active Atlantic hurricane season on record – behind only 1914 – with only three systems reaching tropical storm intensity . Of those three , two reached hurricane status , both of which also became major hurricanes , Category 3 or higher storms on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . The first system developed in the central Atlantic Ocean on August 21 . Later that month , a second storm , the Dominican Republic hurricane , formed on August 29 . It peaked as a Category 4 hurricane with winds of 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) . The third and final storm dissipated on October 21 .
Due to the lack of systems that developed , only one tropical cyclone , the second hurricane , managed to make landfall during the season . It severely impacted areas of the Greater Antilles , particularly the Dominican Republic , before making subsequent landfalls on Cuba and the U.S. states of Florida and North Carolina , with less severe effects . The estimated 2 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 000 deaths caused by the storm in the Dominican Republic alone ranked it as one of the deadliest Atlantic hurricanes in recorded history . No other storms affected any landmasses during the year , although the first storm damaged a cruise ship in open waters .
The season 's inactivity was reflected in its low accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 50 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) , which is tropical storm strength .
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane One = = =
The first hurricane of the season was first noted in the central Atlantic Ocean on August 21 . Slowly intensifying , the system initially moved towards the west . On August 22 , a steamship in the vicinity was sustained some structural damage . After attaining hurricane strength on August 24 , the system turned northwestward , and reached Category 3 intensity on August 25 with maximum sustained winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) as it grazed Bermuda . Recurving to the northeast , a French cruise liner encountered the hurricane while it was a Category 2 hurricane . A large wave struck the ship , shattering glass on the vessel and injuring 40 passengers . Although still a Category 2 hurricane , the system became extratropical shortly after on August 28 . The extratropical storm was tracked due east towards the Azores for a few days while gradually weakening before abruptly turning to the north and dissipating .
= = = Hurricane Two = = =
A tropical depression developed well east of the Lesser Antilles on August 29 . Initially drifting westward , the storm gradually intensified and became a tropical storm early the next day . By August 31 , the system strengthened into a Category 1 hurricane . The next day , the hurricane entered the Caribbean Sea , passing the island of Dominica as a Category 2 hurricane . Continuing to intensify , the storm further intensified into a Category 3 hurricane on September 2 and then to a Category 4 the following day . Around 18 : 00 UTC on September 3 , the hurricane peaked with winds of 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) , observed by a ship . Simultaneously , the storm made landfall near Santo Domingo , Dominican Republic .
The mountainous terrain of Hispaniola rapidly weakened the system to a tropical storm early on September 4 . Moving westward over the Caribbean Sea , the storm failed to re @-@ strengthen before making landfall in western Cuba with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) around midday on September 6 . Thereafter , the system entered the Gulf of Mexico and curved northeastward . At 09 : 00 UTC on September 9 , the storm again made landfall near Bradenton , Florida with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . Later that day , the storm weakened to a tropical depression while crossing Florida . Upon emerging into the Atlantic Ocean on the next day , the system re @-@ intensified into a tropical storm . While located offshore South Carolina , the storm re @-@ attained hurricane status early on September 12 . The hurricane then brushed the Outer Banks of North Carolina before heading out to sea . The storm further strengthened to Category 2 intensity , heading eastward , but weakened to a tropical storm early on September 16 . The following day , the storm deteriorated further to a tropical depression , and late on September 17 , the depression dissipated southwest of the Azores .
While crossing the Lesser Antilles , the hurricane brought powerful winds and heavy rainfall to the islands . On Dominica , crops suffered severe damage . All vessels at the harbor sank , killing two people . Winds on Puerto Rico left mostly minor damage to plantations , and rainfall was generally " beneficial " . In the Dominican Republic , three districts of Santo Domingo were destroyed , with half of the city leveled by the hurricane . Damages in the city were an estimated $ 50 million ( 1930 USD ) . The Red Cross estimated 2 @,@ 000 people perished in the city , with an additional 8 @,@ 000 injured . However , the actual death toll may never be known , and historians estimate the hurricane left between 2 @,@ 000 and 8 @,@ 000 fatalities . Haiti experienced crop damage due to the storm . In Florida , " damaging " rainfall was observed over southeastern Hillsborough County , with 8 to 9 in ( 200 to 230 mm ) measured . Press reports indicated damage to highways and bridges , and crops were inundated . Damage reached approximately $ 75 @,@ 000 . After passing the Outer Banks of North Carolina as re @-@ intensifying hurricane , power outages occurred across the region . Buildings at Cape Lookout were severely damaged .
= = = Tropical Storm Three = = =
The final storm of the season developed in the Bay of Campeche on October 18 at the tail end of a frontal boundary . Although cool @-@ air advection was occurring off the United States coast , warm air around the system allowed the tropical storm to intensify . Moving to the northeast , the system reached peak intensity as a high @-@ end tropical storm with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . Ultimately , the cool @-@ air advection eventually took a toll on the storm , causing it to quickly weaken . By 06 : 00 UTC on October 21 , the storm dissipated .
|
= FairTax =
The FairTax is a proposal to reform the federal tax code of the United States . It would replace all federal income taxes ( including the alternative minimum tax , corporate income taxes , and capital gains taxes ) , payroll taxes ( including Social Security and Medicare taxes ) , gift taxes , and estate taxes with a single broad national consumption tax on retail sales . The Fair Tax Act ( H.R. 25 / S. 155 ) would apply a tax , once , at the point of purchase on all new goods and services for personal consumption . The proposal also calls for a monthly payment to all family households of lawful U.S. residents as an advance rebate , or " prebate " , of tax on purchases up to the poverty level . First introduced into the United States Congress in 1999 , a number of congressional committees have heard testimony on the bill ; however , it has not moved from committee and has yet to have any effect on the tax system . In recent years , a tax reform movement has formed behind the FairTax proposal . Attention increased after talk radio personality Neal Boortz and Georgia Congressman John Linder published The FairTax Book in 2005 and additional visibility was gained in the 2008 presidential campaign .
As defined in the proposed legislation , the tax rate is 23 % for the first year . This percentage is based on the total amount paid including the tax ( $ 23 out of every $ 100 spent in total ) . This would be equivalent to a 30 % traditional U.S. sales tax ( $ 23 on top of every $ 77 spent — $ 100 total ) . The rate would automatically adjust annually based on federal receipts in the previous fiscal year . With the rebate taken into consideration , the FairTax would be progressive on consumption , but would also be regressive on income at higher income levels ( as consumption falls as a percentage of income ) . Opponents argue this would accordingly decrease the tax burden on high @-@ income earners and increase it on the middle class . Supporters contend that the plan would effectively tax wealth , increase purchasing power and decrease tax burdens by broadening the tax base .
The plan 's supporters state that a consumption tax would increase savings and investment , ease tax compliance and increase economic growth , increase incentives for international business to locate in the US and increase US competitiveness in international trade . The plan is intended to increase cost transparency for funding the federal government . Supporters believe it would increase civil liberties , benefit the environment and effectively tax illegal activity and undocumented immigrants . Opponents contend that a consumption tax of this size would be extremely difficult to collect , and would lead to pervasive tax evasion . They also argue that the proposed sales tax rate would raise less revenue than the current tax system , leading to an increased budget deficit . Other concerns include the proposed repeal of the Sixteenth Amendment , removal of tax deduction incentives , transition effects on after @-@ tax savings , incentives on credit use and the loss of tax advantages to state and local bonds .
= = Legislative overview and history = =
The legislation would remove the Internal Revenue Service ( after three years ) , and establish Excise Tax and Sales Tax bureaus in the Department of the Treasury . The states are granted the primary authority for the collection of sales tax revenues and the remittance of such revenues to the Treasury . The plan was created by Americans For Fair Taxation , an advocacy group formed to change the tax system . The group states that , together with economists , it developed the plan and the name " Fair Tax " , based on interviews , polls , and focus groups of the general public . The FairTax legislation has been introduced in the House by Georgia Republicans John Linder ( 1999 – 2010 ) and Rob Woodall ( 2011 – 2014 ) , while being introduced in the Senate by Georgia Republican Saxby Chambliss ( 2003 – 2014 ) .
Linder first introduced the Fair Tax Act ( H.R. 2525 ) on July 14 , 1999 , to the 106th United States Congress and a substantially similar bill has been reintroduced in each subsequent session of Congress . The bill attracted a total of 56 House and Senate cosponsors in the 108th Congress , 61 in the 109th , 76 in the 110th , 70 in the 111th , 78 in the 112th , 83 in the 113th ( H.R. 25 / S. 122 ) , and 81 in the 114th ( H.R. 25 / S. 155 ) . Former Speaker of the House Dennis Hastert ( Republican ) had cosponsored the bill in the 109th – 110th Congress , but it has not received support from the Democratic leadership . Democratic Representative Collin Peterson of Minnesota and Democratic Senator Zell Miller of Georgia cosponsored and introduced the bill in the 108th Congress , but Peterson is no longer cosponsoring the bill and Miller has left the Senate . In the 109th – 111th Congress , Representative Dan Boren has been the only Democrat to cosponsor the bill . A number of congressional committees have heard testimony on the FairTax , but it has not moved from committee since its introduction in 1999 . The legislation was also discussed with President George W. Bush and his Secretary of the Treasury Henry M. Paulson .
To become law , the bill will need to be included in a final version of tax legislation from the U.S. House Committee on Ways and Means , pass both the House and the Senate , and finally be signed by the President . In 2005 , President Bush established an advisory panel on tax reform that examined several national sales tax variants including aspects of the FairTax and noted several concerns . These included uncertainties as to the revenue that would be generated , and difficulties of enforcement and administration , which made this type of tax undesirable to recommend in their final report . The panel did not examine the FairTax as proposed in the legislation . The FairTax received visibility in the 2008 presidential election on the issue of taxes and the IRS , with several candidates supporting the bill . A poll in 2009 by Rasmussen Reports found that 43 % of Americans would support a national sales tax replacement , with 38 % opposed to the idea ; the sales tax was viewed as fairer by 52 % of Republicans , 44 % of Democrats , and 49 % of unaffiliateds . President Barack Obama does not support the bill , arguing for more progressive changes to the income and payroll tax systems .
= = Tax rate = =
The sales tax rate , as defined in the legislation for the first year , is 23 % of the total payment including the tax ( $ 23 of every $ 100 spent in total — calculated similar to income taxes ) . This would be equivalent to a 30 % traditional U.S. sales tax ( $ 23 on top of every $ 77 spent — $ 100 total , or $ 30 on top of every $ 100 spent — $ 130 total ) . After the first year of implementation , this rate is automatically adjusted annually using a predefined formula reflecting actual federal receipts in the previous fiscal year .
The effective tax rate for any household would be variable due to the fixed monthly tax rebate that are used to rebate taxes paid on purchases up to the poverty level . The tax would be levied on all U.S. retail sales for personal consumption on new goods and services . Critics argue that the sales tax rate defined in the legislation would not be revenue neutral ( that is , it would collect less for the government than the current tax system ) , and thus would increase the budget deficit , unless government spending were equally reduced .
= = = Sales tax rate = = =
During the first year of implementation , the FairTax legislation would apply a 23 % federal retail sales tax on the total transaction value of a purchase ; in other words , consumers pay to the government 23 cents of every dollar spent in total ( sometimes called tax @-@ inclusive , and presented this way to provide a direct comparison with individual income and employment taxes which reduce a person 's available money before they can make purchases ) . The equivalent assessed tax rate is 30 % if the FairTax is applied to the pre @-@ tax price of a good like traditional U.S. state sales taxes ( sometimes called tax @-@ exclusive ; this rate is not directly comparable with existing income and employment taxes ) . After the first year of implementation , this tax rate would be automatically adjusted annually using a formula specified in the legislation that reflects actual federal receipts in the previous fiscal year .
= = = Effective tax rate = = =
A household 's effective tax rate on consumption would vary with the annual expenditures on taxable items and the fixed monthly tax rebate . The rebate would have the greatest effect at low spending levels , where they could lower a household 's effective rate to zero or below . The lowest effective tax rate under the FairTax could be negative due to the rebate for households with annual spending amounts below poverty level spending for a specified household size . At higher spending levels , the rebate has less impact , and a household 's effective tax rate would approach 23 % of total spending . A person spending at the poverty level would have an effective tax rate of 0 % , whereas someone spending at four times the poverty level would have an effective tax rate of 17 @.@ 2 % . Buying or otherwise receiving items and services not subject to federal taxation ( such as a used home or car ) can contribute towards a lower effective tax rate . The total amount of spending and the proportion of spending allocated to taxable items would determine a household 's effective tax rate on consumption . If a rate is calculated on income , instead of the tax base , the percentage could exceed the statutory tax rate in a given year .
= = = Monthly tax rebate = = =
Under the FairTax , family households of lawful U.S. residents would be eligible to receive a " Family Consumption Allowance " ( FCA ) based on family size ( regardless of income ) that is equal to the estimated total FairTax paid on poverty level spending according to the poverty guidelines published by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services . The FCA is a tax rebate ( known as a " prebate " as it would be an advance ) paid in twelve monthly installments , adjusted for inflation . The rebate is meant to eliminate the taxation of household necessities and make the plan progressive . Households would register once a year with their sales tax administering authority , providing the names and social security numbers of each household member . The Social Security Administration would disburse the monthly rebate payments in the form of a paper check via U.S. Mail , an electronic funds transfer to a bank account , or a " smartcard " that can be used like a debit card .
Opponents of the plan criticize this tax rebate due to its costs . Economists at the Beacon Hill Institute estimated the overall rebate cost to be $ 489 billion ( assuming 100 % participation ) . In addition , economist Bruce Bartlett has argued that the rebate would create a large opportunity for fraud , treats children disparately , and would constitute a welfare payment regardless of need .
The President 's Advisory Panel for Federal Tax Reform cited the rebate as one of their chief concerns when analyzing their national sales tax , stating that it would be the largest entitlement program in American history , and contending that it would " make most American families dependent on monthly checks from the federal government " . Estimated by the advisory panel at approximately $ 600 billion , " the Prebate program would cost more than all budgeted spending in 2006 on the Departments of Agriculture , Commerce , Defense , Education , Energy , Homeland Security , Housing and Urban Development , and Interior combined . " Proponents point out that income tax deductions , tax preferences , loopholes , credits , etc. under the current system was estimated at $ 945 billion by the Joint Committee on Taxation . They argue this is $ 456 billion more than the FairTax " entitlement " ( tax refund ) would spend to cover each person 's tax expenses up to the poverty level . In addition , it was estimated for 2005 that the Internal Revenue Service was already sending out $ 270 billion in refund checks .
= = = Presentation of tax rate = = =
Sales and income taxes behave differently due to differing definitions of tax base , which can make comparisons between the two confusing . Under the existing individual income plus employment ( Social Security ; Medicare ; Medicaid ) tax formula , taxes to be paid are included in the base on which the tax rate is imposed ( known as tax @-@ inclusive ) . If an individual 's gross income is $ 100 and the sum of their income plus employment tax rate is 23 % , taxes owed equals $ 23 . Traditional state sales taxes are imposed on a tax base equal to the pre @-@ tax portion of a good 's price ( known as tax @-@ exclusive ) . A good priced at $ 77 with a 30 % sales tax rate yields $ 23 in taxes owed . To adjust an inclusive rate to an exclusive rate , divide the given rate by one minus that rate ( i.e. <formula> ) .
The FairTax statutory rate , unlike most U.S. state @-@ level sales taxes , is presented on a tax base that includes the amount of FairTax paid . For example , a final after @-@ tax price of $ 100 includes $ 23 of taxes . Although no such requirement is included in the text of the legislation , Congressman John Linder has stated that the FairTax would be implemented as an inclusive tax , which would include the tax in the retail price , not added on at checkout — an item on the shelf for five dollars would be five dollars total . The legislation requires the receipt to display the tax as 23 % of the total . Linder states the FairTax is presented as a 23 % tax rate for easy comparison to income and employment tax rates ( the taxes it would be replacing ) . The plan 's opponents call the semantics deceptive . FactCheck called the presentation misleading , saying that it hides the real truth of the tax rate . Bruce Bartlett stated that polls show tax reform support is extremely sensitive to the proposed rate , and called the presentation confusing and deceptive based on the conventional method of calculating sales taxes . Proponents believe it is both inaccurate and misleading to say that an income tax is 23 % and the FairTax is 30 % as it implies that the sales tax burden is higher .
= = = Revenue neutrality = = =
A key question surrounding the FairTax is whether the tax has the ability to be revenue @-@ neutral ; that is , whether the tax would result in an increase or reduction in overall federal tax revenues . Economists , advisory groups , and political advocacy groups disagree about the tax rate required for the FairTax to be truly revenue @-@ neutral . Various analysts use different assumptions , time @-@ frames , and methods resulting in dramatically different tax rates making direct comparison among the studies difficult . The choice between static or dynamic scoring further complicates any estimate of revenue @-@ neutral rates .
A 2006 study published in Tax Notes by the Beacon Hill Institute at Suffolk University and Dr. Laurence Kotlikoff estimated the FairTax would be revenue @-@ neutral for the tax year 2007 at a rate of 23 @.@ 82 % ( 31 @.@ 27 % tax @-@ exclusive ) . The study states that purchasing power is transferred to state and local taxpayers from state and local governments . To recapture the lost revenue , state and local governments would have to raise tax rates or otherwise change tax laws in order to continue collecting the same real revenues from their taxpayers . The Argus Group and Arduin , Laffer & Moore Econometrics each published an analysis that defended the 23 % rate . While proponents of the FairTax concede that the above studies did not explicitly account for tax evasion , they also claim that the studies did not altogether ignore tax evasion under the FairTax . These studies presumably incorporated some degree of tax evasion in their calculations by using National Income and Product Account based figures , which is argued to understate total household consumption . The studies also did not account for capital gains that may be realized by the U.S. government if consumer prices were allowed to rise , which would reduce the real value of nominal U.S. government debt . Nor did these studies account for any increased economic growth that many economists researching the plan believe would occur .
In contrast to the above studies , William G. Gale of the Brookings Institution published a study in Tax Notes that estimated a rate of 28 @.@ 2 % ( 39 @.@ 3 % tax @-@ exclusive ) for 2007 assuming full taxpayer compliance and an average rate of 31 % ( 44 % tax @-@ exclusive ) from 2006 to 2015 ( assumes that the Bush tax cuts expire on schedule and accounts for the replacement of an additional $ 3 trillion collected through the Alternative Minimum Tax ) . The study also concluded that if the tax base were eroded by 10 % due to tax evasion , tax avoidance , and / or legislative adjustments , the average rate would be 34 % ( 53 % tax @-@ exclusive ) for the 10 @-@ year period . A dynamic analysis in 2008 by the Baker Institute For Public Policy concluded that a 28 % ( 38 @.@ 9 % tax @-@ exclusive ) rate would be revenue neutral for 2006 . The President 's Advisory Panel for Federal Tax Reform performed a 2006 analysis to replace the individual and corporate income tax with a retail sales tax and estimated the rate to be 25 % ( 34 % tax @-@ exclusive ) assuming 15 % tax evasion , and 33 % ( 49 % tax @-@ exclusive ) with 30 % tax evasion . The rate would need to be substantially higher to replace the additional taxes replaced by the FairTax ( payroll , estate , and gift taxes ) . Several economists criticized the President 's Advisory Panel 's study as having allegedly altered the terms of the FairTax , using unsound methodology , and / or failing to fully explain their calculations .
= = Taxable items and exemptions = =
The tax would be levied once at the final retail sale for personal consumption on new goods and services . Purchases of used items , exports and all business transactions would not be taxed . Also excluded are investments , such as purchases of stock , corporate mergers and acquisitions and capital investments . Savings and education tuition expenses would be exempt as they would be considered an investment ( rather than final consumption ) .
A good would be considered " used " and not taxable if a consumer already owns it before the FairTax takes effect or if the FairTax has been paid previously on the good , which may be different from the item being sold previously . Personal services such as health care , legal services , financial services , and auto repairs would be subject to the FairTax , as would renting apartments and other real property . Food , clothing , prescription drugs and medical services would be taxed . ( State sales taxes generally exempt these types of basic @-@ need items in an effort to reduce the tax burden on low @-@ income families . The FairTax would use a monthly rebate system instead of the common state exclusions . ) Internet purchases would be taxed , as would retail international purchases ( such as a boat or car ) that are imported to the United States ( collected by the U.S. Customs and Border Protection ) .
= = Distribution of tax burden = =
The FairTax 's effect on the distribution of taxation or tax incidence ( the effect on the distribution of economic welfare ) is a point of dispute . The plan 's supporters argue that the tax would broaden the tax base , that it would be progressive , and that it would decrease tax burdens and start taxing wealth ( reducing the economic gap ) . Opponents argue that a national sales tax would be inherently regressive and would decrease tax burdens paid by high @-@ income individuals . A person earning $ 2 million a year could live well spending $ 1 million , and as a result pay a mere 11 % of that year 's income in taxes . Households at the lower end of the income scale spend almost all their income , while households at the higher end are more likely to devote a portion of income to saving . Therefore , according to economist William G. Gale , the percentage of income taxed is regressive at higher income levels ( as consumption falls as a percentage of income ) .
Income earned and saved would not be taxed until spent under the proposal . Households at the extreme high end of consumption often finance their purchases out of savings , not income . Economist Laurence Kotlikoff states that the FairTax could make the tax system much more progressive and generationally equitable , and argues that taxing consumption is effectively the same as taxing wages plus taxing wealth . A household of three persons ( this example will use two adults of any gender plus one child ; the rebate does not consider marital status ) spending $ 30 @,@ 000 a year on taxable items would devote about 3 @.@ 4 % of total spending ( [ $ 6 @,@ 900 tax minus $ 5 @,@ 888 rebate ] / $ 30 @,@ 000 spending ) to the FairTax after the rebate . The same household spending $ 125 @,@ 000 on taxable items would spend around 18 @.@ 3 % ( [ $ 28 @,@ 750 tax minus $ 5 @,@ 888 rebate ] / $ 125 @,@ 000 spending ) on the FairTax . At higher spending levels , the rebate has less impact and the rate approaches 23 % of total spending . Thus , according to economist Laurence Kotlikoff , the effective tax rate is progressive on consumption .
Studies by Kotlikoff and David Rapson state that the FairTax would significantly reduce marginal taxes on work and saving , lowering overall average remaining lifetime tax burdens on current and future workers . A study by Kotlikoff and Sabine Jokisch concluded that the long @-@ term effects of the FairTax would reward low @-@ income households with 26 @.@ 3 % more purchasing power , middle @-@ income households with 12 @.@ 4 % more purchasing power , and high @-@ income households with 5 % more purchasing power . The Beacon Hill Institute reported that the FairTax would make the federal tax system more progressive and would benefit the average individual in almost all expenditures deciles . In another study , they state the FairTax would offer the broadest tax base ( an increase of over $ 2 trillion ) , which allows the FairTax to have a lower tax rate than current tax law .
Gale analyzed a national sales tax ( though different from the FairTax in several aspects ) and reported that the overall tax burden on middle @-@ income Americans would increase while the tax burden on the top 1 % would drop . A study by the Beacon Hill Institute reported that the FairTax may have a negative effect on the well @-@ being of mid @-@ income earners for several years after implementation . According to the President 's Advisory Panel for Federal Tax Reform report , which compared the individual and corporate income tax ( excluding other taxes the FairTax replaces ) to a sales tax with rebate , the percentage of federal taxes paid by those earning from $ 15 @,@ 000 – $ 50 @,@ 000 would rise from 3 @.@ 6 % to 6 @.@ 7 % , while the burden on those earning more than $ 200 @,@ 000 would fall from 53 @.@ 5 % to 45 @.@ 9 % . The report states that the top 5 % of earners would see their burden decrease from 58 @.@ 6 % to 37 @.@ 4 % . FairTax supporters argue that replacing the regressive payroll tax ( a 15 @.@ 3 % total tax not included in the Tax Panel study ; payroll taxes include a 12 @.@ 4 % Social Security tax on wages up to $ 97 @,@ 500 and a 2 @.@ 9 % Medicare tax , a 15 @.@ 3 % total tax that is often split between employee and employer ) greatly changes the tax distribution , and that the FairTax would relieve the tax burden on middle @-@ class workers .
= = Predicted effects = =
The predicted effects of the FairTax are a source of disagreement among economists and other analysts . According to Money magazine , while many economists and tax experts support the idea of a consumption tax , many of them view the FairTax proposal as having serious problems with evasion and revenue neutrality . Some economists argue that a consumption tax ( the FairTax is one such tax ) would have a positive effect on economic growth , incentives for international business to locate in the U.S. , and increased U.S. international competitiveness ( border tax adjustment in global trade ) . The FairTax would be tax @-@ free on mortgage interest ( up to a basic interest rate ) and donations , but some law makers have concerns about losing tax incentives on home ownership and charitable contributions . There is also concern about the effect on the income tax industry and the difficulty of repealing the Sixteenth Amendment ( to prevent Congress from re @-@ introducing an income tax ) .
= = = Economic = = =
Americans For Fair Taxation states the FairTax would boost the United States economy and offers a letter signed by eighty economists , including Nobel Laureate Vernon L. Smith , that have endorsed the plan . The Beacon Hill Institute estimated that within five years real GDP would increase 10 @.@ 7 % over the current system , domestic investment by 86 @.@ 3 % , capital stock by 9 @.@ 3 % , employment by 9 @.@ 9 % , real wages by 10 @.@ 2 % , and consumption by 1 @.@ 8 % . Arduin , Laffer & Moore Econometrics projected the economy as measured by GDP would be 2 @.@ 4 % higher in the first year and 11 @.@ 3 % higher by the 10th year than it would otherwise be . Economists Laurence Kotlikoff and Sabine Jokisch reported the incentive to work and save would increase ; by 2030 , the economy 's capital stock would increase by 43 @.@ 7 % over the current system , output by 9 @.@ 4 % , and real wages by 11 @.@ 5 % . Economist John Golob estimates a consumption tax , like the FairTax , would bring long @-@ term interest rates down by 25 – 35 % . An analysis in 2008 by the Baker Institute For Public Policy indicated that the plan would generate significant overall macroeconomic improvement in both the short and long @-@ term , but warned of transitional issues .
FairTax proponents argue that the proposal would provide tax burden visibility and reduce compliance and efficiency costs by 90 % , returning a large share of money to the productive economy . The Beacon Hill Institute concluded that the FairTax would save $ 346 @.@ 51 billion in administrative costs and would be a much more efficient taxation system . Bill Archer , former head of the House Ways and Means Committee , asked Princeton University Econometrics to survey 500 European and Asian companies regarding the effect on their business decisions if the United States enacted the FairTax . 400 of those companies stated they would build their next plant in the United States , and 100 companies said they would move their corporate headquarters to the United States . Supporters argue that the U.S. has the highest combined statutory corporate income tax rate among OECD countries along with being the only country with no border adjustment element in its tax system . Proponents state that because the FairTax eliminates corporate income taxes and is automatically border adjustable , the competitive tax advantage of foreign producers would be eliminated , immediately boosting U.S. competitiveness overseas and at home .
Opponents point to a study commissioned by the National Retail Federation in 2000 that found a national sales tax bill filed by Billy Tauzin , the Individual Tax Freedom Act ( H.R. 2717 ) , would bring a three @-@ year decline in the economy , a four @-@ year decline in employment and an eight @-@ year decline in consumer spending . Wall Street Journal columnist James Taranto states the FairTax is unsuited to take advantage of supply @-@ side effects and would create a powerful disincentive to spend money . John Linder states an estimated $ 11 trillion is held in foreign accounts ( largely for tax purposes ) , which he states would be repatriated back to U.S. banks if the FairTax were enacted , becoming available to U.S. capital markets , bringing down interest rates , and otherwise promoting economic growth in the United States . Attorney Allen Buckley states that a tremendous amount of wealth was already repatriated under law changes in 2004 and 2005 . Buckley also argues that if the tax rate was significantly higher , the FairTax would discourage the consumption of new goods and hurt economic growth .
= = = Transition = = =
During the transition , many or most of the employees of the IRS ( 105 @,@ 978 in 2005 ) would face loss of employment . The Beacon Hill Institute estimate is that the federal government would be able to cut $ 8 billion from the IRS budget of $ 11 @.@ 01 billion ( in 2007 ) , reducing the size of federal tax administration by 73 % . In addition , income tax preparers ( many seasonal ) , tax lawyers , tax compliance staff in medium @-@ to @-@ large businesses , and software companies which sell tax preparation software could face significant drops , changes , or loss of employment . The bill would maintain the IRS for three years after implementation before completely decommissioning the agency , providing employees time to find other employment .
In the period before the FairTax is implemented , there could be a strong incentive for individuals to buy goods without the sales tax using credit . After the FairTax is in effect , the credit could be paid off using untaxed payroll . If credit incentives do not change , opponents of the FairTax worry it could exacerbate an existing consumer debt problem . Proponents of the FairTax state that this effect could also allow individuals to pay off their existing ( pre @-@ FairTax ) debt more quickly , and studies suggest lower interest rates after FairTax passage .
Individuals under the current system who accumulated savings from ordinary income ( by choosing not to spend their money when the income was earned ) paid taxes on that income before it was placed in savings ( such as a Roth IRA or CD ) . When individuals spend above the poverty level with money saved under the current system , that spending would be subject to the FairTax . People living through the transition may find both their earnings and their spending taxed . Critics have stated that the FairTax would result in unfair double taxation for savers and suggest it does not address the transition effect on some taxpayers who have accumulated significant savings from after @-@ tax dollars , especially retirees who have finished their careers and switched to spending down their life savings . Supporters of the plan argue that the current system is no different , since compliance costs and " hidden taxes " embedded in the prices of goods and services cause savings to be " taxed " a second time already when spent . The rebate would supplement accrued savings , covering taxes up to the poverty level . The income taxes on capital gains , estates , social security and pension benefits would be eliminated under FairTax . In addition , the FairTax legislation adjusts Social Security benefits for changes in the price level , so a percentage increase in prices would result in an equal percentage increase to Social Security income . Supporters suggest these changes would offset paying the FairTax under transition conditions .
= = = Other indirect effects = = =
The FairTax would be tax free on mortgage interest up to the federal borrowing rate for like @-@ term instruments as determined by the Treasury , but since savings , education , and other investments would be tax free under the plan , the FairTax could decrease the incentive to spend more on homes . An analysis in 2008 by the Baker Institute For Public Policy concluded that the FairTax would have significant transitional issues for the housing sector since the investment would no longer be tax @-@ favored . In a 2007 study , the Beacon Hill Institute concluded that total charitable giving would increase under the FairTax , although increases in giving would not be distributed proportionately amongst the various types of charitable organizations . The FairTax may also affect state and local government debt as the federal income tax system provides tax advantages to municipal bonds . Proponents believe environmental benefits would result from the FairTax through environmental economics and the re @-@ use and re @-@ sale of used goods . Former Senator Mike Gravel states the significant reduction of paperwork for IRS compliance and tax forms is estimated to save about 300 @,@ 000 trees each year . Advocates argue the FairTax would provide an incentive for illegal immigrants to legalize as they would otherwise not receive the rebate . Proponents also believe that the FairTax would have positive effects on civil liberties that are sometimes charged against the income tax system , such as social inequality , economic inequality , financial privacy , self @-@ incrimination , unreasonable search and seizure , burden of proof , and due process .
If the FairTax bill were passed , permanent elimination of income taxation would not be guaranteed ; the FairTax bill would repeal much of the existing tax code , but the Sixteenth Amendment would remain in place . Preventing new legislation from reintroducing income taxation would require a repeal of the Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution with a separate provision expressly prohibiting a federal income tax . This is referred to as an " aggressive repeal " . Separate income taxes enforced by individual states would be unaffected by the federal repeal . Passing the FairTax would require only a simple majority in each house of the United States Congress along with the signature of the President , whereas enactment of a constitutional amendment must be approved by two thirds of each house of the Congress , and three @-@ quarters of the individual U.S. states . It is therefore possible that passage of the FairTax bill would simply add another taxation system . If a new income tax bill were passed after the FairTax passage , a hybrid system could develop ; albeit , there is nothing preventing a bill for a hybrid system today . To address this issue and preclude that possibility , in the 111th Congress John Linder introduced a contingent sunset provision in H.R. 25 . It would require the repeal of the Sixteenth Amendment within 8 years after the implementation of the FairTax or , failing that , the FairTax would expire . Critics have also argued that a tax on state government consumption could be unconstitutional .
= = Changes in the retail economy = =
Since the FairTax would not tax used goods , the value would be determined by the supply and demand in relation to new goods . The price differential / margins between used and new goods would stay consistent , as the cost and value of used goods are in direct relationship to the cost and value of the new goods . Because the U.S. tax system has a hidden effect on prices , it is expected that moving to the FairTax would decrease production costs from the removal of business taxes and compliance costs , which is predicted to offset a portion of the FairTax effect on prices .
= = = Value of used goods = = =
Since the FairTax would not tax used goods , some critics have argued that this would create a differential between the price of new and used goods , which may take years to equalize . Such a differential would certainly influence the sale of new goods like vehicles and homes . Similarly , some supporters have claimed that this would create an incentive to buy used goods , creating environmental benefits of re @-@ use and re @-@ sale . Conversely , it is argued that like the income tax system that contains embedded tax cost ( see Theories of retail pricing ) , used goods would contain the embedded FairTax cost . While the FairTax would not be applied to the retail sales of used goods , the inherent value of a used good includes the taxes paid when the good was sold at retail . The value is determined by the supply and demand in relation to new goods . The price differential / margins between used and new goods should stay consistent , as the cost and value of used goods are in direct relationship to the cost and value of the new goods .
= = = Theories of retail pricing = = =
Based on a study conducted by Dale Jorgenson , proponents state that production cost of domestic goods and services could decrease by approximately 22 % on average after embedded tax costs are removed , leaving the sale nearly the same after taxes . The study concludes that producer prices would drop between 15 % and 26 % ( depending on the type of good / service ) . Jorgenson 's research included all income and payroll taxes in the embedded tax estimation , which assumes employee take @-@ home pay ( net income ) remains unchanged from pre @-@ FairTax levels . Price and wage changes after the FairTax would largely depend on the response of the Federal Reserve monetary authorities . Non @-@ accommodation of the money supply would suggest retail prices and take home pay stay the same — embedded taxes are replaced by the FairTax . Full accommodation would suggest prices and incomes rise by the exclusive rate ( i.e. , 30 % ) — embedded taxes become windfall gains . Partial accommodation would suggest a varying degree in @-@ between .
If businesses provided employees with gross pay ( including income tax withholding and the employee share of payroll taxes ) , Arduin , Laffer & Moore Econometrics estimated production costs could decrease by a minimum of 11 @.@ 55 % ( partial accommodation ) . This reduction would be from the removal of the remaining embedded costs , including corporate taxes , compliance costs , and the employer share of payroll taxes . This decrease would offset a portion of the FairTax amount reflected in retail prices , which proponents suggest as the most likely scenario . Bruce Bartlett states that it is unlikely that nominal wages would be reduced , which he believes would result in a recession , but that the Federal Reserve would likely increase the money supply to accommodate price increases . David Tuerck states " The monetary authorities would have to consider how the degree of accommodation , varying from none to full , would affect the overall economy and how it would affect the well @-@ being of various groups such as retirees . "
Social Security benefits would be adjusted for any price changes due to FairTax implementation . The Beacon Hill Institute states that it would not matter , apart from transition issues , whether prices fall or rise — the relative tax burden and tax rate remains the same . Decreases in production cost would not fully apply to imported products ; so according to proponents , it would provide tax advantages for domestic production and increase U.S. competitiveness in global trade ( see Border adjustability ) . To ease the transition , U.S. retailers will receive a tax credit equal to the FairTax on their inventory to allow for quick cost reduction . Retailers would also receive an administrative fee equal to the greater of $ 200 or 0 @.@ 25 % of the remitted tax as compensation for compliance costs , which amounts to around $ 5 billion .
= = Effects on tax code compliance = =
One avenue for non @-@ compliance is the black market . FairTax supporters state that the black market is largely untaxed under the current tax system . Economists estimate the underground economy in the United States to be between one and three trillion dollars annually . By imposing a sales tax , supporters argue that black market activity would be taxed when proceeds from such activity are spent on legal consumption . For example , the sale of illegal narcotics would remain untaxed ( instead of being guilty of income tax evasion , drug dealers would be guilty of failing to submit sales tax ) , but they would face taxation when they used drug proceeds to buy consumer goods such as food , clothing , and cars . By taxing this previously untaxed money , FairTax supporters argue that non @-@ filers would be paying part of their share of what would otherwise be uncollected income and payroll taxes .
Other economists and analysts have argued that the underground economy would continue to bear the same tax burden as before . They state that replacing the current tax system with a consumption tax would not change the tax revenue generated from the underground economy — while illicit income is not taxed directly , spending of income from illicit activity results in business income and wages that are taxed .
= = = Tax compliance and evasion = = =
Proponents state the FairTax would reduce the number of tax filers by about 86 % ( from 100 million to 14 million ) and reduce the filing complexity to a simplified state sales tax form . The Government Accountability Office ( GAO ) , among others , have specifically identified the negative relationship between compliance costs and the number of focal points for collection . Under the FairTax , the federal government would be able to concentrate tax enforcement efforts on a single tax . Retailers would receive an administrative fee equal to the greater of $ 200 or 0 @.@ 25 % of the remitted tax as compensation for compliance costs . In addition , supporters state that the overwhelming majority of purchases occur in major retail outlets , which are very unlikely to evade the FairTax and risk losing their business licenses . Economic Census figures for 2002 show that 48 @.@ 5 % of merchandise sales are made by just 688 businesses ( " Big @-@ Box " retailers ) . 85 @.@ 7 % of all retail sales are made by 92 @,@ 334 businesses , which is 3 @.@ 6 % of American companies . In the service sector , approximately 80 % of sales are made by 1 @.@ 2 % of U.S. businesses .
The FairTax is a national tax , but can be administered by the states rather than a federal agency , which may have a bearing on compliance as the states ' own agencies could monitor and audit businesses within that state . The 0 @.@ 25 % retained by the states amounts to $ 5 billion the states would have available for enforcement and administration . For example , California should receive over $ 500 million for enforcement and administration , which is more than the $ 327 million budget for the state 's sales and excise taxes . Because the federal money paid to the states would be a percentage of the total revenue collected , John Linder claims the states would have an incentive to maximize collections . Proponents believe that states that choose to conform to the federal tax base would have advantages in enforcement , information sharing , and clear interstate revenue allocation rules . A study by the Beacon Hill Institute concluded that , on average , states could more than halve their sales tax rates and that state economies would benefit greatly from adopting a state @-@ level FairTax .
FairTax opponents state that compliance decreases when taxes are not automatically withheld from citizens , and that massive tax evasion could result by collecting at just one point in the economic system . Compliance rates can also fall when taxed entities , rather than a third party , self @-@ report their tax liability . For example , ordinary personal income taxes can be automatically withheld and are reported to the government by a third party . Taxes without withholding and with self @-@ reporting , such as the FairTax , can see higher evasion rates . Economist Jane Gravelle of the Congressional Research Service found studies showing that evasion rates of sales taxes are often above 10 % , even when the sales tax rate is in the single digits . Tax publications by the Organisation for Economic Co @-@ operation and Development ( OECD ) , IMF , and Brookings Institution have suggested that the upper limit for a sales tax is about 10 % before incentives for evasion become too great to control . According to the GAO , 80 % of state tax officials opposed a national sales tax as an intrusion on their tax base . Opponents also raise concerns of legal tax avoidance by spending and consuming outside of the U.S. ( imported goods would be subject to collection by the U.S. Customs and Border Protection ) .
Economists from the University of Tennessee concluded that while there would be many desirable macroeconomic effects , adoption of a national retail sales tax would also have serious effects on state and local government finances . Economist Bruce Bartlett stated that if the states did not conform to the FairTax , they would have massive confusion and complication as to what is taxed by the state and what is taxed by the federal government . In addition , sales taxes have long exempted all but a few services because of the enormous difficulty in taxing intangibles — Bartlett suggests that the state may not have sufficient incentive to enforce the tax . University of Michigan economist Joel Slemrod argues that states would face significant issues in enforcing the tax . " Even at an average rate of around five percent , state sales taxes are difficult to administer . " University of Virginia School of Law professor George Yin states that the FairTax could have evasion issues with export and import transactions . The President 's Advisory Panel for Federal Tax Reform reported that if the federal government were to cease taxing income , states might choose to shift their revenue @-@ raising to income . Absent the Internal Revenue Service , it would be more difficult for the states to maintain viable income tax systems .
= = = Underground economy = = =
Opponents of the FairTax argue that imposing a national retail sales tax would drive transactions underground and create a vast underground economy . Under a retail sales tax system , the purchase of intermediate goods and services that are factors of production are not taxed , since those goods would produce a final retail good that would be taxed . Individuals and businesses may be able to manipulate the tax system by claiming that purchases are for intermediate goods , when in fact they are final purchases that should be taxed . Proponents point out that a business is required to have a registered seller 's certificate on file , and must keep complete records of all transactions for six years . Businesses must also record all taxable goods bought for seven years . They are required to report these sales every month ( see Personal vs. business purchases ) . The government could also stipulate that all retail sellers provide buyers with a written receipt , regardless of transaction type ( cash , credit , etc . ) , which would create a paper trail for evasion with risk of having the buyer turn them in ( the FairTax authorizes a reward for reporting tax cheats ) .
While many economists and tax experts support a consumption tax , problems could arise with using a retail sales tax rather than a value added tax ( VAT ) . A VAT imposes a tax on the value added at every intermediate step of production , so the goods reach the final consumer with much of the tax already in the price . The retail seller has little incentive to conceal retail sales , since he has already paid much of the good 's tax . Retailers are unlikely to subsidize the consumer 's tax evasion by concealing sales . In contrast , a retailer has paid no tax on goods under a sales tax system . This provides an incentive for retailers to conceal sales and engage in " tax arbitrage " by sharing some of the illicit tax savings with the final consumer . Citing evasion , Tim Worstall wrote in Forbes that Europe ’ s 20 @-@ 25 % consumption taxes simply would not work if they were a sales tax : that ’ s why they ’ re all a VAT . Laurence Kotlikoff has stated that the government could compel firms to report , via 1099 @-@ type forms , their sales to other firms , which would provide the same records that arise under a VAT . In the United States , a general sales tax is imposed in 45 states plus the District of Columbia ( accounting for over 97 % of both population and economic output ) , which proponents argue provides a large infrastructure for taxing sales that many countries do not have .
= = = Personal versus business purchases = = =
Businesses would be required to submit monthly or quarterly reports ( depending on sales volume ) of taxable sales and sales tax collected on their monthly sales tax return . During audits , the business would have to produce invoices for the " business purchases " that they did not pay sales tax on , and would have to be able to show that they were genuine business expenses . Advocates state the significant 86 % reduction in collection points would greatly increase the likelihood of business audits , making tax evasion behavior much more risky . Additionally , the FairTax legislation has several fines and penalties for non @-@ compliance , and authorizes a mechanism for reporting tax cheats to obtain a reward . To prevent businesses from purchasing everything for their employees , in a family business for example , goods and services bought by the business for the employees that are not strictly for business use would be taxable . Health insurance or medical expenses would be an example where the business would have to pay the FairTax on these purchases . Taxable property and services purchased by a qualified non @-@ profit or religious organization " for business purposes " would not be taxable .
= = FairTax movement = =
The creation of the FairTax began with a group of businessmen from Houston , Texas , who initially financed what has become the political advocacy group Americans For Fair Taxation ( AFFT ) , which has grown into a large tax reform movement . This organization , founded in 1994 , claims to have spent over $ 20 million in research , marketing , lobbying , and organizing efforts over a ten @-@ year period and is seeking to raise over $ 100 million more to promote the plan . AFFT includes a staff in Houston and a large group of volunteers who are working to get the FairTax enacted . Bruce Bartlett has charged that the FairTax was devised by the Church of Scientology in the early 1990s , drawing comparisons between the tax policy and religious doctrine from the faith , whose creation myth holds that an evil alien ruler known as Xenu " used phony tax inspections as a guise for destroying his enemies . " Representative John Linder told the Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution that Bartlett confused the FairTax movement with the Scientology @-@ affiliated Citizens for an Alternative Tax System , which also seeks to abolish the federal income tax and replace it with a national retail sales tax . Leo Linbeck , AFFT Chairman and CEO , stated " As a founder of Americans For Fair Taxation , I can state categorically , however , that Scientology played no role in the founding , research or crafting of the legislation giving expression to the FairTax . "
Much support has been achieved by talk radio personality Neal Boortz . Boortz 's book ( co @-@ authored by Georgia Congressman John Linder ) entitled The FairTax Book , explains the proposal and spent time atop the New York Times Best Seller list . Boortz stated that he donates his share of the proceeds to charity to promote the book . In addition , Boortz and Linder have organized several FairTax rallies to publicize support for the plan . Other media personalities have also assisted in growing grassroots support including former radio and TV talk show host Larry Elder , radio host and former candidate for the 2012 GOP Presidential Nomination Herman Cain , Fox News and radio host Sean Hannity , and Fox Business Host John Stossel . The FairTax received additional visibility as one of the issues in the 2008 presidential election . At a debate on June 30 , 2007 , several Republican candidates were asked about their position on the FairTax and many responded that they would sign the bill into law if elected . The most vocal promoters of the FairTax during the 2008 primary elections were Republican candidate Mike Huckabee and Democratic candidate Mike Gravel . The Internet , blogosphere , and electronic mailing lists have contributed to promoting , organizing , and gaining support for the FairTax . In the 2012 Republican presidential primary , and his ensuing Libertarian Party presidential run , former Governor of New Mexico and businessman Gary Johnson actively campaigned for the FairTax . Former CEO of Godfather 's Pizza Herman Cain has been promoting the FairTax as a final step in a multiple @-@ phase tax reform . Outside of the United States , the Christian Heritage Party of Canada adopted a FairTax proposal as part of their 2011 election platform but won no seats in that election .
= = Supporters in Congress = =
|
= Greene v Associated Newspapers Ltd =
Greene v Associated Newspapers Ltd [ 2004 ] EWCA Civ 1462 is a case of the Court of Appeal of England and Wales that governs the use of injunctions against publication in alleged defamation cases . Greene , a businesswoman , sought an injunction against Associated Newspapers Ltd to prevent them publishing alleged links with Peter Foster ; while they claimed to have emails showing links , she asserted that they were false . The test at the time for a preliminary injunction in defamation cases was Bonnard v Perryman , where it was established that the applicant has to show " a real prospect of success " at trial . The Human Rights Act 1998 established that judges should consider whether applicants are " more likely than not " to succeed at trial , a test applied to confidentiality cases in Cream Holdings Ltd v Banerjee and the Liverpool Post and Echo Ltd . Greene claimed that the Cream test should be applied rather than the Bonnard test .
The case first went to the High Court of Justice , where it was heard by Fulford J ; he decided that he did not have the authority to overrule Bonnard , and passed the case on to the Court of Appeal after granting a temporary injunction . In the Court of Appeal , the case was heard by May , Dyson and Brooke LJJ , with Brooke delivering the judgment on 5 November 2004 . In it , Brooke judged that defamation , the subject of Greene , was significantly different from breach of confidentiality , the subject in Cream . While the damage from a breach of confidentiality can never be undone , justifiying a simple test for issuing injunctions , a defamation case that is won vindicates the injured party . Making it easier to grant injunctions in defamation cases would damage the delicate balance between freedom of the press and the right to privacy ; as such , despite the Human Rights Act , Bonnard is still a valid test .
= = Background = =
Martha Greene , a businesswoman , sought an injunction against Associated Newspapers Ltd to prevent them publishing allegations that she was linked to Peter Foster , a convicted fraudster . Associated Newspapers claimed they had emails proving the link , and wanted to rely on a defence of fair comment and justification ; Green asserted that the emails were fakes . At the time , the law on injunctions was governed by two cases ; Bonnard v Perryman and Cream Holdings Ltd v Banerjee and the Liverpool Post and Echo Ltd . Bonnard established that " The right of free speech is one which it is for the public interest that individuals should posses , and indeed , that they should exercise without impediment , so long as no wrongful act is done … Until it is clear that an alleged libel is untrue , it is not clear that any right at all has been infringed ; and the importance of leaving free speech unfettered is a strong reason in cases of libel for dealing most cautiously and warily with the granting of interim injunctions " , telling courts that injunctions in libel cases should only be granted if there is " a real prospect of success " at trial .
The Human Rights Act 1998 , which came into force in 2000 , brought the European Convention on Human Rights into British domestic law . Article 8 of the convention covers " the right to respect for private and family life " , and during the passage of the Act through Parliament , elements of the press were concerned that this could affect their freedom of expression . As such , Section 12 of the Act provides that , if a court is considering whether to grant relief which infringes on the right to freedom of expression ( such as an injunction ) , it must " have particular regard to the importance of the Convention right to freedom of expression " , although recognising the other limits put on this right . Where a relief ( such as an injunction ) is granted in the absence of the respondent , the court must be satisfied that the claimant has taken all reasonable steps to ensure that the defendant was notified , unless there are compelling reasons why they should not be . The court must also not grant relief that would restrict publication before trial , unless satisfied that it is " more likely than not " that the trial will establish that publication should not be allowed .
As a result of the Act , it was uncertain what test to use ; was " a real prospect of success " at trial acceptable , or the easier test of " more likely than not " to succeed at trial ? In Cream the House of Lords decided that " a real prospect of success " was still valid law , but that from then on the test of " more likely than not " should be applied . Following on from this ruling , Greene argued that the Bonnard test was now invalid , and that the case should be judged under the Human Rights Act and Cream .
= = Court proceedings = =
The case first went before Fulford J in the Queen 's Bench Division of the High Court of Justice , with Fulford 's judgment delivered on 16 October 2004 . In it , he held that the High Court was bound to apply Bonnard v Perryman , but granted an injunction until such time as a more senior court could determine Bonnard 's status . The case then went to the Court of Appeal of England and Wales , where it was heard by May , Dyson and Brooke LJJ ; Brooke delivered a judgment for the entire court on 5 November 2004 . In it , the court refused to extend the " more likely or not " test found in the Human Rights Act 1998 to cover defamation as well as breach of confidentiality ( the subject of the Cream case ) . While Brooke noted that the Bonnard test was inflexible , he also considered the distinction between defamation and breach of confidentiality ; while " confidentiality , once breached , is lost for ever " , if a defamatory statement is taken to trial and the claimant wins , he or she is vindicated and suffers no lasting harm . As such , the Cream test should not be applied , because it would violate the delicate balance between the right to privacy and the freedom of the press .
|
= Kvinneakt =
Kvinneakt ( " female nude " in Norwegian ) is an abstract bronze sculpture located on the Transit Mall of downtown Portland , Oregon . Designed and created by Norman J. Taylor between 1973 and 1975 , the work was funded by TriMet and the United States Department of Transportation and was installed on the Transit Mall in 1977 . The following year Kvinneakt appeared in the " Expose Yourself to Art " poster which featured future Mayor of Portland Bud Clark flashing the sculpture . It remained in place until November 2006 when it was removed temporarily during renovation of the Transit Mall and the installation of the MAX Light Rail on the mall .
Originally located on Fifth Avenue , the sculpture was reinstalled on the mall in 2009 at a different location , on SW Sixth Avenue between Alder and Morrison , where it remains . According to TriMet , Kvinneakt is one of 40 public art sculptures in the Transit Mall 's art collection . The sculpture is part of the City of Portland and Multnomah County Public Art Collection courtesy of the Regional Arts & Culture Council and is administered by the City of Portland Metropolitan Arts Commission .
= = History = =
Kvinneakt was designed and created by Norman J. Taylor , a Seattle @-@ based artist and professor of sculpture at the University of Washington , between 1973 and 1975 . The piece is an abstract bronze sculpture depicting a full @-@ length nude woman measuring 71 " x 38 " x 25 " . Kvinneakt was one of 11 sculptures selected for the Portland Transit Mall from more than 500 entries entered in a juried competition . The works were purchased through a budget of $ 250 @,@ 000 ; Kvinneakt was commissioned at a cost of $ 6 @,@ 500 . Funding sources for the project included Tri @-@ Met ( 20 percent ) and the United States Department of Transportation ( 80 percent ) . Of the 11 sculptures , only Kvinneakt and Kathleen McCullough 's ( née Conchuratt ) Cat in Repose were considered " figurative " . Claiming his intention was not to be vulgar , Taylor said : " It 's about grace and motion and a certain beauty and pride in the human figure . That may be sensual , but that 's far different from sex . " According to the Regional Arts & Culture Council , Taylor intended the piece to be " confrontational " ; he admitted , " the worst reaction you could give my work is no reaction . "
Kvinneakt was installed on the newly built Transit Mall in 1977 . The bronze sculpture was sited on SW Fifth Avenue near Washington Street ( between Washington and Stark ) . In 1978 , Kvinneakt appeared on the " Expose Yourself to Art " poster , which featured future Portland Mayor Bud Clark flashing the nude woman .
In 1981 , about 30 minutes before the start of April Fools ' Day , three men attempted to steal the 250 @-@ pound ( 110 kg ) statue , breaking it free from its pedestal and dragging it towards a waiting car before being spotted by a city worker and fleeing the scene . Damage from the incident included a broken right index finger and other cracks . Repairs cost $ 3 @,@ 000 and were undertaken by Norman Taylor , who also strengthened the sculpture 's body and its connections to its base . Kvinneakt was reinstalled at Fifth Avenue and Washington six months later , in October 1981 .
The sculpture has served as a stop on walking tours of the city , including the Metropolitan Arts Commission 's 1987 Portland Public Art walking tour and the 2003 Public Art Conference 's walking tour of downtown . On November 7 , 2006 , Kvinneakt was temporarily removed for renovation of the Transit Mall and installation of the MAX Light Rail along the mall . Its removal was supervised by staff of the Regional Arts & Culture Council . During this time Kvinneakt and other removed works were cleaned and refurbished . In September 2009 , the statue was re @-@ sited on SW Sixth Avenue between Alder and Morrison . Representatives from the Regional Arts & Culture Council and the TriMet Public Art Program conducted the unveiling . According to the former organization 's public art manager , the sculpture will likely remain in its current location for as long as 30 years .
There have been other instances when Kvinneakt was used to make a statement or act as a prop . On April Fools ' Day , 1982 , the Portland Rainmakers gathered around the sculpture , issued a proclamation condemning nudity , " even in statues , for viewing by the general public " , and left the statue covered with a " size 42 @-@ plus " , lacy bra . In 1984 the statue was vandalized with the painted text " Jesus Saves " . In January 1985 , on the day Bud Clark took the oath of office as Mayor of Portland , Kvinneakt was draped anonymously with a sash reading " Congratulations " . In 2007 Tom Burkleaux , founder of New Deal Vodka , posted an image of the sculpture on the company 's website with the woman 's nipples airbrushed out , protesting censorship after the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau deemed the website " offensive " . In 2012 , Century of Action , a project of the Oregon Women 's History Consortium , used the sculpture to promote women 's suffrage by placing a " Votes for Women " sash across her chest as part of the organization 's " Sash Project " .
= = Reception = =
Kvinneakt is often referred to as the most notorious of the sculptures installed in the Transit Mall during the 1970s . In addition to being somewhat controversial because it is a nude , the sculpture has also received mixed reviews as a work of art . In 1981 , Taylor recalled that following the sculpture 's first installation one man told him that " he ought to be ashamed of himself . " In 1985 Jeff Kuechle of The Oregonian listed the work as one of the city 's " worst sculptures " . In the article , Claire Kelly , director of Portland State University 's art and architecture program said , " She 's more than simplistic , she 's absurd . It 's not a piece that belongs on public display . " In contrast , Monk Magazine described the sculpture as " the best @-@ looking girl in Portland " with " her stunning eyes and voluptuous figure " . According to the magazine , Portland is the only city in the United States with a " flasher statue " . The sculpture was included in Kate Chynoweth 's 2003 book , The Best Places to Kiss in the Northwest : A Romantic Travel Guide , as one of Portland 's " romantic highlights " .
|
= Al Franken =
Alan Stuart " Al " Franken ( born May 21 , 1951 ) is an American comedian , actor , politician , and writer . He is currently the junior United States Senator from Minnesota . He became well known in the 1970s and 1980s as a writer and performer on the television comedy show Saturday Night Live . After several decades as a comedic actor and writer , he became a prominent liberal political activist . Franken was elected to the United States Senate in 2008 , narrowly defeating incumbent Republican Senator Norm Coleman . Franken is a member of the Minnesota Democratic – Farmer – Labor Party ( DFL ) , an affiliate of the Democratic Party .
Born in New York City , Franken moved to Minnesota when he was four but he later went back to the East Coast and attended Harvard College . With his writing partner Tom Davis , with whom he had developed an interest in improvisational theatre in high school , he was hired as a writer for SNL at its inception in 1975 . He worked on the show as a writer and performer until 1980 , and returned from 1985 to 1995 . After leaving SNL , he wrote and acted in movies and television shows . He also hosted a nationally syndicated , political radio talk show , The Al Franken Show , and wrote six books , four of which are political satires critical of conservative politics .
Franken ran for the U.S. Senate from Minnesota in 2008 and , after a close race , he trailed incumbent Norm Coleman by 215 votes . After a statewide manual recount , required because of the closeness of the election , Franken was declared the winner by a margin of 312 votes . After an election contest and subsequent lawsuit by Coleman , the Minnesota Supreme Court unanimously upheld Franken 's victory on June 30 , 2009 . Franken was sworn into the U.S. Senate on July 7 , 2009 . He was re @-@ elected to a second term in office in 2014 .
= = Early life and education = =
Franken was born on May 21 , 1951 , in New York City , to Joseph Franken , a printing salesman , and Phoebe ( Kunst ) , a real estate agent . His paternal grandparents emigrated from Germany ; his maternal grandfather came from Grodno , Belarus , and his maternal grandmother 's parents were also from the Russian Empire . The Franken family moved to Albert Lea , Minnesota , when Al was four years old . His father had hopes of opening a quilting factory – but after just two years , the factory failed . The family moved to St. Louis Park , Minnesota , a suburb of Minneapolis . Franken graduated from The Blake School in 1969 , where he was a member of the wrestling team . He attended Harvard College where he majored in government , graduating cum laude with a Bachelor of Arts in 1973 . His older brother Owen is a photojournalist , and his cousin Bob is a journalist for MSNBC .
Franken began performing in high school where he , along with his friend and long @-@ time writing partner Tom Davis were known for their humor . The two first performed on stage at Minneapolis ' Brave New Workshop theater , specializing in political satire . They soon found themselves in what was described as " a life of near @-@ total failure on the fringes of show business in Los Angeles . "
= = Saturday Night Live = =
Franken and Davis were recruited as two of the original writers ( and occasional performers ) on Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) ( 1975 – 1980 , 1985 – 1995 ) . In Season 1 of SNL , as apprentice writers , the two shared a salary of $ 350 per week . Franken received seven Emmy nominations and three awards for his television writing and producing while creating such characters as self @-@ help guru Stuart Smalley . Another routine proclaimed the 1980s to be the " Al Franken Decade " . Franken and Davis wrote the script to the 1986 comedy film One More Saturday Night , appearing in it as rock singers in a band called " Bad Mouth " . They also appeared in minor roles in All You Need Is Cash and in the Eddie Murphy and Dan Aykroyd film Trading Places .
On Weekend Update near the end of Season 5 , Franken delivered a commentary called " A Limo For A Lame @-@ O " . He mocked controversial NBC president Fred Silverman as " a total unequivocal failure " and displayed a chart showing the poor ratings of NBC programs . As a result of this sketch , Silverman refused Lorne Michaels ' request that Franken succeed him as producer , prompting Franken to leave the show when Michaels did , at the end of the 1979 – 80 season . Franken later returned to the show in 1985 as a writer , and also as an occasional performer . Franken has acknowledged using cocaine while working in the television business . In 1995 , Franken left the show in protest over losing the role of Weekend Update anchor to Norm Macdonald .
In his second stint with the show , one of Franken 's most memorable recurring roles was Stuart Smalley , who hosted " Daily Affirmations with Stuart Smalley . "
= = Post @-@ SNL = =
In 1995 , Franken wrote the original screenplay and starred in the film Stuart Saves His Family , which was a critical and commercial failure . Franken became depressed following the movie 's failure . With an aggregate rating of 27 % on Rotten Tomatoes , Stuart Saves His Family did receive a number of favorable reviews , including from the Washington Post and Gene Siskel .
Franken is the author of four books that made the New York Times best @-@ seller list . In 2003 , Penguin Books published Franken 's book Lies and the Lying Liars Who Tell Them : A Fair and Balanced Look at the Right , a satirical book on American politics and conservatism . The book 's title incorporated the Fox News slogan , " Fair and Balanced , " and included a cover photo of Fox News commentator Bill O 'Reilly ; in August that year Fox News sued , claiming infringement of its registered trademark phrase . A federal judge found the lawsuit to be " wholly without merit " . The incident with Fox focused media attention on Franken 's book and , according to Franken , greatly increased its sales through the Streisand effect . The publicity resulting from the lawsuit propelled Franken 's yet @-@ to @-@ be @-@ released book to # 1 on Amazon.com.
Franken signed a one @-@ year contract in early 2004 to host a talk show for Air America Radio 's flagship program with co @-@ host Katherine Lanpher , who remained with the show until October 2005 . The network was launched March 31 , 2004 . Originally named The O 'Franken Factor but renamed The Al Franken Show on July 12 , 2004 , the show aired three hours a day , five days a week for three years . The stated goal of the show was to provide the public airwaves with more progressive views to counter what Franken perceived to be the dominance of conservative syndicated commentary on the radio : " I 'm doing this because I want to use my energies to get Bush unelected , " he told a New York Times reporter in 2004 . Franken 's last radio show on Air America Radio was on February 14 , 2007 , at the end of which Franken announced his candidacy for the United States Senate .
Franken also co @-@ wrote the film When a Man Loves a Woman , co @-@ created and starred in the NBC sitcom LateLine , and appeared in the 2004 remake of The Manchurian Candidate .
In 2003 , Franken served as a Fellow with Harvard 's Kennedy School of Government at the Joan Shorenstein Center on the Press , Politics and Public Policy . Since 2005 , Franken has been a contributor at The Huffington Post .
Franken has toured Iraq several times with the United Service Organizations . On March 25 , 2009 , Franken was presented with the USO 's @-@ Metro Merit Award for his 10 years ' involvement with the organization .
= = Political activism prior to election = =
According to an article by Richard Corliss published in Time , " In a way , Franken has been running for office since the late ' 70s . " Corliss also hinted at Franken 's " possibly ironic role as a relentless self @-@ promoter " in proclaiming the 1980s " the Al Franken Decade " and saying , " Vote for me , Al Franken . You 'll be glad you did ! " In 1999 , Franken released a parody book , Why Not Me ? , detailing his hypothetical campaign for President in 2000 . He had been a strong supporter of Minnesota Senator Paul Wellstone and was deeply affected by the Senator 's death in a plane crash shortly before the 2002 election . Wellstone was a mentor and political and personal role model for Franken , with Franken stating his hopes of following in the late Senator ’ s footsteps .
Franken said he learned that 21 % of Americans received most of their news from talk radio , an almost exclusively conservative medium . Said Franken , " I didn 't want to sit on the sidelines , and I believed Air America could make a difference . " In November 2003 , Franken talked about moving to his home state of Minnesota to run for the Senate . At the time the seat , once held by Wellstone , was occupied by Republican Norm Coleman . In 2005 , Franken announced his move to Minnesota : " I can tell you honestly , I don 't know if I 'm going to run , but I 'm doing the stuff I need to do in order to do it . " In late 2005 , Franken started his own political action committee , called Midwest Values PAC . By early 2007 , the PAC raised more than $ 1 million .
Franken was the subject of the 2006 documentary film Al Franken : God Spoke , which was , according to the New York Times , " an investigation of the phenomenon of ideological celebrity . "
Franken initially supported the Iraq War but opposed the 2007 troop surge . In an interview with MSNBC ’ s Joe Scarborough , Franken said that he " believed Colin Powell " , whose presentation at the United Nations convinced him that the war was necessary . However , since then he had come to believe that " we were misled into the war " and urged the Democratically controlled Congress to refuse to pass appropriations bills to fund the war if they don 't include timetables for leaving Iraq . In an interview with Josh Marshall , Franken said of the Democrats , " I think we 've gotta make President George W. Bush say , ' OK , I 'm cutting off funding because I won 't agree to a timetable . ' "
Franken favors transitioning to a universal health care system , with the provision that every child in America should receive health care coverage immediately . Franken objects to efforts to privatize Social Security or cut benefits . He favors raising the cap on wages to which Social Security taxes apply . On his 2008 campaign website , he voiced support for cutting subsidies for oil companies , increasing money available for college students , and cutting interest rates on student loans .
During the 2008 election , New York state officials asserted that Al Franken Inc. had failed to carry required workers ' compensation insurance for employees who assisted him with his comedy and public speaking from 2002 to 2005 . Franken paid a $ 25 @,@ 000 fine to the state of New York upon being advised his corporation was out of compliance with the state 's workers ' compensation laws . At the same time , the California Franchise Tax Board reported that the same corporation owed more than $ 4 @,@ 743 @.@ 40 in taxes , fines , and associated penalties in the state of California for 2003 through 2007 because the corporation did not file tax returns in the state for those years . A Franken representative said that it followed the advice of an accountant who believed when the corporation stopped doing business in California that no further filing was required . Subsequently , Franken paid $ 70 @,@ 000 in back income taxes in 17 states dating back to 2003 , mostly from Franken 's speeches and other paid appearances . Franken said he paid the income tax in his state of residence , and he would seek retroactive credit for paying the taxes in the wrong states .
= = U.S. Senate = =
= = = Elections = = =
2008
On January 29 , 2007 , Franken announced his departure from Air America Radio , and on the day of his final show , February 14 , Franken formally announced his candidacy for the United States Senate from Minnesota in 2008 . Challenging him for the Democratic – Farmer – Labor Party endorsement was Jack Nelson @-@ Pallmeyer , a professor , author , and activist . Other candidates were trial lawyer Mike Ciresi and attorney and human rights activist Jim Cohen , who had dropped out of the race earlier . Franken won the nomination with 65 % of the vote .
On July 8 , 2007 , Franken 's campaign stated that it expected to announce that Franken had raised more money than Republican opponent Norm Coleman during the second quarter of the year , taking in $ 1 @.@ 9 million to Coleman 's $ 1 @.@ 6 million , although in early July 2007 , Coleman 's $ 3 @.@ 8 million cash on hand exceeded Franken 's $ 2 million .
In late May 2008 , the Minnesota Republican Party released a letter regarding an article Franken had written for Playboy in 2000 entitled " Porn @-@ O @-@ Rama ! " . The letter , signed by six prominent GOP women , including a state senator and state representative , called on Franken to apologize for what they referred to as a " demeaning and degrading " article . A Franken campaign spokesman responded that , " Al had a long career as a satirist . But he understands the difference between what you say as a satirist and what you do as a senator . And as a Senator , Norm Coleman has disrespected the people of Minnesota by putting the Exxons and Halliburtons ahead of working families . And there 's nothing funny about that . "
On June 7 , 2008 , Franken was endorsed at the DFL convention . In a July 2008 interview with CNN , Franken was endorsed by Ben Stein , the noted entertainer , speechwriter , lawyer and author who is known for his conservative views and generally supports Republican candidates . Stein said of Franken , " He is my pal , and he is a really , really capable smart guy . I don 't agree with all of his positions , but he is a very impressive guy , and I think he should be in the Senate . "
During his campaign for the Senate , Franken was criticized for advising SNL creator Lorne Michaels on a political sketch ridiculing Senator John McCain 's ads attacking Barack Obama in the 2008 presidential election . Coleman 's campaign reacted , saying , " Once again , he proves he 's more interested in entertainment than service , and ridiculing those with whom he disagrees . "
Preliminary reports on election night , November 4 , had Coleman ahead by over 700 votes , but the official results certified on November 18 , 2008 , had Coleman leading by only 215 votes . As the two candidates were separated by less than 0 @.@ 5 percent , the Secretary of State of Minnesota Mark Ritchie , authorized an automatic recount stipulated in Minnesota election law . In the recount , ballots and certifying materials were examined by hand , and candidates could file challenges to the legality of ballots or materials for inclusion or exclusion with regard to the recount . On January 5 , 2009 , the Minnesota State Canvassing Board certified the recounted vote totals , with Franken ahead by 225 votes .
On January 6 , 2009 , Coleman 's campaign filed an election contest , which led to a trial before a three @-@ judge panel . The trial ended on April 7 , when the panel ruled that 351 of 387 disputed absentee ballots were incorrectly rejected and ordered them counted . Counting those ballots raised Franken 's lead to 312 votes . Coleman appealed to the Minnesota Supreme Court on April 20 . On April 24 , the Minnesota Supreme Court agreed to hear the case. and oral arguments were conducted on June 1 .
On June 30 , 2009 , the Minnesota Supreme Court unanimously rejected Coleman 's appeal and said that Franken was entitled to be certified as the winner . Shortly after the court 's decision , Coleman conceded . Governor Tim Pawlenty signed Franken ’ s election certificate that same evening .
2014
Franken was re @-@ elected to a second term in 2014 . He faced primary challenger Sandra Henningsgard , winning the nomination on August 12 , 2014 . He won the election against Republican Mike McFadden with 53 @.@ 9 % of the vote .
= = = Tenure = = =
Franken was sworn into the Senate on July 7 , 2009 , 246 days after election . Franken was sworn in with the Bible of late Minnesota Senator Paul Wellstone , whose old seat was set aside by Senate leaders for Franken .
On August 6 , 2009 , Franken presided over the confirmation vote of Sonia Sotomayor to be an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court . A year later , on August 5 , 2010 , Franken presided over the confirmation vote of Elena Kagan . His first piece of legislation , the Service Dogs for Veterans Act , which he wrote jointly with Republican Johnny Isakson , passed the Senate with unanimous consent , and established a program with the United States Department of Veterans Affairs to pair disabled veterans with service dogs .
A video began circulating on the Internet of Franken at the Minnesota State Fair on September 2 , 2009 , engaging in a discussion with a group of Tea Party protesters on health care reform , and soon went viral . The discussion was noted for its civility , in contrast to the explosive character of several other discussions between members of the 111th Congress and their constituents that had occurred over the summer .
During the debate on health care reform , Franken was one of the strongest supporters of a single @-@ payer system . He authored an amendment , called the Medical Loss Ratio , to the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act that required insurance companies spend at least 80 % of premiums on actual health care costs , rising to 85 % for large group plans . In June 2013 , it was reported that the amendment had saved consumers $ 3 @.@ 4 billion on premiums and resulted in nationwide rebates of $ 1 @.@ 1 billion in 2012 and $ 500 million in 2013 . On September 30 , 2013 , Franken voted to remove a provision which would repeal the medical device tax in Obamacare from a government funding bill . Although Franken says he is in favor of the provision , he disagreed with it being used as a condition in preventing the 2013 federal government shutdown .
Citing the case of Jamie Leigh Jones , Franken offered an amendment to the 2010 Defense Appropriations bill that would withhold defense contracts from companies that restrict their employees from taking workplace sexual assault , battery and discrimination cases to court . It passed the U.S. Senate in November 2010 , 68 to 30 in a roll @-@ call vote .
In May 2010 , Franken proposed a financial reform legislation amendment which would create a board to select which credit rating agency would evaluate a given security ; currently any companies issuing a security may select which company evaluates the security . The amendment was passed ; however , the financial industry lobbied to have Franken 's amendment removed from the final bill . Negotiations between the Senate and House , whose version of financial reform did not include such a provision , resulted in the amendment 's being watered down to require only a series of studies being done upon the issue for two years . After the studies , if the Securities and Exchange Commission has not implemented another solution to the conflict of interest problem , Franken 's solution will go into effect .
In August 2010 , Franken made faces and hand gestures and rolled his eyes while Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell delivered a speech in opposition to the confirmation of Elena Kagan to the U.S. Supreme Court . Franken 's actions prompted McConnell to remark , " This isn 't Saturday Night Live , Al . " Following Kagan 's confirmation , Franken delivered a handwritten apology to McConnell and issued a public statement saying that McConnell had a right " to give his speech with the presiding officer just listening respectfully . "
The National Journal reported in 2013 that Franken supports the National Security Agency ’ s data mining programs , believing they have saved lives , and that " I can assure you , this is not about spying on the American people . ”
When Franken declared his intention to seek re @-@ election in 2014 , his seat was thought to be a top target for the Republicans due to his very slim margin of victory in the previous election . However Politico reported that his high approval rating , large war chest , and the Republicans ' struggle to find a top @-@ tier candidate meant that he was a " heavy favorite " to win re @-@ election , a view subsequently confirmed in the election , which Franken won comfortably .
The Associated Press has noted that contrary to expectations , Franken has not sought out the media spotlight : " He rarely talks to the Washington press corps , has shed his comedic persona and focused on policy , working to be taken seriously . " In interviews he has expressed his desire to be known for focusing on constituency work , keeping his head down and working hard .
= = = Committee assignments = = =
Committee on Energy and Natural Resources
Subcommittee on Energy
Subcommittee on Public Lands , Forests and Mining
Subcommittee on Water and Power
Committee on Health , Education , Labor , and Pensions
Subcommittee on Children and Families
Subcommittee on Employment and Workplace Safety ( Ranking Member )
Committee on Indian Affairs
Committee on the Judiciary
Subcommittee on Administrative Oversight and the Courts
Subcommittee on Antitrust , Competition Policy and Consumer Rights
Subcommittee on the Constitution , Civil Rights and Human Rights
Subcommittee on Privacy , Technology , and the Law ( Ranking Member )
= = Books and CDs = =
= = = Non @-@ fiction = = =
I 'm Good Enough , I 'm Smart Enough , and Doggone It , People Like Me ! : Daily Affirmations with Stuart Smalley ( Dell Books , 1992 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 440 @-@ 50470 @-@ 8
Rush Limbaugh Is a Big Fat Idiot and Other Observations ( Delacorte Press , 1996 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 385 @-@ 31474 @-@ 4
Why Not Me ? : The Inside Story of the Making and Unmaking of the Franken Presidency ( Delacorte Press , 1999 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 385 @-@ 31809 @-@ X
Oh , the Things I Know ! : A Guide to Success , or Failing That , Happiness ( Plume Books , 2003 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 452 @-@ 28450 @-@ 3
Lies and the Lying Liars Who Tell Them : A Fair and Balanced Look at the Right ( Dutton Books , 2003 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 525 @-@ 94764 @-@ 7
The Truth ( With Jokes ) ( Dutton Books , 2005 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 525 @-@ 94906 @-@ 2
= = = CDs and compilations = = =
The Best Democracy Money Can Buy : The Truth About Corporate Cons , Globalization , and High @-@ Finance Fraudsters with Greg Palast ( 2004 )
The O 'Franken Factor Factor — The Best of the O 'Franken Factor
The Al Franken Show Party Album
= = Filmography = =
= = Electoral history = =
= = Personal life = =
Franken met his wife , Franni Bryson , in his first year of college . In 2005 , they moved to Minneapolis , Minnesota . Together they have two children . Their daughter Thomasin has degrees from Harvard and the French Culinary Institute , and she is director of extended learning at DC Prep , an organization in Washington that manages charter schools . Their son Joseph works in the finance industry . Franken is a second cousin of the late actor Steve Franken known for his appearances in the television series The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis . In 2013 , Franken received the Stewart B. McKinney award for his work to fight homelessness .
|
= Dennis Bergkamp =
Dennis Nicolaas Maria Bergkamp ( Dutch pronunciation : [ ˈdɛnəs ˈbɛrxkɑmp ] ; born 10 May 1969 ) is a Dutch former professional footballer , who is the assistant manager to Frank de Boer at Ajax . Originally a wide midfielder , Bergkamp was moved to main striker and then to second striker , where he remained throughout his playing career . Bergkamp has been described by Jan Mulder as having " the finest technique " of any Dutch international and a " dream for a striker " by teammate Thierry Henry .
The son of an electrician , Bergkamp was born in Amsterdam and played as an amateur in the lower leagues . He was spotted by Ajax at age 11 and made his professional debut in 1986 . Good form led to an international call @-@ up a year later , attracting the attention of several European clubs . Bergkamp signed for Italian club Internazionale in 1993 , where he had two disappointing seasons . After joining Arsenal in 1995 , he rejuvenated his career , helping the club to win three Premier League titles , four FA Cup trophies , and reach the 2006 UEFA Champions League Final , which marked his last appearance as a player . With the Netherlands national team , Bergkamp surpassed Faas Wilkes 's record to become the country 's top goalscorer of all time in 1998 , a record later eclipsed by Patrick Kluivert , Robin van Persie and Klaas @-@ Jan Huntelaar .
Widely regarded as one of the greatest players in his generation , Bergkamp finished third twice in the FIFA World Player of the Year award and was selected by Pelé as one of the FIFA 100 greatest living players . In 2007 , he was inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame , the first and so far only Dutch player ever to receive such honour . Due to his fear of flying , Bergkamp has been affectionately nicknamed the " Non @-@ Flying Dutchman " by Arsenal supporters .
= = Early life = =
Born in Amsterdam , Bergkamp was the last of Wim and Tonnie Bergkamp 's four sons . He was brought up in a working @-@ class suburb , in a family aspiring to reach middle @-@ class status . His father , an electrician and amateur footballer in the lower leagues , named him in honour of Scottish striker Denis Law . To comply with Dutch given name customs , an extra " n " was inserted in Bergkamp 's first name by his father after it was not accepted by the registrar . Bergkamp was raised as a Catholic by his family and regularly attended church during his childhood . Although in later years he said visits to church did not appeal to him , Bergkamp still maintains his faith .
= = Club career = =
= = = Ajax : 1986 – 1993 = = =
Bergkamp was brought up through Ajax 's youth system , joining the club at age 11 . Manager Johan Cruyff gave him his professional debut on 14 December 1986 against Roda JC ; the game ended in a 2 – 0 victory for Ajax . Bergkamp scored his first senior goal for the club against HFC Haarlem on 22 February 1987 in a match Ajax won 6 – 0 . He went on to make 23 appearances in the 1986 – 87 season , including a European debut against Malmö FF in the 1986 – 87 European Cup Winners ' Cup , earning him praise . Ajax won the competition , beating Lokomotive Leipzig 1 – 0 as Bergkamp made an appearance as a substitute .
In later seasons , Bergkamp established himself as a first @-@ team player for Ajax . This culminated in a period of success for the club , which won the Eredivisie title in the 1989 – 90 season for the first time in five years . Bergkamp scored 29 goals in 36 games the following season and became the joint top goalscorer in the league , sharing the accolade with PSV Eindhoven striker Romário . Ajax won the 1992 UEFA Cup Final , beating Torino through the away goals ruling . They then defeated SC Heerenveen 6 – 2 in the final of the KNVB Cup on 20 May 1993 . Bergkamp was the top scorer in the Eredivisie from 1991 to 1993 , and was voted Dutch Footballer of the Year in 1992 and 1993 . In total , he scored 122 goals in 239 games for his hometown club .
= = = Internazionale : 1993 – 1995 = = =
Bergkamp attracted the attention of several European clubs as a result of his performances for Ajax . Cruyff advised him not to join Real Madrid , one of the teams said to have been interested in him . But Bergkamp was insistent on playing in Italy . He considered Serie A " the biggest league at the time " and preferred a move to either Juventus or Internazionale . On 16 February 1993 , Bergkamp agreed a £ 7 @.@ 1 million move to the latter club in a deal which included his Ajax teammate Wim Jonk . Upon signing , Bergkamp said Inter " met all my demands . The most important thing for me was the stadium , the people at the club and their style of play . "
Bergkamp made his debut against Reggiana on 29 August 1993 at the San Siro in a 2 – 1 victory . He scored his first goal for the club against Cremonese in September 1993 but had a difficult time against the highly organised and resolute Italian defences , scoring a further seven goals in the league . This was partly due to manager Osvaldo Bagnoli 's inability to find a stable forward partnership , preferring Bergkamp in a three with Uruguayan Rubén Sosa and Italian Salvatore Schillaci . Inter 's poor league form culminated in the sacking of Bagnoli in February 1994 and his replacement by Gianpiero Marini , a member of Italy 's World Cup winning squad of 1982 . The club finished 13th in Serie A , one point away from relegation , but enjoyed success in the UEFA Cup , beating Austria Salzburg in the final over two legs . Bergkamp was the competition 's joint top goalscorer with eight goals and scored a hat @-@ trick against Rapid București in the first round .
In Bergkamp 's second season at Inter , the club changed managers again , appointing Ottavio Bianchi . Bergkamp endured a disappointing campaign , troubled with stress injuries and fatigue from the 1994 World Cup . He managed to score five goals in 26 appearances . Off the field , Bergkamp 's relationship with the Italian press and fans became uncomfortable . His shy persona and his propensity to go home after matches was interpreted as apathy . Because of his poor performance on the pitch , one Italian publication renamed their award given to the worst performance of the week , L 'asino della settimana ( Donkey of the Week ) to Bergkamp della settimana . Inter ended the league season in sixth position and failed to retain the UEFA Cup , with the club eliminated in the second round . In February 1995 , the club was purchased by Italian businessman and fan Massimo Moratti , who promised to invest heavily in the squad . Bergkamp 's future in the first team was uncertain following the signing of Maurizio Ganz a month after the takeover .
= = = Arsenal : 1995 – 2006 = = =
As Moratti prepared to make wholesale changes at the club , Bergkamp left Inter and signed with Arsenal in June 1995 for a transfer fee estimated at £ 7 @.@ 5 million . He became manager Bruce Rioch 's first signing at Arsenal and broke the club 's transfer fee record set at £ 2 @.@ 5 million . Bergkamp 's arrival at the club was significant not only because he was an established international footballer who looked to have his best years ahead of him but also because he was a major contributor to Arsenal 's return to success after much decline in the mid @-@ 1990s . On the opening day of the 1995 – 96 league season , Bergkamp made his full debut against Middlesbrough . He struggled to adapt to the English game and failed to score in the club 's next six league matches , prompting ridicule by the national press . On 23 September 1995 , Bergkamp scored his first and second goals for Arsenal against Southampton at Highbury . Bergkamp ended his first season with 33 appearances and a goal tally of 11 , helping Arsenal finish fifth and earn a place in the UEFA Cup by scoring the winner against Bolton Wanderers on the final day of the season .
The appointment of Arsène Wenger as Arsenal manager in September 1996 marked a turning point in Bergkamp 's career . Wenger , who had moderate success coaching in France and Japan , recognised Bergkamp 's talent and wanted to use him as a fulcrum of the team 's forward play . Both were advocates of a continental style of attacking football , and Wenger 's decision to impose a strict fitness and health regime pleased Bergkamp . Despite making fewer appearances in the 1996 – 97 season , Bergkamp was more influential in the first team , creating 13 assists . Against Tottenham Hotspur in November 1996 , he set up an 88th @-@ minute winner for captain Tony Adams to volley in using his left foot . He then scored in injury time , controlling a high ball with his left foot and evading his marker Stephen Carr in a tight area to set up his shot . Bergkamp received his first red card against Sunderland in January 1997 for a high tackle on midfielder Paul Bracewell in the 26th minute . Arsenal went on to lose the match 1 – 0 , but a run of eight wins in their final 16 matches gave the club a third @-@ place finish , missing out on a spot in the Champions League via goal difference .
Bergkamp was instrumental the following season in helping Arsenal complete a domestic league and cup double . He became the club 's top scorer with 22 goals and recorded a strike rate of 0 @.@ 57 . Arsenal 's achievement was all the more astonishing given that the team , written off by many in December 1997 , had made ground on reigning Premier League champions Manchester United . Early in the season away to Leicester City at Filbert Street on 23 August 1997 , Bergkamp scored his first hat @-@ trick for the club . The third goal , which he regarded as his favourite for Arsenal , required just one touch to control the ball in the penalty box , another to flick it past his marker Matt Elliott before juggling it with his feet and shooting past goalkeeper Kasey Keller . After the match , Leicester manager Martin O 'Neill was gracious enough to admit that Bergkamp 's was " the best hat @-@ trick I 've ever seen " . In an FA Cup quarter @-@ final replay against West Ham United on 17 March 1998 , Bergkamp was sent off for elbowing midfielder Steve Lomas and missed three matches due to suspension . He played no further part in Arsenal 's season after overstretching his hamstring against Derby County on 29 April 1998 , missing the 1998 FA Cup Final . Bergkamp was consoled with the PFA Players ' Player of the Year award , becoming only the third non @-@ British player to be recognised by his fellow professionals as the outstanding performer in English football .
After an effective 1998 World Cup campaign with the national team , Bergkamp had another productive season in 1998 – 99 . Although Arsenal failed to retain the Premier League after losing the title on the final day of the season to Manchester United , Bergkamp was the club 's second @-@ top scorer with 16 goals . The team were also defeated in a FA Cup semi @-@ final replay against Manchester United in April 1999 . With the score 1 – 1 heading into injury time , Arsenal were awarded a penalty after midfielder Ray Parlour was brought down by Phil Neville inside the 18 @-@ yard box . Bergkamp took the penalty shot , but it was saved by goalkeeper Peter Schmeichel . In the second half of extra time , Ryan Giggs scored the winner , a goal regarded by many as the greatest in the competition 's history . After this miss , Bergkamp did not take another penalty for the remainder of his career .
The 1999 – 2000 season proved to be a frustrating one for both Arsenal and Bergkamp . The club finished second in the league , 18 points behind Manchester United , and lost in the 2000 UEFA Cup Final to Turkish opponents Galatasaray on penalties . The departure of compatriot Marc Overmars and French midfielder Emmanuel Petit in the close season led to speculation over Bergkamp 's future . He ultimately agreed terms on a contract extension in December 2000 . Despite an array of new signings made in the 2000 – 01 season , Arsenal were runners @-@ up in the league for a third year in succession . The emergence of Thierry Henry and Sylvain Wiltord as the main strikers saw Bergkamp 's first @-@ team opportunities limited as a result . He was used as a late substitute in Liverpool 's win over Arsenal in the 2001 FA Cup Final .
Success finally came in the 2001 – 02 season . Arsenal regained the league , beating Manchester United at Old Trafford in the penultimate game of the season to complete the club 's second double under Wenger ; Arsenal defeated Chelsea 2 – 0 to win the FA Cup four days prior . Bergkamp played in 33 league matches , setting up 15 goals , one of which was against Juventus in the second group stage of the Champions League . Holding off two markers , he twisted and turned before feeding the ball to Freddie Ljungberg in the penalty box to score . Bergkamp headed in the winner against Liverpool in a FA Cup fourth @-@ round tie on 27 January 2002 , but was shown a red card for a two @-@ footed lunge on defender Jamie Carragher , who himself was sent off for throwing a coin into the crowd . He was subsequently banned for three matches ( two league , one FA Cup round ) . Bergkamp appealed for his ban , but was unsuccessful . He made his return against Newcastle United on 3 March 2002 . Early in the match , Arsenal midfielder Robert Pirès played a low pass from the left flank to Bergkamp in the edge of the opponent area with his back to goal . Under pressure from his marker Nikos Dabizas , Bergkamp controlled the ball with one flick and went around the other side before placing the ball precisely into the bottom right @-@ hand corner to score . Wenger described the goal as " unbelievable " , adding " It was not only a magnificent goal but a very important one – I enjoyed it a lot " . Bergkamp featured in nine out of the last ten league games , forming a productive partnership with Ljungberg .
Bergkamp reached a personal landmark during the 2002 – 03 season , scoring his 100th goal for Arsenal against Oxford United in a FA Cup third @-@ round tie on 4 January 2003 . In the league , Arsenal failed to retain the championship despite having led by eight points in March 2003 . They did , however , win the FA Cup for a second successive year , beating Southampton in the 2003 FA Cup Final . On 20 July 2003 , Bergkamp signed a one @-@ year extension at the club . The 2003 – 04 season ended on a high point for Bergkamp as Arsenal reclaimed the league title , becoming the first English team in more than a century to go through the entire domestic league season unbeaten . Against Leicester City in the final league match of the campaign with the score tied at 1 – 1 , Bergkamp set up the winner with a pass to captain Patrick Vieira . Vieira rounded the goalkeeper and scored . The team , dubbed " The Invincibles " did not achieve similar dominance in Europe ; Arsenal were beaten by Chelsea in the quarter @-@ finals of the Champions League over two legs . Bergkamp committed himself to Arsenal at the end of the season , signing a further extension to his contract .
Bergkamp started in 29 league matches in the 2004 – 05 season , but Arsenal 's title defence ended unsuccessfully . The team finished second , 12 points behind Chelsea . At home against Middlesbrough on 22 August 2004 , Bergkamp acted as captain for the injured Vieira in a match where Arsenal came back from 1 – 3 down to win 5 – 3 and equal Nottingham Forest 's record of 42 league matches undefeated . Against Sheffield United in the FA Cup on 19 February 2005 , Bergkamp was shown a straight red card by referee Neale Barry for shoving defender Danny Cullip . His appeal of the decision was rejected by The Football Association , meaning that he missed the club 's next three domestic games . In Arsenal 's final home match of the season against Everton , Bergkamp had a man of the match game , scoring once and assisting three of the goals in a 7 – 0 win . Bergkamp was moved by Arsenal supporters chanting " one more year " , describing it as " quite special " . " They obviously feel there is another year left in me , so that 's great as it shows they 're really behind me , " he said . Following Arsenal 's penalty shootout victory over Manchester United in the 2005 FA Cup Final , he signed a one @-@ year contract extension .
The team finished fourth in the league in Bergkamp 's final season at Arsenal . Bergkamp scored an injury @-@ time winner against FC Thun on Matchday 1 of the Champions League , having come on as a substitute in the 72nd minute . After much campaigning from Arsenal supporters , the club designated one of its Highbury matchday themes , organised to commemorate the stadium 's final season as home of Arsenal , to Dennis Bergkamp . " Bergkamp Day " took place on 15 April 2006 and saw Arsenal up against West Bromwich Albion . It celebrated the player 's contribution to Arsenal ; fans were given commemorative orange ' DB10 ' T @-@ shirts – the colour of his national team , his initials and his squad number . Bergkamp himself came on as a second @-@ half substitute and set up the winning Pirès goal moments after Nigel Quashie had levelled the scoreline . Fittingly , Bergkamp 's 89th @-@ minute goal proved to be his last for Arsenal in competitive football . Bergkamp was an unused substitute in his final match for Arsenal against Barcelona in the Champions League final ; Barcelona scored twice in the last 13 minutes to overturn Arsenal 's early lead and win the competition .
Bergkamp was the focus of the first match at Arsenal 's new ground , the Emirates Stadium . On 22 July 2006 , a testimonial was played in his honour at the new stadium as Arsenal played his old club Ajax . Bergkamp kicked off the match with his father , Wim , and son , Mitchel . All four children acted as the match 's mascots . The first half was played by members of Arsenal and Ajax 's current squads , while the second was played by famous ex @-@ players from both sides , including Ian Wright , Vieira , Overmars , Petit and David Seaman for Arsenal , and Cruyff , Marco van Basten , Danny Blind , Frank and Ronald de Boer for Ajax . Arsenal won the match 2 – 1 with goals from Henry and Nwankwo Kanu . Klaas @-@ Jan Huntelaar had earlier opened the scoring for Ajax , making him the first goalscorer at the Emirates Stadium .
= = International career = =
Bergkamp made his international debut for the Netherlands national team against Italy on 26 September 1990 as a substitute for Frank de Boer . He scored his first goal for the team against Greece on 21 November 1990 . Bergkamp was selected for Euro 1992 , where his national team were the defending champions . Although Bergkamp impressed , scoring three goals in the tournament , the team lost on penalties to eventual champions Denmark .
In the qualification for the 1994 FIFA World Cup , Bergkamp scored five goals and was selected for the finals , staged in the United States . He featured in every game for the national team , getting goals against Morocco in the group stages and the Republic of Ireland in the round @-@ of @-@ 16 . Bergkamp scored the second goal for the Netherlands against Brazil , but the team lost 3 – 2 , exiting in the quarter @-@ finals . At Euro 1996 , Bergkamp scored against Switzerland and set up striker Patrick Kluivert 's consolation goal against England , who advanced into the quarter @-@ finals .
Against Wales in the 1998 FIFA World Cup qualification on 9 November 1996 , he scored his first hat @-@ trick for the national team . The Netherlands finished first in their group and qualified for the 1998 FIFA World Cup , held in France . Bergkamp scored three times in the competition , including a memorable winning goal in the final minute of the quarterfinal against Argentina . He took one touch to control a long 60 @-@ yard aerial pass from Frank de Boer , brought the ball down through Argentine defender Roberto Ayala 's legs , and finally finished by firing a volley with the outside of his right foot , past keeper Carlos Roa at a tight angle from the right . The goal , cited by Bergkamp as his favourite in his career , was his 36th for the national team , overtaking Faas Wilkes as the record goalscorer . In the semi @-@ finals , the Netherlands lost to Brazil on penalties after drawing 1 – 1 in normal time . Bergkamp made the All @-@ Star team of the tournament , alongside Frank de Boer and Edgar Davids .
On 9 October 1999 , Bergkamp scored his final goal for the Netherlands , against Brazil . As the Netherlands were co @-@ hosts for Euro 2000 , the team automatically qualified for the tournament and were considered favourites . In the semi @-@ finals , the Netherlands lost 3 – 1 on penalties to Italy . Following the defeat , Bergkamp announced his retirement from international football , choosing to focus on his club career . His final goal tally of 37 goals in 79 appearances was overtaken by Patrick Kluivert in June 2003 .
= = Coaching career = =
Upon retiring , Bergkamp insisted he would not move into coaching . He turned down an offer to scout for Arsenal and instead concentrated on travelling and spending time with his family . However , in April 2008 , he began a fast @-@ track coaching diploma for former Dutch international footballers and undertook a trainee role at Ajax . Having completed the Coach Betaald Voetbal course by the KNVB , Bergkamp was appointed assistant to Johan Neeskens for the newly formed Netherlands B team on 26 October 2008 . For the 2008 – 09 season , Bergkamp returned to Ajax in a formal coaching position with responsibility for the D2 ( U12 ) youth team . Following the promotion of Frank de Boer as manager of Ajax in December 2010 , Bergkamp was appointed assistant manager to Fred Grim , dealing with Ajax ' flagship A1 ( U19 ) youth team .
As of August 2011 , Bergkamp has been De Boer 's assistant at Ajax .
= = Personal life = =
Bergkamp has been married to Henrita Ruizendaal since 16 June 1993 . The couple have four children : Estelle Deborah , Mitchel Dennis , Yasmin Naomi and Saffron Rita . His nephew , Roland Bergkamp currently plays for Sparta Rotterdam , having previously played for Brighton & Hove Albion .
= = = Aviophobia = = =
Bergkamp 's nickname is the Non @-@ Flying Dutchman due to his fear of flying . This stemmed from an incident with the Netherlands national team at the 1994 World Cup where the engine of the plane cut out during a flight , prompting a journalist to joke about having a bomb in his bag . Following this incident , Bergkamp decided he would never fly again but did consider seeking psychiatric help :
I 've got this problem and I have to live with it . I can 't do anything about it , it is a psychological thing and I can 't explain it . I have not flown on a plane for two years . The Dutch FA has been sympathetic , so have Arsenal , so far . I am considering psychiatric help . I can 't fly . I just freeze . I get panicky . It starts the day before , when I can 't sleep .
The condition severely limited his ability to play in away matches in European competitions and to travel with the national team . In some cases , he would travel overland by car or train , but the logistics of some matches were such that he would not travel at all . In the build @-@ up to Arsenal 's Champions League match against Olympique Lyonnais in February 2001 , Wenger spoke of his concerns for Bergkamp travelling by train and car , because of the exertions involved .
= = Style of play = =
Bergkamp was schooled in Total Football , a playing style and philosophy which relied on versatility . This was primarily to maximise the footballer 's potential ; players tried out every outfield position before finding one that suited them best . Every age group at Ajax played in the same style and formation as the first team – 3 – 4 – 3 – to allow individuals to slot in without effort when moving up the pyramid . Bergkamp " played in every position apart from goalie " and believed he benefited from the experience of playing as a defender , as it helped him " know how they think and how to beat them " . When he made his debut as a substitute against Roda JC , Bergkamp was positioned on the right wing , where he remained for three years .
During his time at Inter Milan , Bergkamp was switched to the position of a main striker , but failed to cooperate with his offensive partner Ruben Sosa , whom he later called " selfish " . Furthermore , due to his introverted character , he was accused of lacking consistency and leadership skills by the Italian press , and struggled to replicate his previous form during his time with Inter . When Bergkamp joined Arsenal in 1995 , he enjoyed a successful strike partnership with Wright , and in later seasons Anelka and Henry , playing in his preferred position as a creative second striker . The arrival of Overmars in the 1997 – 98 season enhanced Bergkamp 's play , as he was getting more of the ball . Between August and October 1997 , he scored seven goals in seven league matches . A similar rapport developed between him and Ljungberg during the 2001 – 02 season .
Although he was known for his ability to score several goals for his team as a forward , Bergkamp was also capable of playing behind a lone striker , where he essentially functioned in the number 10 role as a playmaking attacking midfielder or deep @-@ lying forward , due to his ball skills and creative ability , which enabled him to drop deep between the lines and link @-@ up play . A quick , elegant , intelligent , and technically gifted player , his excellent first touch , quick feet , dribbling ability , and change of pace enabled him to beat defenders in one on one situations , while his attacking movement , physique , balance , and close control allowed him to hold up the ball and create space for team mates ; his vision and passing range with both feet subsequently allowed him to provide assists for on @-@ running strikers . Bergkamp often stated that he preferred playing in this deeper role , as he derived more pleasure from assisting goals , rather than scoring them himself .
Throughout his playing career Bergkamp was accused of diving , and was referred to as a " cheat " and " dirty player " for retaliating against players who had previously challenged him , something his former manager Wenger denied . In an interview with The Times in 2004 , he said that while he was at Inter Milan , he realised the importance of being mentally tough in order to survive : " A lot of people there try to hurt you , not just physically but mentally as well , and coming from the easygoing culture in Holland , I had to adopt a tougher approach . There , it was a case of two strikers up against four or five hard defenders who would stop at nothing . " Bergkamp says his aggression often stems from frustration .
= = Honours = =
= = = Individual = = =
Bergkamp has received several accolades during his playing career . He twice finished in third place for the 1993 and 1996 FIFA World Player of the Year award and was named in FIFA 100 , a list compiled by footballer Pelé of the 125 greatest living footballers . In his club career , Bergkamp won two successive Dutch Footballer of the Year awards in 1991 and 1992 and was the Eredivisie Top Scorer winner for three consecutive seasons ( 1990 – 91 to 1992 – 93 ) . He was named the FWA Footballer of the Year and PFA Players ' Player of the Year in April and May 1998 and made the PFA Team of the Year for the 1997 – 98 season . Bergkamp also achieved a unique feat in being voted first , second and third on Match of the Day 's Goal of the Month competition in August 1997 .
In April 2007 , Bergkamp was inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame by viewers of BBC 's Football Focus . A year later , he was voted second by Arsenal fans behind Thierry Henry in a list of the 50 Gunners Greatest Players . In February 2014 , Arsenal unveiled a statue of Bergkamp outside the Emirates Stadium to honour his time at the club . A statue of Dennis Bergkamp will be erected outside the KNVB headquarters in Zeist , as he has been chosen as the best Dutch international soccer player in the period 1990 @-@ 2015 . The statue will join those of the eleven of the century , erected in 1999 , with statues of Johan Cruijff , Ruud Gullit , Frank Rijkaard and Marco van Basten amongst others there .
A summary of Bergkamp 's individual achievements are as follows in chronological order :
Netherlands All @-@ Time Top Scorer : 1998 – 2003
Dutch Football Talent of the Year : 1990
Dutch Footballer of the Year ( 2 ) : 1991 , 1992
UEFA European Football Championship Top Scorer : 1992
UEFA European Football Championship Teams of the Tournament : 1992
World 's Top Goal Scorer of the Year : 1992
Ballon d 'Or – Third Place : 1992
Ballon d 'Or – Runner @-@ up : 1993
FIFA World Player of the Year – Bronze Award ( 2 ) : 1993 , 1997
UEFA Cup Top Scorer : 1993 – 94
FIFA World Cup All @-@ Star Team : 1998
FIFA 100
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
† Includes cup competitions : the KNVB Cup , Coppa Italia , Football League Cup and FA Cup . Super Cups such as the FA Community Shield are not included .
= = = International = = =
= = = International goals = = =
Scores and results list Netherlands ' goal tally first .
= = Media = =
Bergkamp features in EA Sports ' FIFA video game series ; he was on the cover for the International edition of FIFA 99 , and was named in the Ultimate Team Legends in FIFA 14 .
|
= Chicago Marathon =
The Chicago Marathon is a major marathon held yearly in Chicago in Cook County , Illinois , United States . Alongside the Boston , New York , London , Berlin , and Tokyo Marathons , it is one of the six World Marathon Majors . Thus , it is also an IAAF Gold Label race . The October 9 , 2016 running will be the 39th anniversary of the race . The first race was held on September 25 , 1977 under the original name the Mayor Daley Marathon , which drew a field of 4 @,@ 200 runners . The race has been held every year since , except in 1987 when only a half @-@ marathon was run . It is among the fastest growing marathon road races in the world , due in part to its largely fast and flat course which facilitates the pursuit of personal records and world record performances . The race has achieved its elite status among marathons by developing relationship with sponsors who provide prize money to lure elite runners who have produced American and world record performances . Since 2008 the race has been sponsored by Bank of America , and is officially known as the Bank of America Chicago Marathon .
The race is limited to 45 @,@ 000 runners and only runners who finish within 6 ½ hours are officially timed . Those wishing to participate can register after either meeting a time qualifying standard or being selected through a general lottery . Although the race has limited registration , exceptions include elite runners and charity representatives . Increasingly , local ( e.g. , Chicago 's Children 's Memorial Hospital ) , national ( e.g. , American Cancer Society ) and global ( e.g. , Global Business Assist , Team World Vision ) charities and humanitarian organizations encourage sponsored participation in the event as a means of fund raising .
= = History = =
The first marathon at the 1896 Games of the I Olympiad generated interest in the sport which led to similar races throughout most western countries and across the United States . While marathons sporadically occurred in New York City and St. Louis , the Boston Marathon had established an annual marathon in 1897 , soon to be followed by Chicago . Beginning in 1905 , the Chicago Marathon ( organized first by the Illinois Athletic Club 1905 to 1909 , then sponsored by the Chicago Daily News after 1910 ) was held annually , with significant community and spectator support , until the early 1920s .
The First Chicago Marathon was run on Saturday , September 23 , 1905 . That first race began in Evanston and finished in front of a standing @-@ room @-@ only paying crowd at Washington Park race track . In a stunning upset , a reported 100 @,@ 000 or more spectators watched Rhud Metzner come from behind to steal a late @-@ race victory from the favored Louis Marks . With that first race , the Chicago Marathon began an annual run of epic races that continued until the early 1920s on a revised course that largely resembles today 's marathon route . Over the years elite fields included Olympic champions , world records were continually sought , and the marathon continued to inspire Chicago communities and spectators until challenges of the early 1920s sidelined the event .
It was not until the health consciousness of the 1960s that marathon growth gained traction in the eyes of the nation . Frank Shorter 's 1972 Games of the XX Olympiad marathon victory represented the convergence of many middle @-@ class American ideals . Then the 1976 New York City Marathon , which was the first New York City Marathon to embrace the five borough course , popularized the big city marathon . As the New York marathon began to grow exponentially in the 1970s , the Chicago Marathon was established as a rival to the New York City Marathon . By the mid @-@ 1980s , the Chicago Marathon was ensconced as one of the big four marathons . During the mid @-@ 1980s , it was named America 's Marathon / Chicago and opened up the way for appearance payments . Joan Benoit Samuelson described the Chicago Marathon 's of the mid @-@ 1980s as " The World 's Marathon " . The Bank of America Chicago Marathon is an open race with no qualifying time to participate .
The Modern Era Chicago Marathon was founded over the objection of Ed Kelly , Chicago Parks Superintendent who refused permission to run in the parks or along the Lake Michigan lakefront . With the help of Lee Flaherty , the event 's founder who operated out of Flair House in the Near North Side community area of Chicago , Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley 's support for the marathon was enlisted . Although Mayor Daley died , his successor Michael Anthony Bilandic approved the race and got Kelly on board . Michael Bilandic , a runner , and his wife actually passed out medals at the first marathon on September 25 , 1977 . This first edition of the modern Chicago Marathon was called the Mayor Daley Marathon . Flaherty footed the bill for the first race , which had no sponsors . He again footed the bill in 1978 when the race was again called the Mayor Daley Marathon . In 1979 , however , Beatrice Foods became the first race sponsor .
In the early years the Chicago Marathon was held in August . It has from its inception with 4 @,@ 200 runners and 2 @,@ 128 finishers been one of the nation 's largest marathons . The 2000 running was second only to New York . The 1979 and 1980 events , however , continued to be gatherings of amateur runners . By 1982 , the race finally had sufficient prize money to attract world class athletes . The 1982 was the first with world class times such as the 2 : 10 : 59 by Greg Meyer , the last American @-@ born male to win the race . By 1983 , the Chicago Marathon had achieved its status as one of America 's most important marathons . In 1984 , Beatrice raised the purse to $ 250 @,@ 000 ( $ 50 @,@ 000 more than New York 's ) . The race had become a legitimate rival to New York and continues to vie for top runners . The 1985 race was spectacular with Steve Jones breaking his own course record ( 2 seconds short of the world record ) and Joan Benoit Samuelson the 1984 Olympic Champion , two @-@ time defending Chicago Marathon Champion and Olympic Bronze Medalist , Rosa Mota and the fourth place Olympic finisher and world record setting Ingrid Kristiansen . Benoit set a record that stood nearly a generation . At that time , it was considered the premier marathon in the United States , if not the world . Although 1986 had 40 world @-@ class runners among the 8 @,@ 000 participants the times paled in comparison . Beatrice dropped out as a sponsor in 1987 . Because of this only a half @-@ marathon race was held that year and the marathon was moved to the spring of 1988 and attracted Heileman Brewing Company to sponsor the 1988 Old Style Chicago Marathon . The race resulted in three women who had been passed over for the 1988 Games of the XXIV Olympiad placing in the top positions . In 1991 , Heileman discontinued its sponsorship and both the prize money and performances waned . In 1992 , the race again had no sponsorship , but 1993 brought new sponsor LaSalle Bank . In 1994 , the race became the LaSalle Bank Chicago Marathon . In 1996 , LaSalle Bank purchased the Chicago Marathon from Major Events , Inc . , who had purchased the race three years prior from Flaherty . In 1998 , the race began using transponder timing . In 2001 , when Catherine Ndereba broke the women 's world record marathon time , both the men 's and women 's then @-@ current world records had been set at the Chicago Marathon . For 2008 , the race was sponsored by Bank of America following the purchase of LaSalle Bank from ABN Amro to Bank of America , and the new title will be in use .
In 2007 Bank of America acquired LaSalle Bank 's parent company ABN AMRO North America in 2007 and assumed the races title sponsorship . The 2007 race made history with the first ever CEO Marathon Challenge . The race featured a special competition among the CEOs , presidents , company owners and c @-@ suite executives of companies with at least $ 5 million in annual gross revenue ( $ 2 @.@ 5 million for women ) . The 2007 race also made history for having three ( men 's , women 's & men 's wheelchair ) of its four races decided in the final 100 meters in a day of record setting heat . The race was partially shut down early ( after three and a half hours ) as temperatures rose to an unseasonably hot 88 ° F ( 31 ° C ) , which surpassed both the temperature records for the Chicago Marathon and official Chicago records for October 7 . Over 10 @,@ 000 registrants chose not to run in the record temperatures , while 10 @,@ 934 people did not finish ( many were called after the course closed early for safety ) . One runner died , over 30 were hospitalized , and over 400 others sought medical attention . Marathon owner and sponsor Bank of America , which had just acquired LaSalle Bank , has denied culpability . Similar hot conditions have been experienced in other city centre races . In London in 2003 The British 10K also had extremely hot weather that affected many runners .
= = Course = =
The marathon course is a loop course , starting and ending at Grant Park . From here , the current course winds through 29 of the city 's neighborhoods . The course loop can be generally divided into three sections : North , West , and South . Near each of these directions , three of the city 's main stadiums are nearby at their turning points . Wrigley Field is near the north . The United Center is to the west . US Cellular Field is to the south . On the other hand , Soldier Field is located near the start / finish area .
For the first three miles , runners wind through Chicago 's downtown area . Eventually , they head north along LaSalle Street .
Runners are supported by 20 aid stations . Each are spread about 1 – 3 miles from each other . In addition , medical staff is available at each of the stations , and ambulatory services are scattered throughout the course .
Digital timers are positioned every 5 kilometers , as well as the halfway point .
= = Runner statistics = =
The Bank of America Chicago Marathon has grown significantly from its beginnings . In 1905 , 20 runners registered for the first Chicago Marathon , 15 actually started the race , and 7 finished . For the first " modern " marathon race in 1977 , just over 1 @,@ 000 people signed up for the race , with expected numbers of just 200 – 300 . In 1995 , 9 @,@ 000 people registered , and in 1999 , over 29 @,@ 000 people registered . The 2001 marathon run on October 7 reached its cap of 37 @,@ 500 , which was instituted after the 2000 race drew 33 @,@ 171 runners , just prior to the entry deadline on September 19 . In 2003 , 2004 , 2005 , and 2006 it reached its cap of 40 @,@ 000 . The October 10 , 2004 , October 9 , 2005 and October 22 , 2006 races reached their 40 @,@ 000 entrant caps on August 16 , July 14 , and May 26 respectively . On April 18 , 2007 , the 2007 race run on October 7 reached its cap of 45 @,@ 000 entrants . There was a late registration exemption whereby elite runners ( marathon times of less than 2 : 31 / 3 : 01 or half marathon times of 1 : 11 / 1 : 21 for ( men / women ) ) could register until September 1 even though the race had reached its registration cap in the spring . The 40 @,@ 000 registrants and 33 @,@ 000 finishers in 2003 made the Chicago Marathon the third or fourth largest marathon depending on which metric ( registrants or finishers ) is used .
The Chicago Marathon is entered by predominantly Caucasian entrants from middle- to upper @-@ middle @-@ class affluence with a wide range in age and near equality in the sexes . The Chicago Marathon has never excluded women . Historically , however , the women 's field has been smaller than the men 's . This seems to be the result of older age categories having large multiples of men to women , but the women are beginning to outnumber the men in the 20s age group of the field .
= = = Records = = =
World records have been broken at Chicago four times . In 1984 , Steve Jones broke the world record with 2 : 08 : 05 . In 1999 , Khalid Khannouchi was the first to surpass 2 : 06 : 00 with 2 : 05 : 42 . The women 's record was broken in two consecutive years . In 2001 , Catherine Ndereba broke the record in 2 : 18 : 47 , and Paula Radcliffe surpassed that mark with 2 : 17 : 18 the year after .
Radcliffe 's world record is also the course record ; while the men 's record is 2 : 03 : 45 , set in the 2013 race by Dennis Kimetto .
= = Economic impact = =
Much of the marathon 's impact is derived from the tourism industry . More than 10 @,@ 000 of the runners in 2010 have indicated their first visit to Chicago . Of that , 6 @,@ 000 have come from 100 countries . Due to the travelers , the event increases hotel occupancy rates during the marathon . In the 2009 edition , the marathon contributed $ 150 million worth of activity . The local economy produced 1 @,@ 310 jobs .
= = = Charity program = = =
Although entrants have registered on a first @-@ come first @-@ served basis and elite runners have an extended deadline , numerous official charities have additional late registration rights to award . The 2007 event had 85 charity partners . The 2006 event raised US $ 9 @.@ 2 million for charity . Charity fundraising is now closely intertwined with the event as the runners now raise money for research , aid the suffering and heighten public awareness of different causes . The marathon offers all registrants the opportunity to sign up to run with a charity partner . The marathon recognizes four levels of charities based on the number of participants recruited . The Leukemia & Lymphoma Society required participants to raise $ 1 @,@ 400 to be a team member in 2004 . Children 's Memorial Hospital has a $ 500 requirement . This program has existed since 2001 . 2013 marked the first year ever ( since data was available in 2002 ) that the total number of charities had dropped , however the number of participants and the amount of funds raised continued to climb .
= = Deaths = =
2011 – William Caviness , 35 , Greensboro , North Carolina – Believed to have died from cardiac arrest five hundred yards from finish line .
2007 – Chad Schieber , 35 , Midland , Michigan – Mitral valve prolapse
2003 – Rachael Townsend , 29 , The Plains , Ohio – Mitral valve prolapse
2001 – Luke Roach , 22 , Seattle , Washington – Collapsed near finish line . Body temperature reached 107 ° F ( 42 ° C ) ( heat stroke )
2000 – Danny Towns , 45 , Edmond , Oklahoma – Cardiac arrest
1998 – Kelly Barrett , 43 , Littleton , Colorado – Believed to be caused by hyponatremia
= = Gallery = =
|
= Criminal law in the Marshall Court =
The Marshall Court ( 1801 – 1835 ) heard forty @-@ one criminal law cases , slightly more than one per year . Among such cases are United States v. Simms ( 1803 ) , United States v. More ( 1805 ) , Ex parte Bollman ( 1807 ) , United States v. Hudson ( 1812 ) , Cohens v. Virginia ( 1821 ) , United States v. Perez ( 1824 ) , Worcester v. Georgia ( 1832 ) , and United States v. Wilson ( 1833 ) .
During Marshall 's tenure , the Supreme Court had no general appellate jurisdiction in criminal cases . The Court could review criminal convictions from the state courts , but not the lower federal courts , via writs of error . It only did so twice . The Court could hear original habeas petitions , but disclaimed the authority to grant the writ post @-@ conviction unless the sentence had already been completed . Thus , the majority of the Marshall Court 's opinions on criminal law were issued in response to questions certified by divided panels of the circuit courts by a certificate of division .
Most of the Marshall Court 's criminal opinions involved defining the elements of federal crimes . Criminal statutes considered by the Court during this period involved assimilative crimes , counterfeiting , embargoes , insurance fraud , piracy , and slave trading . But , the Court twice disclaimed the authority to define common law crimes not proscribed by Congressional statute .
The Marshall Court also issued important opinions regarding criminal procedure . Although the Court did not explicitly cite or quote constitutional provisions , its opinions remain influential in interpreting the Double Jeopardy Clause of the Fifth Amendment and venue provision of Article Three . The Court also laid down the common law rules of evidence in federal courts , including the hearsay exception for party admissions and the narrowing of the best evidence rule .
= = Background = =
Under the Articles of Confederation , there were no general federal courts or crimes . Although the Articles authorized a federal court to punish " piracies and felonies committed on the high seas , " and the Congress of the Confederation in 1775 created the Court of Appeals in Prize Cases , Congress soon devolved this power to the states . Rather than creating additional crimes , the Congress merely recommended to the states that they criminalize acts like piracy and counterfeiting .
Criminal law was considered in the framing of the Constitution . In addition to the criminal procedure provisions of Article Three , the Constitutional Convention discussed piracy , crimes against the law of nations , treason , and counterfeiting . As Alexander Hamilton noted in Federalist No. 21 , a " most palpable defect of the subsisting Confederation , is the total want of a sanction to its laws . The United States , as now composed , have no powers to exact obedience , or punish disobedience to their resolutions . . . . "
One of the first statutes passed by the First Congress , the Judiciary Act of 1789 , divided original jurisdiction for the trial of federal crimes between the district courts and the circuit courts . The district courts were given jurisdiction over all federal crimes " where no other punishment than whipping , not exceeding thirty stripes , a fine not exceeding one hundred dollars , or a term of imprisonment not exceeding six months , is to be inflicted . " The circuit courts were given concurrent jurisdiction over these crimes , and exclusive jurisdiction over all other federal crimes . The circuit courts also exercised appellate jurisdiction over the district courts , but only in civil cases . In capital cases , the Act provided that " the trial shall be had in the county where the offence , was committed , or where that cannot be done without great inconvenience , twelve petit jurors at least shall be summoned from thence . " " No other procedural provisions were included , probably because the legislators were simultaneously considering amendments which would provide such security . "
The Act of 1789 also placed the responsibility for prosecuting federal crimes in the United States Attorney for each federal judicial district . The Act provided that " there shall be appointed in each district " a " person learned in the law to act as attorney for the United States in such district , who shall be sworn or affirmed to the faithful execution of his office , whose duty it shall be to prosecute in such district all delinquents for crimes and offences , cognizable under the authority of the United States . " The Act authorized judges , justices , justices of the peace , and magistrates to issue arrest warrants . The Act provided a right to bail in non @-@ capital cases , and authorized bail in capital cases — by the district courts , circuit courts , and Supreme Court , or any individual judge of them — issued on an " exercise their discretion therein , regarding the nature and circumstances of the offence , and of the evidence , and the usages of law . " The 1789 act did not create federal prisons , but it did provide for the imprisonment of federal prisoners ( presumably in state prisons ) " at the expense of the United States . "
Many of the substantive federal crimes during this period were created by two omnibus pieces of legislation : the Crimes Act of 1790 ( authored and introduced by Senator and future Chief Justice Oliver Ellsworth ) and the Crimes Act of 1825 ( authored by Justice Joseph Story and introduced by Representative Daniel Webster ) . Congress also passed a variety of single @-@ subject criminal statutes , which were not centrally codified in any official publication .
Between 1790 and 1797 , only 143 or 147 criminal cases were brought in the circuit courts , and 56 of those cases were brought in the Pennsylvania circuit court concerning the Whiskey Rebellion . And , between 1790 and 1801 , only 426 criminal cases were brought in all federal courts ( the district courts and the circuit courts combined ) . Between 1801 and 1828 , a total of 2 @,@ 718 criminal indictments were returned in the circuit courts : 596 resulted in guilty verdicts by juries ; 479 , not guilty verdicts by juries ; 902 , nolle prosequi ; and 741 , other ( either no disposition recorded , abated , quashed , discharged , discontinued , or prison break ) .
Prior to Chief Justice Marshall 's tenure , the Supreme Court had heard only two criminal cases — both by prerogative writ . First , in United States v. Hamilton ( 1795 ) , the Court granted bail to a capital defendant charged with treason — as it was authorized to do by § 33 of the Judiciary Act of 1789 and § 4 of the Judiciary Act of 1793 — on an original writ of habeas corpus . The greater portion of the decision was dedicated to the Court 's refusal to order the case tried by a special circuit court , as was provided for by § 3 of the Judiciary Act of 1793 . Second , in United States v. Lawrence ( 1795 ) , the Court declined to issue a writ of mandamus to compel a district judge to order the arrest of a deserter of the French navy , as the French government argued to be required by the consular convention between the United States and France .
= = = Writs of error = = =
The Judiciary Act of 1789 authorized the Supreme Court to hear writs of error from the circuit courts and writs of error from the highest state courts in cases that involved the validity or construction of federal law . Either a judge of the lower court or a justice of the Supreme Court would have to sign the writ of error ( which was drafted and signed by counsel ) before the Supreme Court could hear the case . Signing the writ of error was not a mere formality , but rather a preliminary assessment of the merits of the arguments in the writ .
= = = = Circuit courts = = = =
Section 22 of the Judiciary Act of 1789 authorized writs of error from the circuit courts only in civil cases . The District of Columbia Organic Act of 1801 — which created the United States Circuit Court of the District of Columbia and granted it jurisdiction over crimes committed within the federal district — did not explicitly limit writs of error from the D.C. circuit court to civil cases , except insofar as it required an amount in controversy . Although the Court reached the merits of a criminal writ of error from the D.C. circuit court in United States v. Simms ( 1803 ) , without any discussion of the jurisdictional issue , in United States v. More ( 1805 ) , the Court held that it had no such jurisdiction . More held that Congress 's piecemeal statutory grants of appellate jurisdiction to the Court operated as an exercise of Congress 's power under the Exceptions Clause , eliminating all jurisdiction not explicitly granted .
More also rejected the argument that criminal writs of error were authorized by § 14 of the Judiciary Act of 1789 ( the " All Writs Act " ) . That section provided , in relevant part , that " all the before @-@ mentioned courts of the United States shall have power to issue . . . all other writs , not specially provided for by statute , which may be necessary for the exercise of their respective jurisdictions , and agreeable to the principles and usages of law . " Following More , the Court did not hear writs of error from federal criminal trials in the circuit courts for 84 years . In 1889 , Congress created a right of appeal by writ of error in capital cases . The Judiciary Act of 1891 ( the " Evarts Act " ) extended this right to serious crimes . And , the Judicial Code of 1911 — which abolished the circuit courts and placed original jurisdiction for the trial of all federal crime in the district courts — granted general appellate jurisdiction .
= = = = State courts = = = =
Section 25 of the Judiciary Act of 1789 authorized the Supreme Court to hear writs of error from state courts in cases
where is drawn in question the vaildity of a treaty or statute of , or at , authority exercised under the United States , and the decision is against their validity ; or where is drawn in question the validity of a statute of , or an authority exercised under any State , on the ground of their being repugnant to the constitution , treaties or laws of the United States , and the decision is in favour of such their validity , or where is drawn in question the construction of any clause of the constitution , or of a treaty , or statute of , or commission held under the United States , and the decision is against the title , right , privilege or exemption specially set up or claimed by either party , under such clause of the said Constitution. treaty , statute or commission . . . .
Only twice did the Marshall Court hear criminal cases under § 25 . In Cohens v. Virginia ( 1821 ) , the Court upheld a state lottery law conviction because the federal lottery was authorized only in the District of Columbia . In Worcester v. Georgia ( 1832 ) , the Court reversed Worcester 's conviction for being present in Cherokee country as inconsistent with federal law .
Section 25 was not a more significant source of criminal appeals in large part because — as Barron v. Baltimore ( 1833 ) held — the Bill of Rights ( including its criminal procedure provisions ) was viewed as inapplicable to the state governments . This continued until the incorporation of the Bill of Rights after the adoption of the Fourteenth Amendment .
= = = Original habeas = = =
Section 14 of the Judiciary Act of 1789 provided , in relevant part , that
all the before @-@ mentioned courts of the United States shall have power to issue writs of . . . habeas corpus . . . . And that either of the justices of the supreme court . . . shall have the power to grant writs of habeas corpus for the purpose of an inquiry into the cause of commitment . — Provided , That writs of habeas corpus shall in no case extend to prisoners in gaol , unless where they are in custody , under or by colour of the authority of the United States , or are committed for trial before some court of the same , or are necessary to be brought into court to testify .
The Marshall Court heard six original habeas cases of a criminal nature . All of the cases involved detention in the District of Columbia and prior proceedings in the United States Circuit Court of the District of Columbia . Because the D.C. circuit court did not utilize the practice of riding circuit , certificates of division could not have been granted in these cases . In the first two cases , the Court held that it had jurisdiction to issue the writ in pre @-@ conviction situations . In the next two cases , the Court held that it did not have jurisdiction to issue the writ in post @-@ conviction cases .
Ex parte Burford
In Ex parte Burford ( 1806 ) , the Court granted the writ of habeas corpus in a case of preventative detention . Eleven justices of the peace of Alexandria County , D.C. had issued a warrant for Burford 's arrest on the grounds that he was " not of good name and fame , nor of honest conversation , but an evil doer and disturber of the peace of the United States , so that murder , homicide , strifes , discords , and other grievances and damages , amongst the citizens of the United States , concerning their bodies and property , are likely to arise thereby . " The D.C. circuit court initially granted Burford the writ of habeas corpus , but remanded him until he posted $ 1 @,@ 000 bail .
The Court held that the " warrant of commitment was illegal , for want of stating some good cause certain , supported by oath . " In his dissent in Bollman , Johnson indicated that he also wished to have dissented in Burford :
In the case of Burford I was one of the members who constituted the court . I owe it to my own consistency to declare that the court were then apprized of my objections to the issuing of the writ of habeas corpus . I did not then comment at large on the reasons which influenced my opinion , and the cause was this : The gentleman who argued that cause confined himself strictly to those considerations which ought alone to influence the decisions of this court . No popular observations on the necessity of protecting the citizen from executive oppression , no animated address calculated to enlist the passions or prejudices of an audience in defence of his motion , imposed on me the necessity of vindicating my opinion . I submitted in silent deference to the decision of my brethren .
Ex parte Bollman
In Ex parte Bollman ( 1807 ) , the Court granted the writ to two members of the Burr conspiracy . Dr. Erick Bollman and Samuel Swartwout , having been apprehended in New Orleans , were transported to Charleston and then Baltimore on a navy vessel — notwithstanding the writs of habeas corpus issued by a territorial judge in New Orleans and a district judge in Charlestown . The United States Circuit Court of the District of Columbia issued an arrest warrant for Bollman and Swartwout ( who were already in military custody ) , slated the case for trial in D.C. , and denied the prisoners bail ; Judge William Cranch ( also the Supreme Court 's reporter of decisions ) dissented in part on the ground that there was no probable cause for the arrest warrant as required by the Fourth Amendment . The Senate passed , but the House rejected , legislation that would have suspended the writ for three months and legalized Bollman and Swartwout 's arrests . Nearly every member of Congress attended the oral arguments in the Supreme Court .
Chief Justice Marshall 's two opinions for the Court in Bollman addressed several issues . On February 13 , Marshall held that the Supreme Court had jurisdiction to issue the writ under Article Three and § 14 . First , he held that the restrictive phrase " necessary for the exercise of their respective jurisdictions " applied only to " all other writs , not specially provided for by statute , " not habeas corpus . Next , he held that the proviso applies both to the power of courts and individual justices to issue the writ , and that the scope of the writ was to be determined by reference to common law . Then , he held that original habeas was not preempted by the decision of a lower court to deny bail . Finally , he reaffirmed the holding of Burford that original habeas was a constitutional exercise of appellate jurisdiction .
Justice Johnson dissented . Johnson stated that his dissent was " supported by the opinion of one of my brethren , who is prevented by indisposition from attending . " Scholars are divided on whether Johnson referred to Justice Chase or Justice Cushing .
Prof. Freedman has argued that Bollman erred in applying § 14 's proviso to both courts and individual judges ( as opposed to only individual judges ) and thus that the Judiciary Act of 1789 did confer federal courts the power to grant writs of habeas corpus to state prisoners . The Reconstruction @-@ era Congress granted federal courts this power in 1867 .
Ex parte Kearney
In Ex parte Kearney ( 1822 ) , the Court denied the writ to a prisoner who was imprisoned for criminal contempt . In an opinion by Justice Story , the Court 's reasoning reached far further :
[ T ] his Court has no appellate jurisdiction confided to it in criminal cases , by the laws of the United States . It cannot entertain a writ of error , to revise the judgment of the Circuit Court , in any case where a party has been convicted of a public offence . And undoubtedly the denial of this authority proceeded upon great principles of public policy and convenience . If every party had a right to bring before this Court every case , in which judgment had passed against him , for a crime or misdemeanor or felony , the course of justice might be materially delayed and obstructed , and , in some cases , totally frustrated . If , then , this Court cannot directly revise a judgment of the Circuit Court in a criminal case , what reason is there to suppose , that it was intended to vest it with the authority to do it indirectly ?
Story explained :
The only objection is , not that the Court acted beyond its jurisdiction , but that it erred in its judgment of the law applicable to the case . If , then , we are to give any relief in this case , it is by a revision of the opinion of the Court , given in the course of a criminal trial , and thus asserting a right to control its proceedings , and take from them the conclusive effect which the law intended to give them . If this were an application for a habeas corpus , after judgment on an indictment for an offence within the jurisdiction of the Circuit Court , it could hardly be maintained , that this court could revise such a judgment , or the proceedings which led to it , or set it aside , and discharge the prisoner .
Ex parte Watkins
In Ex parte Watkins ( 1830 ) , the Court held that the writ did not lie after a federal criminal conviction even if the indictment failed to state an offense . Three years later , with the same petitioner , in Ex parte Watkins ( 1833 ) , the Court did issue the writ because the petitioner was detained beyond his authorized sentence for non @-@ payment of a fine ; although the Court held that such detention would be permissible under the writ of capias pro fine ( generally , a writ ordering the imprisonment of a defendant until a criminal fine is paid ) , it held that it was not under the writ of capias ad satisfaciendum ( a civil law analog ) . After further proceedings in the D.C. circuit court , Watkins was discharged .
Ex parte Milburn
In Ex parte Milburn ( 1835 ) , the Court denied an original habeas petition concerning pretrial detention holding that the forfeiture of bail for failure to appear did not satisfy a criminal indictment and that a prior granting of the writ of habeas corpus was no bar to a subsequent arrest warrant .
= = = Certificates of division = = =
Under the Judiciary Act of 1789 , the United States circuit courts were composed of a stationary United States district court judge and any two Supreme Court justices riding circuit . If one judge or justice disagreed with the other two , the majority prevailed . If only one Supreme Court justice could attend ( as was authorized by the Judiciary Act of 1793 ) , and a division arose between the district judge and the Supreme Court justice , the practice was to hold the case over until the next term . If a one @-@ to @-@ one division persisted with a different circuit riding justice , the opinion of the previous circuit rider broke the tie . Following a brief intermezzo with the soon @-@ repealed Midnight Judges Act of 1801 ( which briefly abolished circuit riding ) , under the Judiciary Act of 1802 , the circuit courts were composed of a stationary district judge and one Supreme Court justice assigned to the circuit . But , a single judge ( either the district judge or the circuit rider ) could preside alone . In cases where both judges sat , though , one @-@ to @-@ one divisions were less likely to be resolved by continuing the case until the next term because the circuit riding justice would be the same ( barring a change in membership on the Court ) .
Accordingly , § 6 of the Judiciary Act of 1802 provided that the circuit courts could certify questions of law to the Supreme Court if the judges were divided on that question . Several scholars have argued that certificates of division were pro forma , and that the judge and justice would merely agree to disagree , often without writing opposing opinions . For example , with the circuit court decision leading up to United States v. Marchant ( 1827 ) , the reporter records that " [ t ] he district judge concurred in this opinion ; but as it was a matter of not infrequent occurrence , and important to the practice of the court , the judges afterwards divided in opinion for the purpose of obtaining a solemn decision of the superior court . " Similarly , the United States v. Ortega ( 1826 ) circuit court opinion notes that the " point was taken to the supreme court upon a proforma certificate of a division of opinion in this court . "
Chief Justice Marshall and Justice Story in particular were known for making use of certificates of division while riding circuit . For example , Justice Marshall was one of the divided judges in United States v. Klintock ( 1820 ) , United States v. Smith ( 1820 ) , United States v. Amedy ( 1826 ) , United States v. Turner ( 1833 ) , and United States v. Mills ( 1833 ) ; and Justice Story played the role in United States v. Coolidge ( 1816 ) , United States v. Bevans ( 1818 ) , United States v. Palmer ( 1818 ) , United States v. Holmes ( 1820 ) , and Marchant . But , Justice Story — in his opinions for the Court — cautioned against the too frequent use of certificates of division in criminal cases . In United States v. Gooding ( 1827 ) , for the Court , Justice Story wrote :
We take this opportunity of expressing our anxiety , least , by too great indulgence to the wishes of counsel , questions of this sort should be frequently brought before this Court , and thus , in effect , an appeal in criminal cases become an ordinary proceeding to the manifest obstruction of public justice , and against the plain intendment of the acts of Congress .
The Judiciary Act of 1802 plainly did contemplate that certificates of division would issue in criminal cases . Section 6 provided that " imprisonment shall not be allowed , nor punishment in any case be inflicted , where judges of the said court are divided in opinion upon the question touching the said imprisonment or punishment . " And , while the statute provided only for the certification of " the point upon which the disagreement shall happen , " the justices sometimes took the liberty of enlarging the question . For example , in United States v. Hudson ( 1812 ) , the question certified was " whether the Circuit Court of the United States had a common law jurisdiction in cases of libel ? " but the question answered was " whether the Circuit Courts of the United States can exercise a common law jurisdiction in criminal cases ? " And , in United States v. Bevans ( 1818 ) , the Court noted that " [ i ] t may be deemed within the scope of the question certified to this court " to inquire whether the murder was cognizable under § 3 of the Crimes Act of 1790 , even though the defendant had only been indicted under § 8 .
But not every question or every case was eligible for a certificate of division . In United States v. Daniel ( 1821 ) , the Court held that a motion for a new trial — as authorized by the § 17 of the Judiciary Act of 1789 — could not be the subject of a certificate of division ; rather , the division would operate a rejection of the motion . Similarly , in United States v. Bailey ( 1835 ) , the Court held that the question of whether the evidence was legally sufficient to support the offense charged could not be certified . And , certificates of division began to fall into disuse as it became increasingly common for the circuit courts to sit with a single judge . As Chief Justice Marshall wrote , he did not have " the privilege of dividing the court when alone . "
= = Defining federal crimes = =
= = = Assimilative crimes = = =
Section 3 of the Crimes Act of 1825 enacted the first federal assimilative crimes statute , criminalizing conduct in violation of state law within areas under federal jurisdiction . Section 3 provided that :
[ I ] f any offence shall be committed in any [ fort , dock @-@ yard , navy @-@ yard , arsenal , armory , magazine , lighthouse , or other needful building under the jurisdiction of the United States ] , the punishment of which offence is not specifically provided for by any law of the United States , such offense shall , upon conviction in any court of the United States having cognisance thereof , be liable to , and receive the same punishment as the laws of the state in which such [ place aforesaid ] , is situated , provide for the like offence when committed within the body of any county of such state .
In United States v. Paul ( 1832 ) — involving a criminal burglary at West Point , prosecuted via an 1829 New York statute defining burglary in the third degree — the Court held that the assimilative crimes provision was limited to state crimes in force at the time of the federal statute 's enactment . The 1866 , 1874 , 1898 , 1909 , 1933 , 1935 , and 1940 re @-@ enactments of the assimilative crimes offense explicitly incorporated this interpretation of Paul .
But , in 1948 , Congress amended the Assimilative Crimes Act , 18 U.S.C. § 13 , to incorporate changes in state criminal law , as they occur , up until the commission of the charged conduct . The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the revision in United States v. Sharpnack ( 1958 ) . Sharpnack held that : " There is nothing in [ Paul ] to show that the issue was decided as anything more than one of statutory construction falling within the doctrine calling for the narrow construction of a penal statute . So interpreted , the decision did not reach the issue that is before us . "
= = = Common law crimes = = =
In United States v. Hudson ( 1812 ) , without oral argument from either the defendants or Attorney General William Pinkney , the Court held that an indictment for a common law crime must be dismissed because all federal crimes ( with the exception of contempt of court ) must be established by statute . Justice Johnson , for the Court , wrote :
Although this question is brought up now for the first time to be decided by this Court , we consider it as having been long since settled in public opinion . In no other case for many years has this jurisdiction been asserted , and the general acquiescence of legal men shows the prevalence of opinion in favor of the negative of the proposition .
While riding circuit in Massachusetts , Justice Story — in addition to distinguishing Hudson under admiralty jurisdiction — argued for the overruling of Hudson :
[ Hudson ] having been made without argument , and by a majority only of the court , I hope that it is not an improper course to bring the subject again in review for a more solemn decision , as it is not a question of mere ordinary import , but vitally affects the jurisdiction of the courts of the United States ; a jurisdiction which they cannot lawfully enlarge or diminish . I shall submit , with the utmost cheerfulness , to the judgment of my brethren , and if I have hazarded a rash opinion , I have the consolation to know , that their superior learning and ability will save the public from an injury by my error .
On the certificate of division , in United States v. Coolidge ( 1816 ) , three justices — Washington and Livingston in addition to Story — indicated their willingness to depart from Hudson , but since no counsel appeared for Coolidge , and since Attorney General Richard Rush refused to argue the point , Hudson was reaffirmed .
According to Prof. Rowe , " [ f ] ew major controversies have ended with as slight a whimper as the battle over federal common law crimes that raged in the first two decades of the American republic . " Rowe argues that " without acknowledging it , the Hudson Court disapproved at least eight circuit court cases , brushed off the views of all but one Justice who sat on the Court prior to 1804 , and departed from what was arguably the original understanding of those who framed the Constitution and penned the Judiciary Act of 1789 . " Rowe views Hudson as a codification of an issue decided by public opinion , including during the 1800 presidential election : " Hudson set onto tablets the principles that guided the Jeffersonians during their wanderings in the desert . "
= = = Counterfeiting = = =
First Bank
When it created the First Bank of the United States , Congress criminalized counterfeiting the bills of the bank . " Read literally , " the statute required both that the bill be counterfeit and that the bill be signed by the President of the Bank of the United States . In United States v. Cantril ( 1807 ) , without oral argument , the Court arrested a judgment of conviction under the counterfeiting statute , finding the statute invalid " for the reasons assigned in the record " ( without further elaboration ) . By the time Cantril was decided , Congress had already passed a new statute to correct the apparent drafting error .
According to Prof. Whittington , Cantril was the first challenge to a federal statute under the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment to be considered by the Court . In later cases , the Court has noted the several possible holdings that could have been intended in Cantril .
Second Bank
Congress passed a new counterfeiting statute in 1816 when it created the Second Bank of the United States . In United States v. Turner ( 1833 ) , interpreting the new act , the Court held that the offense of counterfeiting was committed even if the signatures forged were those of the wrong bank officers . But , in United States v. Brewster ( 1833 ) , the Court held that the crime applied only to counterfeit bills , not counterfeit notes .
= = = Embargos = = =
War of 1812
In June 1812 , during the War of 1812 , Congress passed a statute prohibiting the transportation " over land or otherwise , in any wagon , cart , sleigh , boat , or otherwise , naval or military stores , arms or the munitions of war , or any article of provision , from any place of the Uniteded States , to " Canada . In United States v. Barber ( 1815 ) , the Court held " fat cattle " to be " provisions , or munitions of war , within the true intent and meaning of the act . " In United States v. Sheldon ( 1817 ) , decided after the war had ended , Barber was distinguished on the grounds that driving cattle on foot was not " transportation " within the meaning of the act .
Neutrality Act of 1818
The Neutrality Act of 1818 provided the arming of a vessel with the intention that it be employed against a people at peace with the United States . In United States v. Quincy ( 1832 ) , the Court decided several questions concerning the interpretation of the Neutrality Act . First , the Court held that the elements of the offense did not require that the vessel be fitted out within the United States , but rather than an intention to fit the vessel out in an intermediary port was sufficient . Second , the Court held that a conditional intention ( for example , an intention to so arm the vessel only if sufficient funds could be obtained ) was insufficient to satisfy the elements of the offense . Third , the Court held that , if the defendant had a fixed intention to so arm the vessel upon leaving the United States , the frustration of that intention at the intermediate port was irrelevant . Fourth , the Court refused to distinguish between the statutory term of " people " and the concept of a " state . "
= = = False statements = = =
United States v. Bailey ( 1835 ) upheld an indictment for false swearing relating to a claim against the United States ( as provided for by an 1823 statute ) even though the officer administering the oath had been a state justice of the peace . Justice McLean dissented .
= = = Maritime insurance fraud = = =
An 1804 criminal insurance fraud statute provided :
[ I ] f any person shall , on the high seas , wilfully and corruptly cast away , burn , or otherwise destroy , any ship or vessel of which he is owner in part or in whole , or in anywise direct or procure the same to be done , with intent or design to prejudice any person or persons that hath underwritten , or shall underwrite , any policy or policies of insurance thereon or of any merchant or merchants that shall load goods thereon , or of any other owner or owners of such ship or vessel , the person or persons offending therein , being thereof lawfully convicted , shall be deemed and adjudged guilty of felony , and shall suffer death .
In United States v. Amedy ( 1826 ) , the Court held that the federal criminal insurance fraud statute was no subjected to the same formalities as civil insurance fraud claims . First , the Court held that the state statute of incorporation of the insurance company required no more than the state 's seal to be authenticated . Second , there was no need to prove the existence of the insurance company ( i.e. , that its stock had actually been subscribed ) because it was not a party . Nor was it necessary to prove that the policy would have been binding against the insurance company . Nor did it matter whether the policy would have paid out under the circumstances of the fraud . Finally , it was held that an insurance corporation was a person within the meaning of the statute .
= = = Piracy and the high seas = = =
The piracy cases considered by the Marshall Court arose under two Congressional statutes : the Crimes Act of 1790 and the Act of March 3 , 1819 . Article One provides that Congress shall have the power " [ t ] o define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas . " Five sections in the Crimes Act " were devoted to the subject , " but " [ t ] he principal provisions with respect to piracy were incorporated in section 8 . " According to Prof. White , " from 1815 to 1823 , piracy cases were among the most numerous and controversial of those decided by the Court . "
Crimes Act of 1790 , § 8
Section 8 of the Crimes Act of 1790 provided :
[ I ] f any person or persons shall commit upon the high seas , or in any river , haven , basin or bay , out of the jurisdiction of any particular state , murder or robbery , or any other offence which if committed within the body of a county , would by thelaws of the United States be punishable with death ; or if any captain or mariner of any ship or other vessel , shall piratically and feloniously run away with such ship or vessel , or any goods or merchandise to the value of fifty dollars , or yield up such ship or vessel voluntarily to any pirate ; or if any seaman shall lay violent hands upon his commander , thereby to hinder and prevent his fighting in defence of his ship or goods committed to his trust , or shall make a revolt in the ship ; every such offender shall be deemed , taken and adjudged to be a pirate and felon , and being thereof convicted , shall suffer death ; and the trial of crimes committed on the high seas , or in any place out of the jurisdiction of any particular state , shall be in the district where the offender is apprehended , or into which he may first be brought .
The first two decisions to interpret § 8 construed it not to apply to the crimes charged . In United States v. Bevans ( 1818 ) , the Court held that the § 8 of the Act did not extend to a murder committed on a navy vessel within state waters . In United States v. Palmer ( 1818 ) , the Court held that the § 8 of the Act did not extend to piracy by U.S. citizen defendants , in the employ of a South American government at war with Spain , committed against Spanish ships and citizens . President John Quincy Adams was a harsh critic of the decision in Palmer . He wrote in his diary that the Court had " cast away the jurisdiction which a law of congress had given , that its " reasoning [ was ] a sample of judicial logic — disingenuous , false , and hollow , " and that it gave him " an early disgust for the practice of law , and led me to the unalterable determination never to accept judicial office . "
Following the Act of 1819 , in 1820 the Court began to distinguish Palmer . In United States v. Klintock ( 1820 ) , the Court distinguished Palmer — in a case involving piracy by a U.S. citizen , claiming to act under the authority of the Mexican Republic , committed against a Danish ship and citizens , under the fraudulent claim that the Danes were Spanish ( Spain being at war with the Mexican Republic ) — on the grounds that the victims in Palmer were not subjects of a nation recognized by the United States . In United States v. Furlong ( 1820 ) , sometimes referred to as United States v. Pirates , authored by Justice Johnson ( a dissenter in Palmer ) , the Court distinguished Palmer again , primarily on the ground that the pirate vessel had no nationality ( it was an American ship prior to being hijacked ) . United States v. Holmes ( 1820 ) distinguished Palmer on the same ground , further holding that the burden was on the defendant to prove that his vessel flew a lawful flag .
Crimes Act of 1790 , § 12
Section 12 of the Act provided :
[ I ] f any seaman or other person shall commit manslaughter upon the high seas , or confederate , or attempt or endeavour to corrupt any commander , master , officer or mariner , to yield up or to run away with any ship or vessel , or with any goods , wares , or merchandise , or to turn pirate , or to go over to or confederate with pirates , or in any wise trade with any pirate knowing him to be such , or shall furnish such pirate with any ammunition , stores or provisions of any kind , or shall fit out any vessel knowingly and with a design to trade with or suppJy or correspond with any pirate or robber upon the seas ; or if any person or persons shall any ways consult , combine , confederate or correspond with any pirate or robber on the seas , knowing him to be guilty of any such piracy or robbery ; or if any seaman shall confine the master of any ship or other vessel , or endeavour to make a revolt in such ship . . . such person or persons so offending , and being thereof convicted , shall be imprisoned not exceeding three years , and fined not exceeding one thousand dollars .
In United States v. Wiltberger ( 1820 ) , the Court held that § 12 of the Act did not extend to a manslaughter committed " in a river such as the river Tigris " because such was not on the " high seas . " ( Justice Washington had delivered an unrelated jury charge below . ) In United States v. Kelly ( 1826 ) , the Court interpreted the phrase " endeavour to make a revolt " to refer to " the endeavour of the crew of a vessel , or any one or more of them , to overthrow the legitimate authority of her commander , with intent to remove him from his command , or against his will to take possession of the vessel by assuming the government and navigation of her , or by transferring their obedience from the lawful commander to some other person . " Justice Washington , the author of the opinion of the Court , had written a slightly longer opinion below .
Act of March 3 , 1819 , § 5
In 1819 , Congress enacted a new anti @-@ piracy statute : Act to Protect the Commerce of the United States and Punish the Crime of Piracy . Section 5 of that Act provided :
[ I ] f any person or persons whatsoever , shall , on the high seas , commit the crime of piracy , as defined by the law of nations , and such offender or offenders shall afterwards be brought into , or found in , the United States , every such offender or offenders shall , upon conviction thereof , before the Circuit Court of the United States for the District into which he or they may be brought , or in which he or they shall be found , be punished with death .
In United States v. Smith ( 1820 ) , in an opinion by Justice Story , the Court upheld a conviction under the 1819 statute , holding that Congress could leave the definition of piracy to the law of nations . After reviewing the history of foreign ( primarily English ) law , Justice Story declared : " We have , therefore , no hesitation in declaring , that piracy , by the law of nations , is robbery upon the sea , and that it is sufficiently and constitutionally defined by the fifth section of the act of 1819 . " In a rare dissent , Justice Livingston argued that Article One , Section Eight , Clause Ten obliged Congress to define piracy with more specificity . The facts in Smith were almost identical to those which Palmer had held could not be reached under the Crimes Act of 1790 : a U.S. citizen pirate , commissioned by a government in Buenos Aires , had led a mutiny , seized a new ship , and then robbed a Spanish ship .
Section 5 of the 1819 act was set to sunset at the end of the next session of Congress . Before that time , Congress made the provision permanent in an 1820 omnibus piracy bill that also defined additional offenses . Section 8 of the Crimes Act of 1790 , § 5 of the 1819 act , and § 3 of the 1820 act were all separately codified in the Revised Statutes in 1874 . Section 8 of the Crimes Act of 1790 was repealed by the Criminal Code of 1909 .
= = = Slave trading = = =
The Slave Trade Act of 1818 prohibited the importation of slaves into the United States . The " fitting out " offense provided that :
[ N ] o citizen or citizens of the United States , or any other person or persons , shall , after the passing of this act , as aforesaid , for himself , themselves , or any other person or persons whatsoever , either as master , factor , or owner , build , fit , equip , load , or otherwise prepare , any ship or vessel , in any port or place within the jurisdiction of the United States , nor cause any such ship or vessel to sail from any port or place whatscever , within the jurisdiction of the same , for the purpose of procuring any negro , mulatto , or person of colour , from any foreign kingdom , place , or country , to be transported to any port or place whatsoever , to be held , sold , or otherwise disposed of , as slaves , or to be held to service or labour ; and if any ship or vessel shall be so built , fitted out , equipped , laden , or otherwise prepared , for the purpose aforesaid , every such ship or vessel , her tackle , apparel , furniture , and lading , shall be forfeited , one moiety to the use of the United Slates , and the other to the use of the person , or persons who shall sue for said forfeiture , and prosecute the same to effect ; and such ship or vessel shall be liable to be seized , prosecuted , and condemned , in any court of the United States having competent jurisdiction .
and that :
[ E ] very person or persons so building , fitting out , equipping , loading , or otherwise preparing , or sending away , or causing any of the acts aforesaid to be done , with intent to employ such ship or vessel in such trade or business , after the passing of this act , contrary to the true intent and meaning thereof or who shall , in any wise , be aiding or abetting therein , shall , severally , on conviction thereof , by due course of law , forfeit and pay a sum not exceeding five thousand dollars , nor less than one thousand dollars , one moiety to the use of the United States , and the other to the use of the person or persons who shall sue for such forfeiture and prosecute the same to effect , and shall moreover be imprisoned for a term not exceeding seven years , nor less than three years .
In United States v. Gooding ( 1827 ) , the Court construed the elements of the fitting out offense . First , the Court held that the offense of fitting out a vessel for slave trading could be committed even if the owner of the vessel did not personally fit it out . Second , the Court held that the statute could be violated by a partial fitting out ( as opposed to a complete fitting out ) of a vessel for that purpose . Third , the Court held that — since slave trading was a misdemeanor — there was no distinction between principal and accessory . Fourth , the Court held that , for the statute to be violated , the fitting out must have occurred within the United States . Finally , the Court held that the statute 's mens rea required that the owner intend to cause the vessel to be used for slave trading , as opposed to intending that the vessel be used for slave trading ( by some third party ) .
= = = Treason = = =
Article Three , Section Three , Clause One of the Constitution provides that :
Treason against the United States , shall consist only in levying War against them , or in adhering to their Enemies , giving them Aid and Comfort . No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act , or on Confession in open Court .
Section 1 of the Crimes Act of 1790 provided that
if any person or persons , owing allegiance to the United States of America , shall levy war against them , or shall adhere to their enemies , giving them aid and comfort within the United States or elsewhere , and shall be thereof convicted , on confession in open court , or on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act of treason whereof he or they shall stand indicted , such person or persons shall be adjudged guilty of treason against the United States , and shall suffer death .
In Ex parte Bollman ( 1807 ) , the Court held that conspiracy to wage war on the United States was not treason . Further , Bollman held that the evidence against both Bollman and Swartwout was insufficient to justify pre @-@ trial detention .
= = Criminal procedure = =
= = = Constitutional issues = = =
Venue
While Ex parte Bollman ( 1807 ) is more famous for its holding that the Burr conspirators had not committed treason , the Court could not have ordered the release of the prisoners without also addressing the Neutrality Act of 1794 , under which the conspirators were also charged . With regard to these charges , the Court conceded , " those who admit the affidavit of General Wilkinson cannot doubt . "
But , Bollman held that venue for the Neutrality Act charges was improper in the District of Columbia . First , the Court rejected locus delicti venue ( without reaching the question of whether such could exist outside of a U.S. state ) . " [ T ] hat no part of this crime was committed in the district of Columbia is apparent . It is therefore the unanimous opinion of the court that they cannot be tried in this district . " Second , the Court rejected statutory venue under section 8 the Crimes Act of 1790 ( as permitted by Article Three for crimes not committed within a state ) . The Court held that the Territory of Orleans was not a place that triggered the alternative venue provisions of the Crimes Act . The Court held that the statutory term " any place out of the jurisdiction of any particular state " applied only to " any river , haven , bason or bay , not within the jurisdiction of any particular state , " and only in " those cases there is no court which has particular cognizance of the crime . "
Double jeopardy
In three opinions , the Marshall Court considered questions of double jeopardy , without ever clearly referring to the Double Jeopardy Clause of the Fifth Amendment . First , in United States v. Perez ( 1824 ) , the Court held that there was no bar to a second prosecution after a mistrial was declared for " manifest necessity . " ( Justice Story authored the opinion of the Court , espousing the position taken by Justice Thompson below . ) Next , in United States v. Wilson ( 1833 ) , the Court held that the protection of prior jeopardy extended to lesser included offenses ; " [ a ] fter the judgment [ of conviction ] , no subsequent prosecution could be maintained for the same offence , nor for any part of it . " But , Wilson held that , in order to receive the protection of a pardon , a defendant must accept the pardon and affirmatively plead its existence in court . And , finally , in United States v. Randenbush ( 1834 ) — where the defendant had first been acquitted of counterfeiting one note , and then convicted of counterfeiting a different note ( which had been introduced as evidence at the first trial ) — the Court held that double jeopardy did not run from the use of the same evidence for " entirely a distinct offence . "
Original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court
In United States v. Ortega ( 1826 ) , the Court held that it was not unconstitutional to vest original jurisdiction for the criminal trial of assaults on ambassadors in the circuit courts . The Court did not reach the question of whether the original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court could be made concurrent with a lower court , instead holding that the criminal trial of an assault on an ambassador was not a " Case [ ] affecting Ambassadors , other public Ministers and Consuls " within the meaning of Article Three . Justice Washington , the author of the Court 's opinion , had also delivered the jury charge below .
Two Supreme Court justices had previously disagreed on this question while riding circuit . In United States v. Ravara ( C.C.D. Pa . 1793 ) , an indictment for sending anonymous and threatening letters to a foreign minister with a view to extort money , Justice James Wilson argued that the circuit court could be given concurrent jurisdiction ; Justice James Iredell argued that it could not ; Judge Richard Peters , of the District of Pennsylvania , sided with Wilson , and the case continued .
= = = Evidence = = =
Burden of proof
In United States v. Gooding ( 1827 ) , the Court held that the government must bear the burden of proof in criminal cases " unless a different provision is made by some statute . "
Hearsay
Also in Gooding , the Court approved of a hearsay exception for the statement of an agent of the defendant , holding that the doctrine should be the same in civil and criminal cases .
Best evidence
In United States v. Reyburn ( 1832 ) , the Court again held that civil rules of evidence should be applied in criminal cases , recognizing an exception to the best evidence rule where " non production of the written instrument is satisfactorily accounted for . "
= = = Other = = =
Facts found by a jury
In United States v. Tyler ( 1812 ) , without oral argument , the Court held that an error in a verdict sheet — referring to the goods in violation of the embargo as " pot @-@ ashes " rather than " pearl @-@ ashes " — was harmless because the jury need not find the value to be forfeited .
Sufficiency of an indictment
In United States v. Gooding ( 1827 ) , the Court held that , in general , it is sufficient for a criminal indictment to merely repeat the text of the statute . Further , the Court held that — " under circumstances of an extraordinary nature , " " on very urgent occasions " — a challenge to the sufficiency of an indictment could be made post @-@ conviction . In United States v. Mills ( 1833 ) , the Court again embraced the general rule that a sufficient indictment need only follow the terms of the statute .
Separate trials of co @-@ defendants
In United States v. Marchant ( 1827 ) , the Court held that — even though a trial court has the discretion to sever the trials of co @-@ defendants — a defendant has no right to insist upon being tried alone . The Court recounted the history of criminal severance in English law , and concluded that the practice merely arose to prevent co @-@ defendants from each using their peremptory challenges to deplete the venire such that too few jurors remained for trial . Justice Story was the author of the opinion of the Court , as well as a substantially similar opinion in the Massachusetts circuit court below .
Nol pros
In United States v. Phillips ( 1832 ) , the Court dismissed a criminal action , on the motion of the Attorney General , pursuant to the district prosecutor 's filing of a nolle prosequi motion ( a motion by the prosecutor to dismiss the case ) in the trial court , even though the nolle prosequi motion was filed after the writ of error issued from the Supreme Court . Phillips has been cited as an early example of judicial recognition of the norm of prosecutorial enforcement discretion and as an example of mootness ( although the Phillips Court did not use that term ) . The underlying case had involved the prosecution of Zalegman Phillips , a prominent Philadelphia attorney , for interfering with diplomatic immunity , as protected by the Crimes Act of 1790 , by filing a lawsuit against a former diplomat . The question certified was whether the provision extended to former diplomats .
|
= Mary Toft =
Mary Toft ( née Denyer ; c . 1701 – 1763 ) , also spelled Tofts , was an English woman from Godalming , Surrey , who in 1726 became the subject of considerable controversy when she tricked doctors into believing that she had given birth to rabbits .
In 1726 Toft became pregnant , but following her reported fascination with the sighting of a rabbit , she miscarried . Her claim to have given birth to various animal parts prompted the arrival of John Howard , a local surgeon , who investigated the matter . He delivered several pieces of animal flesh and duly notified other prominent physicians , which brought the case to the attention of Nathaniel St. André , surgeon to the Royal Household of King George I. St. André concluded that Toft 's case was genuine but the king also sent surgeon Cyriacus Ahlers , who remained sceptical . By then quite famous , Toft was brought to London and studied at length , where under intense scrutiny and producing no more rabbits she confessed to the hoax , and was subsequently imprisoned as a fraud .
The resultant public mockery created panic within the medical profession and ruined the careers of several prominent surgeons . The affair was satirised on many occasions , not least by the pictorial satirist and social critic William Hogarth , who was notably critical of the medical profession 's gullibility . Toft was eventually released without charge and returned home .
= = Account = =
The story first came to the public 's attention in late October 1726 , when reports began to reach London . An account appeared in the Mist 's Weekly Journal , on 19 November 1726 :
From Guildford comes a strange but well @-@ attested Piece of News . That a poor Woman who lives at Godalmin [ sic ] , near that Town , was about a Month past delivered by Mr John Howard , an Eminent Surgeon and Man @-@ Midwife , of a creature resembling a Rabbit but whose Heart and Lungs grew without [ outside ] its Belly , about 14 Days since she was delivered by the same Person , of a perfect Rabbit : and in a few Days after of 4 more ; and on Friday , Saturday , Sunday , the 4th , 5th , and 6th instant , of one in each day : in all nine , they died all in bringing into the World . The woman hath made Oath , that two Months ago , being working in a Field with other Women , they put up a Rabbit , who running from them , they pursued it , but to no Purpose : This created in her such a Longing to it , that she ( being with Child ) was taken ill and miscarried , and from that Time she hath not been able to avoid thinking of Rabbits . People after all , differ much in their Opinion about this Matter , some looking upon them as great Curiosities , fit to be presented to the Royal Society , etc. others are angry at the Account , and say , that if it be a Fact , a Veil should be drawn over it , as an Imperfection in human Nature .
The ' poor Woman ' , Mary Toft , was twenty @-@ four or twenty @-@ five years old . She was baptised Mary Denyer on 21 February 1703 , the daughter of John and Jane Denyer . In 1720 she married Joshua Toft , a journeyman clothier and together the couple had three children , Mary , Anne and James . As an 18th @-@ century English peasant , circumstances dictated that when in 1726 Toft again became pregnant , she continue working in the fields . She complained of painful complications early in the pregnancy and in early August egested several pieces of flesh , one " as big as my arm " . This may have been the result of an abnormality of the developing placenta , which would have caused the embryo to stop developing and blood clots and flesh to be ejected . Toft went into labour on 27 September . Her neighbour was called and watched as she produced several animal parts . This neighbour then showed the pieces to her mother and to her mother @-@ in @-@ law , Ann Toft , who by chance was a midwife . Ann Toft sent the flesh to John Howard , a Guildford @-@ based man @-@ midwife of thirty years experience .
Initially , Howard dismissed the notion that Toft had given birth to animal parts , but the next day , despite his reservations , he went to see her . Ann Toft showed him more pieces of the previous night 's exertions , but on examining Mary , he found nothing . When Mary again went into labour , appearing to give birth to several more animal parts , Howard returned to continue his investigations . According to a contemporary account of 9 November , over the next few days he delivered " three legs of a Cat of a Tabby Colour , and one leg of a Rabbet : the guts were as a Cat 's and in them were three pieces of the Back @-@ Bone of an Eel ... The cat 's feet supposed were formed in her imagination from a cat she was fond of that slept on the bed at night . " Toft seemingly became ill once more and over the next few days delivered more pieces of rabbit .
As the story became more widely known , on 4 November Henry Davenant , a member of the court of King George I , went to see for himself what was happening . He examined the samples Howard had collected and returned to London , ostensibly a believer . Howard had Toft moved to Guildford , where he offered to deliver rabbits in the presence of anyone who doubted her story . Some of the letters he wrote to Davenant to notify him of any progress in the case came to the attention of Nathaniel St. André , since 1723 a Swiss surgeon to the Royal Household . St. André would ultimately detail the contents of one of these letters in his pamphlet , A short narrative of an extraordinary delivery of rabbets ( 1727 ) :
SIR ,
Since I wrote to you , I have taken or deliver 'd the poor Woman of three more Rabbets , all three half grown , one of them a dunn Rabbet ; the last leap 'd twenty three Hours in the Uterus before it dy 'd . As soon as the eleventh Rabbet was taken away , up leap 'd the twelfth Rabbet , which is now leaping . If you have any curious Person that is pleased to come Post , may see another leap in her Uterus , and shall take it from her if he pleases ; which will be a great Satisfaction to the Curious : If she had been with Child , she has but ten Days more to go , so I do not know how many Rabbets may be behind ; I have brought the Woman to Guildford for better Convenience .
I am , SIR , Your humble Servant ,
JOHN HOWARD .
= = Investigation = =
By the middle of November the British Royal Family were so interested in the story that they sent St. André and Samuel Molyneux , secretary to the Prince of Wales , to investigate . Apparently , they were not disappointed ; arriving on 15 November they were taken by Howard to see Toft , who within hours delivered a rabbit 's torso . St. André 's account details his examination of the rabbit . To check if it had breathed air , he placed a piece of its lung in water to see if it would float — which it did . St. André then performed a medical examination on Toft , and concluded that the rabbits were bred in her Fallopian tubes . In the doctors ' absence , Toft later that day reportedly delivered the torso of another rabbit , which the two also examined . They again returned that evening to find Toft again displaying violent contractions . A further medical examination followed , and St. André delivered some rabbit skin , followed a few minutes later by a rabbit 's head . Both men inspected the egested pieces of flesh , noting that some resembled the body parts of a cat .
Fascinated , the king then sent surgeon Cyriacus Ahlers to Guildford . Ahlers arrived on 20 November and found Toft exhibiting no signs of pregnancy . He may have already suspected the affair was a hoax and observed that Toft seemed to press her knees and thighs together , as if to prevent something from " dropping down " . He thought Howard 's behaviour just as suspicious , as the man @-@ midwife would not let him help deliver the rabbits — although Ahlers was not a man @-@ midwife and in an earlier attempt had apparently put Toft through considerable pain . Convinced the affair was a hoax , he lied , telling those involved that he believed Toft 's story , before making his excuses and returning to London , taking specimens of the rabbits with him . Upon closer study , he reportedly found evidence of them having been cut with a man @-@ made instrument , and noted pieces of straw and grain in their droppings .
On 21 November Ahlers reported his findings to the king and later to " several Persons of Note and Distinction " . Howard wrote to Ahlers the next day , asking for the return of his specimens . Ahlers ' suspicions began to worry both Howard and St. André , and apparently the king , as two days later St. André and a colleague were ordered back to Guildford . Upon their arrival they met Howard , who told St. André that Toft had given birth to two more rabbits . She delivered several portions of what was presumed to be a placenta but she was by then quite ill , and suffering from a constant pain in the right side of her abdomen . In a pre @-@ emptive move against Ahlers , St. André collected affidavits from several witnesses , which in effect cast doubt on Ahlers ' honesty , and on 26 November gave an anatomical demonstration before the king to support Toft 's story . According to his pamphlet , neither St. André nor Molyneux suspected any fraudulent activity .
St. André was ordered by the king to travel back to Guildford and to bring Toft to London , so that further investigations could be carried out . He was accompanied by Richard Manningham , a well @-@ known obstetrician who was knighted in 1721 , and the second son of Thomas Manningham , Bishop of Chichester . He examined Toft and found the right side of her abdomen slightly enlarged . Manningham also delivered what he thought was a hog 's bladder — although St. André and Howard disagreed with his identification — but became suspicious as it smelled of urine . Nevertheless , those involved agreed to say nothing in public and on their return to London on 29 November lodged Toft in Lacey 's Bagnio , in Leicester Fields .
= = Examination = =
Printed in the early days of newspapers , the story became a national sensation , although some publications were sceptical , the Norwich Gazette viewing the affair simply as female gossip . Rabbit stew and jugged hare disappeared from the dinner table , while as unlikely as the story sounded , many physicians felt compelled to see Toft for themselves . The political writer John Hervey later told his friend Henry Fox that :
Every creature in town , both men and women , have been to see and feel her : the perpetual emotions , noises and rumblings in her Belly are something prodigious ; all the eminent physicians , surgeons and man @-@ midwives in London are there Day and Night to watch her next production .
Under St. André 's strict control Toft was studied by a number of eminent physicians and surgeons , including John Maubray . In The Female Physician Maubray had proposed women could give birth to a creature he named a Sooterkin . He was a proponent of maternal impression , a widely held belief that conception and pregnancy could be influenced by what the mother dreamt , or saw , and warned pregnant women that over @-@ familiarity with household pets could cause their children to resemble those pets . He was reportedly happy to attend Toft , pleased that her case appeared to vindicate his theories , but man @-@ midwife James Douglas , like Manningham , presumed that the affair was a hoax and despite St. André 's repeated invitations , kept his distance . Douglas was one of the country 's most respected anatomists and a well @-@ known man @-@ midwife , whereas St. André was often considered to be a member of the court only because of his ability to speak the king 's native German . St. André therefore desperately wanted the two to attend Toft ; after George I 's accession to the throne the Whigs had become the dominant political faction , and Manningham and Douglas ' Whig affiliations and medical knowledge might have elevated his status as both doctor and philosopher . Douglas thought that a woman giving birth to rabbits was as likely as a rabbit giving birth to a human child , but despite his scepticism he went to see her . When Manningham informed him of the suspected hog 's bladder , and after he examined Toft , he refused to engage St. André on the matter :
To be able to determine , to the Satisfaction and Conviction of all sorts of Persons , other Arguments were necessary , than Anatomy , or any other Branch of Physick [ sic ] , could furnish . Of these the greatest Number are not Judges . It was therefore undoubtedly very natural for me to desire that People would suspend any farther Judgement for a little Time , till such Proofs could be brought of the Imposture as they requir 'd .
Under constant supervision , Toft went into labour several times , to no avail .
= = Confession = =
The hoax was uncovered on 4 December . Thomas Onslow , 2nd Baron Onslow , had begun an investigation of his own and discovered that for the past month Toft 's husband , Joshua , had been buying young rabbits . Convinced he had enough evidence to proceed , in a letter to physician Sir Hans Sloane he wrote that the affair had " almost alarmed England " and that he would soon publish his findings . The same day , Thomas Howard , a porter at the bagnio , confessed to Justice of the Peace Sir Thomas Clarges that he had been bribed by Toft 's sister @-@ in @-@ law , Margaret , to sneak a rabbit into Toft 's chamber . When arrested and questioned Mary denied the accusation , while Margaret , under Douglas 's interrogation , claimed that she had obtained the rabbit for eating only .
I told my sister of my having sent for a rabbit and I desire [ d ] her to give it to the porter to be carryed [ sic ] away which my sister did saying she would not have it known for 1000 p [ oun ] d [ s ] .
Manningham examined Toft and thought something remained in the cavity of her uterus , and so he successfully persuaded Clarges to allow her to remain at the bagnio . Douglas , who had by then visited Toft , questioned her on three or four occasions , each time for several hours . After several days of this Manningham threatened to perform a painful operation on her , and on 7 December , in the presence of Manningham , Douglas , John Montagu and Frederick Calvert , Toft finally confessed . Following her miscarriage and while her cervix permitted access , an accomplice had inserted into her womb the claws and body of a cat , and the head of a rabbit . They had also invented a story in which Toft claimed that during her pregnancy and while working in a field , she had been startled by a rabbit , and had since become obsessed with rabbits . For later parturitions , animal parts had been inserted into her vagina .
Pressured again by Manningham and Douglas ( it was the latter who took her confession ) , she made a further admission on 8 December and another on 9 December , before being sent to Tothill Fields Bridewell , charged on a statute of Edward III as a " vile cheat and imposter " . In her earlier , unpublished confessions , she blamed the entire affair on a range of other participants , from her mother @-@ in @-@ law to John Howard . She also claimed that a travelling woman told her how to insert the rabbits into her body , and how such a scheme would ensure that she would " never want as long as I liv 'd " . The British Journal reported that on 7 January 1727 she appeared at the Courts of Quarter Sessions at Westminster , charged " for being an abominable cheat and imposter in pretending to be delivered of several monstrous births " . Margaret Toft had remained staunch , and refused to comment further . Mist 's Weekly Journal of 24 December 1726 reported that " the nurse has been examined as to the person 's concerned with her , but either was kept in the dark as to the imposition , or is not willing to disclose what she knows ; for nothing can be got from her ; so that her resolution shocks others . "
= = Aftermath = =
Following the hoax the medical profession 's gullibility became the target of a great deal of public mockery . William Hogarth published Cunicularii , or The Wise Men of Godliman in Consultation ( 1726 ) , which portrays Toft in the throes of labour , surrounded by the tale 's chief participants . Figure " F " is Toft , " E " is her husband . " A " is St. André , and " D " is Howard . In Dennis Todd 's Three Characters in Hogarth 's Cunicularii and Some Implications the author concludes that figure " G " is Mary Toft 's sister @-@ in @-@ law , Margaret Toft . Toft 's confession of 7 December demonstrates her insistence that her sister @-@ in @-@ law played no part in the hoax , but Manningham 's 1726 An Exact Diary of what was observ 'd during a Close Attendance upon Mary Toft , the pretended Rabbet @-@ Breeder of Godalming in Surrey offers eyewitness testimony of her complicity . Hogarth 's print was not the only image that ridiculed the affair — George Vertue published The Surrey @-@ Wonder , and The Doctors in Labour , or a New Wim @-@ Wam in Guildford ( 12 plates ) , a broadsheet published in 1727 which satirises St. André , was also popular at the time .
The timing of Toft 's confession proved awkward for St. André , who on 3 December had published his forty @-@ page pamphlet A Short Narrative of an Extraordinary Delivery of Rabbets . On this document the surgeon had staked his reputation , and although it offers a more empirical account of the Toft case than earlier more fanciful publications about reproduction in general , ultimately it was derided . Ahlers , his scepticism justified , published Some observations concerning the woman of Godlyman in Surrey , which details his account of events and his suspicion of the complicity of both St. André and Howard .
St. André recanted his views on 9 December 1726 . In 1729 , following the death of Samuel Molyneux from poisoning , he married Molyneux 's widow , Elizabeth . This did little to impress his peers . Molyneux 's cousin accused him of the poisoning , a charge that St. André defended by suing for defamation , but the careers of St. André and his wife were permanently damaged . Elizabeth lost her attendance on Queen Caroline , and St. André was publicly humiliated at court . Living on Elizabeth 's considerable wealth , they retired to the country , where St. André died in 1776 , aged 96 . Manningham , desperate to exculpate himself , published a diary of his observations of Mary Toft , together with an account of her confession of the fraud , on 12 December . In it he suggested that Douglas had been fooled by Toft , and concerned with his image Douglas replied by publishing his own account . Using the pseudonym ' Lover of Truth and Learning ' , in 1727 Douglas also published The Sooterkin Dissected . A letter to Maubray , Douglas was scathingly critical of his Sooterkin theory , calling it " a mere fiction of your [ Maubray 's ] brain " . The damage done to the medical profession was such that several doctors not connected with the tale felt compelled to print statements that they had not believed Toft 's story . On 7 January 1727 John Howard and Toft appeared before the bench , where Howard was fined £ 800 ( £ 107 thousand today ) . He returned to Surrey and continued his practice , and died in 1755 .
Crowds reportedly mobbed Tothill Fields Bridewell for months , hoping to catch a glimpse of the now infamous Toft . By this time she had become quite ill , and while incarcerated had her portrait drawn by John Laguerre . She was ultimately discharged on 8 April 1727 , as it was unclear as to what charge should have been made against her . The Toft family made no profit from the affair , and Mary Toft returned to Surrey . She had a daughter in February 1727 , and reappeared briefly in 1740 when she was imprisoned for receiving stolen goods , but her death was reported in 1763 .
The case was cited by Robert Walpole 's opponents as symbolising the age , which they perceived as greedy , corrupt and deceitful . One author , writing to the Prince of Wales 's mistress , suggested the story was a political portent of the approaching death of the prince 's father . On 7 January 1727 Mist 's Weekly Journal satirised the matter , making several allusions to political change , and comparing the affair to the events of 1641 when Parliament began its revolution against King Charles I. The scandal provided the writers of Grub Street with enough material to produce pamphlets , squibs , broadsides and ballads for several months . With publications such as St. André 's Miscarriage ( 1727 ) and The anatomist dissected : or the man @-@ midwife finely brought to bed ( 1727 ) satirists scorned the objectivity of men @-@ midwives , and critics of Toft 's attendants questioned their integrity , undermining their profession with sexual puns and allusions . The case raised questions about England 's status as an " enlightened " nation — Voltaire used the case in his brief essay Singularités de la nature to describe how the Protestant English were still influenced by an ignorant Church .
Toft did not escape the ire of the satirists , who concentrated mainly on sexual innuendo . Some took advantage of a common 18th @-@ century word for a rabbit track — prick — and others were scatological in nature . However , Much Ado about Nothing ; or , A Plain Refutation of All that Has Been Written or Said Concerning the Rabbit @-@ Woman of Godalming ( 1727 ) is one of the more cutting satires on Toft . The document supposes to be the confession of ' Merry Tuft ' , " ... in her own Stile and Spelling " . Poking fun at her illiteracy , it makes a number of obscene suggestions hinting at her promiscuity — " I wos a Wuman as had grate nattural parts , and a large Capassiti , and kapible of being kunserned in depe Kuntrivansis . " The document also ridicules several of the physicians involved in the affair , and reflects the general view portrayed by the satirists that Toft was a weak woman and the least complicit of " the offenders " ( regardless of her guilt ) . The notion contrasts with that expressed of her before the hoax was revealed and may indicate an overall strategy to disempower Toft completely . This is reflected in one of the most notable satires of the affair , Alexander Pope and William Pulteney 's anonymous satirical ballad The Discovery ; or , The Squire Turn 'd Ferret . Published in 1726 and aimed at Samuel Molyneux , it rhymes " hare " with " hair " , and " coney " with " cunny " . The ballad opens with the following verse :
Most true it is , I dare to say ,
E 'er since the Days of Eve ,
The weakest Woman sometimes may
The wisest Man deceive .
|
= Fantastic Four : Rise of the Silver Surfer =
Fantastic Four : Rise of the Silver Surfer ( also known as Fantastic Four 2 or stylized as Fantastic 4 : Rise of the Silver Surfer ) is a 2007 superhero film , based on the Fantastic Four comic book . A sequel to the 2005 film Fantastic Four , the film is directed by Tim Story . Ioan Gruffudd as Reed Richards , Jessica Alba as Sue Storm , Chris Evans as Johnny Storm , and Michael Chiklis as Ben Grimm are the film series ' recurring protagonists , while Julian McMahon and Kerry Washington reprise their roles from the first film as Victor Von Doom and Alicia Masters , respectively . Beau Garrett appears as Frankie Raye , along with Doug Jones as the Silver Surfer , with Laurence Fishburne voicing the Surfer . The plot follows the Fantastic Four as they confront the Silver Surfer and attempt to save Earth from Galactus . The film grossed $ 289 million and received mixed reviews from critics . It was released on Blu @-@ ray and DVD on October 2 , 2007 .
= = Plot = =
As Reed Richards and Sue Storm prepare for their wedding , a silver object enters Earth 's atmosphere , creating immense craters around the world . General Hager directs Reed to track and identify its movements .
During the wedding , Reed 's systems detect the phenomenon approaching New York City , which suffers a blackout since from the objects electromagnetic pulses . Johnny Storm pursues the object , discovering it to be a silver humanoid on a flying surfboard . The " Silver Surfer " drags him into the upper atmosphere , suffocates and then drops him . Johnny barely survives , successfully flying only at the last moment . Later , Sue and Johnny find they have switched powers after touching , prompting Reed to deduce that exposure to the Surfer has affected Johnny 's molecular structure , allowing these transfers of their powers . Tracing the Surfer 's cosmic energy , Reed discovers that a series of planets the alien has visited are all destroyed .
Reed and Sue contemplate abandoning their lives as superheroes in order to have a normal life and raise a family , but are unaware Johnny is listening . With the Surfer creating craters around the globe , Reed determines that the next will appear in London . The team arrives too late to stop the crater , which drains the River Thames , but they prevent the London Eye from collapsing after it is damaged by the quake . Meanwhile , the Surfer 's movements around the globe bring him past Latveria , where the cosmic energy affects Victor Von Doom , freeing him from two years encased in metal . A scarred Doom traces the Surfer to the Russell Glacier and offers to join forces . When the Surfer rebuffs him , Doom attacks . The Surfer retaliates , blasting Doom through the ice , but the cosmic energy of the Surfer 's blast heals Doom 's body .
Doom leverages his experience into a deal with the American military , which forces the Fantastic Four to work with Doom . Deducing that the Surfer 's board is the source of his power , Reed develops a tachyon pulse generator that will separate the Surfer from it , while Doom devises a machine whose function he keeps secret . In the Black Forest , the Surfer confronts Sue and reveals he is merely a servant to the destroyer of worlds , and regrets the destruction he causes . The military opens fire on the Surfer , which distracts him and allows the Fantastic Four to fire the pulse , separating the Surfer from his board . The military imprisons the Surfer in Siberia , where they torture him for information . Sue uses her powers to sneak into his cell , where he informs her that his master , known by the people of his world as Galactus , is a massive cloud @-@ like cosmic entity that feeds on life @-@ bearing planets to survive , and that his board is a homing beacon summoning Galactus to the planet . The Silver Surfer has to serve Galactus , who will otherwise destroy the Surfer 's planet .
Using the device he created earlier , Doom betrays Hager and steals the board from the compound , killing most of the Army personnel there . The Fantastic Four rescue the Surfer and pursue Doom in the Fantasticar , confronting him in Shanghai . During the battle , Sue is severely wounded . With the Surfer powerless , Johnny absorbs the combined powers of the entire team in order to battle the now cosmic energy @-@ empowered Doom . Johnny succeeds in breaking Doom 's control over the Surfer 's board , and Ben Grimm uses a nearby crane to knock Doom into the harbor . However , Galactus arrives and Sue appears to die in Reed 's arms . The Surfer regains control of his board , restoring his power . He revives Sue and chooses to defend Earth , flying , with an extra boost from Johnny , into Galactus . The conflict results in a massive blast of energy that engulfs Galactus , and apparently kills the Surfer as well . Johnny recovers his stable molecular state after touching the Surfer 's board .
Reed and Sue marry in Japan , in an abbreviated ceremony . Receiving news that Venice is sinking into the Adriatic , the team heads to Italy . In a mid @-@ credits scene , the Silver Surfer 's seemingly lifeless body floats through space . His eyes then open and his board races toward him .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
With Fantastic Four grossing $ 330 million worldwide , 20th Century Fox hired director Tim Story and screenwriter Mark Frost in December 2005 to return for the superhero team 's sequel . Screenwriters Frost and Don Payne were hired to write the screenplay . Payne has said the film is based upon " The Galactus Trilogy " , in which Galactus also makes an appearance , as well as issues 57 @-@ 60 in which Doom steals the Surfer 's power . Payne has also said the film takes inspiration from the Ultimate Marvel limited series Ultimate Extinction . As of March 2 , 2007 , Galactus 's design was not yet done , and by April 18 , until hiring Laurence Fishburne to perform the voice of the Silver Surfer , the filmmakers were unsure of whether the character would speak .
The film includes the Fantasti @-@ Car , a larger role for Kerry Washington 's character Alicia Masters , and in June 2006 , the Silver Surfer was announced to appear in the sequel as a " villain / hero " . The Silver Surfer was created by combining the performance of actor Doug Jones and a grey @-@ silver suit designed by Jose Fernandez . FX shop Spectral Motion created the Surfer , who was then been enhanced by a new computer @-@ generated system designed by WETA .
The sequel , whose working title was Fantastic Four 2 , was officially titled Fantastic Four : Rise of the Silver Surfer in August 2006 with filming beginning on August 28 in Vancouver and set for a release date of June 15 , 2007 . Michael Chiklis 's prosthetics as The Thing were also redesigned to allow him to take it off in between takes and for better ventilation .
In August 2006 , actor Andre Braugher dropped out of his supporting role in the TV series ER to be cast in Rise of the Silver Surfer . Braugher was cast as General Hager , whom director Story described as " an old acquaintance of Reed Richards and one of the major additions to the movie " . In September , Jones was confirmed to portray the Silver Surfer in addition to Julian McMahon reprising his role as Doctor Doom . The Baxter Building was also redesigned . Braugher , McMahon and Chiklis were all starring in FX Network dramas that year .
= = = Locations = = =
There were 14 filming locations : Burnaby , British Columbia , Canada ; Black Forest , Baden @-@ Württemberg , Germany ; Giza , Egypt ; London , England , UK ( 2nd Unit ) ; Los Angeles , California , USA ; New York City , New York , USA ; Oriental Pearl Tower , Shanghai , China ; Pemberton ; Port Coquitlam , British Columbia , Canada ; Vancouver British Columbia , Canada ; Dumont Dunes , California , USA ; Russell Glacier , Greenland ; Suruga Bay , Japan ; Fallston , Pennsylvania
= = Release = =
= = = Promotion = = =
The teaser trailer was initially exclusively attached to Night at the Museum . It was released to the general public online on December 26 , 2006 on the film 's official website . The theatrical trailer was scheduled to appear with the film Disturbia , on April 13 , 2007 , but errors occurred and Tim Story announced that it would be released with Spider @-@ Man 3 on May 4 , 2007 . The theatrical trailer was finally released online on April 30 , 2007 on Apple Trailer 's website . 20th Century Fox launched an outdoor advertising campaign at the end of February . The cast also made an appearance at the Coca Cola 600 Nextel Cup NASCAR race in Charlotte over Memorial Day weekend .
In late May 2007 , 20th Century Fox struck a deal with the Franklin Mint to promote the movie by altering 40 @,@ 000 U.S. quarters and releasing them into circulation . All of the altered quarters were minted in 2005 and honor the state of California as part of the 50 State Quarters program created by the U.S. Mint . The altered quarters feature the Silver Surfer on the reverse along with a URL to the movie 's official website . Once the U.S. Mint became aware of the promotion , it notified the studio and the Franklin Mint that it was breaking the law by turning government @-@ issued currency into private advertising . The federal mint did not indicate whether a penalty would be effected .
= = = Home media = = =
The film was released October 2 , 2007 on DVD in two versions . The first was a single @-@ disc Widescreen / Full Screen version . A two @-@ disc " The Power Cosmic " Edition was also released that day , as was a high @-@ definition Blu @-@ ray Disc . The film was also released on HD DVD outside of the U.S.
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
On its opening weekend , the film was the highest @-@ grossing movie at the U.S. box office , reaching approximately $ 58 million , $ 2 million more than its predecessor . On its second weekend , the film had a 66 % drop , and then had a 54 % drop in its third weekend . The film grossed $ 289 million worldwide , including a $ 131 @.@ 9 million gross in the United States and Canada . The budget was $ 130 million .
= = = Critical response = = =
Fantastic Four : Rise of the Silver Surfer received mixed reviews from critics , with most saying it was an improvement over its predecessor . On Rotten Tomatoes , the film has a rating of 37 % , based on 167 reviews , with the critical consensus reading , " While an improvement on its predecessor , Fantastic Four : Rise of the Silver Surfer is nevertheless a juvenile , simplistic picture that has little benefit beyond its special effects . " On Metacritic , the film has a score of 45 out of 100 , based on 33 critics , indicating " mixed or average reviews " .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Rise of the Silver Surfer won two awards : the 2008 Golden Trailer Award for " Best Teaser Poster " , and star Jessica Alba winning the 2008 " Favorite Female Movie Star " Kids ' Choice Award . Rise of the Silver Surfer was nominated for five additional Kids ' Choice awards . The film was nominated for two Razzie Awards including Worst Actress for Jessica Alba and Worst Screen Couple for Alba and Ioan Gruffudd , but lost both awards to Lindsay Lohan in I Know Who Killed Me .
= = Cancelled sequel and reboot = =
The main four cast originally signed a three @-@ movie deal , with Fox Studios and Julian McMahon also signed for a third film . Michael Chiklis was told Ben Grimm 's relationship with Alicia Masters would have had a greater focus in a third film and Jessica Alba expressed interest in introducing Franklin Richards , while Beau Garrett wished to return as Nova . Tim Story said he was interested in directing a third and fourth film and writer Don Payne stated while he had not discussed a sequel with the studio , he was interested in working with more Fantastic Four characters saying " I ’ ve always loved the Inhumans , the Skrulls , the Puppet Master , and Annihilus and the Negative Zone " . As Fantastic Four : Rise of the Silver Surfer performed less at the box office than the first film , 20th Century Fox was unsure of the series ' future , and no script was in development . In March 2008 , Chris Evans revealed , " I 'm pretty sure we won ’ t do another one . I ’ m assuming that one is a closed book . "
In August 2009 , Fox announced plans to reboot the Fantastic Four film franchise , with Michael Green and Jeremy Slater writing , Seth Grahame @-@ Smith polishing the film 's script , and Akiva Goldsman and Matthew Vaughn producing . After the release of 2012 's Chronicle , Josh Trank was linked to the reboot , and in mid July 2012 , he was officially announced to be director . Filming started mid September 2013 . As it is produced by Fox , the film is independent from the Marvel Cinematic Universe . Fantastic Four was released on August 7 , 2015 .
|
= Dream Team ( The Office ) =
" Dream Team " is the twenty @-@ second episode of the fifth season of the television series The Office , and the 94th overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on April 9 , 2009 . In the episode , Pam and Michael try to keep each other motivated as the two form their new paper company together . Michael recruits Ryan for the company , which sets up a new office in the same building complex as Dunder Mifflin . Meanwhile , Jim tries to impress new boss Charles Miner by claiming to be a soccer enthusiast , but it backfires when Dwight convinces the two to face each other in a game .
The episode was written by B. J. Novak and directed by Paul Feig . It included a guest appearance by Idris Elba , who played new Dunder Mifflin vice president Charles Miner . The episode aired the same day as the Office episode " Michael Scott Paper Company " ; the debut episode of the new NBC show Parks and Recreation was shown between the two episodes . " Dream Team " marked the return of Ryan , who had not appeared on the show since the November 2008 episode " Frame Toby " . The episode received generally positive reviews and , according to Nielsen ratings , was watched by 7 @.@ 2 million viewers and captured the most viewers in its time slot for adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . " Dream Team " received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series .
= = Plot = =
In the cold open , Kevin struggles to correctly transfer phone calls , after having been moved to reception by Charles .
Michael ( Steve Carell ) , having left Dunder Mifflin with Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) to form his own company , is having trouble starting his first day as president of the Michael Scott Paper Company . Pam tries to keep things together and suggests they create a list of things to do to maintain a positive working atmosphere . Michael sets up a meeting with a potential investor and makes a list of potential salesmen to join the company . He receives a letter from his realtor saying that running a business from his condominium is in violation of his residence agreement , so he needs to find office space for the company . Michael and Pam leave to find potential salesmen and then have their meeting with the potential investor .
Michael 's first stop is his old part @-@ time telemarketing job to pick up Vikram . Next , they stop at a bowling alley , where Ryan ( B. J. Novak ) , with bleached blond hair , is now working the shoe counter . Michael asks Ryan to join them , despite heavy protests from Pam . Ryan is convinced and steals two pairs of bowling shoes on the way out . They head to the meeting with the investor , who turns out to be Michael 's " nana , " at a nursing home . Michael gives her his pitch , but she does not believe his new venture will yield success and refuses to fund his company .
Meanwhile , at the Dunder Mifflin office , Charles Miner ( Idris Elba ) is revealed to have an obsession with soccer , and the rest of the employees pretend to feel the same way about it . When Jim ( John Krasinski ) tries claiming to be an experienced soccer player , Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) , attempting to humiliate Jim , suggests that the staff play a game after work in the parking lot . During the game , when Charles kicks the ball towards Jim , he ducks and the ball hits Phyllis ( Phyllis Smith ) in the face . Charles berates Jim for ducking , and Dwight mocks him .
In the car leaving the nursing home , Vikram asks to be brought back to the telemarketing job after he learns " nana " is a term for grandmother . Back at Michael 's condo , a frustrated Pam loses her composure and tells Michael she made a mistake leaving Dunder Mifflin and only did it because she was tired of being a receptionist . Michael calms her down , telling her the reality is they both quit and that their only option is to continue trying with the new company . Michael purchases office space in the Scranton Business Park , where Dunder Mifflin is located ; it turns out to be a large closet directly underneath the Dunder Mifflin office . Michael and Pam put their company name in the office lobby directory where they encounter Charles . Michael taunts Charles that he cannot kick them out of the building now because they own their own space .
= = Production = =
" Dream Team " was written by B. J. Novak and directed by Paul Feig . It originally aired on April 9 , 2009 , the same day as the episode " Michael Scott Paper Company " ; the debut episode of the new NBC show Parks and Recreation was shown between the two episodes . It marks the first appearance of Novak as Ryan since " Frame Toby " in November 2008 , when Novak briefly left the show to film his role in Quentin Tarantino 's Inglourious Basterds . Mindy Kaling , an Office writer who also stars as Kelly Kapoor , thought of the idea of Ryan dying his hair blond . Novak wore a baseball cap in public between the times his hair was dyed and when the episode aired , in order to make the reveal a surprise , and even kept the cap on when he and the rest of the cast and crew did a public forum and Q & A session . " Dream Team " was the third of six episodes guest starring Idris Elba , best known as Stringer Bell from the television series The Wire . Elba said he did not watch the episode when it aired because " I 'm hypercritical about my work , so I try not to torture myself . "
Prior to the episode airing , NBC set up a web site for the new Michael Scott Paper Company at michaelscottpapercompany.com , which included a mission statement for the company , photos of the new office space and a downloadable copy of the coupon for " unparalleled customer service " featured in the episode " Michael Scott Company " . Another official NBC site , dundermifflininfinity.com , created a Flash game inspired by the episode , in which the viewer attempts to kick a soccer ball past Jim in the office parking lot and hit Phyllis in the face .
The official The Office website included two cut scenes from " Dream Team " within a week of the episode 's original release . In one minute @-@ long clip , Andy continues brown @-@ nosing to Charles ; during a documentary interview , Andy says he was not the teacher 's pet in school , but that he " walked the teacher 's pet , and fed it , and bathed it " . A second one @-@ minute clip involves the soccer game itself : Dwight excitedly sets up the game , Jim tries not to show Charles he does not know what " offside " means and Creed picks up the ball and hurls it at Kelly .
= = Cultural references = =
Michael refers to his old telemarketing job where he met salesman Vikram ; this is a reference to the fourth season episode " Money " , in which Michael briefly works a second job as a telemarketer . The bowling alley Ryan works at is Idle Hour Lanes , an actual bowling alley in Dickson City , Pennsylvania , which is just outside the show 's setting of Scranton . When Michael discusses song parodies , he names " My Stumps " in a reference to The Black Eyed Peas song " My Humps " and " Achy Breaky Fart " in a reference to the Billy Ray Cyrus song " Achy Breaky Heart " . In discussing the formation of the new paper company , Pam refers to the early years of Apple Inc . , which she said began in a garage . The seniors at the retirement center where Michael discusses his business are watching Maury , the talk show hosted by Maury Povich , in the background .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on April 9 , 2009 , " Dream Team " was watched by 7 @.@ 2 million overall viewers , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode earned more ratings than the Parks and Recreation pilot that immediately followed it ( which had 6 @.@ 8 million viewers ) but had less than " Michael Scott Paper Company " , which came right after Parks and Recreation and had 8 million viewers . " Dream Team " , as well as " Michael Scott Paper Company " , had the most viewers in its time slot among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 .
" Dream Team " received generally positive reviews . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger said he was enjoying the new paper company storyline and that " Dream Team " was funnier than " Michael Scott Paper Company " . Sepinwall said the final scene with Michael trying to comfort Pam in the car was a " good payoff " which was well acted by Steve Carell and Jenna Fischer , and " yet another reminder that Michael does know what he 's doing some of the time , which means Pam wasn 't a complete idiot for following him out the door . " He also liked Kevin 's struggle with the phones in the beginning , but said the storyline between Jim and Charles was getting repetitive and , " It would help if the writers ever gave Idris Elba something funny to do . " Steven Mullen of The Tuscaloosa News called the episode " stellar " , said the Charles Miner soccer subplot ended " perfectly " and said , " Watching [ Michael 's ] fears bubble beneath the surface and slowly erode Pam 's confidence was a masterwork . "
Travis Fickett of IGN said he was happy with the new , unpredictable direction The Office was taking . He particularly praised the Michael / Pam relationship in the episode , as well as soccer subplot involving Jim and Charles and the return of Ryan ; he said Ryan 's new bleached blond hair and his theft of bowling shoes were particularly funny moments . Will Leitch of New York magazine said the episode has provided a change the show needed , and said , " Considering how unlikely it was that The Office was going to allow Michael and Pam to degrade into homelessness and squalor , the show has handled the predictable transition as well as possible . " Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club said the episode included a good exploration of Michael and Pam 's relationship ; he said " they 're weirdly good together " . Phipps , who gave the episode an A- grade , also said the Dunder Mifflin material worked well , " although Idris Elba has been so good at portraying a heartless professional it almost doesn ’ t seem right for anything to break through his icy exterior . "
Margaret Lions of Entertainment Weekly said the episode had " strong moments , and some interesting character play [ but ] I didn 't get quite the same buzz from this week 's installments as I did from the previous episode . " She said " Dream Team " lacks the usual group interactions between the office co @-@ workers , which she said are normally the funniest parts of the show . However , she praised Michael 's pep talk to Pam in the final scene , and said the episode was " the best showcase Jenna Fischer has had in years " . Entertainment Weekly listed Michael 's pep talk to Pam at the end of the episode as one of the 13 highlights from that week in television .
In her list of the top ten moments from the fifth season of The Office , phillyBurbs.com writer Jen Wielgus ranked Michael 's formation of the Michael Scott Paper Company in the downstairs storage closet as number one , citing the " Dream Team " , " Michael Scott Paper Company " and " Heavy Competition " episodes in particular . She also said she specifically enjoyed the attempt to solicit investments at the retirement home from " Dream Team " . Ryan 's return to the series , along with his brief return as a temp in the episode " Weight Loss " , ranked number 5 in that list . " Dream Team " was voted the fifteenth highest @-@ rated episode out of 26 from the fifth season , according to an episode poll at the fansite OfficeTally ; the episode was rated 8 @.@ 00 out of 10 .
Claire Scanlon received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series . " Dream Team " accounted for one of the ten Primetime Emmy Award nominations The Office received for the show 's fifth season at the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards , which were held on September 20 , 2009 .
|
= Hugh Trumble =
Hugh Trumble ( 12 May 1867 – 14 August 1938 ) was an Australian cricketer who played 32 Test matches as a bowling all @-@ rounder between 1890 and 1904 . He captained the Australian team in two Tests , winning both . Trumble took 141 wickets in Test cricket — a world record at the time of his retirement — at an average of 21 @.@ 78 runs per wicket . He is one of only four bowlers to twice take a hat @-@ trick in Test cricket . Observers in Trumble 's day , including the authoritative Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack , regarded him as ranking among the great Australian bowlers of the Golden Age of cricket . He was named as one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year in 1897 and the Australian Cricket Hall of Fame , established in 1996 , inducted him in 2004 .
A tall and thin off spinner , Trumble delivered the ball at a quicker pace than most spin bowlers , using his height and uncommonly long fingers to his greatest advantage . He was at his best on the softer pitches of England , but his accuracy and variations in pace enabled him to take wickets on the harder pitches of Australia . He was a dependable lower order batsman and a fine fielder in the slips . He was recognised as a shrewd thinker about the game and was popular with team @-@ mates and opponents , with a penchant for practical jokes .
Trumble made his Test debut during the Australian cricket team 's tour of England in 1890 , but was unable to secure a permanent place in the Australian side until the 1896 tour of England . When the Australian team next toured England in 1899 , Trumble scored 1 @,@ 183 runs and took 142 wickets ; only George Giffen before him had achieved the " double " of 1 @,@ 000 runs and 100 wickets as part of a touring team in England . He was appointed captain of Australia in 1901 – 02 , when Joe Darling was unavailable due to farming commitments . He retired after the 1902 Australian tour of England but was coaxed back in 1903 – 04 . In his last Test match , Trumble took a hat @-@ trick , his second , in front of his home town supporters in Melbourne .
Off the field , Trumble worked for the National Bank of Australasia , rising to the position of manager of a local branch despite his cricket commitments interrupting his banking career . In 1911 , he was appointed secretary of the Melbourne Cricket Club , overseeing the development of the Melbourne Cricket Ground ( MCG ) into a stadium capable of holding over 70 @,@ 000 spectators . He held this post until his death in 1938 from a heart attack , aged 71 .
= = Early life and career = =
Trumble was born in the inner Melbourne neighbourhood of Collingwood , Victoria in 1867 , the son of William , born in Northern Ireland and superintendent of an insane asylum , and Scottish @-@ born Elizabeth ( née Clark ) . His elder brother , John , also played Test cricket for Australia and his younger brother , Thomas , was a public servant who served as Secretary for the Department of Defence from 1918 – 27 , and then official secretary to the High Commissioner for Australia in London .
Trumble spent part of his early life in the western Victorian town of Ararat before returning to Melbourne , settling in suburban Camberwell . He was educated at Hawthorn Grammar School and played his early cricket for Kew Cricket Club . Encouraging his sons ' early love of cricket , William Trumble — a keen cricketer who bowled leg breaks for South Melbourne Cricket Club — set out a cricket pitch at the family home . He placed a feather on a good length and urged his sons to aim at it when bowling . Known for his accuracy , Hugh later said , " Of course I couldn 't repeatedly hit the feather , but I soon reached the stage when I was always pretty close to it "
Trumble transferred to the Melbourne Cricket Club for the 1887 – 88 cricket season and was an immediate success . He took 36 wickets that season , finishing with an average of 6 @.@ 77 runs per wicket ; the best in the club , beating his teammate and Australian Test bowler Fred Spofforth . He made his first @-@ class cricket debut for Victoria that same season , selected to play against a touring English XI led by Middlesex batsman George Vernon . His first match for Victoria against Australian opposition was against New South Wales at the Melbourne Cricket Ground . Bowling with Spofforth , in the first innings Trumble took seven wickets for 52 runs .
= = Test cricket = =
= = = Early struggle = = =
Early in the 1889 – 90 Australian season , Trumble endured a period where he was not able to take wickets consistently . With selection of the Australian team to tour England in 1890 due at this time , Trumble was anxious about this poor run of form . Noting his anxiety while playing , a friend offered him a beer during the lunch break to revive his spirits . Previously a teetotaler , Trumble enjoyed his first taste and ordered another before re @-@ entering the field of play . Feeling relaxed , although wondering about his steadiness of step , Trumble took a succession of wickets to ensure his selection in the Australian team . Trumble finished the season with 27 wickets at an average of 14 @.@ 20 per wicket .
The 1890 Australian team touring England was relatively inexperienced . The team missed the all @-@ round ability of George Giffen , who had refused to join the squad , thinking it unlikely the tour would be a sporting or financial success . The Australians won 13 matches on tour , losing 16 and drawing 9 . Trumble made his Test cricket debut in the First Test against the English team at Lord 's Cricket Ground . He took only one wicket , dismissing Bobby Peel caught and bowled for 1 . Batting at number eleven in the first innings he made 1 not out and in the second , 5 runs batting at number ten . Despite this lack of success , he retained his spot in the team for the Second Test at The Oval where he failed to take a wicket . He was selected for the Third Test at Old Trafford but continuous rain saw the match abandoned without a ball being bowled . Trumble played 28 first @-@ class matches during the tour , scoring 288 runs at an average of 8 @.@ 47 and took 52 wickets at an average of 21 @.@ 75 . Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack wrote , " Reports from Australia had led us to expect a great deal of ... Trumble " but his " straightness and regular length [ were ] insufficient to compensate for an obvious lack of ' devil ' and variety " .
Trumble was not selected for the Australian team to play Lord Sheffield 's touring English team in 1891 – 92 . He did not return to the Australian team until his selection in the squad to tour England in 1893 . Before the Test matches he took 14 wickets for 116 runs ( 14 / 116 ) against the Players followed by 12 / 84 against Kent at Gravesend . He played in all three Test matches in 1893 , taking 6 wickets at an average of 39 @.@ 00 . Trumble scored 58 runs in the Tests with a highest score of 35 but had more success in the other matches , scoring 774 runs , including one century in all first @-@ class matches on tour . Wisden noted that " An immense improvement on his form of three years before was shown by Hugh Trumble , who bowled consistently well all through the tour " and " ... the reports of Hugh Trumble 's improvement in batting were amply borne out , his hitting in many matches being remarkably fine " .
When Andrew Stoddart 's English team visited Australia in 1894 – 95 , Trumble played only one Test , the Second at the Melbourne Cricket Ground . In the first innings , England scored 75 runs with Trumble taking 3 wickets . England fought back in their second innings , scoring 475 runs to win the Test by 94 runs ; Trumble failed to take a wicket .
= = = Established cricketer = = =
Trumble was selected in the Australian team to tour England in 1896 , despite a poor domestic season in 1895 – 96 that saw his place in the touring squad seriously questioned by pundits . The leading cricket journalist , Tom Horan said that as much as he personally liked Trumble , he could not see him as a member of a team for the England tour that season . It was , however , during this tour that Trumble finally established a permanent place in the Australian line up . Wisden said of Trumble when listing him as one of its Cricketers of the Year , " ... it was not until his third visit , during the past season , that Trumble convinced Englishmen he was entitled to rank among the great bowlers of Australia " . In that season , Trumble took 148 wickets at an average of 15 @.@ 81 . He was seen as Australia 's leading bowler who " was able to inspire [ the English ] batsmen with a feeling of apprehension " . Wisden 's summary of the 1896 Australian tour said of Trumble , " His great strength lay in the combination of spin with extreme accuracy " and " he was on all wickets distinctly the best bowler on the [ Australian ] side " .
England won the First Test at Lord 's by 6 wickets , Trumble taking one wicket in each innings . The Second Test at Old Trafford was more closely fought . Despite K. S. Ranjitsinhji scoring a " marvellous " 154 and Tom Richardson " bowling in his finest form " the Australians managed to hold on for a 3 wicket victory . The Australians required 125 runs to win in their second innings and were expected to make this target easily . Richardson 's skilful bowling however saw Trumble and Kelly batting together with only 3 wickets in hand but with 25 runs still to make . Against excellent bowling and in a tense atmosphere , the pair managed to bat Australia home with the last runs taking an hour to score , mainly in singles . Trumble made 17 not out to follow his 24 runs in the first innings and his 4 wickets . With the series tied at one Test apiece , the Third and final Test was played at The Oval in London . On a pitch damaged by rain , the English batted first and were dismissed for 145 . Trumble took 6 wickets for 59 runs , including a 9 @-@ over spell of 5 wickets for 10 runs . England fought back to bowl the Australians out for 119 . In turn , the Australians restricted England to 84 runs with Trumble taking 6 wickets for 30 , to leave Australia requiring 111 runs in their second innings to win the match . Bobby Peel and Jack Hearne combined to bowl Australia out for 44 runs to win the Test by 66 runs and retain the Ashes for England . In the three Tests , Trumble took 18 wickets at an average of 18 @.@ 83 runs per wicket .
Trumble played in every Test of the 1897 – 98 series against the touring English , who were again captained by Stoddart . England won the First Test in Sydney by 9 wickets with Trumble 's 70 runs the highest score in the Australian first innings . Under the captaincy of Harry Trott , Australia fought back to win the Second Test in Melbourne by an innings and 55 runs . Trumble took 8 wickets in the match and in partnership with Monty Noble bowled the English out for 150 runs in the second innings . Australia won the Third Test in Adelaide by an innings and 13 runs ; Trumble made 37 runs in the Australian innings and took 1 wicket for the match . In the Fourth Test , Trumble combined with Clem Hill in a 165 run partnership for the seventh wicket , described by Wisden as the turning point in the innings . Australia won the match by 8 wickets . Australia won the Fifth Test and the series four Tests to one . For the series overall , Trumble took 19 wickets at an average of 28 @.@ 15 runs per wicket and scored 170 runs at an average of 36 @.@ 20 .
The 1899 Australian tour saw Trumble score 1 @,@ 183 runs and take 142 wickets ; he was only the second Australian , after George Giffen , to score 1 @,@ 000 runs and take 100 wickets in an English season as part of a touring team . In the Test series , Trumble took 15 wickets at an average of 25 @.@ 00 and made 232 runs at an average of 38 @.@ 66 . Wisden said of Trumble 's batting that season , " [ Trumble ] played so consistently well as to make it clear that if he had not been a bowler he would have been a great batsman " . Dry pitches saw his bowling average fall off a little from the 1896 tour but Wisden stated that he " bowled quite as well as in 1896 " and " [ he ] never seemed easy to hit , and whenever the ground gave him least advantage ... he was deadly " . Australia won the Second Test by 10 wickets and with the other Tests finishing in draws , they retained the Ashes in a one Test to nil series victory . Trumble played particularly well in the Third Test at Headingley , where he took 5 wickets for 60 runs and was the highest run @-@ scorer in the Australian second innings with 56 .
= = = Hat @-@ tricks and captaincy = = =
At the age of 34 , Trumble was chosen to captain the Australian team against England in 1901 – 02 when Joe Darling withdrew to manage his farm in Tasmania after the first three Tests . Australia won the two remaining Tests — the only occasions that Trumble would captain his country in Test cricket — to win the series four Tests to one . Earlier , in the Second Test at the Melbourne Cricket Ground , Trumble took a " hat @-@ trick " ; only five hat @-@ tricks had been taken in the previous 24 years of Test cricket . He dismissed Arthur Jones , John Gunn and Sydney Barnes in successive balls to complete an Australian victory by 229 runs . In the Third Test in Adelaide , Trumble captured 6 wickets for 74 runs in the England second innings and made 62 not out to help the Australians win the match by 4 wickets . After this success with the bat , Trumble — in his new role as captain — promoted himself to open the batting alongside Victor Trumper . He made only 6 runs , handing the opening batsman role to Reggie Duff for the second innings . Australia won the Test by 7 wickets with Trumble not required to bat a second time . In the Fifth Test , again in Melbourne , Trumble took 5 wickets for 62 runs to help restrict England to a lead of 45 runs after the first innings . In the second innings Trumble took another 3 wickets and , combined with Noble 's 6 wickets , helped Australia win by 32 runs . Trumble and Noble were the most successful Australian bowlers during the series . Together they took 60 wickets in the Tests : Noble 32 at an average of 19 @.@ 00 and Trumble 28 at an average of 20 @.@ 03 .
Trumble 's last cricketing tour of England was in 1902 , with Darling returning to captain the Australian team . Early in the tour , Trumble broke his thumb at practice , causing him to miss the first month of the English season . Despite this , when he returned for the final three Tests he took 26 wickets . In the Fourth Test at Old Trafford , Trumble took 10 wickets . This included 6 wickets in the second innings when he combined with Jack Saunders to bowl England out for 120 ; securing an Australian victory by 3 runs . Trumble , recalling his final over of the match , said " With the ball greasy [ wet ] and my boots unable to get a proper foothold on slippery turf , it was the most trying over I ever bowled . " In the Fifth Test at The Oval , Trumble made 64 runs in the first innings and followed this with 8 wickets for 65 runs in the English first innings . He took another 4 wickets in the English second innings , but this was not sufficient to prevent an English victory by one wicket . Darling bowled Trumble unchanged from the Pavilion end throughout both innings of the match . Wisden praised Trumble 's bowling saying " Trumble , paying us his fifth visit , bowled perhaps better than ever " , but remarked that " it must be said that the wet weather and soft wickets were all in his favour "
After playing in one Test match against the South African team on a stopover when returning from England to Australia , Trumble retired from Test cricket , aged 35 . When Australia lost to the English tourists in the First Test in Sydney in 1903 – 04 , Trumble was persuaded to return for the Second Test under the captaincy of Noble . He was immediately successful taking 4 wickets for 107 runs in the first innings and 5 for 34 in the second , but was unable to prevent England from winning the Test by 185 runs Selected for the remaining four Tests , his 24 wickets in four Tests made Trumble the most successful Australian bowler in the series . The writer Roland Perry described Trumble 's final Test match as " the most dramatic and memorable farewell performance ever by a bowler " . In front of his home town supporters in Melbourne , he took 7 wickets for 28 runs , including a hat @-@ trick , to bowl Australia to victory ; Wisden describing his bowling in the second innings as " practically unplayable " . The hat @-@ trick , his second in Test cricket , consisted of the dismissals of Bernard Bosanquet , Plum Warner and Dick Lilley on 7 March . He went on to take the wicket of Ted Arnold , ending the match and his career in international cricket .
= = Style and personality = =
Always the same , whether on the winning or the losing side , Hugh Trumble is ... one of the most popular of Australian cricketers .
Trumble was tall and thin , 6 feet 4 inches ( 193 cm ) in height . His long face featured prominent ears and a large nose , while his long arms and uncommonly long and strong fingers assisted his bowling . The cricket writer Ray Robinson said of Trumble : " El Greco , with his lengthening touch would have liked to draw Trumble . Hugh 's lantern shaped head set on a column of a neck would have given the Spaniard a halfway start . " English cricketer and author Plum Warner called him " That great camel , Hughie Trumble . "
When bowling , Trumble made the most of his height , bringing the ball over the full extent of his right arm . His action was described by his team @-@ mate and bowling partner , Monty Noble , as " sidelong and insinuating , with his neck craned like a gigantic bird " . He bowled off spinners with an impeccable length at medium pace and was able to swing the new ball . He had a well @-@ disguised slower ball , hoodwinking batsmen such as Stanley Jackson , who said , " You old devil . You get me caught @-@ and @-@ bowled whenever you like but I 'll pick that slow one sooner or later . " He preferred English pitches , saying he hardly saw one on which he could not get some turn and the temperate weather allowed him to bowl all day . In Australia , Trumble had to work harder for his wickets on firmer pitches , relying on his change of pace and consistent accuracy ; he claimed he could land the ball on a saucer 17 metres ( 19 yd ) away five times out of six . Johnnie Moyes named him as an " immortal of the art " who succeeded by " attacking the batsman 's strength " . W. G. Grace called him " the best bowler Australia has sent us " . While Trumble was able to score 1 @,@ 183 runs during the 1899 tour of England , the demands of bowling did not allow him to consistently score heavily . His long , prehensile fingers helped him make a reputation as a fine slips fieldsman and he was the first to take 20 catches in an Australian season . English cricketer Johnny Douglas said , " Trumble should not be allowed on the cricket field — his natural place would be up trees in the bush . " He practised slip fielding by catching a tennis ball thrown against a brick wall ; he believed this practise trained him not to " snatch " at the ball but allow it to fall into his safe hands .
Trumble was known for his cleverness on the field . C. B. Fry said of him , " He is the most long @-@ headed , observant and acute judge of the game , a perfect master of the whole art of placing fieldsmen and changing bowlers . " On one occasion when captaining his state side , Victoria , he deliberately bowled two wides that his fieldsmen allowed to roll to the boundary to score four runs for his opponents . This was done to save his tired bowlers from having to bowl again immediately , as his opponents would have been required to follow @-@ on ( bat twice in a row ) , at the time compulsory . When questioned by an onlooker about the dubious sportsmanship of the action , he replied , " I had to do it , old chap , but I wonder what my father will think of it ? " Trumble was respected by his teammates and opponents ; New Zealand cricketer , Dan Reese , who played against and alongside Trumble said , " His subtle humour , his fund of cricket stories , his kindness , and , above all , his judgment , made him a man of exceptional character . "
He was popular with team @-@ mates and opponents alike , with a weakness for practical jokes . On board a ship travelling to England , Trumble offered to coach unsuspecting fellow travellers in various deck sports such as quoits . Accepting Trumble 's advice , they were made to contort themselves into a number of ludicrous positions to the amusement of his team @-@ mates and other onlookers in the know . To prolong the joke , in his own games Trumble would adopt the same peculiar stance and method he advocated .
= = Legacy and statistical analysis = =
" The first of the great off spinners of the Test @-@ match age " , in 32 Tests , Trumble took 141 wickets at an average of just over 20 runs per wicket . He took 5 wickets in an innings on nine occasions and 10 wickets in a match three times . On retirement , he had taken more wickets in Test cricket than any other player ; a record he held for nearly 10 years until surpassed by Sydney Barnes . It wasn 't until Dennis Lillee 75 years later that anyone was able to better Trumble 's 141 wickets against England . While mainly a bowler , Trumble batted well enough to make 851 runs in Test cricket at an average of 19 @.@ 79 with a highest score of 70 . Trumble was also prolific at first @-@ class level . He took 929 wickets , including 5 wickets in an innings on 69 occasions , and as a batsman , he made 5 @,@ 395 runs with three centuries and a highest score of 107 . For Melbourne Cricket Club , he took just under 400 wickets and scored more than 3 @,@ 000 runs ; winning the club best bowling average on six occasions and the best batting average once .
Trumble was particularly effective in England . After taking 52 wickets on his first tour of England in 1890 , his other four visits to England — in 1893 , 1896 , 1899 and 1902 — saw him take over 100 wickets in first @-@ class matches . In 1899 , he scored 1 @,@ 183 runs making him one of only four Australians , with George Giffen , Warwick Armstrong ( both three times ) and Jack Gregory , to take over 100 wickets and make over 1 @,@ 000 runs on a tour of England .
The ICC player rankings have been applied retrospectively to cricket history and Trumble achieved the top ranking as a bowler . By June 1896 , he was ranked fifth in the world and never again slipped lower ; from 1899 until his retirement he was the first or second best bowler in the world according to the ratings . As a batsman , Trumble 's ranking peaked at twelfth in the world after the Third Test in Adelaide in 1901 – 02 .
Trumble was the first player to take two hat @-@ tricks in Test cricket . Both hat @-@ tricks were taken against England at the Melbourne Cricket Ground , where Trumble played his club cricket . Hat @-@ tricks are extremely rare ; in over 131 years of Test cricket to March 2008 , there had only been 37 Test hat @-@ tricks and only Jimmy Matthews and Wasim Akram been able to repeat Trumble 's feat of taking a second .
= = Off the playing field = =
Trumble joined the National Bank of Australasia in 1887 to begin a career in banking . While the bank often allowed him time to practice , his frequent absences with cricket meant his career progression was slow ; after each of his five tours of England he returned to find junior bank officers promoted over him . Nevertheless , he was appointed accountant at the Richmond branch in 1903 and after his retirement from cricket in 1908 , manager of the Kew branch .
A loyal clubman , Trumble served on the committee of the Melbourne Cricket Club ( MCC ) from 1900 – 01 to 1910 – 11 and was made a life member in 1904 . In 1911 he resigned from the bank to become MCC club secretary ; a position he held for 27 years until his death . In this role , he played a leading part in reconciling the club and the Victorian Cricket Association after a period of some friction between the two bodies . He was instrumental in attracting quality cricketers to the club including Bert Ironmonger , whom Trumble saw play on a visit to Queensland . During his term as secretary , the Melbourne Cricket Ground was expanded to a capacity of over 70 @,@ 000 spectators .
Trumble was a prominent writer about and elder statesman of the game and was conspicuous in his support for journalists calling at any hour . From time to time , Trumble acted as a selector of the Victorian cricket team . In 2001 , Trumble was selected in the Melbourne Cricket Club Team of the Century , and in 2004 he was inducted into the Australian Cricket Hall of Fame for his contribution to the sport in Australia .
In 1899 , aged 31 , Trumble met and fell in love with Florence Christian , aged 19 from Queensland . The couple were married in 1902 , with the wedding timed to allow a honeymoon trip accompanying the Australian cricket tour of England . An injury to his thumb freed Trumble from cricket commitments for a while , to his new wife 's delight . Together , the couple had eight children ; six sons and two daughters . One son , Robert , a renowned musician and writer , dedicated his first book , The Golden Age of Cricket , to his father . Trumble died aged 71 , from a heart attack in his home in the Melbourne eastern suburb of Hawthorn .
|
= Unfaithful ( song ) =
" Unfaithful " is a song by Barbadian singer Rihanna from her second studio album A Girl like Me ( 2006 ) . It was written by Shaffer " Ne @-@ Yo " Smith with the song 's producers StarGate . The song was released by Def Jam Recordings on May 2 , 2006 , as the second single from the album . " Unfaithful " is a pop and R & B ballad and was inspired by the works of American rock band Evanescence . Originally titled " Murderer " , the single speaks about a woman who regrets cheating on her partner .
" Unfaithful " received mixed to positive reviews from critics ; many praised its powerful balladry , but some criticized the lyrics . The song reached the top ten on the singles charts in 19 countries , including the UK Singles Chart , on which it became Rihanna 's third top @-@ ten single . " Unfaithful " peaked at number six on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of over one million copies .
The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Anthony Mandler , and premiered in May 2006 . It features Rihanna in a love triangle in which she struggles to choose between her romantic interest and her lover , and regrets having cheated on the former . Since its release , " Unfaithful " has become a staple of Rihanna 's live performances . In 2006 , she performed it on award ceremonies such as the MOBO Awards and the World Music Awards . The song was on the set list of three of her major tours , Good Girl Gone Bad ( 2007 – 09 ) , the Last Girl on Earth Tour ( 2010 – 11 ) and the Loud Tour ( 2011 ) .
= = Development and release = =
After moving to the US , Rihanna signed a contract with Def Jam Recordings , and released her debut album Music of the Sun ( 2005 ) . The album was inspired by caribbean music , including soca , dancehall , and reggae , and incorporates dance @-@ pop and R & B. In an interview for MTV , Rihanna said that when she had arrived in the US , she had been exposed to different types of music that she had never heard before , including rock music , which she incorporated into her second studio album , A Girl like Me ( 2006 ) .
While recording her debut studio album in 2005 , Rihanna met Ne @-@ Yo for the first time , but they could not collaborate on the album . She wanted to work with him since she heard " Let Me Love You " ( 2004 ) by Mario , which Ne @-@ Yo wrote . When the production for A Girl like Me started , she considered working with him . She said , " So for the second album , I was like , ' You know what ? I have to work with that guy Ne @-@ Yo . ' So we went into the studio and we started working on this song . " Ne @-@ Yo and Norwegian production duo Mikkel S. Eriksen and Tor Erik Hermansen collectively known as StarGate wrote " Unfaithful " , which Rihanna said was " new ground for [ her ] " because it was a ballad . It was produced by StarGate while Debbie Mounsey served as a production assistant . " Unfaithful " was recorded by Eriksen , Al Hemberger , Malcolm Pollack and Tiger Stylz at Battery and Avatar Studios in New York City , Loft Recording Studios in Bronxville and Digital Insight Recording Studios in Las Vegas . It was mixed by Phil Tan and Makeba Riddick provided the vocal production .
" Unfaithful " was released as the second single from A Girl like Me , after the number @-@ one single " SOS " . The song was released to digital outlets in Canada on June 20 , 2006 . A radio edit of the song was release . It is under the same time length of the album and instrumental versions . For the plays on radio stations , the radio edit has the word " gun " omitted . It was also sent to urban contemporary radio stations in the United States on June 29 , 2006 . Seven digital remixes of " Unfaithful " were released on July 17 , 2006 , via iTunes in several countries including France , Germany , Italy , Spain and the US . A CD single of the song , comprising its album and instrumental version , a Tony Moran 's radio mix , and its music video , was released in the United Kingdom on July 25 , 2006 and in August of that year in Germany and France .
= = Composition = =
" Unfaithful " is a pop and R & B ballad that runs for three minutes and forty @-@ six seconds . Originally , it was a dark and moody track inspired by the work of the American rock band Evanescence , with the initial title of " Murderer " . Hermansen and Eriksen collaborated on the melody of " Unfaithful " . In the beginning , the song 's structure was built around piano as the only instrument ; the percussion and strings was added later . The strings on the track were arranged by Robert Mouncey .
Elaborating about the song 's development in an interview for Sound on Sound Eriksen said , " I find that how natural it sounds is not so much about how realistic the string sound is , but more about your choice of notes and how you play and program the strings . " According to the sheet music published by Universal Music Publishing Group at Musicnotes.com , it was composed in the key of C minor using in common time and a slow feeling groove of 72 beats per minute . Rihanna 's vocal range spans from the low note of F # 3 to the high note of C # 5 .
According to Brandee J. Tecson of MTV News , " Unfaithful " is a " bittersweet ballad " that shows a new side to Rihanna . In an interview for the same publication Rihanna said about the lyrics , " I 'm referred to as a murderer in that song . Meaning , I 'm taking this guy 's life by hurting him , cheating on him . He knows , and it makes him feel so bad . " She continued , " We always put it out there that guys cheat , and finally someone put it in perspective : girls cheat too . " In another interview for Newsday , she said that " Unfaithful " was " birthed out of a relationship she outgrew when she was fourteen " . She added that the nature of the relationship was not physical .
= = Reception and accolades = =
" Unfaithful " received mixed to positive reviews from most music critics . Kelefa Sanneh from The New York Times described " Unfaithful " as " a profoundly ludicrous – but not disagreeable – pop lament " . Quentin B. Huff from PopMatters commented that , " ' Unfaithful ' is a well @-@ intentioned ballad informed by dramatic piano and strings " . Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani stated , " The melodramatic , string @-@ laden ballad ' Unfaithful ' is , if nothing else , an ambitious second single for an artist like Rihanna , and with lyrics like ' I don 't want to be a murderer / Our love , his trust / I might as well take a gun and put it to his head , ' it earns bonus points just for being so fucking weird " .
Steve Jones of USA Today wrote that while the other ballads on the album were not as strong , " ' Unfaithful ' , in which [ Rihanna ] deals with the consequences of her own cheating heart , shows depth " . Celia San Miguel from Vibe magazine praised " Unfaithful " , stating that it gives Rihanna a " new found charisma , solid vocal range and her ability to channel deep @-@ rooted emotions with ease " . Dan Charnas from The Washington Post described the single as " an honest account of dishonesty " . A reviewer from Billboard magazine likened " Unfaithful " to Beyoncé 's work and concluded that the song reveals Rihanna as a " young vocalist growing into her own " . In an interview about Ne @-@ Yo 's work , Idolator 's Maura called both " Unfaithful " and Knowles ' " Irreplaceable " " ear @-@ candy triumphs " . Quentin B. Huff of PopMatters criticized the song 's lyrics and described them as well @-@ intentioned but " overboard with melodrama " and " devoid of remorse " .
" Unfaithful " was listed at number eight on Billboard magazine 's list of Songs of the Summer of 2006 . In 2011 , the same publication also ranked the song at number 15 on its list of Rihanna 's 20 Biggest Billboard Hits . American magazine Rap @-@ Up listed " Unfaithful " at number nine on its list of the Top 10 Singles of 2006 . " Unfaithful " won the awards for Song of the Year and Best Soul / R & B Single at the 2007 Barbados Music Awards . It also won the accolade for Best International Song at the 2007 NRJ Music Awards .
= = Chart performance = =
" Unfaithful " debuted at number 51 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart on May 13 , 2006 . The same week , Rihanna 's previous single " SOS " reached number one . " Unfaithful " peaked at number 6 on July 22 , 2006 , after 10 weeks on the chart , and became Rihanna 's third top ten single in the US . On July 29 , 2006 , " Unfaithful " also topped the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart , becoming her third number one there . The song was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on July 27 , 2006 , after more than one million downloads were shipped . " Unfaithful " was more successful in Canada where it reached number one on the Canadian Singles Chart . In Australia , the song entered the chart at number two , where it peaked , on July 30 , 2006 . It was later certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of 35 @,@ 000 copies . The same week , " Unfaithful " entered the New Zealand singles chart at number five . The next week , it peaked at number four where it stayed for three consecutive weeks .
In Europe , " Unfaithful " reached the top ten in 14 countries . The song was most successful in Hungary and Switzerland where it reached number one on both nation 's singles charts , and became Rihanna 's first single to reach number one on both charts . " Unfaithful " was certified gold by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) – Switzerland for shipping over 15 @,@ 000 paid downloads in the country . In Norway , the song entered the national singles chart at number 18 and after six weeks it peaked at number two , where it stayed for two weeks . " Unfaithful " entered the Austrian singles chart at number eight on August 18 , 2006 , peaked at number two and stayed on the chart for 27 weeks . The single reached number two in Germany and the Republic of Ireland , number three in Denmark , Belgium ( Flanders ) and the Czech Republic , number five in Slovakia , number six in Sweden , number seven in France and number nine in Netherlands . On the UK Singles Chart , the song debuted at number 16 on July 22 , 2006 , and the next week , it peaked at number two . " Unfaithful " re @-@ entered the chart in both 2010 and 2011 , when it reached numbers 31 and 50 respectively . More than 315 @,@ 000 copies of the song have been sold in the UK .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " Unfaithful " was directed by Anthony Mandler . After their work on " Unfaithful " , Mandler became Rihanna 's regular collaborator , and worked on most of Rihanna 's videos , including " Disturbia " ( 2008 ) and " Russian Roulette " ( 2009 ) . The video premiered May 1 , 2006 on MTV , and was later released on iTunes for digital download .
As the video begins , Rihanna is walking towards a dressing room mirror while preparing for a show . This is intercut with scenes of Rihanna with her boyfriend in a restaurant . While they talk to each other , Rihanna 's boyfriend leaves the table and is absent for some time , during which Rihanna watches the other tables . One diner writes a note and gives it to a waiter , who passes it to Rihanna , who reads and quickly hides the note as her boyfriend returns to the table . Rihanna starts to sing the song 's lyrics while she leaves the dressing room and approaches the stage , where she continues singing while a man plays a piano on the stage . The arena is empty and it appears as though Rihanna is rehearsing .
Other scenes show Rihanna dancing around the piano while the pianist is still playing . While her boyfriend is sleeping , Rihanna sends a text message to her lover , " B down in 5 " . She walks down the street and gets into a car with her lover , who is the note @-@ writing diner from the restaurant and the man who plays the piano at the rehearsal . As the song continues , Rihanna is shown regretfully embracing her lover near the piano . When the rehearsal finishes , she leaves the arena , where her boyfriend is waiting for her with his car . Rihanna hugs him and tears fall from her eyes . A reviewer from MTV Australia wrote about the video 's theme and appearance , " Cheaters always get busted . And this time around , Rihanna sings about being the one doing the two @-@ timing . Secret notes , sneaking around , hearts broken ... Oh , the drama . And she looks gooooood . "
= = Live performances = =
Since its release , " Unfaithful " has been a staple of Rihanna 's performances . On July 27 , 2006 , she performed the song on the former MTV series , Total Request Live . Rihanna opened the 2006 MOBO Awards on September 20 , 2006 at the Royal Albert Hall in London with a performance of " Unfaithful " . On November 15 , 2006 , Rihanna performed the song at the 2006 World Music Awards , which also took place in London .
" Unfaithful " was the twelfth song on the set list of Rihanna 's Good Girl Gone Bad Tour ( 2007 – 09 ) , her first major world tour . Her performance in Manchester was released in the UK through iTunes and is featured on the Good Girl Gone Bad Live DVD . Rihanna was opening act on some dates on Kanye West 's Glow in the Dark Tour ( 2008 – 09 ) . Her set list featured " Unfaithful " and other songs from her 2007 release Good Girl Gone Bad including " Don 't Stop the Music " , " Shut Up and Drive " and " Umbrella " . Following the release of her fourth studio album , Rated R ( 2009 ) , in the UK , Rihanna performed a Nokia promotional concert at the Brixton Academy in London . She performed songs from the new release including " Russian Roulette " , " Wait Your Turn " and " Hard " , the latter of which Rihanna performed with Young Jeezy . Rihanna performed " Unfaithful " , and songs from her older releases , including " Disturbia " , " Don 't Stop the Music " and " Take a Bow " , during this set .
In 2010 , to further promote Rated R , Rihanna embarked upon her second worldwide tour , Last Girl on Earth Tour ( 2010 – 11 ) . " Unfaithful " , which she performed while standing on a stage set with red baroque style curtains in the background , was the thirteenth song on the set list . On December 11 , 2010 , Rihanna was invited to appear on series seven of the UK version of The X Factor to perform her new single " What 's My Name ? . She also performed " Unfaithful " with finalist Matt Cardle , who later won the series . In June 2011 , Rihanna embarked upon the Loud Tour , her third major worldwide tour . " Unfaithful " was the fourteenth song on the tour 's set list . Rihanna performed the song on a levitating stage while wearing a long yellow dress and with a fan blowing her skirt up , which Jon Bream of Minneapolis ' Star Tribune said looked " like Celine Dion delivering ' My Heart Will Go On ' on the deck of the Titanic " . The Daily Record 's Jules Boyle concluded that " tracks like ' Unfaithful ' and ' Hate That I Love You ' were suitably epic and backed with a full rock band . "
= = Cover versions = =
Indian music director Vijay Antony composed a Tamil language cover of " Unfaithful " , titled " Unakkena Naan " for the film Kadhalil Vizhunthen ( 2008 ) .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Battery Studios , New York City ; Loft Recording Studios , Bronxville , New York ; Avatar Studios , New York ; Digital Insight Recording Studios , Las Vegas , Nevada .
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of A Girl Like Me , Def Jam Recordings , SRP Records .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Radio and release history = =
|
= OpenBSD =
OpenBSD is a Unix @-@ like computer operating system descended from Berkeley Software Distribution ( BSD ) , a Research Unix derivative developed at the University of California , Berkeley . In late 1995 , Theo de Raadt forked it from NetBSD . Besides the operating system as a whole , the project maintains portable versions of many subsystems , most notably OpenSSH , which are available as packages in other operating systems .
The project is known for its developers ' insistence on open @-@ source code , good documentation , code correctness , and security . It has strict policies on licensing , preferring the ISC license and other variants of the Simplified BSD License . Many of its security features are optional or absent in other operating systems . Its developers frequently audit the source tree for software bugs and security holes .
De Raadt coordinates the project from his home in Calgary , Alberta , Canada . Its logo and mascot is a pufferfish named Puffy .
= = History and popularity = =
In December 1994 , NetBSD co @-@ founder Theo de Raadt was asked to resign from his position as a senior developer and member of the NetBSD core team . The reason for this is not wholly clear , although there are claims that it was due to personality clashes within the NetBSD project and on its mailing lists .
In October 1995 , de Raadt founded OpenBSD , a new project forked from NetBSD 1 @.@ 0 . The initial release , OpenBSD 1 @.@ 2 , was made in July 1996 , followed by OpenBSD 2 @.@ 0 in October of the same year . Since then , the project has followed a schedule of a release every six months , each of which is supported for one year .
On 25 July 2007 , OpenBSD developer Bob Beck announced the formation of the OpenBSD Foundation , a Canadian non @-@ profit organization formed to " act as a single point of contact for persons and organizations requiring a legal entity to deal with when they wish to support OpenBSD . "
Just how widely OpenBSD is used is hard to determine as its developers do not publish or collect usage statistics . In September 2005 , the BSD Certification Group performed a usage survey which revealed that 32 @.@ 8 % of BSD users ( 1420 of 4330 respondents ) were using OpenBSD , placing it second out of the four major BSD variants , behind FreeBSD with 77 % and ahead of NetBSD with 16 @.@ 3 % .
= = Uses = =
= = = Security = = =
OpenBSD 's security enhancements , built @-@ in cryptography , and the pf packet filter suit it for use in the security industry , such as on firewalls , intrusion @-@ detection systems , and VPN gateways .
Proprietary systems from several manufacturers are based on OpenBSD , including devices from Armorlogic ( Profense web application firewall ) , Calyptix Security , GeNUA , RTMX , and .vantronix. Later versions of Microsoft 's Services for UNIX , an extension to the Windows operating system providing Unix @-@ like functionality , use large amounts of OpenBSD code .
= = = Desktop = = =
OpenBSD ships with the X Window System and is suitable for use on the desktop . Packages are available for popular applications , including desktop environments such as GNOME , KDE , and Xfce , and web browsers such as Firefox and Chromium . The project also includes three window managers in the main distribution : cwm , FVWM , and twm .
= = = Server = = =
OpenBSD features a full server suite and can be easily configured as a mail server , web server , FTP server , DNS server , router , firewall , NFS file server , or any combination of these .
= = Component projects = =
Despite the small team size and relatively low usage of OpenBSD , the project maintains portable versions of many parts of the base system , including :
LibreSSL , a free implementation of the Secure Sockets Layer ( SSL ) and Transport Layer Security ( TLS ) protocols , forked from the OpenSSL 1.0.1g branch
OpenBGPD , a free implementation of the Border Gateway Protocol 4 ( BGP @-@ 4 )
OpenOSPFD , a free implementation of the Open Shortest Path First ( OSPF ) routing protocol
OpenNTPD , a simple alternative to ntp.org 's Network Time Protocol ( NTP ) daemon
OpenSMTPD , a free Simple Mail Transfer Protocol ( SMTP ) daemon with IPv4 / IPv6 , PAM , Maildir and virtual domains support
httpd , an HTTP server first included in the 5 @.@ 6 release
OpenSSH , a free implementation of the Secure Shell ( SSH ) protocol
OpenIKED , a free implementation of the Internet Key Exchange ( IKEv2 ) protocol
Common Address Redundancy Protocol ( CARP ) , a free alternative to Cisco 's patented HSRP / VRRP server redundancy protocols
PF , an IPv4 / IPv6 stateful firewall with NAT , PAT , QoS and traffic normalization support
pfsync , a firewall states synchronization protocol for PF firewall with High Availability support using CARP
spamd , a spam filter with greylisting support designed to inter @-@ operate with the PF firewall
sndio , a compact audio and MIDI framework
Xenocara , a customized X.Org build infrastructure
cwm , a stacking window manager
tmux virtual console multiplexer
Some subsystems have been integrated into the base system of several other BSD projects , while many are available as packages for use in other Unix @-@ like systems .
= = Third @-@ party components in the base system = =
OpenBSD includes a number of third @-@ party software components , many with OpenBSD @-@ specific patches .
These include X.org ( the X Window environment ) , GCC ( which acts as the default compiler ) , Perl , SQLite , NSD , Unbound ( DNS server ) , Ncurses , Binutils , gdb and Awk .
OpenBSD used to include a fork of Apache 1 @.@ 3 , which was later replaced by Nginx . In the 5 @.@ 6 release , Nginx was replaced with httpd , an HTTP server with FastCGI and Transport Layer Security support . As of May 2016 , Apache and Nginx are still available as ports .
= = Development and release process = =
Development is continuous , and team management is open and tiered . Anyone with appropriate skills may contribute , with commit rights being awarded on merit and de Raadt acting as coordinator . : xxxv Two official releases are made per year , with the version number incremented by 0 @.@ 1 , and these are each supported for twelve months ( two release cycles ) . Snapshot releases are also available at frequent intervals .
Maintenance patches for supported releases may be applied manually or by updating the system against the patch branch of the CVS repository for that release . Alternatively , a system administrator may opt to upgrade using a snapshot release and then regularly update the system against the -current branch of the CVS repository , in order to gain pre @-@ release access to recently added features .
The standard OpenBSD kernel , as maintained by the project , is strongly recommended for end users . Customized kernels are not supported by the project : " Users attempting to ' customize ' or ' optimize ' their kernel usually cause far more problems than they solve . "
Packages outside the base system are maintained by CVS through a ports tree and are the responsibility of the individual maintainers , known as porters . As well as keeping the current branch up to date , porters are expected to apply appropriate bug @-@ fixes and maintenance fixes to branches of their package for OpenBSD 's supported releases . Ports are generally not subject to the same continuous auditing as the base system due to lack of manpower .
Binary packages are built centrally from the ports tree for each architecture . This process is applied for the current version , for each supported release , and for each snapshot . Administrators are recommended to use the package mechanism rather than build the package from the ports tree , unless they need to perform their own source changes .
OpenBSD 's developers regularly meet at special events called hackathons , where they " sit down and code " , emphasizing productivity .
Every new release includes a song .
The OpenBSD Foundation was accepted as a mentoring organization for the 2014 Google Summer of Code .
= = Open @-@ source and open documentation = =
The OpenBSD Project is noted for its high @-@ quality user documentation , considered top among the BSD family operating systems , all of which have excellent documentation . When OpenBSD was created , de Raadt decided that the source should be easily available for anyone to read at any time , so , with the assistance of Chuck Cranor , he set up the first public , anonymous CVS server . At the time , the tradition was for only a small team of developers to have access to a project 's source repository . Cranor and de Raadt concluded that this practice " runs counter to the open source philosophy " and is inconvenient to contributors . De Raadt 's decision allowed " users to take a more active role " , and signaled the project 's belief in open and public access to source code .
OpenBSD does not include closed source binary drivers in the source tree , nor do they include code requiring the signing of non @-@ disclosure agreements .
Since OpenBSD is based in Canada , no United States export restrictions on cryptography apply , allowing the distribution to make full use of modern algorithms for encryption . For example , the swap space is divided into small sections and each section is encrypted with its own key , ensuring that sensitive data does not leak into an insecure part of the system .
OpenBSD randomizes various behaviors of applications , making them less predictable and thus more difficult to attack . For example , PIDs are created and associated randomly to processes ; the bind system call uses random port numbers ; files are created with random inode numbers ; and IP datagrams have random identifiers . This approach also helps expose bugs in the kernel and in user space programs .
The OpenBSD policy on openness extends to hardware documentation : in the slides for a December 2006 presentation , de Raadt explained that without it " developers often make mistakes writing drivers " , and pointed out that " the [ oh my god , I got it to work ] rush is harder to achieve , and some developers just give up . " He went on to say that vendor @-@ supplied binary drivers are unacceptable for inclusion in OpenBSD , that they have " no trust of vendor binaries running in our kernel " and that there is " no way to fix [ them ] ... when they break . "
= = Licensing = =
A goal of the OpenBSD Project is to " maintain the spirit of the original Berkeley Unix copyrights " , which permitted a " relatively un @-@ encumbered Unix source distribution . " To this end , the Internet Systems Consortium ( ISC ) license is preferred for new code , but the MIT and BSD licenses are also accepted . The widely used GNU General Public License is considered overly restrictive compared to these .
In June 2001 , triggered by concerns over Darren Reed 's modification of IPFilter 's license wording , a systematic license audit of the OpenBSD ports and source trees was undertaken . Code in more than a hundred files throughout the system was found to be unlicensed , ambiguously licensed or in use against the terms of the license . To ensure that all licenses were properly adhered to , an attempt was made to contact all the relevant copyright holders : some pieces of code were removed , many were replaced , and others , such as the multicast routing tools mrinfo and map @-@ mbone , were relicensed so that OpenBSD could continue to use them . Also removed during this audit was all software produced by Daniel J. Bernstein . At the time , Bernstein requested that all modified versions of his code be approved by him prior to redistribution , a requirement to which OpenBSD developers were unwilling to devote time or effort .
Because of licensing concerns , the OpenBSD team has re @-@ implemented software from scratch or adopted suitable existing software . Of particular note is the development , after license restrictions were imposed on IPFilter , of the pf packet filter , which first appeared in OpenBSD 3 @.@ 0 and is now available in other major BSDs . OpenBSD developers have also replaced GPL licensed tools ( such as diff , grep and pkg @-@ config ) with BSD licensed equivalents .
= = Funding = =
Although the operating system and its portable components are used in commercial products , de Raadt says that little of the funding for the project comes from the industry : " traditionally all our funding has come from user donations and users buying our CDs ( our other products don 't really make us much money ) . Obviously , that has not been a lot of money . "
For a two @-@ year period in the early 2000s , the project received DARPA funding , which " paid the salaries of 5 people to work completely full @-@ time , bought about $ 30k in hardware , and paid for 3 hackathons . "
In 2006 , de Raadt expressed concern about the asymmetry of funding : " I think that contributions should have come first from the vendors , secondly from the corporate users , and thirdly from individual users . But the response has been almost entirely the opposite , with almost a 15 to 1 dollar ratio in favor of the little people . Thanks a lot , little people ! " However , since 2014 several large contributions to the OpenBSD Foundation have come from corporations such as Microsoft , Facebook , and Google as well as the Core Infrastructure Initiative .
In 2006 , the OpenBSD Project experienced financial danger . The Mozilla Foundation and GoDaddy are among the organizations that helped the OpenBSD Project to overcome its financial troubles .
On 14 January 2014 , Bob Beck issued a request for funding to cover electrical costs . If sustainable funding was not found , Beck suggested the OpenBSD Project would shut down . The project soon received a US $ 20 @,@ 000 donation from Mircea Popescu , the Romanian creator of the MPEx bitcoin stock exchange , paid in bitcoins . The project raised US $ 150 @,@ 000 in response to the appeal , enabling it to pay its bills and securing its short @-@ term future .
= = Security and code auditing = =
Shortly after OpenBSD 's creation , de Raadt was contacted by a local security software company named Secure Networks ( SNI ) . They were developing a " network security auditing tool " called Ballista , which was intended to find and attempt to exploit possible software security flaws . This coincided with de Raadt 's own interest in security , so for a time the two cooperated , a relationship that was of particular usefulness leading up to the release of OpenBSD 2 @.@ 3 and helped to define security as the focal point of the project .
OpenBSD includes features designed to improve security , such as :
secure alternatives to POSIX functions in the C standard library , e.g. , strlcat and strlcpy
toolchain alterations , including a static bounds checker
memory protection techniques to guard against invalid accesses , such as ProPolice and the W ^ X page protection feature
strong cryptography and randomization
To reduce the risk of a vulnerability or misconfiguration allowing privilege escalation , many programs have been written or adapted to make use of privilege separation , privilege revocation and chrooting . Privilege separation is a technique , pioneered on OpenBSD and inspired by the principle of least privilege , where a program is split into two or more parts , one of which performs privileged operations and the other — almost always the bulk of the code — runs without privilege . Privilege revocation is similar and involves a program performing any necessary operations with the privileges it starts with then dropping them . Chrooting involves restricting an application to one section of the file system , prohibiting it from accessing areas that contain private or system files . Developers have applied these features to OpenBSD versions of many common applications , such as tcpdump , file , tmux , smtpd , and syslogd .
OpenBSD developers were instrumental in the creation and development of OpenSSH , which is developed in the OpenBSD CVS repositories . OpenSSH is based on the original SSH . It first appeared in OpenBSD 2 @.@ 6 and is now by far the most popular SSH client and server , available on many operating systems .
The project has a policy of continually auditing source code for problems , work that developer Marc Espie has described as " never finished ... more a question of process than of a specific bug being hunted . " He went on to list several typical steps once a bug is found , including examining the entire source tree for the same and similar issues , " try [ ing ] to find out whether the documentation ought to be amended " , and investigating whether " it 's possible to augment the compiler to warn against this specific problem . "
The default install is quite minimal , which the project states is to ensure novice users " do not need to become security experts overnight " , which fits with open @-@ source and code auditing practices argued to be important elements of a security system .
= = = Alleged FBI backdoor investigated = = =
On 11 December 2010 , Gregory Perry , a former technical consultant for the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) , emailed de Raadt alleging that the FBI had paid some OpenBSD ex @-@ developers 10 years previously to insert backdoors into the OpenBSD Cryptographic Framework . De Raadt made the email public on 14 December by forwarding it to the openbsd @-@ tech mailing list and suggested an audit of the IPsec codebase . De Raadt 's response was skeptical of the report and he invited all developers to independently review the relevant code . In the weeks that followed , bugs were fixed but no evidence of backdoors were found . De Raadt stated " I believe that NetSec was probably contracted to write backdoors as alleged . If those were written , I don 't believe they made it into our tree . They might have been deployed as their own product . "
= = = Slogan = = =
The OpenBSD website features a prominent reference to the security record of the default installation . Until June 2002 , the wording read " Five years without a remote hole in the default install ! " An OpenSSH bug was then discovered that made it possible for a remote attacker to gain root privileges in OpenBSD and in any of the other systems running OpenSSH at the time . It was quickly fixed , as is normal with known security holes . The slogan was changed to " One remote hole in the default install , in nearly 6 years ! " In 2007 , a network @-@ related remote vulnerability was found , which was also quickly fixed . The quote was subsequently altered to " Only two remote holes in the default install , in a heck of a long time ! " As of July 2016 , the wording remains .
= = Distribution and marketing = =
The name OpenBSD refers to the fact that OpenBSD 's source code is freely available on the Internet . It also refers to the wide range of hardware platforms the operating system supports .
OpenBSD is freely available in various ways : the source can be retrieved by anonymous CVS , and binary releases and development snapshots can be downloaded by FTP , HTTP , and rsync . Prepackaged CD @-@ ROM sets can be ordered online for a small fee , complete with an assortment of stickers and a copy of the release 's theme song . These , with their artwork and other bonuses , are one of the project 's few sources of income , funding hardware , Internet service , and other expenses .
In common with other operating systems , OpenBSD provides a package management system for easy installation and management of programs which are not part of the base operating system . Packages are binary files which are extracted , managed and removed using the package tools . On OpenBSD , the source of packages is the ports system , a collection of Makefiles and other infrastructure required to create packages . In OpenBSD , the ports and base operating system are developed and released together for each version : this means that the ports or packages released with , for example , 4 @.@ 6 are not suitable for use with 4 @.@ 5 and vice versa .
OpenBSD at first used the BSD daemon mascot . A specialized version of the daemon , the haloed daemon was drawn by Erick Green . Green was asked by de Raadt to create the logo for the 2 @.@ 3 and 2 @.@ 4 versions of OpenBSD . At first , it was planned to create a full daemon , including head and body , but Green was only able to complete the head part for OpenBSD 2 @.@ 3 . The body as well as pitchfork and tail was completed for OpenBSD 2 @.@ 4 . Subsequent releases saw variations , such as Cop daemon by Ty Semaka , but eventually settling on Puffy , described as a pufferfish . Since then Puffy has appeared on OpenBSD promotional material and featured in release songs and artwork . The promotional material of early OpenBSD releases did not have a cohesive theme or design , but later the CD @-@ ROMs , release songs , posters and tee @-@ shirts for each release have been produced with a single style and theme , sometimes contributed to by Ty Semaka of the Plaid Tongued Devils . These have become a part of OpenBSD advocacy , with each release expounding a moral or political point important to the project , often through parody . Past themes have included : in OpenBSD 3 @.@ 8 , the Hackers of the Lost RAID , a parody of Indiana Jones linked to the new RAID tools featured as part of the release ; The Wizard of OS , making its debut in OpenBSD 3 @.@ 7 , based on the work of Pink Floyd and a parody of The Wizard of Oz related to the project 's recent work on wireless card drivers ; and OpenBSD 3 @.@ 3 's Puff the Barbarian , including an 80s rock @-@ style song and parody of Conan the Barbarian , alluding to open documentation .
|
= David Schwimmer =
David Lawrence Schwimmer ( born November 2 , 1966 ) is an American actor , director , producer and comedian . He was born in Flushing , Queens , New York , and his family moved to Los Angeles when he was 2 . He began his acting career performing in school plays at Beverly Hills High School . In 1988 , he graduated from Northwestern University with a Bachelor of Arts in theater and speech . After graduation , Schwimmer co @-@ founded the Lookingglass Theatre Company . For much of the late 1980s , he lived in Los Angeles as a struggling , unemployed actor .
He starred in the television movie A Deadly Silence in 1989 and appeared in a number of television roles , including on L.A. Law , The Wonder Years , NYPD Blue , and Monty , in the early 1990s . Schwimmer later gained worldwide recognition for playing Ross Geller in the sitcom Friends , for which he received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series in 1995 . His first leading film role was in The Pallbearer ( 1996 ) , which was followed by roles in Kissing a Fool ( 1998 ) , Six Days Seven Nights ( 1998 ) , Apt Pupil , and Picking Up the Pieces ( 2000 ) . He was then cast in the miniseries Band of Brothers ( 2001 ) as Herbert Sobel . After the series finale of Friends in 2004 , Schwimmer was cast as the title character in the 2005 drama Duane Hopwood . Other film roles include Melman in the computer animated Madagascar films , the dark comedy Big Nothing ( 2006 ) , and the thriller Nothing But the Truth ( 2008 ) . Schwimmer made his West End stage debut in the leading role in Some Girl ( s ) in 2005 . In 2006 , he made his Broadway debut in The Caine Mutiny Court @-@ Martial . Schwimmer made his feature film directorial debut with the 2007 comedy Run Fatboy Run . The following year he made his Off @-@ Broadway directorial debut in the 2008 production , Fault Lines . In 2016 , he starred as Robert Kardashian in American Crime Story , for which he received an Emmy nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Limited Series or Movie .
= = Early life = =
Schwimmer was born in Flushing , Queens , New York City , to attorneys Arthur and Arlene Coleman @-@ Schwimmer . He has an older sister named Ellie ( born 1965 ) . His family subsequently moved to Los Angeles , where Schwimmer had his first experiences of acting at the age of 10 when he was cast as the fairy godmother in a Jewish version of Cinderella . In 1979 , Schwimmer went to a Shakespeare workshop given by English actor Ian McKellen in Los Angeles . He recalls that he was riveted by the experience . Schwimmer then entered a contest in the Southern California Shakespeare Festival three years in a row , winning two first prizes .
Following his mother 's successful career as a divorce lawyer , the family moved to Beverly Hills , where Schwimmer attended Beverly Hills High School . Schwimmer admitted to being an outsider during his time at the school , recalling , " When I was there I always felt : ' This is not me , I 'm surrounded by people with a different value system . And I just wanted to get out of California . ' " He was best at the subjects of science and math and thought he would become a doctor . Schwimmer enrolled in a drama class , where he appeared in stage productions . Encouraged by his school drama teacher to further his acting , he flew to Chicago for an acting workshop . He noted that the experience was both " enlightening and exhilarating " . In 1984 , Schwimmer graduated from Beverly Hills High and wanted to go straight into acting , but his parents insisted he go to college first so he would have something to fall back on . Schwimmer moved to Chicago to attend Northwestern University , where he had attended a summer drama course when he was 16 years old . At the university , he studied theater was in an improv group with Stephen Colbert , the No @-@ Fun Mud Piranhas . After graduating in 1988 , with a Bachelor of Arts degree in theater and speech , Schwimmer co @-@ founded the Lookingglass Theatre Company . Subsequently , he returned to Los Angeles to pursue an acting career .
= = Career = =
= = = 1989 – 1994 : Early work = = =
After his supporting role debut in the ABC television movie A Deadly Silence ( 1989 ) , Schwimmer followed this with roles on the legal drama L.A. Law in 1992 , and the comedy @-@ drama series The Wonder Years . He made his feature film debut in Flight of the Intruder ( 1991 ) , had a recurring role as a lawyer @-@ turned @-@ vigilante in NYPD Blue before auditioning , unsuccessfully , for a series pilot called Couples . He landed his first regular series role as the liberal son of a conservative talk show host ( Henry Winkler ) in the sitcom Monty .
= = = 1994 – 2004 : Breakthrough = = =
In 1994 , Schwimmer was cast as Ross Geller in NBC 's situation comedy Friends , a series that revolved around a group of friends who live near each other in Manhattan . He played a hopeless @-@ romantic paleontologist who works at a museum and later becomes a professor at a university . Schwimmer initially turned down the role as Ross , but accepted afterwards . Executive producer Kevin S. Bright said that he had previously worked with Schwimmer , the character of Ross was written with him in mind , and he was the first actor cast . Schwimmer based Ross on Nicolas Cage 's role of Charlie from the 1986 film Peggy Sue Got Married . The show debuted on September 22 , 1994 , and was watched by almost 22 million American viewers . Friends quickly developed a loyal audience , with the show and Schwimmer receiving strong reviews . The Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette was complimentary of Schwimmer , calling him " terrific " . Variety 's television reviewer , said : " All six of the principals , especially ( Courteney ) Cox and Schwimmer , appear resourceful and display sharp sitcom skills " . For this performance , he earned an Emmy Award nomination in the category of Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series in 1995 .
Schwimmer starred in his first leading film role in the 1996 romantic comedy film , The Pallbearer with Gwyneth Paltrow . In the film , Schwimmer plays a man asked to deliver the eulogy for a high school friend he cannot remember , and begins an affair with the friend 's mother . Critics dismissed The Pallbearer as a poor imitation of the 1967 film The Graduate . Variety 's film reviewer complimented the actor , writing that he had enjoyed his performance , stating that he displayed " a winning , if rather deadpan , personality along with good comic timing " . It also concluded that Schwimmer had a " promising bigscreen future " . Janet Maslin of The New York Times cited that his first film " relegates him to a drab role " . When asked why he decided to accept the role , Schwimmer admitted the decision was to " make an effort to find roles that are as far away from the character of Ross as possible " . He was offered a role to star alongside Tommy Lee Jones in the 1997 science @-@ fiction comedy Men in Black , but turned it down in favor of starring in The Pallbearer , explaining , " This is an opportunity to grow rather than go for the quick cash " .
His next film roles in 1998 were Kissing a Fool , Six Days Seven Nights , and Apt Pupil . In Kissing a Fool , a romantic comedy , Schwimmer played Max , a dapper , smart @-@ mouthed ladies ' man . Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle wrote , " Fans of the sitcom Friends may be surprised by David Schwimmer in Kissing a Fool . [ ... ] Take it from someone who has never seen Friends and comes at Schwimmer with no preconceptions : He does just fine . As a TV sports reporter in Kissing a Fool , he oozes the command and self @-@ satisfaction of a young , successful man " . The film was critically and financially unsuccessful . In Six Days Seven Nights , he played the boyfriend of Anne Heche 's character . In Apt Pupil , adapted from a novella of the same name by Stephen King , he had a supporting role as a school guidance counselor . " I was scared of the part " , Schwimmer said , " but I wanted to be part of the movie " . At the time , he noted it was a " little frustrating " that people would typecast him due to his role on Friends . He subsequently appeared opposite Woody Allen and Sharon Stone in Alfonso Arau 's straight @-@ to @-@ cable comedy Picking Up the Pieces ( 2000 ) .
In 2001 , Schwimmer played Captain Herbert M. Sobel in Steven Spielberg and Tom Hanks ' HBO World War II miniseries Band of Brothers . The television miniseries is based on the book of the same title written by historian and biographer Stephen Ambrose . Although Band of Brothers was met with largely positive reception , Schwimmer 's performance was criticized ; the BBC News concluded , " Part of the problem ... may have been the ridiculous fact that Friends favourite David Schwimmer plays the hard and cruel Captain Herbert Sobel . The only thing believable about Schwimmer 's acting is when he cowers in the face of true battle . His puppy dog eyes make him appear even more pitiful " . Later that year he portrayed Yitzhak Zuckerman in the war drama Uprising , based on the true events of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in 1943 .
In March 2004 , Schwimmer appeared as himself on HBO 's comedy series Curb Your Enthusiasm . During the lengthy run of Friends , Schwimmer directed ten of the show 's episodes . The show 's tenth and final season ended on May 6 , 2004 .
= = = 2004 – 2010 : Directing = = =
After Friends , Schwimmer starred in the 2005 independent drama Duane Hopwood , as the title character , who is an alcoholic whose life is spiraling downward rapidly after a divorce and is looking to turn his life around . The film received ambivalent reviews . Despite the reception , Schwimmer 's performance was favored by critics ; Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times reported that the role was Schwimmer 's " career @-@ transforming performance " . Duane Hopwood was screened at a special presentation at the 2005 Sundance Film Festival . Furthermore , in the same year he voiced Melman , a hypochondriac giraffe , in the computer animated film Madagascar ( 2005 ) . The Washington Post noted that Schwimmer is particularly appealing as Melman . Despite the mixed response from critics , the film was a commercial success , earning US $ 532 million worldwide , making it one of the biggest hits of 2005 .
Schwimmer starred on the London stage in May 2005 , with Catherine Tate , Lesley Manville , Sara Powell , and Saffron Burrows , in Neil LaBute 's Some Girl ( s ) at the Gielgud Theatre . In the production , he plays a teacher who is ready to settle down and marry , but decides to visit four ex @-@ girlfriends first . For his performance , Schwimmer received critical reviews . The Independent wrote that Schwimmer " is not called upon to extend his range nearly as far as one might have expected in Some Girl ( s ) . [ ... ] Schwimmer remains bland , competent , and boyish — though not fatally boyish in the manner that appears to have turned these women on " . However , Charles Spencer of The Daily Telegraph praised Schwimmer , reporting he " proves inspired casting . He takes to the stage with ... his endearing gaucheness seems designed to ensure our continued sympathy . Schwimmer mercilessly lays bare his character 's opportunism , casual cruelties , and chronic self @-@ deception " .
In 2006 , he made his Broadway debut in Herman Wouk 's two @-@ act play The Caine Mutiny Court @-@ Martial . Schwimmer played the role of Lieutenant Barney Greenwald in the production , which was directed by Jerry Zaks . In an interview with New York magazine , he revealed that he had wanted to try Broadway , however said " a couple of things came up that just never quite felt right . Either because I liked the play but wasn ’ t hot on the director , or there was another star attached that I wasn 't jazzed about working with " . He further added that when showed a copy of Wouk 's novel " ... I was shocked at how good the writing was " . His next film role was in the 2006 black comedy Big Nothing , in which he played a bitter , unemployed scientist .
Schwimmer made his directorial feature debut in the 2007 British comedy film Run Fatboy Run . The film stars Simon Pegg as a man who signs up for a marathon ( he is out of shape ) to convince his former fiancée and five @-@ year @-@ old son that he has turned his life around . When asked why he decided to direct the film , Schwimmer said : " As a director , I was struck by the challenge that I thought the script presented , which was that it was kind of three films in one . You had some great , big physical comedy , and I thought funny dialogue and characters . And then there was some real emotion to it with the relationship between the father and the son and the romance aspect " . Run Fatboy Run garnered mixed reception , with the New York Daily News rating it one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars and writing , " Most disappointing is how Schwimmer — who spent 10 seasons on a sitcom filled with hyperverbal characters — manages to bumble ' Fatboy 's ' tender moments " . USA Today , however , was favorable towards Schwimmer , reporting he possesses filmmaking finesse " having wisely chosen strong comic material for his debut behind the camera " . For his directorial work , he was nominated for a British Independent Film Award in the category of Best Debut Director .
On November 8 , 2007 , Schwimmer made a guest appearance in the second season of the television series 30 Rock , where he played Greenzo , an NBC environmental mascot . The following year , he was part of an ensemble cast that included Kate Beckinsale , Matt Dillon , Alan Alda , Angela Bassett , and Noah Wyle in the thriller Nothing But the Truth ( 2008 ) . The movie received generally favorable reviews . The success of Madagascar led Schwimmer to return to the role of Melman in the 2008 sequel , Madagascar : Escape 2 Africa . The film earned US $ 603 million at the international box office . Schwimmer took part in directing in @-@ studio segments for Little Britain USA , an American spinoff of the British BBC television series Little Britain . In regard to this , he commented that he had " a good time directing episodes " for the show .
In October 2008 , Schwimmer made his Off @-@ Broadway directorial debut in Fault Lines at the Cherry Lane Theatre in New York . The production won a mixed review from the Los Angeles Times , which wrote : " Based on Fault Lines ... we can 't really tell whether Schwimmer has much talent as a director . We 're surprised he didn 't try something more challenging for his debut . If not much else , Schwimmer has encouraged his actors to intense their energy levels and comic timing at all costs " . The New York Post , however , noted that Schwimmer " knows a thing or two about freewheeling banter ... and for a good while the play crackles with terrific dialogue , expertly delivered " . In February 2009 , he returned to theater in a Chicago production of Thornton Wilder 's three @-@ act play Our Town as George Gibbs at the Lookingglass Theatre . " Schwimmer ... turns in a poignant , richly textured and demonstrably heartfelt performance as George Gibbs . I 've seen a fair bit of Schwimmer 's post @-@ Friends stage work in London and New York , and I 've never seen him better " , commented the Chicago Tribune .
On August 2 , 2009 , Schwimmer played himself in the sixth season of the HBO television series , Entourage . In the episode , Ari Gold 's ( Jeremy Piven ) agency tries to steer his career back to television . Schwimmer directed his second feature , Trust , starring Clive Owen and Catherine Keener . The film , a drama , is about a family whose teenage daughter becomes victim of an online sexual predator . Trust premiered at the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival .
= = = 2010 – present : Return to television = = =
On January 1 , 2011 , Schwimmer guest @-@ starred on the British comedy series Come Fly With Me starring Matt Lucas and David Walliams , whom he directed in Little Britain USA .
In 2014 , it was announced that Schwimmer has been cast as the lead in the ABC comedy pilot Irreversible . He would play " one half of a somewhat eccentric , self @-@ absorbed couple " in his first comedic television role since Friends finished in 2004 . As of January 2016 , Schwimmer is playing Robert Kardashian in the first season of the FX anthology series American Crime Story . The series is developed by Scott Alexander and Larry Karaszewski and is based on the novel , The Run of His Life : The People v. O.J. Simpson by Jeffrey Toobin . In January 2016 , it was announced that Schwimmer and Jim Sturgess would be starring in the new AMC crime drama , Feed the Beast . Schwimmer will be playing Tommy Moran , while Sturgess will play Moran 's best friend , Dion Patras .
= = Personal life = =
In the early 2000s , Schwimmer dated Australian pop singer Natalie Imbruglia , Israeli actress Mili Avital , and American actress Rochelle Ovitt . In 2007 , Schwimmer and British artist Zoë Buckman began a relationship . In March 2010 , Schwimmer announced their engagement and married Buckman in a small private ceremony that June . On May 8 , 2011 , the couple had a daughter , Cleo Buckman Schwimmer .
In June 2006 , Schwimmer won a US $ 400 @,@ 000 defamation lawsuit against Aaron Tonken , a former charity fundraiser . Tonken claimed Schwimmer had demanded Rolex watches in order to appear at his own charity event , a claim that Schwimmer had denied .
Schwimmer is an active director of the Rape Treatment Center in Santa Monica , which specializes in helping victims of date rape and child rape . He has also campaigned for legislation to ban drugs such as Rohypnol and GHB . In November 2011 , he gave the Scottish charity Children 1st permission to screen his film Trust to commemorate World Day for Prevention of Child Abuse and Violence against Children .
In 2012 he rebutted two longstanding rumors : one that he appeared as a soldier on a train in Biloxi Blues ( 1988 ) , saying , " No . I don 't know why that 's on IMDb , but I never was in that " , and the other that he is related to dancer Lacey Schwimmer , saying , " No , not at all . Please set the record straight . I guess it 's a natural assumption because we have the same last name , but no . I 've never even met her " .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
|
= Jimmy Frise =
The Canadian cartoonist James Llewellyn " Jimmy " Frise ( / fraɪz / , 16 October 1891 – 13 June 1948 ) is best known for his work on the comic strip Birdseye Center and his illustrations of humorous prose pieces by Greg Clark .
Born in Scugog Island , Ontario , Frise moved to Toronto at 19 and found illustration work on the Toronto Star 's Star Weekly supplement . His left hand was severely injured at the Battle of Vimy Ridge in 1917 during World War I , but his drawing hand was unhurt , and he continued cartooning at the Star upon his return . In 1919 he began his first weekly comic strip , Life 's Little Comedies , which evolved into the rural @-@ centred humorous Birdseye Center in 1923 . He moved to the Montreal Standard in 1947 , but as the Star kept publication rights to Birdseye Center , Frise continued it as Juniper Junction with strongly similar characters and situations . Doug Wright took over the strip after Frise 's sudden death from a heart attack in 1948 , and it went on to become the longest @-@ running strip in English @-@ Canadian comics history .
= = Life and career = =
James Llewellyn Frise was born 16 October 1891 near Fingerboard in Scugog Island , Ontario , the only son of John Frise ( d . 1922 ) , who was a farmer , and Hannah née Barker ( d . 1933 ) , who had immigrated with her family from England to Port Perry when she was two . He grew up in Seagrave and Myrtle and went to school in Port Perry . There he struggled with spelling — even with his own middle name — and developed an obsession with drawing .
Throughout his teens , friends and teachers encouraged Frise to move to Toronto to pursue a drawing career . In 1910 he moved there , though without aiming to develop his art — rather he sought work and found it as an engraver and printer at the Rolph , Clark , Stone lithography firm ; he spent six months drawing maps for the Canadian Pacific Railway company indicating lots for sale in Saskatchewan .
While seeking another job he read in the Toronto Star an exchange between a farmer and an editor in which the editor extolled the virtues of farmlife only to have the farmer rebut him and challenge him to try out farming . Frise drew a cartoon of the editor struggling to milk a cow and a farmer as an editor ; he submitted it to the Star , where it appeared in the Star Weekly supplement on that 12 November . He visited the Star 's offices the following Monday and the Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief hired him immediately . He began by lettering titles and touching up photos until the Star Weekly 's editor J. Herbert Cranston enlisted him for his drawing skills . Frise illustrated news stories and the children 's feature The Old Mother Nature Club , and did political cartoons . His cartoons also appeared in publications such as the Owen Sound Sun .
Frise took a job at an engraving firm in Montreal in 1916 and in the midst of World War I enlisted in the military that 17 May . He had had two years previous experience with the 48th Highlanders of Canada and served at first served in the 69th Battery of the Canadian Field Artillery . He was deployed overseas that September and by November was serving in the 12th Battery at the front , where he employed his farm experience driving horses to move artillery and ammunition . At the Battle of Vimy Ridge his left hand was severely injured when an enemy shell exploded at an ammunition dump where he was delivering loads of shells . The Star reported its anxiety over the possible loss of " one of Canada ’ s most promising cartoonists " , but his drawing hand — his right — was uninjured . He was discharged after recuperating in Chelmsford , England , and arrived back in Toronto on 1 December 1917 and returned to work , first at the Star and shortly after at the Star Weekly again .
Canadian Field Artillery 's 43rd Battery approached Frise in 1919 to illustrate a book on the history of their unit . The volume appeared later in the year under the title Battery Action ! , written by Hugh R. Kay , George Magee , and F. A. MacLennan and illustrated with Frise 's light @-@ hearted , humorous cartoons rendered in accurate detail .
As the Star Weekly 's circulation grew , so did its comics section . Cranston encouraged Frise to create a Canada @-@ themed comic strip in the vain of W. E. Hill 's Among Us Mortals , a Chicago strip which also ran in the Star . Frise protested he could not keep up with a weekly schedule but nonetheless began At the Rink , which débuted 25 January 1919 ; it became Life 's Little Comedies on 15 March . The strip proved popular and evolved by 1923 ; it had taken on the influence of John T. McCutcheon 's depictions of a fictional rural town in the American Midwest called Bird Center . Frise turned focus to humorous and nostalgic depictions of rural life and on 12 December 1925 renamed his strip Birdseye Center , whose setting he described as " any Canadian village " ; its lead characters included bowler @-@ hatted Pigskin Peters , Old Archie and his pet moose Foghorn , and lazy Eli Doolittle and his wife Ruby . The strip grew in popularity and in 1926 was voted favourite comic strip in a readers ' poll — as a write @-@ in , since the strip did not appear in the list of options .
' ' Birdseye Center ' '
From about 1920 Frise shared an office with the journalist and Vimy ridge veteran Greg Clark ( 1892 – 77 ) . They became friends , and Frise began providing colour illustrations to Clark 's tales in the Star of the pair 's misadventures in Toronto — Frise tall and gangly , and Clark short and stout . A selection appeared in a volume titled Which We Did in 1936 . Frise talked of their blunderings to the Star : " We 've fried eggs on the city hall steps . We caulked my house and flooded the parlor with cement . I once let Greg persuade me to get a steam shovel to do my spring digging and ruined my garden . Perhaps this book is our most foolish adventure . "
Frise chatted with the frequent visitors to the office . He worked at his own pace and often tore up work @-@ in @-@ progress in dissatisfaction and submitted his strips at the last moment . Frise 's tardiness caused such delays in production and distribution that editorial director Harry C. Hindmarsh once demanded Joseph E. Atkinson have something done about it . Atkinson replied , " Harry , The Star Weekly does not go to press without Mr. Frise . "
Frise was unconcerned with the resale value of his original artwork and pursued little licensing of his work , amongst which included product endorsements , products such as jigsaw puzzles , and a Birdseye Center Cabin Park on Lake Scugog , opened in 1940 . His work provided him well enough that he bought a home in the well @-@ to @-@ do Baby Point neighbourhood .
Frise and Clark had grown concerned with the Star 's treatment of its staff and made an agreement in 1946 to leave at the first opportuity . Clark contacted John McConnell , publisher of the Montreal Standard , a newspaper with a smaller circulation than the Star 's that had earlier offered him a position . McConnell offered the pair salaries similar to what they received at the Star , as well as the opportunity for Frise to have his strip syndicated in the United States , which would supplement his income . When they handed in their resignations that Christmas Eve , Hindmarsh asked them , " Aren 't you going to give us a chance to bid ? " Frise told him , " Mr Hindmarsh , you have nothing to bid with . " The last Birdseye Center episode ran on 1 February 1947 .
The Star maintained publication rights to Birdseye Center , so Frise re @-@ created the feature as Juniper Junction with strongly similar characters and situations . It début 22 February 1947 , and the Standard ran it in colour , as Frise had long wanted . Standard 's circulation grew after the addition of Frise and Clark 's collaborations . Frise provided the illustrations to Jack Hambleton 's cookbook Skillet Skills for Camp and Cottage published in 1947 .
After feeling unwell the night before , Frise died of a heart attack in his home in Toronto on 13 June 1948 , at age 57 . Clark telephoned Cranston on hearing the news , saying , " A great gentleman has passed on . " Frise was buried at Prospect Cemetery in Toronto .
Jimmy Frise
= = Personal life = =
Frise stood 5 feet 9 inches ( 175 cm ) . He enjoyed the outdoors and pursued fishing and hunting . He often returned to the Lake Scugog area and sometimes spoke about his career there . He was a Methodist Christian .
After returning from his service in World War I , Frise began courting Ruth Elizabeth Gate , who had been born in the US and grew up in Toronto . She worked at an advertising agency , and co @-@ published with her father a magazine in braille and a braille bible . She married Frise on 21 February 1918 and the couple had four daughters , Jean , Ruth , Edythe , and Betty ; and a son , John . Frise often featured his spaniel Rusty in his strips .
= = Legacy = =
The Montreal cartoonist Doug Wright ( 1917 – 83 ) took the reins of Juniper Junction , which went on to become English Canada 's longest @-@ running comic strip . In 1965 the Canadian publisher McClelland & Stewart printed a treasury of Birdseye Center with commentary by Greg Clark and an introduction by Gordon Sinclair . Clark continued publishing his tales for a time with illustrations by Duncan Macpherson ( 1924 – 93 ) , but soon moved on to different topics .
Scugog Shores Museum in Port Perry holds some samples of Frise 's original artwork , and the Province of Ontario erected an Ontario Historical Plaque in front of the museum to commemorate Frise 's role in Ontario 's heritage . In 2009 , Frise was inducted into the Canadian Cartoonist Hall of Fame .
|
= The Actor and the Rube =
The Actor and the Rube is a 1915 American silent short film produced by the Thanhouser Company under the Falstaff brand . Written by Philip Lonergan and directed by Arthur Ellery , this was the first Falstaff release . The production was supervised by Edwin Thanhouser and produced at the New Rochelle studios . The plot of the film is about a cranky farmer , who , disliked by his entire town , decides to head to New York . An actor disguises himself as the farmer and returns to the farmer 's village and makes him popular . After his work is done , the actor tells the farmer to return home and the farmer finds he is well @-@ liked and marries his love interest . The one reel comedy production saw a wide United States release and was also released in the United Kingdom under an alternate title , The Actor and the Bumpkin . Reviews were positive and focused on good acting and originality in the execution of a plot , with the New York Clipper finding it a welcome relief from the " pie @-@ smashing " antics of other comedies .
= = Plot = =
Hi Jenkins is a cranky farmer who is dislike by the whole village , including the spinster whom Jenkins wants to marry . Jenkins takes big losses while playing poker and heads to New York to forget his problems . In New York , an actor takes an interest in impersonating Jenkins and an " accidental meeting " is arranged . The actor studies Jenkins and goes back to the cranky farmer 's hometown and becomes popular with the people . The actor also wins at poker and regains the spinster 's interest . The actor returns and informs Jenkins to be silent and all will be well when he returns home . Jenkins returns and finds himself to be well @-@ liked , marries his spinster love interest and is no longer cranky .
= = Cast = =
Riley Chamberlin as the actor
Boyd Marshall as the actor 's friend
Edward N. Hoyt as Hi Jenkins , also known as the rube
Leo Post
John Reinhard
Morgan Jones
Kenneth Clarendon
= = Production = =
The Actor and the Rube was the first production of the new Falstaff brand of the Thanhouser Company . The production was personally supervised by Edwin Thanhouser at the New Rochelle studio . The new Falstaff productions would take the place of the Princess brand films which were doing poorly with the audiences . The scenario was written by Philip Lonergan and the production was directed by Arthur Ellery . The single reel film was approximately 1 @,@ 015 feet in length . The production included Thanhouser actors , like Riley Chamberlin , and Princess brand actors like Boyd Marshall . An advertisement for the film stated that Boyd Marshall and Riley Chamberlain were the lead actors in the production .
= = Reception and reception = =
The film was released on April 16 , 1915 with a later British release under the title , The Actor and the Bumpkin on September 30 , 1915 . The film had a widespread release within the United States with advertised showings in Oregon , Illinois , Pennsylvania South Carolina , Kansas , Atlanta , Georgia , Indiana , New York , and California .
A Motography review said , " ... [ it ] is a good , wholesome comedy . Not uproariously funny , but it tells a story , and leaves one in good humor . " The New York Dramatic Mirror praised the film as having been well @-@ produced and having consistently good acting . Another review in The Moving Picture World was favorable and found the production to be original and pleasing . The New York Clipper found the comedy to be a relief from the " pie @-@ smashing , dough @-@ throwing , acrobatic affairs that a long suffering public has come to regard at the only sort of film comedy to be seen . " The Motion Picture News called it an amusing farce that was clever . A more detailed review was written by Peter Milne said the story was not original in concept , but the role of the actor was well @-@ executed by Riley Chamberlain . The film is presumed lost .
|
= FLCL =
FLCL ( Japanese : フリクリ , Hepburn : Furi Kuri , pronounced in English as Fooly Cooly ) is an anime original video animation ( OVA ) series written by Yōji Enokido , directed by Kazuya Tsurumaki and produced by the FLCL Production Committee , which consisted of Gainax , Production I.G , and King Records . FLCL follows Naota Nandaba , a twelve @-@ year @-@ old boy living in the fictional Japanese suburb of Mabase , and his interactions with Haruko Haruhara , who arrives in the quiet suburb , drawn by the industrial town houses and the Medical Mechanica building .
The six episode series was released in Japan from April 2000 to March 2001 . A manga and novel were also created at the time . It aired in America on Cartoon Network 's Adult Swim block in 2003 several times . It aired once again on the channel 's Toonami block from October 26 , 2013 to January 25 , 2014 . The series is also available via Hulu , iTunes , and on Funimation 's website .
Two new seasons totaling 12 episodes were announced on March 24 , 2016 as a co @-@ production between Production I.G and Adult Swim .
= = Plot = =
FLCL is a coming of age story and revolves around Naota Nandaba , a 12 @-@ year @-@ old , working class boy living with his widowed father and grandfather . His life in the city of Mabase is interrupted by the arrival of Haruko Haruhara , who runs over Naota with her yellow Vespa 180 SS scooter , gives him CPR , then hits him on the head with a blue vintage Rickenbacker 4001 left @-@ handed electric bass guitar . Naota discovers that the blow to his head created an " N.O. " portal , from which giant robots produced by a company known as Medical Mechanica emerge periodically .
Naota later finds Haruko working in his house as a live @-@ in maid . It is later discovered that Haruko is an investigator for the Galactic Space Police Brotherhood . Haruko uses Naota for her search for the Pirate King , Atomsk . She is at odds with Medical Mechanica , a monolithic industrial corporation . Naota is being watched by Commander Amarao , a special agent of the Bureau of Interstellar Immigration , who believes that Medical Mechanica is out to conquer the galaxy . Naota is ultimately drawn into a three @-@ way battle between Haruko , Amarao and Medical Mechanica .
= = Production = =
FLCL was directed by Kazuya Tsurumaki and produced by the FLCL Production Committee , which included Gainax , Production I.G , and Starchild Records .
Tsurumaki has said that he tried to " break the rules " of anime when making FLCL , for example , by choosing a contemporary Japanese band to provide the soundtrack , and patterning the style more after " a Japanese TV commercial or promotional video " , creating a work that is " short , but dense @-@ packed " .
FLCL 's localization director and script writer Marc Handler stated that localization of the script was the hardest part of the show . The in @-@ jokes in the show included obscure pop culture references that had to be decoded and transferred to English audiences . One example was a reference to Cheerio , a discontinued soft drink in Japan , for the English release the choice was made to use a discontinued American soft drink , Crystal Pepsi . Director Kazuya Tsuramaki responded to criticism of FLCL , stating " comprehension should not be an important factor in FLCL . "
The Medical Mechanica building featured is in the shape of a large iron . The character Amarao describes Medical Mechanica 's goal as the destruction of all thought . FLCL uses the iron as a symbolic breakdown of " thought " by smoothing out the wrinkles as equated to the removing of the brain 's wrinkles . For English localization , the Japanese team had to explain the concept because a direct translation of script did not convey the ideology .
= = Release = =
Six DVD compilations , each containing one episode , have been released in Japan by Gainax . In addition , a DVD collection box , containing all six DVD compilations , was released in Japan on August 13 , 2005 . Three DVD compilations were released by Synch @-@ Point in North America . A DVD collection box , containing all the DVD compilations of the English episodes , was released on January 23 , 2007 , but have since gone out of print . In January 2010 , Funimation Entertainment announced that they had acquired the license for the series and would be releasing it on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc in February 2011 . Shortly after , it has been released in Australia and New Zealand by Madman Entertainment on a 3 @-@ disc DVD set and on Blu @-@ ray Disc . It is also licensed in the United Kingdom by MVM Films . The series also aired in North America on Cartoon Network 's Adult Swim programming block from August 4 to August 13 , 2003 .
The English adaptation of the series was first licensed by Synch @-@ Point which released the DVDs and soundtrack , but these went out of print in 2006 . In January 2010 , Funimation Entertainment announced that they would be re @-@ releasing the series on DVD and releasing it for the first time on Blu @-@ ray .
= = = Episodes = = =
a ^ : The Japanese title is actually an alteration made by Haruko on the phrase " furi kuri , furi kura " ( フリクリ . フリクラ ) . The episode 's title is not meant to have any actual significance .
= = Other media = =
= = = Novels = = =
A three @-@ volume novel series was written by screenwriter Yoji Enokido and published by Kadokawa Shoten . The novels were released in Japan on June 2000 , October 2000 , and March 2001 respectively . The English @-@ language versions were published by Tokyopop and were released in North America on March 11 , 2008 ; September 9 , 2008 ; and March 10 , 2009 respectively .
= = = Manga = = =
A two @-@ volume manga was created by artist Hajime Ueda . The manga interprets the series with all of the key elements intact , and tells the events of the anime using a reductive art style and unsteady pacing . Jack Kotin defended the unique artstyle of the manga , saying " It can be crudely drawn at times , but this style fits in well with the overall story and atmosphere ... " .
The manga was published by Kodansha and serialized in monthly Magazine Z. The two volumes were released on October 23 , 2000 and August 23 , 2001 respectively . The manga was re @-@ released in bunkoban format with the two volumes labeled " Jō " ( 上 , First ) and " Ge " ( 下 , Final ) in two individual box sets titled " Kodansha Box " . Jō volume was on May 7 , 2007 and the Ge volume was released on June 4 , 2007 . An edited tankōbon version of the manga that was released in box sets , were released on January 10 , 2012 and February 9 , 2012 respectively .
The English @-@ language editions of the manga was released by Tokyopop on September 16 , 2003 and on November 4 , 2003 respectively . On March 2011 , Dark Horse Comics announced to re @-@ release the manga in omnibus edition . The omnibus edition was released on May 16 , 2012 and includes remastered story pages , a remastered script , and bonus color pages .
= = = Soundtracks = = =
Six pieces of theme music are used for the episodes ; five opening themes and one closing theme , all by the Japanese rock band , The Pillows . The battle themes are " Advice " , " Little Busters " and " I Think I Can " ; the opening themes are : " One Life " , used in episode one , " Instant Music " in episodes two and three , " Happy Bivouac " in episode four , " Runners High " , in episode five , and " Carnival " in episode six . The closing theme of each episode is " Ride on Shooting Star " .
Geneon Entertainment has released three original soundtracks encompassing the songs , with the soundtracks titled , and FLCL No. 3 The remaining music was written by Shinkichi Mitsumune . Most of the music is by Japanese rock group The Pillows . The rest is by composer Shinkichi Mitsumune . The first soundtrack titled , FLCL No.1 : Addict ( フリクリNo.1 アディクト ) , contains tracks featured in the first three episodes of FLCL . The soundtrack was released on October 4 , 2000 in Japan and January 20 , 2004 in the US . The second soundtrack , titled FLCL No.2 : King of Pirates ( フリクリNo.2 海賊王 , Furi Kuri No.2 Kaizoku @-@ ō ) , contains tracks featured in the last three episodes of FLCL . The soundtrack was released in July 25 , 2001 Japan and September 7 , 2004 in the US . This volume features several audio dramas , with the cast of FLCL playing the various parts . Due to the dramas included , this album acts as a sequel of sorts to the anime . The third soundtrack , titled FLCL No.3 ( フリクリNo.3 ) , is a compilation of the first two soundtracks featuring only music by the Japanese rock group The Pillows . The released on June 8 , 2005 and June 7 , 2005 in the US . Unlike the previous two soundtracks , the songs are the original vocal versions from the band 's LPs .
= = Reception = =
FLCL has received highly positive reviews from critics . Christopher McDonald of Anime News Network called it " downright hilarious " and " visually superb " with great music , citing the packaging of 2 episodes per DVD as the only weakness of Synch @-@ Point 's original release . Robert Nelson of T.H.E.M. Anime Reviews gave the anime 4 out of 5 stars stating , " FLCL may not have a straightforward or deep plot . It may not have complex characterizations . Hell , it may not have any meaning . But FLCL does succeed in its true objective . It is fun to watch ! " Chris Beveridge of Mania gave it an A- stating , " FLCL is something that allowed those involved to try a wide variety of styles and techniques and does come off as quite experimental . But nearly everything worked in their favor and you end up with three hours of nearly break neck speed action , comedy and commentary on modern life . " Brian Ruh praised the series stating , " It was very frenetic and kept pushing the envelope on what was possible in Japanese animation . "
IGN columnist Davis Smith reviewed the anime shortly after its English premier , in the article Smith praised the series ' unusual story telling , extremely high quality animation and the soundtrack provided by The Pillows ; rewarding the series a score of 9 out of 10 concluding , " Logic dictates that FLCL should be an undisciplined and unaffecting mess , given all the insanity that its creators are attempting to weld into a functioning whole . Yet while it 's hard to explain exactly why , it works . It entertains me . At times , it makes me laugh ; at times , it makes me a little misty @-@ eyed ; at times , it makes me want to scream and howl and light things on fire and break windows with baseball bats and yes , maybe even buy a Vespa . That 's the kind of success that you just can 't argue with . "
From January 3rd , 2012 to February 7th Hayden Childs , of the online magazine The A.V. Club , composed a six part weekly analysis and review of each FLCL episode in celebration of The Legend of Korra 's then upcoming third season , a series that was heavily influenced by FLCL animation style . In the article Childs gives an extremely positive review of the series understanding it as a surrealist inspired coming of age story stating , " For all of its wild and initially bewildering aspects , the major purpose of FLCL is the impressionistic and often naturalistic documentation of Naota ’ s passage into maturity . "
On August 12 , 2003 , Time Warner press release noted the success of Cartoon Network , FLCL " ranked No. 42 among all shows on ad @-@ supported cable among adults 18 – 34 " . Also in 2003 , FLCL won third place for Best Animation Film at the Fantasia Festival . On February 24 , 2007 , FLCL was nominated for " Best Cast " , and won " Best Comedy Series " and " Best Short Series " at the first American Anime Awards show . Anime Insider ranked FLCL 4th in their list of the best English @-@ licensed anime of all time on November 2007 . Avatar : The Last Airbender director Giancarlo Volpe says the staff " were all ordered to buy FLCL and watch every single episode of it . "
= = Sequel series = =
American anime newspaper Anime News Network reported on August 31 , 2015 that the production studio Production I.G. may be planning a remake of the popular series after announcing their purchase of the rights to FLCL from production company Gainax . This led many to speculate on the potential of a remake or possible continuation of the series . The IGN web series Anime Club discussed the potential of a remake with most of the participants expressing reservations towards the idea comparing it to Rebuild of Evangelion and Ghost in the Shell 2 @.@ 0 .
The sequel anime series was announced on March 24 , 2016 via the Toonami crew 's Tumblr and Facebook page that 12 new episodes of FLCL would be produced in cooperation with Production I.G. The upcoming episodes will be split into two individual seasons which will serve as sequels to the popular series which was broadcast on Adult Swim 's anime block in 2003 . The crew includes Neon Genesis Evangelion character designer Yoshiyuki Sadamoto and original series director Kazuya Tsurumaki . The series will premier on Toonami in either late 2017 or early 2018 .
The official synopsis of the series was published by Adult Swim :
In the new season of FLCL , many years have passed since Naota and Haruhara Haruko shared their adventure together . Meanwhile , the war between the two entities known as Medical Mechanica and Fraternity rages across the galaxy . Enter Hidomi , a young teenaged girl who believes there is nothing amazing to expect from her average life , until one day when a new teacher named Haruko arrives at her school . Soon enough , Medical Mechanica is attacking her town and Hidomi discovers a secret within her that could save everyone , a secret that only Haruko can unlock .
But why did Haruko return to Earth ? What happened to her Rickenbacker 4001 she left with Naota ? And where did the human @-@ type robot ‘ Canti ’ go ?
Production I.G. vice president Maki Terashima @-@ Furuta announced at the annual 2016 Anime Expo that original series character designer Yoshiyuki Sadamoto would be reprises his position for the upcoming sequel and that Psycho @-@ Pass director Katsuyuki Motohiro would be supervising the production . Additionally , it was announced that Japanese indie rock band The Pillows would be returning to provide the musical score for the anime .
|
= Maverick ( roller coaster ) =
Maverick is a steel roller coaster built by Intamin at Cedar Point in Sandusky , Ohio , United States . It was the seventeenth roller coaster built at the park since Blue Streak in 1964 . It is notable as being the 500th roller coaster designed by German engineer Werner Stengel and the first roller coaster featuring a Twisted Horseshoe Roll . Maverick 's US $ 21 @-@ million price tag makes it Cedar Point 's third most expensive roller coaster . The 4 @,@ 450 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 360 m ) course makes it the fourth longest roller coaster at Cedar Point .
Maverick was scheduled to open on May 12 , 2007 , but opening was delayed until May 26 , 2007 after testing revealed the heartline roll element to be too intense . Continued use of the element would have put excessive stress on trains . At a drop angle of 95 degrees , Maverick is Cedar Point 's steepest roller coaster . The ride 's tagline is " The Old West Was Never This Wild . "
= = History = =
Maverick sits on the former site of White Water Landing . After White Water Landing closed on October 31 , 2005 , construction on Maverick began . On January 24 , 2006 , Cedar Fair Entertainment Company filed a trademark for the name Maverick . The project became known officially and colloquially as " Project 2007 " until the announcement on September 7 , 2006 .
= = = Construction = = =
After the closure of the 2005 season in October , the White Water Landing log flume ride was retired . Although the ride was disassembled , the station was left intact and now serves as Maverick 's on @-@ ride photo booth and queue . Beginning in February 2006 , concrete footers were poured on the former White Water Landing site , as well as in the pond that once housed Cedar Point 's Swan Boat ride . In May 2006 , track segments arrived in a fenced area near the park 's off @-@ site hotel , Breakers Express . Initially , Cedar Point covered track segments with blue tarps . On July 16 , 2006 , the first steel supports were erected . On the week of August 16 , 2006 , the first track segments were installed . On September 11 , 2006 , the crest of the lift hill was added , thereby topping off the ride . Track installation was completed on October 28 , 2006 and the first phase of testing began in January 2007 .
= = = Delayed opening = = =
On May 8 , 2007 , four days before Maverick was scheduled to debut , park general manager John Hildebrant announced that the ride would be delayed until early June because three 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) track sections after the second launch needed to be replaced . These sections made up the heartline roll element and put excessive stress on the trains , which also might have caused discomfort to passengers due to high g @-@ forces . On May 17 , 2007 , the heartline roll was removed and was replaced with an s @-@ curve . The s @-@ curve transitions the existing track from a banked right curve to a banked left curve . Installation of the s @-@ curve was completed on May 24 and final testing and licensing of the attraction resumed . On the same day , Cedar Point officials also announced that Maverick would debut on May 26 .
= = Ride experience = =
= = = Layout = = =
Two trains are loaded and dispatched simultaneously . One train is launched while the other sits at the bottom of the lift hill . Once the first train has reached the tunnel , the second train is launched . The ride starts out with a LSM launch up a 105 feet ( 32 m ) hill at 20 degrees . At the top of the hill , the train drops 100 feet ( 30 m ) at a 95 degree angle . The train reaches a speed of 57 miles per hour ( 92 km / h ) then makes a turn to the right then turns to the left through a canyon then another turn to the right . It then goes over a 74 @-@ foot ( 23 m ) airtime hill followed by a turn to the right into the Twisted Horseshoe Roll which features two 360 @-@ degree corkscrew rolls . The train then makes a turn to the right into the tunnel where it is launched 400 feet ( 120 m ) at 70 miles per hour ( 110 km / h ) under the station . The tunnel features special effects such as blue LED strips . At the end of the tunnel is a sharp turn to the left followed by a turn to the right into a canyon with a S @-@ curve ( original heartline roll location ) . Water bombs shoot off as the train enters the canyon . The train then passes under the lift hill through an over banked turn at 92 degrees . It then turns to the right into another overbanked turn followed by an airtime hill . The train then turns to the right into the brake run . One cycle of the ride lasts about 2 minutes and 30 seconds .
= = = Trains / theme = = =
Maverick features six three @-@ car steam @-@ era style trains that seat twelve passengers each . The trains have tiered seating and are named and colored as follows : Brett — Brass , Brent — Gold , Ben — Gunmetal , Beau — Gold , Bart — Silver , and Sam — Copper . The restraint system , similar to Accelerator Coasters , includes a hydraulic over the shoulder harness and an interlocking seat belt . The station features an elevated dual unloading and loading platform enabling two trains to be loaded and unloaded simultaneously . Maverick features western music , contributing to the western theme . There is also an elevator shaft designed to look like a silo , that also contributes to the western theme . The passenger height restriction was initially set to a minimum of 48 inches ( 120 cm ) . In May 2007 , the height restriction was raised to a minimum of 52 inches ( 130 cm ) per recommendations made by Intamin . At the 2015 Winter Chill Out , Cedar Point announced that the traditional over the shoulder restraints would be replaced with the soft vest style restraints seen on Intimidator 305 .
= = Operation = =
Maverick is negatively affected by unfavorable weather conditions as a high velocity ride . " Rain , and / or lightning " may result in the closing of the ride depending on the severity . It will close under any kind of steady precipitation .
There is no minimum age requirement , but passengers must meet the miniumum height requirement of 52 inches and a maximum of 78 inches to ride . Some persons over a certain weight / waist size will not be permitted to ride if the seat and lapbar harness cannot accommodate them . Passengers on Maverick may not bring any loose articles onto the train and will be required to wear shirts and footwear . Headphones must be removed before boarding . Glasses must also be secured by an athletic strap .
Passengers are advised that they must not ride Maverick if they have " a history of recent surgery , heart trouble / high blood pressure , neck trouble , back trouble , or any other condition that may be aggravated by riding , or who are pregnant " .
= = Awards = =
Won the Golden Ticket Award for " Best New Ride in 2007 " by Amusement Today
Won the award for " Best New Attraction in 2007 " from NAPHA
|
= Re @-@ education through labor =
Re @-@ education through labor ( RTL ) ( simplified Chinese : 劳动教养 ; traditional Chinese : 勞動教養 ; pinyin : láodòng jiàoyǎng ) , abbreviated laojiao ( simplified Chinese : 劳教 ; traditional Chinese : 勞教 ; pinyin : láojiào ) was a system of administrative detentions in the People 's Republic of China in place from 1957 to 2013 which was generally used to detain persons for minor crimes such as petty theft , prostitution , and trafficking illegal drugs , as well as religious or political dissidents such as Falun Gong adherents . It was separate from the much larger laogai system of prison labour camps .
Sentences under re @-@ education through labor were typically for one to three years , with the possibility of an additional one @-@ year extension . They were issued as a form of administrative punishment by police , rather than through the judicial system . While incarcerated , detainees were often subject to some form of political education . Estimates on the number of RTL detainees on any given year range from 190 @,@ 000 to two million . China Daily in 2007 estimated that there were a total of 310 re @-@ education centers in China at that time .
On December 28 , 2013 , the Standing Committee of the National People 's Congress abolished the re @-@ education through labor system and detainees were released . However , human rights groups have observed that other forms of extrajudicial detention have taken its place , with some former RTL camps being renamed as drug rehabilitation centers .
= = Re @-@ education through labor and the Chinese penal system = =
The People 's Republic of China employs several forms of corrections for people who have been arrested , of which re @-@ education through labor was one . The Laogai Research Foundation classifies re @-@ education through labor as a sub @-@ component under the umbrella of the laogai ( " reform through labor " ) criminal justice system , which generally refers to prisons , prison farms , and labor camps for convicted criminals . Re @-@ education through labor , on the other hand , refers to detentions for persons who are not considered criminals or have only committed minor offenses . Persons detained under re @-@ education through labor were detained in facilities which are separate from the general prison system ; furthermore , detainees in these re @-@ education facilities receive a small salary , which laogai detainees do not , and in theory have shorter work hours . The laogai system is much larger than the re @-@ education through labor system , with the Laogai Research Foundation identifying 1 @,@ 045 laogai camps in 2006 ( compared to 346 re @-@ education centers ) . Both systems , however , involve penal labor and often do not allow trials or judicial hearings . The term " reform through labor " or laogai was officially replaced with " prison " in 1994 , and the term " re @-@ education center " or láojiàosuǒ ( 劳教所 ) was replaced with " correctional center " in 2007 .
Other components of the prison system include detention centers for individuals awaiting sentence or execution , and juvenile detention camps for individuals under a minimum age ( which has varied through the years , and may currently be under 14 ) . The system formerly included components such as custody and repatriation for individuals without a residence permit ; " forced job placement , " which has not been widely practiced since the 1990s ; and " shelter and investigation , " a system of detentions for individuals under legal investigation , which was abolished in 1996 . The Laogai Research Foundation also classifies psychiatric facilities , or ankang , as a form of detention for political dissidents , although it is not officially recognized as part of the laogai penal system .
= = History = =
Institutions similar to re @-@ education through labor facilities , but called " new life schools " or " loafers ' camps " , existed in the early 1950s , although they did not become official until the anti @-@ rightist campaigns in 1957 and 1958 . A report by Human Rights in China ( HRIC ) states that re @-@ education through labor was first used by the Communist Party of China in 1955 to punish counter @-@ revolutionaries , and in 1957 was officially adopted into law to be implemented by the Ministry of Public Security . The law allowed police to sentence both minor offenders and " counter @-@ revolutionaries " or " anti @-@ socialist elements " to incarceration in labor camps without the right to a judicial hearing or trial , and did not allow judicial review to take place until after the punishment was being enforced . In the beginning there were no limits to the length for which detainees could be sentenced , and it was not until 1979 that a maximum sentence of four years ( three years ' sentence plus one @-@ year extension ) was set . In 1983 , the management and implementation of the re @-@ education through labor system was passed from the Ministry of Public Security to the Ministry of Justice .
When Falun Gong was banned in mainland China in 1999 , re @-@ education through labor became a common punishment for practitioners . Some human rights groups claim that as many as 10 @,@ 000 Falun Gong members were detained in between 1999 and 2002 , with as many as 5 @,@ 000 detained in 2001 alone . More recent estimates suggest that hundreds of thousands of Falun Gong adherents are imprisoned in China , with some sources estimating up to half of the official reeducation through labor camp population is Falun Gong practitioners . In some labor camps , Falun Gong practitioners make up the majority population .
In the past decade , there have been numerous calls for the system to be reformed or replaced . As early as 1997 , the United Nations Working Group on Arbitrary Detention ( WGAD ) called for China to allow judicial control over detentions ; in 2000 , the UN Committee Against Torture recommended that all forms of administrative detention , including re @-@ education through labor , be abolished ; in 2004 , the WGAD called for the establishment of rights to due process and counsel for individuals detained ; and in 2005 , the Special Rapporteur on Torture called for the outright abolition of re @-@ education through labor . The prominent deaths of two inmates in spring 2003 prompted many calls within China for reform of the system , but reform did not happen immediately , though The China Daily reported that there was " general consensus " that reform was needed . In March 2007 , however , the Chinese government did announce that it would abolish the re @-@ education through labor system and replace it with a more lenient set of laws . According to the proposal , the maximum sentence would be lowered from four years to 18 months ; re @-@ education centers would be renamed " correction centers " and have their fences and gates removed . A month later , Chongqing municipality passed a law allowing lawyers to offer legal counsel in re @-@ education through labor cases .
Many human rights groups , however , doubted the efficacy of the proposed reforms , saying that the new laws would only help minor criminals and not help political prisoners , and that the reforms would not actually abolish the re @-@ education through labor system . The Laogai Research Foundation stated that lowering the maximum length of detention and changing the names of the detention facilities would not constitute a " fundamental change " . Nine months after the declaration that the laws would be rewritten , the re @-@ education through labor system had not been abolished ; in December 2007 , a group of academics drafted an open letter to the government calling for an end to the system . During the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , there were reports that some individuals applying for permits to protest were detained without trial ; of these , some were sentenced to re @-@ education through labor . In the United Nations Human Rights Council 's September 2008 Universal Periodic Review of the People 's Republic of China , re @-@ education through labor was listed as an " urgent human rights concern , " and as of February 2009 there remains a large number of active facilities .
= = = Statistics = = =
Reports on re @-@ education through labor have found it difficult to estimate the number of people in re @-@ education centers , and nationwide statistics were often unavailable in the past . What data have become available often vary widely .
Of these detainees , 5 to 10 percent are estimated to be political prisoners , and as many as 40 percent drug offenders — in 1998 , nearly one @-@ third of the known re @-@ education camps were meant specifically for holding drug offenders .
China Daily estimated that there were a total of 310 re @-@ education centers in China in 2007 . The 2008 edition the Laogai Research Foundation 's biennial report listed exactly 319 " confirmed " re @-@ education centers in China , and 74 " unconfirmed " ones , but estimated that the actual number might be much higher. the provinces with the most centers being Guangdong ( 31 ) , Heilongjiang ( 21 ) , and Henan ( 21 ) . In a February 2009 meeting of the United Nations Human Rights Council , the Chinese government stated that there are 320 centers . The provinces with the most re @-@ education centers include Guangdong , Liaoning , Heilongjiang , and Henan . As at the end of 2008 , there were 350 labour camps in which were held 160 @,@ 000 prisoners .
= = Detentions = =
= = = Conviction and detention = = =
Sentencing for re @-@ education through labor is generally carried out by the police rather than by the judicial system , so individuals are rarely charged or tried before being detained . Public security bureaus ( police offices ) are able to carry out administrative detentions for " minor " infringements that are not considered criminal acts ; at least one analyst has suggested that local public security bureaus often abuse their authority and detain individuals for things such as personal vendettas . Individuals may also be sentenced to re @-@ education through labor by courts , but the proportion of individuals who receive trials rather than going directly into administrative detention is determined in part by how much capacity that province has for re @-@ education detainees — provinces with large re @-@ education through labor apparatus generally allow fewer detainees to have trials . Where detainees have been allowed a trial , their lawyers have faced " intimidation and abuse , " according to some reports , and the individuals under trial have sometimes been convicted on the basis of confessions that were coerced through " torture and severe psychological pressure . " In at least one instance , convicted individuals were sent to re @-@ education through labor even after being found not guilty in a trial .
Most detainees in re @-@ education through labor facilities are reported to be drug users , petty criminals , and prostitutes , as well as some political prisoners ; James Seymour has also claimed that most individuals sentenced to re @-@ education through labor are from urban areas . Individuals who attempt to leave the country illegally have also been sentenced to re @-@ education through labor upon their return . In periods leading up to visits from foreign dignitaries or politically sensitive anniversaries ( such as the anniversary of the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 ) , local authorities have supposedly detained " undesirables " such as the homeless , mentally or physically disabled individuals , and migrant workers . One China specialist at the RAND Corporation has claimed that the police , faced with a lack of " modern rehabilitation and treatment programs , " use re @-@ education through labor convictions to " warehouse " individuals for " an increasing number of social problems . " In some instances , individuals were sent to re @-@ education through labor even after being found not guilty in a court of law .
Detainees can seek to have their detention repealed through an " administrative review " ( xingzheng fuyi , 行政复议 ) of the decision or by filing an " administrative litigation " ( xingzheng susong 行政诉讼 ) against the Re @-@ education Through Labor Management Committee that detained them . According to the advocacy group Chinese Human Rights Defenders , however , these options are ineffective and the groups overseeing the reviews and litigations often have the same interests as the management committee that originally ordered the detention .
= = = Conditions in the facilities = = =
The United States Department of State called the conditions in prisons " harsh and frequently degrading , " and said the conditions in re @-@ education through labor facilities were similar , citing overcrowded living spaces , low @-@ quality food , and poor or absent medical care . Detainees in camps are required to work for little or no pay ; while Chinese law requires that prison laborers ' workday be limited to 12 hours a day , The United States Department of State and the Laogai Research Foundation have speculated that re @-@ education through labor detainees are forced to work longer . In 2001 , sociologist Dean Rojek estimated that detainees generally worked six days a week , " in total silence . " Much of the labor done by re @-@ education through labor detainees is geared towards agriculture or producing goods , many of which are sold internationally , since re @-@ education through labor detainees are not counted as official " prisoners " and therefore not subject to international treaties . They also perform work ranging " from tending vegetables and emptying septic pits to cutting stone blocks and construction work . "
Although drug abusers are ostensibly placed in re @-@ education through labor to be treated for their addictions , some testimonial evidence has suggested that little " meaningful treatment " takes place in at least some of the centers , and that drug abusers often relapse into addiction upon their release from detention .
The facilities have been widely criticized for the physical abuse that is said to go on within them . Corporal punishment is commonly used , and torture and physical abuse are also thought to be widespread in the facilities . In April 2003 , Zhang Bin , an inmate at the re @-@ education facility Huludao City Correctional Camp , was beaten to death , reportedly by other inmates and by the labor supervisor . Zhang 's death , along with the March 2003 death of inmate Sun Zhigang in a custody and repatriation prison , sparked calls within China for reform of the system , although reforms were not made immediately .
Though most reports describe the conditions of re @-@ education camps as " brutal , " there are some claims of prisoners being well @-@ treated . For example , when he was released from a three @-@ year re @-@ education sentence in 1999 , dissident Liu Xiaobo said that he had been treated very mildly , that he had been allowed to spend time reading , and that the conditions had been " pretty good . "
Forced labor may include breaking rocks and assembling car seat covers , and even gold farming in World of Warcraft .
= = = Life after release = = =
Detainees who are released from re @-@ education through labor camps may still be unable to travel or see other people freely . Individuals who remain in re @-@ education through labor for 5 or more years may not be allowed to return to their homes , and those who do may be closely monitored and not permitted to leave certain areas . For example , in July 2003 a priest who had been released from detention was kept under house arrest , and five men who attempted to visit him were themselves detained .
According to Xinhua , the official news agency of the Communist Party of China , slightly over 50 % of detainees released from prison and re @-@ education through labor in 2006 received government aid in the form of funds or assistance in finding jobs .
= = Criticism = =
Human Rights Watch has stated that the " re @-@ education through labor " system violates international law , specifically Article 9 ( 4 . ) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ( ICCPR ) , which provides that " Anyone who is deprived of his liberty by arrest or detention shall be entitled to take proceedings before a court , in order that the court may decide without delay on the lawfulness of his detention ... " The Chinese Ministry of Justice , as well , has admitted that the system violated items in the Chinese constitution . Wang Gongyi , vice @-@ director of the Institute of Justice Research affiliated to the Ministry of Justice , said that the current re @-@ education through labor practice contradicts several items in the Constitution , the Criminal Procedure Law , and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights a United Nations human rights treaty China signed in 1998 . Re @-@ education through labor has also been criticized by numerous human rights groups for not offering procedural guarantees for the accused , and for being used to detain political dissidents , teachers , Chinese house church leaders , and Falun Gong practitioners . Furthermore , even though the law up until 2007 specified a maximum length of detainment of four years , at least one source mentions a " retention for in @-@ camp employment " system that allowed authorities to keep detainees in the camps for longer than their official sentences .
Re @-@ education through labor has been a focus of discussion not only among foreign human rights groups , but also among legal scholars in China , some of whom were involved in the drafting of the 2007 laws meant to replace the system . In addition to legal scholars , the Supreme People 's Court of the People 's Republic of China had criticized the system . In light of the widespread disapproval of the system , HRIC called in 2001 for the system to be abolished entirely . Among its criticisms it cited the fact that the wording of re @-@ education through labor laws was too loose , allowing authorities to manipulate it ; the fact that the punishment given in re @-@ education centers was too severe for the crimes committed ; the abusive conditions at re @-@ education centers ; and the variation of re @-@ education through labor laws from one province to another .
Although many human rights groups and legal scholars both within and without China called for the reform or total abolition of re @-@ education through labor , some groups have defended the system . A 1997 report in China 's Legal Daily hailed re @-@ education through labor as a means to " maintain social peace and prevent and reduce crime . " The Ministry of Public Security stated in 2005 that re @-@ education through labor helped maintain rule of law and was mainly used for rehabilitating lawbreakers . In 2007 , when new laws were drafted , the Ministry of Public Security was in favor of continuing the practice of not allowing judicial review before punishment was enforced .
= = = Profit opportunities = = =
The laojiao system employs tens of thousands of people . Profits are made through sale of the products of forced labor and through the collection of bribes received to reduce sentences or to ensure that relatives receive adequate food .
= = Abolition = =
During the Third Plenum of the 18th Party Congress in Beijing on 15 November 2013 , Chinese officials announced that they planned to abolish the Re @-@ education Through Labour system . The announcement came after a series of stories about Masanjia Labor Camp garnered international as well as domestic attention . First was the highly publicised letter from an inmate at Masanjia that a Portland , Oregon woman found hidden in a box of Halloween decorations . The letter listed abuses at the camp and pleaded for help . Secondly a small magazine in China called Lens published a 14 @-@ page report detailing abuses of women at Masanjia . An online version of the report quickly became the most read news item in China . These two stories along with continued pressure from international NGO 's as well as reformers within China precipitated the announcement to end the system .
The planned abolition of the system , however , has been criticised by human rights groups , with Amnesty International issuing a report titled " Changing the Soup but Not the Medicine . " Amnesty 's report concludes that the camp closures are a positive step forward for human rights , but the fundamental problems of arbitrary detention remain in China :
Many of the policies and practices which resulted in individuals being punished for peacefully exercising their human rights by sending them to RTL have not fundamentally changed : quite the contrary . There is ample evidence that such policies and practices are continuing in full force . The latest anti @-@ Falun Gong campaign , launched earlier this year and intended to operate for three years , shows that the CCP ’ s determination to rid China of this spiritual group has not abated . Falun Gong practitioners continue to be punished through criminal prosecution and being sent to “ brainwashing centres ” and other forms of arbitrary detention . Petitioners likewise continue to be subjected to harassment , forcibly committed to mental institutions and sent to “ black jails ” and other forms of arbitrary detention . Human rights defenders , democracy advocates , whistle @-@ blowers and other political activists are also being increasingly targeted through criminal detention , “ black jails ” , short @-@ term administrative detention , and enforced disappearances , rather than RTL .
On December 28 , 2013 , the Standing Committee of the National People 's Congress abolished the re @-@ education through labor system . Detainees were released without finishing their sentences .
|
= Agustín Ross Cultural Centre =
Agustín Ross Cultural Centre ( Spanish , Centro Cultural Agustín Ross ) , previously known as Casino Ross ( Ross Casino ) , is the cultural center of the city of Pichilemu in Libertador General Bernardo O 'Higgins Region , Chile . It was constructed between 1906 and 1909 at the request of politician Agustín Ross Edwards . The structure of the cultural center is very similar to that of the Grand Trianon in Versailles , France .
It is best known for housing one of the first casinos of Chile ; a casino operated in the building between 1917 and 1931 . After 1931 all casinos , except the newly opened Casino de Viña del Mar , were declared illegal . The building has also been used as a post office , a store selling imported goods , a hotel , a discotheque , and a bar . There were two attempts by the local government to purchase the building ; the first time in 1982 failed while the second in 1995 succeeded . The former casino was declared a National Monument of Chile along with the Agustín Ross Park in February 1988 .
Over time , the building deteriorated , and a project was approved in January 2007 for it to be renovated for use as a cultural center . The restored building opened in January 2009 and houses the local library . In January 2010 , the cultural center was inaugurated by President Michelle Bachelet and Mayor Roberto Córdova .
= = History = =
= = = 1885 – 1906 : The idea = = =
Agustín Ross Edwards was a wealthy Chilean writer , member of parliament , government minister and politician . He reportedly had the dream of " creating a port which could be an alternative to the Valparaíso port , " but this would turn later into " creating a touristic place , an elite resort , collecting the most important characteristics of European places , which would make it unique . "
For this purpose , Ross Edwards bought Fundo Pichilemu , a farm , from Juan Esteban Torrealba Maturana in 1885 . There was a little hotel in Fundo Pichilemu called La Posada , which he converted into a first @-@ class hotel called the Gran Hotel Pichilemu ( now the Agustín Ross Hotel ) . Following the development of the Gran Hotel Pichilemu , Ross Edwards saw the need of creating " a seaside resort with all the comforts and luxuries capable of seducing the Chilean aristocracy ; " for this purpose , he conceived the idea of creating a park , and a post @-@ office building . Afterwards , Agustín Ross installed amenities such as a laundry , stables , and stairways , among others , according to local historian José Arraño Acevedo , turning Pichilemu into a summer resort town for affluent people from Santiago and Mendoza , Argentina .
= = = 1906 – 1930 : Construction ; the casino = = =
According to Washington Saldías González , editor of Pichilemu News , the construction of the building lasted from 1906 to 1909 , while Jorge Godoy Rojas , architect of the University of Chile , states that it was built between 1904 and 1906 . Ross wanted it to look similar to the Grand Trianon of the Tuileries Palace in Paris , France ; he imported building materials and furniture from France and England . After its opening , the building included a post office with telegraph service and a store for imported goods , exclusive to clients of the Gran Hotel Pichilemu .
The National Monuments Council asserts that the first casino in Chile was opened in the building in 1906 ; however , historians Antonio Saldías and José Arraño Acevedo have pointed out that it was inaugurated as a de facto casino in the summer of 1917 , after Agustín Ross rented the building to Argentinean businessman Alfredo Master . Saldías also noted that there were casinos in Chile before Agustín Ross 's arrival in Pichilemu , in towns such as Constitución . The casino operated until 1931 , when the Casino de Viña del Mar , the first official casino of Chile , opened ; all others were declared illegal . Ross died in 1925 at age of 82 in Viña del Mar , just months before " one of his greatest " dreams was accomplished : the railway from Palmilla and the local railway station .
= = = 1930 – 1995 : The discotheques ; the National Monument = = =
After the casino closed , the building was mostly left unused until the 1940s , when the González Pérez family purchased it from Agustín Ross de Ferrari , a descendant of Ross Edwards . The family converted the building into a hotel , and in the late 1940s , the underground floor was remodeled and made a clandestine casino . Twenty years later , in the late 1960s , Gustavo González Pérez , then a pilot in the Chilean Air Force , along with another member of the Air Force , created an American @-@ style discotheque called La Caverna ( The Cavern ) in the basement . Years later , González Pérez transferred the business to other members of his family , who renamed the discotheque Los Tijuana ( The Tijuanas ) . Finally , the González Pérez family decided to close the discotheque in the late 1970s . Shortly afterwards , Rancagua businesswoman Carmelita Tello installed a boîte called Carmelita in the main room . Later , Pichileminian Roberto Álvarez decided to run a discotheque called Master in the same place , while at the same time , there was a grill bar called Wa @-@ Na in another room ; both businesses operated until the 1990s . The condition of the building gradually deteriorated , and its use became restricted .
During the administration of Mayor Julio Waidele Wolff ( 1981 – 1983 ) , an attempt was made to buy the building with municipal funds ; however , Waidele was not allowed to complete the purchase because the price of eight million pesos ( approximately US $ 16 @,@ 000 ) was " too high for the municipal budget , and would leave many things without financing . " The building would finally be purchased in 1995 by Mayor Orlando Cornejo Bustamante with the support of the Pichilemu City Council , then composed of Aldo Polanco Contreras , Jorge Vargas González , Mario Bichón Cáceres , Mariano Polanco Galarce , and Raúl Tobar Pavez , for 30 million pesos ( approximately US $ 60 @,@ 000 ) .
In 1987 , after the re @-@ inauguration of another work of Agustín Ross , the Ross Park , a request was made to the National Monuments Council that both the park and the former casino be declared Monumentos Históricos ( National Monuments ) ; they were so designated on 25 February 1988 .
= = = 1995 – 2008 : Restoration = = =
After the former casino was purchased by the government of Pichilemu , the building was used to hold meetings , exhibitions of paintings , sculptures , theater , and for launching books . In 1997 , the Club Aéreo de Pichilemu ( Aero Club of Pichilemu ) requested the building to host the fiftieth annual reunion of the Air Federation of Chile . Permission was granted , but the Club Aéreo had to purchase toilet fixtures , as the ones in the building were seriously damaged . This prompted the government of Mayor Jorge Vargas González ( 1996 – 2007 ) to begin restoring the deteriorated former casino , but it was not until 2004 that the Regional Government of Libertador General Bernardo O 'Higgins Region approved financing for a restoration design study . The study by the Department of Architecture of the Ministry of Public Works began in 2005 and lasted until mid – 2006 . Afterwards , on 15 December , Intendant of Libertador General Bernardo O 'Higgins Region Héctor Leiva Polanco unveiled to the community of Pichilemu the design and announced that he would present a financing proposal during the next year to the Fondo Nacional de Desarrollo Regional ( National Fund of Regional Development ) . The project was approved on 23 January 2007 ; the budget , according to architect Jorge Godoy Rojas , was 513 @,@ 125 @,@ 000 pesos ( US $ 1 @,@ 026 @,@ 250 ) . On 12 June 2007 , the budget was increased to accommodate additional restoration work , by 100 million pesos to 663 @,@ 702 @,@ 000 pesos ( US $ 1 @,@ 327 @,@ 404 ) .
On 14 February 2007 , the Regional Secretary ( Seremi ) of the Ministry of Public Works , Beatriz Valenzuela , wrote in an article in the online newspaper El Rancahuaso , " The current state of the historic monument is bad , because of the deterioration of the roof , which over the years has had permanently leaked water and humidity . This can be easily seen in the damaged wood of its inside enclosure and the great frame of the mansard roof , which is of oak wood . " Some months later , on 23 August , Valenzuela announced that the restoration of the building would begin that same day , after it was authorized by the Regional Government ; the building would become a cultural center , housing the local public library and art galleries . The restoration work was the responsibility of development firm Atelier Consultores .
During the restoration of the casino , a number of historical items were found . Those included newspapers , specifically a copy of Las Últimas Noticias from February 1941 , during the time the building served as a hotel ; a US telephone battery from 1909 ; and a tile from the casino 's ceiling with signatures and drawings by casino workers in 1915 .
= = = 2009 – present : Cultural center = = =
The completely restored building opened on 23 January 2009 , one hundred years after its original construction . An exhibition of photographs by Ana María Encina Lemarchand was the first to be staged in the restored building . In June 2009 , a non @-@ political organization called the Corporación Cultural de Pichilemu ( Pichilemu Cultural Corporation ) was formed to manage the cultural center , in coordination with the local government . The center 's inauguration was supposed to take place in March of that year , with President Michelle Bachelet Jeria in attendance ; however , it was postponed until 27 January 2010 . Bachelet toured the rooms of the cultural center with Mayor Roberto Córdova , and later said that the center " [ is ] to merge itself with the origins of modern Pichilemu , restoring the facilities to do what is so necessary : to make room for the creativity , talent , imagination , dreams of so many young and many people . "
After the earthquakes of 27 February , and 11 March 2010 , the cultural center was " slightly " damaged . The balaustrades of both the northwest and southeast towers of the building fell down after the earthquakes ; in the northwest tower , a pole broke ; and there were some cracks and minor damage to the walls . Repairs took place in February 2011 , with an investment of fourteen million pesos ( US $ 28 @,@ 000 ) by the government of Pichilemu .
= = Organization = =
The Centro Cultural Agustín Ross houses the local public library , and has four exhibition rooms , an auditorium , a music room , and several other rooms in which workshops take place for yoga , acrobatics , theatre , and other disciplines for people of all ages . The restoration of the cultural centre prompted the creation of an independent organization called the Corporación Cultural de Pichilemu ( Pichilemu Cultural Corporation ) .
= = = Public library = = =
The Biblioteca Pública de Pichilemu ( Public Library of Pichilemu ) is the public library of the city of Pichilemu , and its director as of 2011 is María Angélica Yáñez Cortés . The library was created on 16 May 1989 , under the leadership of Mayor René Maturana Maldonado .
The library was previously located in a dedicated building on Santa María Avenue from 1989 until 16 January 2009 , before relocating to the Centro Cultural Agustín Ross . In September 2010 , the library received a donation of 150 music and culture @-@ related books with the help of Alejandra Domedel , the cultural center 's communications and cultural management officer .
= = = Pichilemu Cultural Corporation = = =
Jorge Godoy Rojas , architect of the University of Chile , suggested in an January 2007 article he wrote for the online newspaper El Cachapoal that a semi @-@ autonomous legal entity be set up for the management of the cultural center . Such a legal entity had also been suggested to the authorities previously by local cultural organizations for several years , but they had been largely ignored . On 20 November 2008 , fourteen local organizations , including the Tourism Chamber of Pichilemu , the Agrupación Ciudadana por un Pichilemu Limpio ( Citizens Group for a Clean Pichilemu ) , and Canal 3 Pichilemu , sent a letter to the Pichilemu City Council requesting the creation of the Corporación Cultural de Pichilemu ( Pichilemu Cultural Corporation ) for the third time .
In May 2009 , municipal employee Jorge Torres Avaca reported that the Cultural Corporation had been approved by the City Council , and its constitution was to be drawn up on 2 June ; it was approved on 11 June . Of the seven directors of the corporation , two are elected , two are appointed by the Pichilemu City Council , and another two by the regional or provincial government , and the mayor presides as the seventh member . Longtime Pichilemu resident sculptor Macarena Irarrázabal Correa and Professor Carlos Leyton Labarca , native of the nearby village of Ciruelos and creator of the Museo del Niño Rural ( Museum of the Rural Child ) , were elected .
= = In popular culture = =
There is a popular myth surrounding the former casino which tells of " underground caves " between the Gruta de la Virgen ( also known as the Gruta de Nuestra Señora de Lourdes ; Grotto of Our Lady of Lourdes ) and the building , crossing Agustín Ross Park . During the restoration of the building , in December 2007 , it was reported that " two great walls constructed with flagstone , very wide and very close together " were found , but nothing was confirmed afterwards .
Before the former casino building was completed , in 1908 , Agustín Ross Edwards and Evaristo Merino reported to historiographer José Toribio Medina the existence of indigenous remains in the cave now called the Gruta de la Virgen . Medina asked Argentinean ethnographer Félix Faustino Outes to inspect the remains , and subsequently Medina wrote the book Los Restos Indígenas de Pichilemu ( The Indigenous Remains of Pichilemu ) , using the report Faustino Outes gave him .
American writer Trudy Larkin Forster wrote the book Los Gatos del Casino : la Historia de Don Agustín Ross Edwards y la Brigada de los Gatos Negros ( The Cats of the Casino : the History of Sir Agustín Ross Edwards and the Brigade of the Black Cats ) in 1999 . The book is set in Pichilemu and the Agustín Ross Casino , and it was premiered in the Children 's Book Fair of Santiago in June 1999 , and then in the Agustín Ross Art Room ( in current Centro Cultural Agustín Ross ) on 18 September of that year .
|
= Tropical Storm Karina ( 2008 ) =
Tropical Storm Karina was a weak , short @-@ lived tropical cyclone that developed during the 2008 Pacific hurricane season . The 12th tropical cyclone and 11th named storm of the season , it originated out of a tropical wave in the North Atlantic hurricane basin . The wave entered the Pacific Ocean on August 30 and spawned an area of low pressure off the western coast of Mexico on the morning of September 1 . The low had become sufficiently organized to be declared a tropical depression the next morning . The depression quickly developed into a tropical storm later in the morning , at which time it was named Karina and reached its peak intensity of 40 miles per hour ( 65 km / h ) with a minimum pressure of 1000 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 54 inHg ) . Later that day , after being classified a tropical storm for 12 hours , wind shear weakened the storm to a depression on September 3 and it dissipated shortly thereafter .
= = Meteorological history = =
Tropical Storm Karina originated from the southern portion of the tropical wave — a tropical wave is an elongated low pressure area embedded within the easterly trade winds — that also spawned Hurricane Gustav in the Caribbean Sea . The wave crossed Central America and entered the eastern Pacific basin on August 28 . After two days , the wave spawned an area of low pressure south of Manzanillo , Mexico . The low was located beneath an area of moderate convection , but was nearing cooler waters and a moist , yet stable , air mass . By later that night , a low @-@ level circulation developed partially underneath deep thunderstorm activity . In an area favorable for development , a tropical cyclone formation alert was issued on September 2 . However , strong easterly shear separated the showers and thunderstorms from the center of circulation . Despite the shear , sufficient convection developed around the center ; the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) classified it a tropical depression at 0600 UTC , while centered about 390 miles ( 630 km ) south of the southern tip of Baja California . The NHC initially did not recognize the system as a tropical depression and did not initiate advisories on it until several hours later . The depression quickly intensified into a tropical storm due to a brief relaxation of the wind shear and was given the name Karina while located about 25 mi ( 40 km ) north of Socorro Island .
Karina was located to the south of a weakening mid @-@ level ridge , leading to a relatively slow west @-@ northwest movement at 9 mph ( 15 km / h ) . Upon becoming a tropical storm , Karina reached its peak with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . There was uncertainty as to the intensity of the storm , as the Dvorak technique — a system used to estimate the intensity of a tropical cyclone — rendered an intensity of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) ; but because the center of the storm had just moved under the deep convection , the winds were held at minimal tropical storm intensity . That night , 12 hours after being declared a tropical storm , Karina was downgraded to a tropical depression . Strong easterly wind shear of at least 25 mph ( 40 km / h ) tore away the deep convection that previously surrounded Karina . Karina was moving into a stable environment over cooling waters which would prevent convection from redeveloping , despite a forecast of lessening wind shear . The forward motion gradually decreased . By the morning of September 3 , convection had been sheared 125 mi ( 200 km ) from the center of circulation , leaving only a swirl of clouds . Karina degenerated into a remnant low @-@ pressure area later that morning and the NHC issued their final advisory . The remnant low quickly dissipated that afternoon .
= = Preparations and impact = =
When the National Hurricane Center issued its first advisory on Karina , the storm was near the island of Socorro . There were no known preparations taken before the storm , as the island is mainly a natural reserve and the only inhabitants reside in a military base . On Clarion Island , residents took minor actions to prepare for possible impact from the storm . Officials advised residents to cancel all coastal activities and comply with advice from the National Civil Protection . Small crafts were advised to exercise extreme caution . In Cabo San Lucas , officials closed the port due to high waves produced by Karina ; small crafts such as water taxis and jet skis were to remain at the port . Port officials in Oaxaca and Chiapas advised boaters of strong winds , rain , and low visibility that they may encounter when nearing the seas around Karina . Despite the proximity to Socorro , no damage was reported and Karina remained far enough away from Clarion that there was no impact on the island . There were no ship reports of tropical storm @-@ force winds .
|
= Thomas Coke , 1st Earl of Leicester ( seventh creation ) =
Thomas William Coke , 1st Earl of Leicester ( 6 May 1754 – 30 June 1842 ) , known as Coke of Norfolk or Coke of Holkham , was a British politician and agricultural reformer . Born to Wenman Coke , Member of Parliament ( MP ) for Derby , and his wife Elizabeth , Coke was educated at several schools , including Eton College , before undertaking a Grand Tour of Europe . After returning to Britain and being married , Coke 's father died , leaving him the owner of a 30 @,@ 000 acre Norfolk estate . Returned to Parliament in 1776 for Norfolk , Coke became a close friend of Charles James Fox , and joined his Eton schoolmate William Windham in his support of the American colonists during the American Revolutionary War . As a supporter of Fox , Coke was one of the MPs who lost their seats in the 1784 general election , and he returned to Norfolk to work on farming , hunting , and the maintenance and expansion of Holkham Hall , his ancestral home .
Coke was again returned to Parliament in 1790 , sitting continuously until 1832 , and he primarily spoke on matters of local interest , such as the Corn Laws . His second focus was on civil liberties , and he spoke out against the government 's response to the Peterloo Massacre and similar events . Described as the " greatest commoner in England " , he chose the passage of the Great Reform Act 1832 as the moment to retire , later being made the Earl of Leicester in July 1837 . After a short illness , Coke died on 30 June 1842 , and was succeeded as Earl by his son Thomas . Coke 's main legacy is as an agricultural reformer , not as a politician ; he has historically been credited with sparking the British Agricultural Revolution through the reforms he made to farming on his estates . Later historians have questioned this , however , noting that the developments credited to him are most likely the work of other individuals ; nevertheless , he has still been described as " the real hero of Norfolk agriculture " .
= = Early life and education = =
Coke was born on 6 May 1754 in London , to Wenman and Elizabeth Coke . The Cokes were a landowning family of Derbyshire , originally from Norfolk , Wenman representing Derby as one of its two Members of Parliament , and as such Coke was born into a wealthy , estate @-@ owning family ; one of his first memories was " being held up to a window to watch a fox being cornered and killed by hounds " . Little is known of Coke 's father ; Wenman is described as a shy person who " saw little company and lived much out of the world ; his habits were those of a country gentleman , bending his mind to agriculture , moderately addicted to field sports and more than either , to reading in which he passed many hours ; firm in his principles which were those of the old Whig ; amiable in his disposition mild in his manners , he was beloved of his friends " . The family 's prospects improved significantly when Coke was five , when his uncle , Thomas Coke , 1st Earl of Leicester , died . The cause of Thomas 's death is not certain , although there are chances it was a duel , but the result was that upon the death of Thomas 's wife Margaret , Wenman would inherit substantial Norfolk estate , including Holkham Hall , a " Palladian masterpiece " . Margaret studiously avoided the rest of the family , vowing to outlive Wenman simply to ensure that he did not inherit the estate .
Few records exist of Thomas Coke 's early years , although it is known that he was educated in Longford , Derbyshire , before going to a school in Wandsworth run by French refugees . In 1765 he was sent to Eton College , where he was joined by William Windham , a close friend in his later life . Coke was apparently happy at Eton , and was excellent at field sports ; on one occasion 70 snipes he had killed were found in his room , and on another he narrowly avoiding being punished for shooting a pheasant in Windsor Park . He was not particularly interested in his academic studies , but by the time he left Eton in 1771 Coke had developed a close circle of friends and connections from the landowning class , and practical skills to deal with his future estates . After leaving school he undertook a Grand Tour of Europe , financed by his father and his great @-@ aunt ( who offered him £ 500 not to go to a university , regarding them as dens of vice ) . Coke visited France and Italy , where he witnessed the marriage of the Young Pretender to Princess Louise of Stolberg @-@ Gedern ; Louise apparently fell in love with Coke , preferring the similarly @-@ aged Englishman to her 52 @-@ year @-@ old alcoholic husband .
= = Career = =
By the time Coke returned to Britain , plans were already under way for him to enter Parliament . When an election was called in 1774 , Wenman stood for the seat of Norfolk , with his son asked to stand in his place for Derby . Coke was not particularly enthusiastic about this , and withdrew when his opponent discovered he was under 21 , the requisite age to stand for Parliament . With his father elected , Coke travelled with him to London , meeting members of the British high society . His sister Elizabeth and her husband James Dutton were also visiting , with Dutton 's sister Jane , and Coke fell in love with her . Wenman was not impressed when Coke asked him to let them be married , as he had picked out the daughter of a baronet for his son , but with the intercession of Wenman 's friend Harbord Harbord , he finally consented to their marriage , which occurred on 5 October 1775 .
The new couple lived in Godwick Manor , their peace disturbed in 1776 when Wenman 's health began to fail . He finally died on 10 April after " a constipation which medicine could not remove " , leaving Coke in charge of a 30 @,@ 000 acre estate at the age of 22 . Soon after his father 's death , Harbord and other senior Whigs visited Coke and asked him to stand for Norfolk in his father 's stead . Coke was not enthusiastic , not seeing himself as a politician and hoping to enjoy his new estates and wealth , but after his visitors pointed out a Tory might otherwise replace him " my blood chilled all over me from my head to my foot , and I came forward " . On 12 April he issued a manifesto to the Norfolk electorate , soon returning to campaign , and after being unanimously nominated on 27 April he was elected in May .
= = = Entry to Parliament = = =
Little is known of Coke 's early career in Parliament ; he spoke relatively infrequently , and the parliamentary session was dissolved soon after his election . During that summer , however , he struck up a relationship with Charles James Fox , a soon to be famous Whig politician noted for his outspoken and flamboyant lifestyle . Coke later recounted that " When I first went into Parliament I attached myself to Fox and clung to him through life . I lived in the closest bond of friendship with him . " The period was one of economic stability and political calm under Lord North , which ended due to the American Revolution and resulting American Revolutionary War . Coke was noted for his support of the American colonists ; as a strong supporter of the 1688 Glorious Revolution and the resulting Bill of Rights 1689 , he felt that the support of the espoused principles of justice and tolerance in Britain and overseas was his duty as a British subject , and saw no conflict between his position as a supporter of the colonists and his patriotism . Following the Battles of Saratoga , it became clear that any victory in America would be long and expensive , and in an attempt to raise funds King George III asked subjects to donate . In Norwich , a meeting was held in January 1778 for this purpose ; it raised £ 4 @,@ 500 in less than an hour . Windham and Coke attended this meeting , Windham making an impassioned speech pointing out that the campaign had so far resulted only in " disappointment , shame and dishonour " , and that " peace and reconciliation with America " was the only option . Windham , Coke and their supporters then withdrew to a nearby pub , where they drafted a petition to the king from " the Nobility , Gentry , Clergy , Freeholders and Inhabitants of the County of Norfolk " . This was presented to Parliament by Coke on 17 February 1778 , signed by 5 @,@ 400 people from Norfolk . George III took this as a personal insult , and as a result disliked Coke until his death .
Coke also brought up the issue of hunting game . During the late 18th century a series of laws were passed protecting a landowner 's right to hunt , and giving severe penalties to poachers . On 27 February Coke , an enthusiastic hunter , suggested in Parliament that these laws be relaxed ; " Combinations had been formed in the Country against the execution of these laws and some lives had been lost " . Before any motion could be brought ( it was not until 1827 that the laws were revised ) the situation in America came up again . On 22 February , Henry Seymour Conway brought a motion asking the King to " listen to the humble prayer and advice of his faithful Commons , that the war on the continent of North America may no longer be pursued for the impractical purpose of reducing the inhabitants of that country to obedience by force " . While the motion failed , it was again brought on 27 February , and passed . With this , Conway moved that " An humble address be presented to His Majesty " ; George III replied that he would see them on 3 March at St James 's Palace . It was then that " the most important and symbolic act of Coke 's political career " occurred . As a Knight of the Shire , Coke had the right to appear in court dressed " in his boots " as opposed to in formal court dress ; this he did , appearing in front of George III dressed in leather breeches , boots and spurs .
Eventually , the king began negotiations with the American colonies and accepted the resignation of Lord North – an action which would , eventually , lead to Coke leaving Parliament . A new government was formed in April 1782 , with Lord Rockingham as Prime Minister and Fox and Lord Shelburne as Secretaries of State . Rockingham and Shelburne disagreed constantly , particularly over the situation in North America , and with Rockingham 's death on 1 July Shelburne was made Prime Minister . At this the rest of the government resigned , and after a period of political chaos the short @-@ lived Fox @-@ North Coalition was formed in April 1783 . Coke was disgusted by this arrangement , describing it as a " revolting compact " . An East India Bill , which created 7 commissioners to oversee India , brought chaos to the coalition . Controversially , the commissioners would be appointed by the government , not by the crown , which challenged what the King saw as his constitutional right . Defeated in the House of Lords , the bill was used by George III to overturn Fox 's government and install a government led by William Pitt the Younger . Parliament was eventually dissolved on 25 March 1784 , and thanks to Coke 's long @-@ standing support of Fox and his actions , the ensuing general election led to Coke losing his seat .
= = = Norfolk work = = =
In between his Parliamentary work , Coke and his wife had been maintaining and improving his estates since they took possession of it in April 1776 . The cornerstone was Holkham House , a " temple to the arts " built by Coke 's great uncle . Knowing that he did not have the same understanding of classical architecture and art , Coke mainly left it alone , instead focusing on the park and gardens . The grounds had been laid out during the 1720s and 1730s , in a design which quickly became seen as old @-@ fashioned . Coke had the lake massively expanded , shifting a total of 36 @,@ 000 cubic yards of earth , and employed the gardener John Sandys from 1781 . Sandys created several large pieces of woodland , planting over 7 @,@ 000 trees in 22 acres near the Eastern Lodge , another ten acres near the lake , and four acres on marshland . In 1784 a further woodland expansion was undertaken , with 40 acres and 11 @,@ 000 trees , and between 1785 and 1789 396 @,@ 750 trees were planted on a further 179 acres . He retired in 1805 and was replaced a year later by James Loose , but continued to advise Coke on forestry matters . The library was also expanded , through the work of William Roscoe , who bought books including the Mainz Psalter for Coke between 1814 and 1842 .
Coke also expanded the estate itself , incorporating farms around the House as their leases ended , and by 1800 the estate covered 3 @,@ 500 acres . Samuel Wyatt was also employed from 1799 to 1805 to build new lodges at the entrance of the extended estate , and until 1806 also worked on a new kitchen garden ; this covered six acres . Humphry Repton was employed to extend the lake yet again , and proposed building a boathouse and fishing pavilion , as well as a chain ferry leading to a " snug thatched cottage " ; there is no evidence this proposal was ever approved . Most of the work was completed by 1810 , and from then on Coke 's attention turned to hunting game . The estate was explicitly designed with that in mind , and game books note between 1 @,@ 300 and 2 @,@ 500 partridges killed most years . In 1822 , Elizabeth , Coke 's daughter , recorded that 800 birds were shot in one day .
Jane Dutton , Coke 's wife , gave birth to their first child in 1777 , a daughter named Jane . Two more daughters followed ; Anne Margaret in 1779 , and Elizabeth in 1795 , before Jane 's death in 1800 . Jane was married to Charles Nevison Howard , Viscount Andover , on 21 June 1796 , but on 11 January 1800 Andover died in a shooting accident on the Holkham estate . Jane remarried to Henry Digby in 1806 , and they had 11 children .
= = = Landlord and agriculturalist = = =
As a landlord , Coke was a firm believer in the right and moral obligation of a landowner to improve the quality of life of those living on his estates . The roles of landlord and tenant were clearly set out by the late 18th century ; the landlord was to provide fields , roads and buildings , while the tenant would provide the seed , implements and manual labour . Coke 's estate included 54 farms when he inherited it , with excellent farm output . There were , however , significant debts as a result of his uncle 's work on Holkham Hall , with the interest alone being £ 4 @,@ 000 a year . He had some difficulties dealing with the people employed before he inherited the estates , and when the steward Ralph Cauldwell , appointed by Coke 's uncle , retired in 1782 , Coke failed to replace him until 1816 . This replacement was Francis Blaikie , a Scottish man who had previously been employed as estate steward for Lord Chesterfield . Blaikie paid close attention to where farms were doing badly or could do better , but often struggled to deal with Coke . Coke lacked financial sense in matters other than the agricultural , on one occasion selling all his land near Manchester . It wasn 't until 20 years later that Blaikie became aware of this , after receiving a query from the new owners about the mineral rights . Blaikie travelled to Manchester to meet the solicitor who had handled the sale , finding not only poorly drafted conveyances but that all the sold land had been rich in coal .
In the early 18th century , farmland was run through an open field system , which were commonly overstocked and made trying experimental methods very difficult ; enclosed farms , on the other hand , were higher quality and useful for experimentation , with the result that they commanded a rent almost double a similarly sized open field . Compounding this problem , many of the enclosures were split up into strips , with the result that ownership was unclear . Between 1776 and 1816 , Coke rapidly bought strips of land near his estates and had them enclosed . Much of this came during the Napoleonic Wars , where grain prices ( and therefore farming profits ) peaked . Coke was influenced by " Turnip " Townshend , who had owned a nearby estate who promoted crop rotation and farm improvement . Along with enclosure , marling and improved grasses , Townshend 's improvements resulted in " a course of husbandry utterly unlike that practised a hundred years ago " .
Coke 's big improvements came in two areas ; grasses and husbandry . He pioneered the use of cocksfoot and lucerne as grass and feed respectively , with the result that by 1793 he was claiming to have 2 @,@ 400 sheep in Holkham , as opposed to the 700 kept when he inherited the estates . The husbandry involved the milking comparisons of various types of cow , along with the first planting of Scottish turnips , which are " a good table vegetable being more palatable and nutritious and not so watery as the Norfolk variety " . His prime area of experimentation was on the selective breeding for sheep . The most common sheep in the area was the Norfolk Horn , which was long @-@ legged and slow to mature . Coke became a promoter of the English Leicester , a breed noted as fast @-@ maturing and excellent when fed turnips . Coke cross @-@ bred the two , with the resulting sheep being highly tame and superior to the pure Norfolk breed . Coke also bred cattle and used oxen for ploughing rather than horse , being the first to use them harnessed rather than yoked and winning a prize for his oxen in 1837 .
Through sheep shearings , competitions and his contacts within the nobility , Coke soon spread his new ideas and breeds . Initially small events of local farmers , the shearings soon became 200 @-@ person formal dinners , rising to 300 people in 1821 and 700 soon after , with even the American ambassador Richard Rush attending in 1819 , along with the French Consul and the Duke of Sussex . The Board of Agriculture was formed in 1793 , with Coke sitting as one of the 30 " ordinary members " as a leading agriculturalist ; he was made the Vice @-@ President in 1805 . The Board published a series of county reports for most of the United Kingdom , describing new farming measures being undertaken in various parts of the country .
Coke has been described as " the real hero of Norfolk agriculture " , despite the fact that his land was so poor one critic is said to have remarked that " the thin sandy soil must be ploughed by rabbits yoked to a pocket knife " . However , academics and writers dispute his importance . 19th and early 20th century historians held him to be the crucial figure of the British Agricultural Revolution , crediting him with inventing four @-@ crop rotation . Naomi Riches describes this as an " error " , and R.A.C. Parker , writing in the Economic History Review , states that " many of the innovations he is supposed to have introduced should be attributed to his predecessors in Norfolk " ; however that " is not to deny the substantial contribution of Coke himself to the advance of farming technique in England " .
= = = Further Parliamentary career = = =
Coke was re @-@ elected to Parliament in 1790 , at a time of great political trouble . The French Revolution a year earlier had torn the Whig party in half , with Coke and Fox in the isolated minority who supported the revolutionaries as their acts became more brutal . With the declaration of war in 1793 , an impact was finally felt in Britain with a rise in agricultural prices and rent . It also led to the establishment of local yeomanry forces to defend the country , something Coke opposed . This reduced his popularity in Norfolk and led to suspicions he might be a Jacobin , to the point where he was forced to publicly declare that he was not a Republican and " detested their principles " . Eventually , late September 1798 , he raised the Holkham Yeoman Cavalry , commanding it as a Major , to defend against any invasion . This unit was dissolved in 1802 with the Peace of Amiens , but after war broke out again a year later more volunteer regiments were formed . Coke was notably absent from any preparations for defence , feeling that the risks of invasion were exaggerated , but was eventually persuaded by public opinion to reform the Yeoman Cavalry in 1803 ; it was again dissolved in 1805 .
The French Revolution had split the Whigs into two factions , but as it progressed Fox 's group in support of the revolutionaries began to dwindle . Coke stuck by Fox , and with the outbreak of the War , the split became finalised ; Fox refused to accept that Britain need be involved in conflict , as did Coke . In Parliament , Coke spoke out against the conflict , debating the motion to raise money for the war through a new tax in April 1794 , and supporting Wilberforce 's anti @-@ war motion on 24 March 1795 . He felt more comfortable with local matters , however , and his main concerns " were those of the agricultural interest " , arguing against a new land tax and introducing a bill to shorten the shooting season , allowing for the production of more corn . Coke was again returned to Parliament in 1796 , despite an anti @-@ war and anti @-@ government address to the electorate which was condemned as arrogant and dictatorial , but found on his return that the Foxites had agreed to withdraw from Parliamentary activity .
After Parliament was dissolved in June 1802 , another election saw Coke again returned , although in a contested election that cost the candidates £ 35 @,@ 000 . With the death of William Pitt in 1806 , the two Whig groups agreed to an alliance , which took the form of the Ministry of All the Talents ; Fox was confirmed as Foreign Secretary , and Windham as Secretary for War and the Colonies . The government apparently offered Coke a peerage , which he refused , and primarily focused on the abolition of slavery , which was accomplished only after the death of Fox on 13 September 1806 . Fox 's death made Parliament lose some of its appeal to Coke , as they had been close friends . His attendance in the next two years was very limited , and the next occasion of note was his support of the Corn Laws , which were highly unpopular in Norfolk and led to him being physically attacked by a mob in 1815 .
With the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo , the wars in Europe ended , and the troops returned home . As a result , the nation underwent dramatic shifts due to rising unemployment as the economy shifted and the government began to pay off its debts incurred during 20 years of war . Agricultural prices slumped , and Coke became active in opposing tax increases which would impact on the farmers . In February 1816 he spoke out against income and malt tax , and in March attacked the property tax as " utterly at variance with civil liberty " . An opponent of government excess in a time of unemployment and high taxation , he also voted against the army estimates and opposed the Civil List in May . With a County Meeting on 5 April 1817 , Coke spoke on the King 's intent on " overturning democracy and enslaving the country " by restricting freedom of speech and the press , suggesting that the government needed to be removed .
Returning to Parliament in 1818 , he argued against the Royal Households Bill and introduced a Game Law Amendment Bill , which was defeated . Following the Peterloo Massacre and the government 's introduction of a Seditious Meetings Prevention Bill , Coke accused the government of being " most strongly implicated in the events in Manchester " , saying that the meeting would have been peaceful had it not been " interfered with by the officious agents of authority " . The 1820s saw Coke speak far less ; firstly , because of the continued Tory domination of Parliament , and secondly because of his remarriage . In 1822 , at the age of 68 and after 21 years as a widower , he married Anne Keppel , the daughter of Lord Albemarle , and Coke 's 18 @-@ year @-@ old godchild . Anne had initially been brought to Holkham to partner with his nephew William , who due to Coke 's lack of sons would inherit the estate , but they failed to get on . Anne and Coke 's marriage was met with bemusement , and described as " absurd " , but despite opposition took place on 26 February . Soon after the wedding Anne became pregnant , and their son Thomas was born on 22 December .
In 1831 , Coke 's personal friend Earl Grey became Prime Minister ; as a result , Coke 's appearances in Parliament became more regular . He expressed delight at the Great Reform Act 1832 , although he only spoke on the subject once , and chose its passage on 4 June 1832 as the appropriate moment to retire as an MP . As the " greatest commoner in England " , Coke finally accepted a peerage in July 1837 ( having been offered one six times before ) , becoming the Earl of Leicester . He took no pleasure in attending the House of Lords , however , describing it as " the hospital for incurables " .
= = Death = =
Coke remained in the prime of life after his retirement ; records show him killing 24 deer with 25 shots at the age of 79 , and having another child three years later . A portrait painted of him which appears to be of a man 20 years younger , is according to Stirling " no flattering likeness " , but instead completely accurate . After a short and painful illness while visiting his estate ( and childhood home ) at Longford Hall , Derbyshire , Coke died in the early hours of 30 June 1842 at the age of 88 ; his last words were reported to be " well , perhaps I have talked too much " . The body lay in state for two days , with the funeral procession finally setting out on 7 July . It travelled through King 's Lynn , where black flags of mourning were flown and thousands came to pay their respects . On the final leg of the journey , with a funeral procession two miles in length led by 150 Holkham tenants on horseback and followed by several hundreds of private carriages , 200 gentlemen on horseback , riding two abreast , and lastly , a long train of neighbours , tenants and yeomen , Coke was eventually buried at the family mausoleum in Tittleshall on 11 July . Immediately after Coke 's death , a committee formed to create a monument to him ; over a thousand subscribers contributed £ 5 @,@ 000 . The eventual Coke Monument , found in the grounds of Holkham Hall , was designed by William Donthorne and finally completed in 1851 .
|
= History of Braathens ( 1994 – 2004 ) =
Braathens SAFE 's domestic market was deregulated on 1 April 1994 . Since then , any airline within the European Economic Area is free to operate any domestic or international route . Braathens rejected a proposal from the main competitor Scandinavian Airlines System ( SAS ) for a merger ; instead the helicopter division was sold and the company listed on the Oslo Stock Exchange . New routes were opened from Oslo Airport , Fornebu to Bodø , Harstad / Narvik and Tromsø , but the routes from Bergen to these cities were terminated . International routes to Rome , Nice and Jersey were introduced . In 1996 , Braathens SAFE bought Sweden 's second @-@ largest airline , Transwede , and started flying on the Oslo – Stockholm route . The following year , Transwede , with its five domestic routes , was merged into Braathens SAFE . The same year , KLM bought 30 % of Braathens SAFE and the airlines started a partnership .
In 1998 , the airline changed its name to Braathens and introduced two @-@ class cabins . Full @-@ fare passengers traveled in the " Best " -class , while discounted travelers traveled in the " Back " -class . It also bought the Swedish airline Malmö Aviation . Oslo Airport , Gardermoen replaced Fornebu as the airline 's main hub , and a price war started against SAS and the new low @-@ cost airline Color Air . The availability of slots increased the frequency of flights for all three airlines to an unsustainable level . After a year , Color Air was bankrupt , but Braathens had suffered large losses , and terminated many routes , including all services in Sweden . In 2001 , the airline was bought by SAS , and the following year the two coordinated their services so as not to compete . On 1 May 2004 , they merged to create SAS Braathens , that re @-@ branded to Scandinavian Airlines in 2007 .
= = Deregulation = =
The deregulation process , which would eliminate the need for concessions for routes , was driven by Norway 's application for membership of the EU . This was supported by the Labor Party and the right @-@ winged Conservative Party and Progress Party . The plans from the EU indicated that international routes within EU should be deregulated from 1 January 1993 , with Norway and Sweden joining from 1 July . Full , domestic liberalization should be performed by 1 April 1997 . SAS and Braathens SAFE proposed a solution where only Norwegian airlines could compete until 1997 , which was thought to efficiently hinder other airlines , rather than these two , until then . SAS announced its support for competition on 4 February 1993 , while Braathens SAFE stated that it no longer was in favor of competition , despite having arguing for this for the whole of the company 's history . The company stated that stability was needed and that competition would result in marginalized routes , that were being cross @-@ subsidized , being closed . SAS stated that with competition , prices would fall 20 – 30 % , and that SAS wanted to operate with a loss to force Braathens SAFE close services .
During the discussion about deregulation , Braathens SAFE considered several possibilities to strengthen itself . In particular , it had discussions with the large European airlines Lufthansa , British Airways and KLM about an alliance , but these were rejected by Braathens SAFE , stating that the agreements were all about getting traffic to the partner 's hub . Minister of Transport , Kjell Opseth and director of SAS in Norway , Jan Reinås , both proposed a merger between Braathens SAFE and SAS , to ensure that the company had a 100 % market share on the primary routes before the merger . This would , according to them , secure that no foreign company could compete with the merged company . The proposal was rejected by Braathens SAFE 's management . Still , negotiations started between the companies in 1992 , although they were quickly abandoned . The press reported the price of Braathens SAFE to be NOK 1 @.@ 2 billion , but that this had been rejected as too expensive by SAS .
Prior to a government report being presented on 30 March 1993 , SAS had launched 1 November 1993 as their preferred date of free competition , while Braathens SAFE had launched 1 April 1997 as their preferred date . Braaathens SAFE was worried that the high debt the company had due to the purchase of new aircraft would make them illiquid in a price war . Bjørn G. Braathen stated that the company had bought the new aircraft based on the belief that deregulation would occur in 1997 , giving the airline time to pay more of the debt . On 2 June 1993 , with 76 against 18 votes , parliament voted to deregulate the domestic airline market from 1 April 1994 . It was supported by the Labor , Conservative and Progress Party . With this , Norway became the third country in Europe to fully deregulate , after Sweden and the United Kingdom .
Both Braathens SAFE and SAS had been cross @-@ subsidizing their routes . Through the regulations , the airlines had agreed to fly to unprofitable airports , in exchange for making higher profits on other routes . With free competition , this would not be followed , and the authorities announced the introduction of public service obligations on routes that were not profitable . To finance these , a NOK 10 fee would be charged on all primary routes . The cost of collecting this fee was so high that SAS and Braathens SAFE announced it was cheaper to continue to fly to the unprofitable airports . Braathens SAFE stated that their routes Haugesund – Bergen and Oslo – Røros – Trondheim were not profitable .
To meet the free market situation , the company 's management introduced measures to keep costs low . On 19 August 1993 , ten of eleven trade unions agreed to a three @-@ year wage contract , which contained bonuses for all employees based on the company 's profit . The cabin crew 's union had a two @-@ day strike , before reaching an agreement . At the same time , the company needed NOK 400 million in share capital . Braathens Rederi sold the sister company Braathens Helikopter to Helkopter Service for NOK 225 million on 30 September 1993 , and the money was used to buy Braathens SAFE stock . The company raised further capital in an initial public offering , and the company was listed on the Oslo Stock Exchange on 10 January 1994 . After the listing , Braathens Rederi retained 69 % of the company .
On 1 April , Braathens SAFE increased the number of services . The daily number of flights from Oslo to Bergen increased to nine , and the airline introduced four new services to Northern Norway from Oslo : two each to Tromsø and Harstad / Narvik . Later , the frequency to Tromsø increased to four , and from 28 June there were also two daily round trips to Bodø . SAS increased its services on the routes from Oslo to Stavanger and Trondheim , and from Bergen to Stavanger . The liberalization did not result in a price war , and prices remained constant . The following two years , Braathens SAFE also introduced scheduled international flights to Rome , as well as summer routes to Jersey and Nice . However , Braathens SAFE terminated their routes from Bergen to Bodø , Harstad / Narvik and Tromsø , making the passengers switch planes in Trondheim .
In 1995 , Braathens signed agreements with many of the large companies in Norway as a prioritized airline . Several of the contracts had been secured by the airline offering discounts to the companies in exchange for not allowing their customers to collect frequent flyer points . SAS had not allowed this scheme , and had lost companies such as Statoil , Aker and the Government of Norway .
= = Expansion into Sweden = =
In 1996 , Braathens SAFE started negotiations to purchase the Swedish airline Transwede Airways from its owners , Transpool . After SAS had bought Linjeflyg , Transwede had become the second @-@ largest domestic airline in Sweden , operating five Fokker 100s . In 1995 , Braathens SAFE had a revenue of NOK 4 billion , with a profit of NOK 242 million . The same year , Transwede had lost NOK 200 million with a revenue of NOK 1 @.@ 2 billion . The company had been split in two , a charter and a scheduled company , and Braathens SAFE started negotiating to purchase the scheduled company . Transwede 's scheduled services were at the time form Stockholm @-@ Arlanda Airport to Halmstad , Jönköping , Luleå , Sundsvall and Umeå , plus a service from Luleå to Sundsvall . It had a 13 % market share , transporting 800 @,@ 000 people in 1995 , and had been through a major restructuring the year before , where the fleet had been reduced from seven to five aircraft .
On 18 June , Braathens SAFE announced that starting on 27 October , the company put one aircraft into service on the route from Oslo to Stockholm . SAS had at the time fifteen round trips on the route , and Braathens planned to introduce seven . The route was considered one of the most profitable for SAS . The purchase of Transwede was confirmed on 25 June ; Braathens SAFE bought 50 % of the company 's scheduled division , Transwede Airways , with an option to purchase the rest in 1997 . The companies planned to integrate their networks , to allow connection between Braathens SAFE 's and Transwede flights at Stockholm . Services to Stockholm started on 6 November ; after three months , the airline had captured 14 % of the Oslo – Stockholm market . In 1996 , Braathens SAFE had a 51 % domestic market share in Norway , transporting 9 @.@ 5 million passengers .
On 3 February 1997 , the airline announced it had ordered six 134 @-@ seat Boeing 737 @-@ 700 aircraft for NOK 1 @.@ 5 billion . These aircraft would be delivered in 1998 , prior to the opening of the new airport at Gardermoen . In addition , the airline had an option for additional ten planes to be delivered after 2000 . In 1997 , Transwede started replacing its Fokker 100s with Boeing 737s . In May 1997 , Braathens SAFE was criticized by the Norwegian Airline Pilots Association because it was using retired Braathens SAFE pilots to fly Transwede aircraft , due to Transwede not having certified pilots for their new Boeing 737 @-@ 300 . Braathens SAFE stated that this was within the rules of the Swedish Civil Aviation Administration and the Joint Aviation Authorities .
In 1997 , SAS announced that it was going to reduce its commission to travel agents from 9 to 5 % . Braathens followed , reducing from 8 to 5 % from 1 January 1998 . However , to try to attract more business passengers , the airline retained the 8 % commission on their international routes . At the same time , the Government of Norway abandoned its old regime of negotiating prices with the airlines for state @-@ employed civil servants ' flights . Instead , they introduced an annual tender for the routes . It was awarded to SAS , who also won all subsequent tenders . For Braathens SAFE , this meant that state @-@ employed civil servants only flew on routes where SAS did not fly . The contract was worth NOK 500 million for SAS .
On 1 April 1997 , the European airline market was fully deregulated . At this time , British Airways announced increased activity to Scandinavia , based in part on a cooperation with Braathens SAFE concerning their frequently flyer program ; holders of Bracard were allowed to collect frequent flyer points on British Airways ' flights . On 3 April , Braathens SAFE , Transwede and Finnair signed an agreement involving codesharing on Finnair 's flights from Stockholm and Oslo to Helsinki , Bracard members would be granted points on Finnair flights , and Braathens SAFE took over Finnair 's handling services in Oslo .
On 18 December , Braathens SAFE bought the remaining half of Transwede , paying 2 Swedish krona for the who company . However , due to an agreement about converting debt into share capital , the company was sold for SEK 13 million . With the take @-@ over , the company changed its name to Braathens Sverige AB . At the same time , management announced that they planned to replace all the company 's Fokker 100s with 737 @-@ 300s .
= = Partnership and new identity = =
On 18 August 1997 , Braathens SAFE announced a strategic partnership with the Dutch airline KLM . The partnership replaced the agreement with British Airways , and became active in 1998 . Analysts stated that the partnership came as a reaction to SAS ' alliance with Lufthansa , the Star Alliance , that had been created the previous year . Braathens SAFE had also been in negotiations with British Airways . The agreement involved KLM purchasing a 30 % stake in Braathens SAFE from Ludvig G. Braathens Rederi for NOK 800 million . In addition , Braathens SAFE started flying from several Norwegian cities to KLM 's main hub at Schiphol Airport in Amsterdam . In addition , the partnership involved a coordination of scheduling , prices , frequent flyer programs , corporate customer agreements , maintenance and procurement . The partnership also involved cooperation with the American airline Northwest Airlines . In 1997 , Braathens SAFE and Transwede had a revenue of NOK 5 @.@ 4 billion and made a profit of NOK 206 million , down 88 million from 1996 .
Starting in March , Braathens SAFE took over KLM 's routes from Stavanger to Amsterdam , and started a new route from Trondheim to Amsterdam . From 26 March 1998 , Braathens SAFE moved its flights to London from Gatwick to London Stansted Airport . At the same time , it announced that the number of daily services from Oslo to London would increase from one to three , following the opening of Gardermoen . In addition , KLM @-@ partner AirUK would become an agent for Braathens SAFE , and the company hoped that 40 % of the sales on the route would be sold in the United Kingdom . The agreement also involved a codesharing agreement with AirUK , including some onwards flights from London , notably the route to Dublin . At the same time , Braathens SAFE announced that the airline would start selling more discounted tickets on the London @-@ flights , to compete with Ryanair 's new route from Stanstad to Sandefjord Airport , Torp .
On 23 March 1998 , Braathens SAFE changed its name and corporate identity to Braathens . It introduced a new livery with a blue bottom , and replaced the Norwegian flag on the tail with an abstract , silver wing , that became the company 's new logo . The re @-@ branding was an attempt to create an international identity , and tone down the Norwegian national symbols that had been on the airplanes since 1946 . At the same time , a two @-@ class configuration was introduced : the ' Best ' section , accounting for 70 % of the planes capacity , received higher seat pitch , complimentary in @-@ flight drinks , meals and newspapers , priority boarding and refundable tickets . The ' Back ' section was for discount ticket holders , who received a no @-@ frills service with a smaller seat pitch , and were located at the back of the aircraft behind a curtain . Best tickets became NOK 300 more expensive , while it became easier to purchase discounted tickets . The scheme was , according to Erik G. Braathen , an attempt to differentiate between the full @-@ fare customers , with whom Braathens was competing with SAS , and the low @-@ fare customers , who Braathens was competing with Ryanair and the to @-@ be established Color Air . The scheme as first introduced on the first 737 @-@ 700 that was delivered .
The Norwegian Confederation of Trade Unions encouraged its 800 @,@ 000 members to not fly with Braathens due to the introduction of a segregated classes . SAS did not follow the same policy , and offered its discounted customers to travel in the same class as Braathens ' , including complimentary service . After introduction , the concept increased the work load on handing employees , who needed to check the passengers ' tickets to ensure they sat in the right class . There were also complaints from Best @-@ passengers who felt that they were receiving worse service after the scheme was introduced .
On 17 August 1998 , Braathens bought Malmö Aviation , that flew from Stockholm @-@ Bromma Airport to Gothenburg @-@ Landvetter Airport and Malmö Airport . In addition , it served all three airports from London City Airport . The airline had eleven British Aerospace 146 jets . In 1997 , it had 772 @,@ 000 passengers , 450 employees , a revenue of SEK 900 million and a profit of SEK 40 million . The airline cost SEK 600 million and the deal gave Braathens and Malmö Aviation a 25 % domestic market share in Sweden .
= = Price war = =
In January 1998 , Olav Nils Sunde , owner of the cruiseferry company Color Line , announced that he would start a domestic low @-@ cost airline . They company aimed for a 15 – 20 % domestic market share and was named Color Air . The company launched tickets down to NOK 500 each way , and sold cheap tickets without demanding that the traveler be away during a weekend .
From 1 April , a new NOK 65 tax was introduced on all domestic flights . Braathens and SAS decided to divide the cross @-@ subsidize the taxes between their routes , something Color Air was not able to do . This was because the tax was only valid for routes within Southern Norway ; Braathens and SAS could therefore tacitly collude to increase the prices to Northern Norway , and thereby subsidize their routes in Southern Norway . Color Air on the other hand would be forced to put the full tax on all its departures . While the government had no way to hinder the incumbents from doing this , Gudmund Restad , Minister of Finance from the Center Party , encouraged the airlines to not " cheat " , and follow the intentions of the law , even if he admitted that there was nothing the government could do to hinder the airlines from cross @-@ subsidizing .
Color Air started with flights from Gardermoen on 1 August , two months before the airport opened . Gardermoen was taken into use on 8 October by SAS and Braathens . Both immediately increased the number of flights . Braathens established a route to Haugesund , while SAS started routes to Ålesund and Kristiansand . The number of daily trips from Oslo for SAS increased from 59 to over 80 . In total , the three companies increased their daily round trip from 138 to 200 , and the daily seat capacity from 18 @,@ 000 to 26 @,@ 000 . Ålesund had the largest increase , from seven daily round trips with only Braathens , to seventeen offered by all three companies .
In late 1998 and early 1999 , KLM and Braathens introduced direct flights from Sandefjord and Kristiansand to Amsterdam . Braathens also started flights from Sandefjord to Stavanger and Bergen . On 1 May 1999 , Northwest Airlines started flights to its hub at Minneapolis @-@ Saint Paul International Airport in the United States . This service was terminated in October . The Northwest service had a connection to Stockholm as well as a new route from Oslo to Gothenburg , operated by Braathens . After Northwest announced the withdrawal of their service , the Gothenburg service was also terminated .
In November 1998 , Color Air introduced a new cheapest ticket for NOK 345 . After the winter settled , the ice front between Color Air and Braathens grew colder following Braathens ' denying Color Air to use their deicing equipment at Ålesund , resulting in the plane being stuck at the airport . By the end of 1998 , it became clear that Braathens had increased capacity with 20 % , but only achieved a 5 @.@ 2 % ridership increase after the opening of Gardermoen . Similar numbers were applicable for SAS . The business market , in particular the large corporations with divisions in several cities , were demanding high frequencies on the routes . Color Air could get by with fewer departures , because they mainly targeted the leisure segment . In particular , the routes from Oslo to Ålesund and Kristiansand had a very low seat utilization ; to Ålesund there were 1 @.@ 2 million flown seats annually , but only 345 @,@ 000 passengers , giving a 29 % cabin load .
In September 1999 , SAS announced that if Braathens took the first step to reduce capacity between Bergen and Oslo , they would follow immediately to reduce the overcapacity in the combined 37 daily departures . However , Braathens was not willing to reduce . On 15 September , Color Air announced that they would start flying five round trips from Oslo to Stavanger on 1 October , following the delivery of their fourth aircraft . At the same time , the airline would reduce the number of round trips to Ålesund from four to two . In January 1999 , Braathens applied to register twenty of its Norwegian aircraft in Sweden , following their discovery that foreign @-@ registered aircraft , such as Color Air 's and SAS ' , did not have to pay value added tax on good sold on board . This was rejected by the Norwegian Armed Forces , who based their need of transport of military personnel during war time on requisition of civilian , Norwegian @-@ registered aircraft . The same month , Geir Olsen , head of Braathens in Sweden , withdrew from his position , due to disagreements about the corporate strategy .
On 27 September 1999 , Color Air terminated all flights and ceased operations . On the day of the termination , the stock price of Braathens increased by 16 % . Immediately following the bankruptcy , the two airlines increased their prices . Subsequently Braathens increased their ticket price by 15 % , but stated that this had nothing to do with the elimination of competition , since the price increase was not on any Oslo routes . In November , Braathens started to remove routes , and announced they would increase prices by 20 % . They also reintroduced the Flag of Norway on the tail , which since the rebranding had been replaced by a silver , abstract wing . Both Braathens and SAS lost more than NOK 1 billion in 1999 , totaling the cost of the price war between the three airlines to exceed NOK 3 billion .
= = Crisis = =
On 23 July 1999 , Braathens replaced its CEO with Arne A. Jensen . He introduced the program Improve 800 , that was to improve the bottom line with NOK 800 million . In February 1999 , Braathens merged the Swedish division with Malmö Aviation , to create Braathens Malmö Aviation . At the same time , the airline removed the ' Best ' and ' Back ' scheme on domestic Swedish flights . In November , Braathens terminated all services in Sweden that were inherited from Transwede . The Fokker 100 aircraft and Boeing 737 @-@ 300 aircraft were sold , and the service from Oslo to Stockholm taken over by the company 's Norwegian department . Malmö Aviation retained on flights from Stockholm @-@ Bromma to Gothenburg and Malmö , as well as to London City . In addition , a Stockholm to Halmstad Airport service was started . In 1999 , Braathens lost SEK 300 million in Sweden , bringing the total loss of Braathens Swedish operations since 1996 to SEK 600 million . At the same time , Braathens terminated its services from Sandefjord to Stavanger and Bergen , and the route from Oslo to Haugesund . From 25 June 2000 , the company also terminated its Oslo to Stockholm route . Instead , the planes were put into service to Malaga and Alicante .
During 1999 , domestic air ticket prices increased 9 @.@ 2 % , and another 17 % the following year . By 2001 , the domestic capacity was below the level before Gardermoen opened . Braathens and SAS started cooperating to set the full @-@ price tickets on routes to eleven cities . This meant that the prices were identical on all the routes where both airlines flew , although they were not allowed to make such cooperation with discounted tickets . During the crisis , Braathens had sold several aircraft and started leasing them back to gain liquidity . The company announced in 2000 that they were considering purchasing a smaller type of aircraft , that would replace the 737s on some routes , and that would allow Braathens to start operating the Norwegian Air Shuttle services themselves .
The ' Best ' and ' Back ' service was highly criticized by analysts and customers . Braathens SAFE had a strong image , and unlike SAS , that was branded as ' The Businessman 's Airline ' , Braathens SAFE was seen as the people 's airline . It also drew goodwill from being Norwegian @-@ owned , and that it displayed the Flag of Norway on the tailplane . Prior to the rebranding , no airline in Norway had ever operated a two @-@ class service on domestic flights — including SAS . Professor of Sociology Per Morten Schiefloe commented that the introduction of segregation of passengers offended passengers . Customers who previously had been paying full price , became more aware of the savings on using ' Back ' tickets . At the same time , people who wanted to travel with discounted tickets felt that they got better service and were not treated as second @-@ rate customers with SAS . This caused Braathens to lose customers at both ends . The rebranding itself not only cost money to initiate , but also increased operating expenses , because cabin crew needed to move the curtain depending on the number of passengers on each class . Planes were sometimes delayed for hours , particularly in the beginning of the service , due to the increased work load on the handling and cabin crew .
On 25 November 2000 , Braathens terminated the route to Murmansk . On 2 January 2001 , they also terminated the routes from Molde to Kristiansand and from Kristiansand to Trondheim , the routes to Røros from Trondheim and Oslo , and the services from Oslo to Newcastle . The routes from Bergen to Haugesund were reduced from five to three round trips , and the Bergen – Molde – Trondheim route was reduced from four to three . The capacity on the routes from Oslo to Molde and Kristiansund were increased . A second round trip was introduced from Stavanger to Newcastle , flown by Norwegian Air Shuttle . From 15 February , the airline introduced four weekly services from Oslo to Barcelona , and from 1 March , three weekly round trips to directly from Longyearbyen to Oslo . A direct service was introduced from Bergen to Alicante from 7 April .
= = Take @-@ over = =
On 21 May 2001 , SAS and Braathens announced that KLM and Braathens Rederi had agreed to sell their 69 % stake in Braathens for NOK 800 million to SAS — valuating Braathens to NOK 1 @.@ 1 billion . Braathens had contacted British Airways , but they had stated that they did not wish to purchase Braathens . The deal with SAS was initiated by Braathens ; they stated that this would allow the two companies to cooperate to eliminate the overcapacity in the domestic market . Because both airlines operated a fleet of Boeing 737 aircraft , about NOK 150 million could be saved in maintenance . The agreement also involved that Malmö Aviation would have to be sold before the take @-@ over . If not , the Braathens family would purchase the airline for NOK 1 . At the same time , the family @-@ owned companies guaranteed for about NOK 1 billion in the Swedish subsidiary .
The Norwegian Competition Authority announced that since the new company would have all domestic scheduled services between primary airports , it was unlikely that the take @-@ over would receive permission from them . However , it was stated that one solution could be that the companies discontinue their frequent flyer programs . On 20 August , the Competition Authority declared that SAS was not allowed to purchase Braathens ; the ruling was appealed by SAS and Braathens . Analysts stated that Braathens could be bankrupt by the time the appeal was processed . The Competition Authority stated that their denial of the take @-@ over was that the reduction of capacity would remove the airline 's incentive to provide discounted tickets , because they would not have to use them to capture travelers with lower willingness to pay from the competitor , and that they would not need low @-@ paying customers to fill up the vacant seats . Instead , the authority wanted the politicians to reduce the taxes on flights . While Braathens also was opposed to the tax , they felt that removing it then was too late to save the company .
CEO Arne A. Jensen stated to the press that he felt that the cause of the problems were made in 1993 , when the airline failed to make the correct choices in relation to the deregulation . He stated that he felt that part of the cause was that KLM and the Braathens family had cancelled a planned private placement . He further stated that a monopoly was the best for society , the passengers and the employees . He also stated that if the appeal failed , he had a " Plan B " , involving a much smaller airline that would compete with SAS on the main routes . From October , the airline terminated its service to Milan and reduced capacity on some domestic routes ; this removed the need for two aircraft . In addition , the airline increased all ticket prices with 5 % , due to higher insurance costs .
On 23 October 2001 , the Competition Authority granted permission for SAS to purchase Braathens . The rationale was that there were no other realistic purchasers for the airline , and that a bankruptcy was imminent without the take @-@ over . As a condition , the authority decided to regulate a ban on frequent flyer programs , and stated that it would ban cross @-@ subsidization aimed at underbidding or operating at a loss to force new entrants out of the market .
= = Coordinated operation = =
By then , SAS had taken sixteen aircraft out of service , reduced production with 12 % and fired 1 @,@ 000 employees . The airline stated that they wished to renegotiate the agreement with the Braathens family and KLM to reduce the price . Because there had arrisen a situation with high over @-@ capacity of aircraft , the value of planes had fallen . In addition , SAS demanded that Braathens reduce its fleet from 33 to 23 aircraft if the deal was to go through , threatening to terminate the purchase if the airline did not abide .
On 2 April 2002 , SAS and Braathens split all the routes between them . SAS started flying on the main @-@ haul routes from Oslo to Trondheim , Bergen and Stavanger , with only a few flights to Stavanger flown by Braathens to get planes to the technical base there . From Oslo and Trondheim to Northern Norway , all routes were taken over by Braathens , with exception of a few flights made by SAS to Tromsø and Bodø . SAS also withdrew their flights from Oslo to Kristiansand and Ålesund , and Braathens increased their frequency on the route . Braathens retained the routes it had flown where SAS had not formerly flown . Braathens also kept the international flights to Barcelona , Nice , Malaga and Alicante . This reduced the overcapacity in the market , and allowed the SAS Group to save between NOK 600 and 900 million .
For a short period , members of both Wings and SAS ' EuroBonus could collect points from the other airlines . But from 1 July , the awarding of frequent flyer miles on domestic flighst was no longer permitted . From 1 April 2003 , the West Coast routes , which had been on contract with Norwegian Air Shuttle , were taken over by SAS Commuter .
On 24 April 2002 , SAS announced that all handling services operated by Braathens would be taken over by SAS Ground Services . All SAS employees would be prioritized in the rationalization process , and 800 Braathens employees were laid off . Three hundred Braathens ' employees were offered jobs with SAS Ground Services , but these lost their seniority . No employees in SAS lost their jobs . The case ended in the courts , where 369 former Braathens employees sued SAS to receive the same seniority as they had in Braathens . On 15 October 2003 , Asker and Bærum District Court decided that only 42 of the employees , those working in Kristiansund and Molde , had right to keep their seniority . The case was appealed , and on 18 March 2005 , Borgarting Court of Appeal , with four against three votes , decided in favor of SAS , denying the employees their claim . The matter was not settled until 31 January 2006 , when the Supreme Court of Norway ruled in favor of the employees .
By 2004 , Braathens had managed to cut costs sufficiently to make a profit . At the same time , SAS was having problems making a profit . SAS announced on 10 March 2004 that SAS and Braathens would be merged into a single company , SAS Braathens , in May . At the same time , the airline would create separate national airlines for Sweden and Denmark . SAS Braathens would operate 50 aircraft , all variations of the 737 . The company took over the operating licence of Braathens , including the IATA and ICAO code , and callsign . Because all the operations streamlined and coordinated , there would be no further downstaffing due to the merger . From 1 June 2007 , SAS Braathens was rebranded to Scandinavian Airlines , making it identical to the branding in Sweden and Denmark , although it remain a separate limited company named SAS Norge AS .
|
= Early life and military career of John McCain =
The early life and military career of John Sidney McCain III spans the first forty @-@ five years of his life ( 1936 – 1981 ) . McCain 's father and grandfather were admirals in the United States Navy . McCain was born on August 29 , 1936 , in the Panama Canal Zone , and attended many schools growing up as his family moved among naval facilities . McCain graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1958 . He married the former Carol Shepp in 1965 ; he adopted two children from her previous marriage and they had another child together .
As a naval aviator , McCain flew attack aircraft from carriers . During the Vietnam War , he narrowly escaped death in the 1967 Forrestal fire . On his twenty @-@ third bombing mission in October 1967 , he was shot down over Hanoi and badly injured . He subsequently endured five and a half years as a prisoner of war , including periods of torture . In 1968 , he refused a North Vietnamese offer of early release , because it would have meant leaving before other prisoners who had been held longer . He was released in 1973 after the Paris Peace Accords .
Upon his return , McCain studied at the National War College , commanded a large training squadron in Florida , and was appointed the Navy liaison to the U.S. Senate . He divorced his wife Carol in 1980 and married the former Cindy Hensley shortly thereafter . He retired from the Navy in 1981 as a captain .
= = Early years and education = =
= = = Family heritage = = =
John Sidney McCain III was born on August 29 , 1936 , at a United States Navy hospital at Coco Solo Naval Air Station in the Panama Canal Zone , which at that time was considered to be among the unincorporated territories of the United States . His parents were Navy officer John S. " Jack " McCain , Jr . ( 1911 – 1981 ) and Roberta ( Wright ) McCain ( born 1912 ) . McCain is of Scots @-@ Irish and English ancestry .
John McCain 's grandparents were natives of Arkansas , Mississippi , and Texas , and much of his ancestry was Southern on both his mother 's side and father 's side . The McCain family 's patrilineal ancestral home is in Mississippi 's Carroll County ; they owned and ran a 2 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 8 @.@ 1 km2 ) plantation in Teoc from 1848 until 1952 . The plantation had slaves before the American Civil War – some of whose descendants share the surname and call themselves the " black McCains " – and sharecroppers afterward ; influential blues guitarist Mississippi John Hurt was born on the plantation to one of the latter .
The McCain family tree has a long heritage of American military service , with ancestors fighting as soldiers in the Indian Wars , American Revolutionary War ( due to which McCain maintains a membership with the Sons of the American Revolution ) , War of 1812 , for the Confederate States of America in the American Civil War , and in World War I. The tree also includes roguish behavior and economic success . John McCain 's maternal grandfather , Archibald Wright ( 1875 – 1971 ) , was a Mississippi native who migrated to Muskogee , Oklahoma , in his twenties , ran afoul of the law with several gambling and bootlegging charges , then became a strong @-@ willed wildcatter who prospered on land deals during the early statehood years and struck oil in the Southwest . Rich by age forty , he never worked again and became a stay @-@ at @-@ home father . Raising a family in Oklahoma and Southern California , he instilled in Roberta and her twin sister Rowena a lifelong habit of travel and adventure . There is also independent @-@ minded behavior in the family tree : Jack McCain and Roberta Wright eloped and married in a bar in Tijuana , Mexico , when Archibald Wright 's wife Myrtle objected to Roberta 's association with a sailor .
McCain 's father and paternal grandfather eventually became Navy admirals , and were the first father – son pair to achieve four @-@ star admiral rank . His grandfather , Admiral John S. " Slew " McCain , Sr. ( 1884 – 1945 ) , was a pioneer of aircraft carrier operations who in 1942 commanded all land @-@ based air operations in support of the Guadalcanal Campaign , and who ultimately in 1944 – 1945 aggressively led the Fast Carrier Task Force in the Pacific Ocean theater of World War II . His operations off the Philippines and Okinawa , and air strikes against Formosa and the Japanese home islands , caused tremendous destruction of Japanese naval and air forces in the closing period of the war . His death four days after the Japanese surrender ceremony in Tokyo Bay was front page news . Jack McCain was a submarine commander in several theaters of operation in World War II and was decorated with both the Silver Star and Bronze Star .
= = = Early life = = =
For his first ten years , " Johnny " McCain ( the nickname he was given as part of a family tradition of distinguishing the generations ) was frequently uprooted as his family , including older sister Sandy ( born 1934 ) and younger brother Joe ( born 1942 ) , followed his father to New London , Connecticut , Pearl Harbor , Hawaii , and other stations in the Pacific Ocean . Summer vacations were sometimes spent at the family 's Teoc plantation , but McCain always felt his heritage was military , not Southern . McCain attended whatever naval base school was available , often to the detriment of his education , as schools were sometimes substandard and their curricula often erratic . After the 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor , his father was absent for long stretches . His formal education was supplemented by the efforts of his mother , who took advantage of the family 's many long @-@ distance travels to expose him to historical and cultural sites . He later wrote , " She taught me to find so much pleasure in life that misfortune could not rob me of the joy of living . " A Republican , she also made sure that he followed current events , although his parents avoided outward partisan affiliations due to his father 's military career .
After World War II ended , his father stayed in the Navy , sometimes working political liaison posts . The family settled in Northern Virginia , and McCain attended the educationally stronger St. Stephen 's School in Alexandria from 1946 to 1949 . To his family , McCain had long been quiet , dependable , and courteous , while at St. Stephen 's he began to develop an unruly , defiant streak . Another two years were then spent following his father to naval stations ; altogether he attended about twenty schools during his youth . He was frequently disciplined in school for fighting . He later wrote , " The repeated farewells to friends rank among the saddest regrets of a childhood constantly disrupted by the demands of my father 's career ... At each new school I arrived eager to make , by means of my insolent attitude , new friends to compensate for the loss of others . At each new school I grew more determined to assert my crude individualism . At each new school I became a more unrepentant pain in the neck . "
In 1951 , McCain enrolled at Episcopal High School in Alexandria , an academically superior , all @-@ male private boarding school with a rigorous honor code , tradition of hazing , and spartan living environment . Most of the children there were sons of wealthy Southerners , from whom McCain got a glimpse of life and career aspirations outside the Navy culture . Nicknamed " Punk " and " McNasty " due to his combative , fiery disposition , McCain enjoyed and cultivated a tough guy image ; he also made a few friends . McCain earned two varsity letters in wrestling , excelling in the lighter weight classes . He also played on the junior varsity football team and the tennis team , and participated in the student newspaper , yearbook , and drama club . English teacher William Bee Ravenel III , who was also his football coach , became a great influence towards his sense of learning , honor , and self @-@ image . With what he later termed an " undistinguished , but acceptable " academic record , McCain graduated from high school in 1954 .
= = = Naval Academy = = =
Having done well on its entrance exams , McCain entered the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis , Maryland , in June 1954 , following in the footsteps of his father and grandfather . He had neither been ordered to go there by his parents nor discussed alternatives ; as he later wrote , " I remember simply recognizing my eventual enrollment at the Academy as an immutable fact of life , and accepting it without comment . "
Ambivalent about his presence there , McCain chose not to conform to the Academy 's rules and some of its traditions . Each year he was given over a hundred demerits – earning him membership in the " Century Club " – for offenses such as shoes not being shined , formation faults , room in disorder , and talking out of place . His father came to the Academy to reprimand him on his behavior a number of times . He hated " plebe year " , the trial by ordeal and hazing of entering midshipmen that would eventually weed out one quarter of the class . He did not take well to those of higher rank arbitrarily wielding power over him – " It was bullshit , and I resented the hell out of it " – and occasionally intervened when he saw it being done to others . At 5 @-@ foot 7 inches and 127 pounds ( 1 @.@ 70 m and 58 kg ) , he competed as a lightweight boxer for three years , where he lacked skills but was fearless and " didn 't have a reverse gear " . In his final year , he managed the battalion boxing team to a brigade championship .
Possessed of a strong intelligence , McCain did well in a few subjects that interested him , such as English literature , history , and government . There was a fixed Bachelor of Science curriculum taken by all midshipmen ; McCain 's classmates were impressed by his cramming abilities on mathematics , science , and engineering courses and thought his low grades were by inclination and not ability , while McCain would later acknowledge that those courses were a struggle for him . His class rank was further lowered by poor grades for conduct and leadership , which reflected his sloppy appearance , rebellious attitude , and poor relations with his company officer . Despite his low standing , he was popular and a leader among his fellow midshipmen , in what biographer Robert Timberg called a " manic , intuitive , highly idiosyncratic way " . Good at attracting women , he was famed for organizing off @-@ Yard activities with a group who called themselves " the Bad Bunch " ; one classmate said that " being on liberty with John McCain was like being in a train wreck . " Other midshipmen were annoyed by his behavior . A June 1957 training cruise aboard the destroyer USS Hunt found McCain showing good skills at the conn , and the destination stop in Rio de Janeiro led to a dream @-@ like romance with Brazilian fashion model and ballerina Maria Gracinda that persisted through a Christmastime reunion .
McCain graduated from the Naval Academy in June 1958 ; he was fifth from the bottom in class rank , 894th out of 899 . Despite his difficulties , McCain later wrote that he never defamed the more compelling traditions of the Academy – courage , resilience , honor , and sacrifice for one 's country – and he never wavered in his desire to show his father and family that he was of the same mettle as his naval forebears . Indeed , Slew and Jack McCain had not had sterling records at the Academy themselves , finishing in the bottom third and bottom twentieth respectively . McCain realized later that the Academy had taught him that " to sustain my self @-@ respect for a lifetime it would be necessary for me to have the honor of serving something greater than my self @-@ interest " , a lesson that he would need to carry him through a " desperate and uncertain " time a decade later .
= = Military career = =
= = = Naval training , early assignments , first marriage , and children = = =
McCain was commissioned an ensign . He spent two years as a naval aviator in training , first at Naval Air Station Pensacola in Florida through September 1959 , and then at Naval Air Station Corpus Christi in Texas , during which time he was promoted to lieutenant , junior grade . He earned a reputation as a party man , as he drove a Corvette , dated an exotic dancer named " Marie the Flame of Florida " , spent all his free time on the beach or in a Bachelor Officer Quarters room turned bar and friendly gambling den , and , as he later said , " generally misused my good health and youth " . He began as a sub @-@ par flier : he had limited patience for studying aviation manuals , and spent study time reading history books instead . He was not assigned to the elite units flying fighter aircraft , and instead became a pilot of attack aircraft . During a March 1960 practice run in Texas , he lost track of his altitude and speed , and his single @-@ seat , single @-@ pistoned @-@ engine AD @-@ 6 Skyraider crashed into Corpus Christi Bay and sank to the bottom . Although momentarily knocked unconscious by the impact , he squeezed out of the cockpit and swam ten feet to the surface , escaping without major injuries . He graduated from flight school at Corpus Christi in May 1960 . He joined squadron VA @-@ 42 at Naval Air Station Oceana in Virginia for five months of further training on the Skyraider .
Starting in November 1960 , McCain flew Skyraiders with the VA @-@ 65 " World Famous Fighting Tigers " squadron on the aircraft carriers USS Intrepid and USS Enterprise . The carriers were based at Naval Station Norfolk and cruised in the Caribbean and in several deployments to the Mediterranean . His aviation skills improved , but around December 1961 he collided with power lines while recklessly flying too low over southern Spain . The area suffered a power outage , but McCain was able to return his damaged Skyraider to Intrepid .
On board for Enterprise 's maiden voyage in January 1962 , McCain gained visibility with the captain and shipboard publicity that fellow sailors and aviators attributed to his famous last name . McCain was made a lieutenant in June 1962 , and was on alert duty on Enterprise when it helped enforce the naval quarantine of Cuba during the October 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis . In November 1963 , he was rotated back to shore duty , serving nine months on the staff of the Naval Air Basic Training Command at Pensacola . In September 1964 , he became a flight instructor with the VT @-@ 7 training squadron at Naval Air Station Meridian in Mississippi , where McCain Field had been named for his grandfather .
During the 1964 stint at Pensacola , McCain began a relationship with Carol Shepp , a successful swimwear and runway model originally from Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . They had known each other at the Naval Academy and she had married and then divorced one of his classmates . McCain told her he wanted to do something important with his life , so he would be recorded in history . On July 3 , 1965 , McCain married Shepp in Philadelphia . She already had two children , Douglas and Andrew , born in 1959 and 1962 respectively ; he adopted them in 1966 . Carol and he then had a daughter named Sidney in September 1966 .
In July 1965 , McCain appeared as a contestant on the quiz show Jeopardy ! ( during the Art Fleming era ) , winning one game and losing the next .
In November 1965 , he had his third accident when apparent engine failure in his T @-@ 2 Buckeye trainer jet over the Eastern Shore of Virginia led to his ejecting safely before his plane crashed . While at Meridian , McCain requested a combat assignment . In October 1966 , he was slated for upcoming Vietnam War duty , and so reported to the VA @-@ 44 Replacement Air Group squadron at Naval Air Station Cecil Field in Florida for training on the A @-@ 4 Skyhawk , a single @-@ seat jet attack aircraft . There McCain was seen as a good pilot , albeit one who tended to " push the envelope " in his flying . Promoted to lieutenant commander in January 1967 , McCain joined the aircraft carrier USS Forrestal by May 1967 , flying Skyhawks with the VA @-@ 46 " Clansmen " squadron . Forrestal conducted training exercises in the Atlantic early in the year , then set sail for the Pacific in June . By this time , Jack McCain had risen in the ranks , making rear admiral in 1958 and vice admiral in 1963 ; in May 1967 , he was promoted to four @-@ star admiral , and became Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , U.S. Naval Forces , Europe , stationed in London .
= = = Vietnam operations = = =
On July 25 , 1967 , Forrestal reached Yankee Station in the Gulf of Tonkin and joined Operation Rolling Thunder , the 1965 – 1968 air interdiction and strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam . The alpha strikes flown from Forrestal were against specific , pre @-@ selected targets such as arms depots , factories , and bridges . They were quite dangerous , due to the strength of the North Vietnamese air defenses , which used Soviet @-@ designed and -supplied surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles , anti @-@ aircraft artillery , and MiG jet interceptors . McCain 's first five attack missions over North Vietnam went without incident , and while still unconcerned with minor Navy regulations , McCain had garnered the reputation of a serious aviator . McCain and his fellow pilots were frustrated by the micromanagement of Rolling Thunder from Washington ; he later wrote , " The target list was so restricted that we had to go back and hit the same targets over and over again ... Most of our pilots flying the missions believed that our targets were virtually worthless . In all candor , we thought our civilian commanders were complete idiots who didn 't have the least notion of what it took to win the war . "
McCain was almost killed on board Forrestal on July 29 , 1967 . While the air wing was preparing to launch attacks , a Zuni rocket from an F @-@ 4 Phantom accidentally fired across the carrier 's deck . The rocket struck either McCain 's A @-@ 4E Skyhawk or one near it . The impact ruptured the Skyhawk 's fuel tank , which ignited the fuel and knocked two bombs loose . McCain later said , " I thought my aircraft exploded . Flames were everywhere . " McCain escaped from his jet by climbing out of the cockpit , working himself to the nose of the jet , and jumping off its refueling probe onto the burning deck . His flight suit caught on fire as he rolled through the flames , but he was able to put it out . He went to help another pilot trying to escape the fire when the first bomb exploded ; McCain was thrown backwards ten feet ( three meters ) and suffered minor wounds when struck in the legs and chest by fragments . McCain helped crewmen throw unexploded bombs overboard off the hangar deck elevator , then went to Forrestal 's ready room and with other pilots watched the ensuing fire and the fire @-@ fighting efforts on the room 's closed @-@ circuit television . The fire killed 134 sailors , injured scores of others , destroyed at least 20 aircraft , and took 24 hours to control . In Saigon a day after the conflagration , McCain praised the heroism of enlisted men who gave their lives trying to save the pilots on deck , and told New York Times reporter R. W. Apple , Jr . , " It 's a difficult thing to say . But now that I 've seen what the bombs and the napalm did to the people on our ship , I 'm not so sure that I want to drop any more of that stuff on North Vietnam . " But such a change of course was unlikely ; as McCain added , " I always wanted to be in the Navy . I was born into it and I never really considered another profession . But I always had trouble with the regimentation . "
As Forrestal headed to port for repairs , McCain volunteered to join the undermanned VA @-@ 163 " Saints " squadron on board the USS Oriskany . This carrier had earlier endured its own deck fire disaster and its squadrons had suffered some of the heaviest losses during Rolling Thunder . The Saints had a reputation for aggressive , daring attacks , but paid the price : in 1967 , one @-@ third of their pilots were killed or captured , and all of their original fifteen A @-@ 4s had been destroyed . After taking some leave in Europe and back home in Orange Park , Florida , McCain joined Oriskany on September 30 , 1967 , for a tour he expected would finish early the next summer . He volunteered to fly the squadron 's most dangerous missions right away , rather than work his way up to them . During October 1967 , the pilots operated in constant twelve @-@ hour on , twelve @-@ hour off shifts . McCain would be awarded a Navy Commendation Medal for leading his air section through heavy enemy fire during an October 18 raid on the Lac Trai shipyard in Haiphong . On October 25 , McCain successfully attacked the Phúc Yên Air Base north of Hanoi through a barrage of anti @-@ aircraft artillery and surface @-@ to @-@ air missile fire ; credited with destroying one aircraft on the ground and damaging two , the raid would garner him the Bronze Star . Air defenses around Hanoi were at this point the strongest they would be during the entire war .
= = = Prisoner of war = = =
= = = = Arrival = = = =
On October 26 , 1967 , McCain was flying his twenty @-@ third mission , part of a twenty @-@ plane strike force against the Yen Phu thermal power plant in central Hanoi that previously had almost always been off @-@ limits to U.S. raids due to the possibility of collateral damage . Arriving just before noon , McCain dove from 9 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 000 feet on his approach ; as he neared the target , warning systems in McCain 's A @-@ 4E Skyhawk alerted him that he was being tracked by enemy fire @-@ control radar . Like other U.S. pilots in similar situations , he did not break off the bombing run , and he held his dive until he released his bombs at about 3 @,@ 500 feet ( 1 @,@ 000 m ) . As he started to pull up , the Skyhawk 's wing was blown off by a Soviet @-@ made SA @-@ 2 anti @-@ aircraft missile fired by the North Vietnamese Air Defense Command 's 61st Battalion , commanded by Captain Nguyen Lan and with fire control officer Lieutenant Nguyen Xuan Dai . ( McCain was later awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for this day , while Nguyen Xuan Dai was awarded the title Hero of the People 's Armed Forces . Decades later , Soviet Army Lieutenant Yuri Trushechkin claimed that he had been the missile guidance officer who had shot McCain down . In any case , the raid was a failure , as the power plant was not damaged and three of the attacking planes were shot down . )
McCain 's plane went into a vertical inverted spin . McCain bailed out upside down at high speed ; the force of the ejection fractured his right arm in three places , his left arm , and his right leg at the knee , and knocked him unconscious . McCain nearly drowned after parachuting into Trúc Bạch Lake in Hanoi ; the weight of his equipment was pulling him down , and as he regained consciousness , he could not use his arms . Eventually , he was able to inflate his life vest using his teeth . Several Vietnamese , possibly led by Department of Industry clerk Mai Van On , pulled him ashore . A mob gathered around , spat on him , kicked him , and stripped him of his clothes ; his left shoulder was crushed with the butt of a rifle and he was bayoneted in his left foot and abdominal area . He was then transported to Hanoi 's main Hỏa Lò Prison , nicknamed the " Hanoi Hilton " by American POWs .
McCain reached Hỏa Lò in as bad a physical condition as any prisoner during the war . His captors refused to give him medical care unless he gave them military information ; they beat and interrogated him , but McCain only offered his name , rank , serial number , and date of birth ( the only information he was required to provide under the Geneva Conventions and permitted to give under the U.S. Code of Conduct ) . Soon thinking he was near death , McCain said he would give them more information if taken to the hospital , hoping he could then put his interrogators off once he was treated . A prison doctor came and said it was too late , as McCain was about to die anyway . Only when the North Vietnamese discovered that his father was a high @-@ ranking admiral did they give him medical care , calling him " the crown prince " . Two days after McCain 's plane went down , that event and his status as a POW made the front pages of The New York Times and The Washington Post . Interrogation and beatings resumed in the hospital ; McCain gave the North Vietnamese his ship 's name , squadron 's name , and the attack 's intended target . This information , along with personal details of McCain 's life and purported statements by McCain about the war 's progress , would appear over the next two weeks in the North Vietnamese official newspaper Nhân Dân as well as in dispatches from outlets such as the Cuban news agency Prensa Latina . Disclosing the military information was in violation of the Code of Conduct , which McCain later wrote he regretted , although he saw the information as being of no practical use to the North Vietnamese . Further coerced to give future targets , he named cities that had already been bombed , and responding to demands for the names of his squadron 's members , he supplied instead the names of the Green Bay Packers ' offensive line .
McCain spent six weeks in the hospital , receiving marginal care in a dirty , wet environment . A prolonged attempt to set the fractures on his right arm , done without anesthetic , was unsuccessful ; he received an operation on his broken leg but no treatment for his broken left arm . He was temporarily taken to a clean room and interviewed by a French journalist , François Chalais , whose report was carried on the French television program Panorama in January 1968 and later in the U.S. on the CBS Evening News . The film footage of McCain lying in the bed , in a cast , smoking cigarettes and speaking haltingly , would become one of the most widely distributed images of McCain 's imprisonment . McCain was observed by a variety of North Vietnamese , including renowned Vietnamese writer Nguyễn Tuân and Defense Minister and Army commander @-@ in @-@ chief General Võ Nguyên Giáp . Many of the North Vietnamese observers assumed that McCain must be part of America 's political @-@ military @-@ economic elite . Now having lost fifty pounds ( twenty @-@ three kilograms ) , in a chest cast , covered in grime and eyes full of fever , and with his hair turned white , in early December 1967 McCain was sent to a prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp on the outskirts of Hanoi nicknamed " the Plantation " . He was placed in a cell with George " Bud " Day , a badly injured and tortured Air Force pilot ( later awarded the Medal of Honor ) and Norris Overly , another Air Force pilot ; they did not expect McCain to live another week . Overly , and subsequently Day , nursed McCain and kept him alive ; Day later remembered that McCain had " a fantastic will to live " .
= = = = Solitary = = = =
In March 1968 , McCain was put into solitary confinement , where he remained for two years . Unknown to the POWs , in April 1968 , Jack McCain was named Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Pacific Command ( CINCPAC ) effective in July , stationed in Honolulu and commander of all U.S. forces in the Vietnam theater . In mid @-@ June , Major Bai , commander of the North Vietnamese prison camp system , offered McCain a chance to return home early . The North Vietnamese wanted to score a worldwide propaganda coup by appearing merciful , and also wanted to show other POWs that members of the elite like McCain were willing to be treated preferentially . McCain turned down the offer of release , due to the POWs ' " first in , first out " interpretation of the U.S. Code of Conduct : he would only accept the offer if every man captured before him was released as well . McCain 's refusal to be released was remarked upon by North Vietnamese senior negotiator Lê Đức Thọ to U.S. envoy Averell Harriman , during the ongoing Paris Peace Talks . Enraged by his declining of the offer , Bai and his assistant told McCain that things would get very bad for him .
In late August 1968 , a program of vigorous torture methods began on McCain . The North Vietnamese used rope bindings to put him into prolonged , painful positions and severely beat him every two hours , all while he was suffering from dysentery . His right leg was reinjured , his ribs were cracked , some teeth were broken at the gumline , and his left arm was re @-@ fractured . Lying in his own waste , his spirit was broken ; the beginnings of a suicide attempt were stopped by guards . After four days of this , McCain signed and taped an anti @-@ American propaganda " confession " that said , in part , " I am a black criminal and I have performed the deeds of an air pirate . I almost died , and the Vietnamese people saved my life , thanks to the doctors . " He used stilted Communist jargon and ungrammatical language to signal that the statement was forced . McCain was haunted then and since with the belief that he had dishonored his country , his family , his comrades and himself by his statement , but as he later wrote , " I had learned what we all learned over there : Every man has his breaking point . I had reached mine . " Two weeks later his captors tried to force him to sign a second statement ; his will to resist restored , he refused . He sometimes received two to three beatings per week because of his continued resistance ; the sustained mistreatment went on for over a year . His refusals to cooperate , laced with loud obscenities directed towards his guards , were often heard by other POWs . His boxing experience from his Naval Academy days helped him withstand the battering , and the North Vietnamese did not break him again .
Other American POWs were similarly tortured and maltreated in order to extract " confessions " and propaganda statements . Many , especially among those who had been captured earlier and imprisoned longer – such as those in the " Alcatraz Gang " – endured even worse treatment than McCain . Under extreme duress , virtually all the POWs eventually yielded something to their captors . There were momentary exceptions : on one occasion , a guard surreptitiously loosened McCain 's painful rope bindings for a night ; when , months later , the guard later saw McCain on Christmas Day , he stood next to McCain and silently drew a cross in the dirt with his foot . In October 1968 , McCain 's isolation was partly relieved when Ernest C. Brace was placed in the cell next to him ; he taught Brace the tap code the prisoners used to communicate . On Christmas Eve 1968 , a church service for the POWs was staged for photographers and film cameras ; McCain defied North Vietnamese instructions to be quiet , speaking out details of his treatment then shouting " Fu @-@ u @-@ u @-@ u @-@ ck you , you son of a bitch ! " and giving the finger whenever a camera was pointed at him . McCain refused to meet with various anti @-@ Vietnam War peace groups coming to Hanoi , such as those led by David Dellinger , Tom Hayden , and Rennie Davis , not wanting to give either them or the North Vietnamese a propaganda victory based on his connection to his father . McCain was still badly hobbled by his injuries , earning the nickname " Crip " among the other POWs , but despite his physical condition , continued beatings and isolation , he was one of the key players in the Plantation 's resistance efforts .
In May 1969 , U.S. Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird began publicly questioning North Vietnamese treatment of U.S. prisoners . On June 5 , 1969 , a United Press International report described a Radio Hanoi broadcast that denied any such mistreatment . The broadcast used excerpts from McCain 's forced " confession " of a year before , including a statement where he said he had bombed " cities , towns and villages " and had received " very good medical treatment " as a prisoner . In late 1969 , treatment of McCain and the other POWs suddenly improved . North Vietnamese leader Ho Chi Minh had died the previous month , possibly causing a change in policy towards POWs . Also , a badly beaten and weakened POW who had been released that summer disclosed to the world press the conditions to which they were being subjected , and the National League of Families of American Prisoners and Missing in Southeast Asia , which included McCain 's brother Joe , heightened awareness of the POWs ' plight . In December 1969 , McCain was transferred back to the Hoa Lo " Hanoi Hilton " ; his solitary confinement ended in March 1970 . When the prisoners talked about what they wanted to do once they got out , McCain said he wanted to become President . McCain consented to a January 1970 interview outside Hoa Lo with Spanish @-@ born , Cuban psychologist Fernando Barral , that was published in the official Cuban newspaper Granma . McCain talked about his life and expressed no remorse for his bombing North Vietnam , and Barral proclaimed him " an insensitive individual without human depth . " The POWs issued an edict forbidding any further such interviews , and despite pressure from his captors , McCain subsequently refused to see any anti @-@ war groups or journalists sympathetic to the North Vietnamese regime .
= = = = Release = = = =
McCain and other prisoners were moved around to different camps at times , but conditions over the next several years were generally more tolerable than they had been before . Unbeknownst to them , each year that Jack McCain was CINCPAC , he paid a Christmastime visit to the American troops in South Vietnam serving closest to the DMZ ; he would stand alone and look north , to be as close to his son as he could get . By 1971 , some 30 – 50 percent of the POWs had become disillusioned about the war , both because of the apparent lack of military progress and what they heard of the growing anti @-@ war movement in the U.S. , and some of them were less reluctant to make propaganda statements for the North Vietnamese . McCain was not among them : he participated in a defiant church service and led an effort to write letters home that only portrayed the camp in a negative light , and as a result spent much of the year in a camp reserved for " bad attitude " cases .
Back at the " Hanoi Hilton " from November 1971 onward , McCain and the other POWs cheered the resumed bombing of the north starting in April 1972 , whose targets included the Hanoi area and whose daily orders were issued by Jack McCain , knowing his son was in the vicinity . Jack McCain 's tour as CINCPAC ended in September 1972 , despite his desire to have it extended so he could see the war to its conclusion . The old @-@ time POWs cheered even more during the intense " Christmas Bombing " campaign of December 1972 , when Hanoi was subjected for the first time to repeated B @-@ 52 Stratofortress raids . Although its explosions lit the night sky and shook the walls of the camp , scaring some of the newer POWs , most saw it as a forceful measure to compel North Vietnam to finally come to terms .
The Paris Peace Accords were signed on January 27 , 1973 , ending direct U.S. involvement in the war , but the Operation Homecoming arrangements for the 591 American POWs took longer . McCain was finally released from captivity on March 14 , 1973 , being taken by bus to Gia Lam Airport , transferred to U.S. custody , and flown by C @-@ 141 to Clark Air Base in the Philippines .
Altogether , McCain was held as a prisoner of war in North Vietnam for five and a half years , nearly five of them after his refusal to accept the out @-@ of @-@ sequence repatriation offer . His wartime injuries left him permanently incapable of raising either arm more than 80 degrees . For his actions as a POW , McCain was awarded the Silver Star , the Legion of Merit , three more instances of the Bronze Star , another instance of the Navy Commendation Medal , and the Purple Heart . He also gained an appreciation , from experiencing the mutual help and organized resistance of the POWs , that his earlier individualism needed to be tempered by a belief in causes greater than self @-@ interest .
= = = Return to United States = = =
Upon his return to the United States a few days later , McCain was reunited with his wife Carol and his family . She had suffered her own crippling , near @-@ death ordeal during his captivity , due to an automobile accident in December 1969 that left her hospitalized for six months and facing twenty @-@ three operations and ongoing physical therapy . Businessman and POW advocate Ross Perot had paid for her medical care . By the time McCain saw her , she was four inches ( ten centimeters ) shorter , on crutches , and substantially heavier . As a returned POW , McCain became a celebrity of sorts : The New York Times ran a story and front @-@ page photo of him getting off the plane at Clark Air Base in the Philippines ; he authored a thirteen @-@ page cover story describing his ordeal and his support for the Nixon administration 's handling of the war in U.S. News & World Report ; he participated in parades in Orange Park and elsewhere and made personal appearances before groups , where he showed strong speaking skills ; he was given the key to the city of Jacksonville , Florida ; and a photograph of him on crutches shaking the hand of President Richard Nixon at a White House reception for returning POWs became iconic . The McCains became frequent guests of honor at dinners hosted by Governor of California Ronald Reagan and his wife Nancy Reagan , and John McCain made a strong impression speaking at a large prayer breakfast hosted by the governor . McCain had admired Ronald Reagan while in captivity and afterwards , believing him a man who saw honor in Vietnam service and a potential leader would not lead the nation into a war it was unwilling to win .
McCain underwent three operations and other treatment for his injuries , spending three months at the Naval Regional Medical Center in Jacksonville . Psychological tests , given to all the returning POWs , showed that McCain had " adjusted exceptionally well to repatriation " and had " an ambitious , striving , successful pattern of adjustment " . McCain told examiners that he withstood his ordeal by having " Faith in country , United States Navy , family , and God " . Unlike many veterans , McCain did not experience flashbacks or nightmares of his Vietnam experience , although due to the association with prison guards , the sound of keys rattling would cause him to " tense up " .
McCain was promoted to commander effective July 1973 and attended the National War College in Fort McNair in Washington , D.C. during the 1973 – 1974 academic year . There he intensively studied the history of Vietnam and the French and American wars there , and wrote " The Code of Conduct and the Vietnam Prisoners of War " , a long paper on the Vietnam POW experience as a test of the U.S. Code of Conduct . By the time he graduated , he concluded that mistakes by American political and military leaders had doomed the war effort . He accepted the right of the anti @-@ war movement in the U.S. to have exercised their freedom to protest , and he adopted a live @-@ and @-@ let @-@ live attitude towards those who had evaded the draft . Nor did the vast changes in American social mores that had taken place during his absence bother him , as it did many other former POWs . McCain returned to Saigon in November 1974 ; he and a couple of other former POWs received the National Order of Vietnam , that country 's highest honor . He also spoke at the South Vietnamese war college , five months before Saigon fell . McCain resolved not to become a " professional POW " but to move forward and rebuild his life . Few thought McCain could fly again , but he was determined to try , and during this time he engaged in nine months of grueling , painful physical therapy , especially to get his knees to bend again .
= = = Commanding officer = = =
McCain recuperated just enough to pass his flight physical and have his flight status reinstated . In August 1974 , he was assigned to the Replacement Air Group VA @-@ 174 " Hellrazors " . This was an A @-@ 7 Corsair II training squadron located at Naval Air Station Cecil Field in Jacksonville and the largest aviation squadron in the Navy . He became its executive officer in 1975 , and on July 1 , 1976 , he was made VA @-@ 174 's commanding officer . This last assignment was controversial , as he did not have the required experience of having commanded a smaller squadron first ( something that he now had too high a rank to do ) . While some senior officers resented McCain 's presence as favoritism due to his father , junior officers rallied to him and helped him qualify for A @-@ 7 carrier landings .
As commanding officer , McCain relied upon a relatively unorthodox leadership style based upon the force of his personality . He removed personnel he thought ineffective , and sought to improve morale and productivity by establishing an informal rapport with enlisted men . Dealing with limited post @-@ Vietnam defense budgets and parts shortages , he was forceful in demanding that respect be given the female officers just beginning to arrive into the unit . McCain 's leadership abilities were credited with improving the unit 's aircraft readiness ; for the first time , all fifty of its aircraft were able to fly . Although some operational metrics declined during the period , the pilot safety improved to the point of having zero accidents . The squadron was awarded its first @-@ ever Meritorious Unit Commendation , while McCain received a Meritorious Service Medal . McCain later stated that being commanding officer of VA @-@ 174 was the most rewarding assignment of his naval career . When his stint ended in July 1977 , the change of command ceremony was attended by his father and the rest of his family , as well as some of his fellow POWs ; speaker Admiral Isaac C. Kidd , Jr. said that John had joined Jack and Slew McCain in a place of honor in Navy tradition , a tribute that deeply moved McCain .
During their time in Jacksonville , the McCains ' marriage began to falter . McCain had extramarital affairs ; he was seen with other women in social settings and developed a reputation among his colleagues for womanizing . Some of McCain 's activity with other women occurred when he was off @-@ duty after routine flights to Marine Corps Air Station Yuma and Naval Air Facility El Centro . McCain later said , " My marriage 's collapse was attributable to my own selfishness and immaturity more than it was to Vietnam , and I cannot escape blame by pointing a finger at the war . The blame was entirely mine . " His wife Carol later stated that the failure was not due to her accident or Vietnam and that " I attribute [ the breakup of our marriage ] more to John turning 40 and wanting to be 25 again than I do to anything else . " John McCain 's biographer , Robert Timberg , believes that " Vietnam did play a part , perhaps not the major part , but more than a walk @-@ on . " According to John McCain , " I had changed , she had changed . People who have been apart that much change . "
= = = Senate liaison , divorce , and second marriage = = =
McCain had thought about entering politics since his return from Vietnam , although 1964 had been the only time in his life he had ever voted . In 1976 , he briefly thought of running for the U.S. House of Representatives from Florida ; he had the support of some local figures in Jacksonville , but was convinced by other Republican Party leaders that he did not have sufficient political experience , funding , or popular support to defeat longtime Democratic incumbent Charles E. Bennett . Instead , he worked so hard for Ronald Reagan 's 1976 Republican primary campaign that his base commander reprimanded him for being too politically active for his naval position .
As his tenure with VA @-@ 174 was ending , McCain was assigned to a low @-@ profile desk job within the Naval Air Systems Command . Chief of Naval Operations Admiral James L. Holloway III thought this assignment a waste of McCain 's social talents , and instead in July 1977 McCain was appointed to the Senate Liaison Office within the Navy 's Office of Legislative Affairs ( an assignment Jack McCain had once held ) . The office 's role mostly consisted of providing constituent service and acting as a facilitator among legislators , the Department of Defense , and lobbyists . McCain later said the liaison job represented " [ my ] real entry into the world of politics and the beginning of my second career as a public servant " . McCain 's lively personality and knowledge of military matters made his post in the Russell Senate Office Building a popular gathering spot for senators and staff . He also frequently escorted congressional delegations on overseas trips , where he arranged entertaining side escapades . McCain was influenced by senators of both parties , and formed an especially strong bond with John Tower of Texas , the ranking member of the Senate Armed Services Committee . During 1978 and 1979 , McCain played a key behind @-@ the @-@ scenes role in gaining congressional funding for a new supercarrier against the wishes of the Carter administration and Navy Secretary W. Graham Claytor Jr . In August 1979 , McCain was promoted to captain , and became Director of the Senate Liaison Office . During McCain 's time there , the Senate Liaison Office enjoyed one of its few periods of high influence .
McCain and his wife Carol had been briefly separated soon after returning to Washington , but then reunited and remained married . In April 1979 , while attending a military reception for senators in Hawaii , McCain met Cindy Lou Hensley , eighteen years his junior , a teacher from Phoenix , Arizona and the daughter of James Willis Hensley , a wealthy Anheuser @-@ Busch beer distributor , and Marguerite " Smitty " Hensley . They began dating , travelling between Arizona and Washington to see each other , and John McCain urged his wife Carol to accept a divorce . The McCains stopped cohabiting in January 1980 , and John McCain filed for divorce in February , which Carol McCain accepted at that time . After she did not respond to court summonses , the uncontested divorce became official in Fort Walton Beach , Florida , on April 2 , 1980 . McCain gave Carol a settlement that included full custody of their children , alimony , child support including college tuition , houses in Virginia and Florida , and lifelong financial support for her ongoing medical treatments resulting from the 1969 automobile accident ; they would remain on good terms . McCain and Hensley were married on May 17 , 1980 in Phoenix , with Senators William Cohen and Gary Hart as best man and groomsman . McCain 's children were upset with him and did not attend the wedding , but after several years they reconciled with him and Cindy . Carol McCain became a personal assistant to Nancy Reagan and later Director of the White House Visitors Office . The Reagans were stunned by the divorce ; Nancy Reagan 's relationship with John McCain turned cold for a while following it , but eventually the two renewed their friendship . The same happened with most of McCain 's other friends , who were eventually won over by the force of his personality and his frequent expressions of guilt over what had happened .
Around the end of 1980 , McCain decided to retire from the Navy . He had not been given a major sea command , and his physical condition had deteriorated , causing him to fail the flight physical required for any carrier command position ( in addition to his limited arm movement , certain weather would always cause him to walk with a limp ) . McCain thought he might make rear admiral , but probably not vice admiral , and never become a four @-@ star admiral as his grandfather and father had been . McCain later wrote that he did not anguish over his decision , although it pained his mother , who thought congressional careers paled in comparison to top naval ones . He was excited by the idea of being a member of Congress and was soon recruiting a campaign manager that Cohen knew , for a planned run at a House seat from Arizona . In early 1981 , Secretary of the Navy John F. Lehman , who did not want to see McCain leave the liaison post , told McCain that he was still on the path to be selected for one @-@ star rear admiral . McCain told Lehman that he was leaving the Navy and that he could " do more good " in Congress .
McCain retired with an effective date of April 1 , 1981 , the rank of Captain , and a disability pension due to his wartime injuries . For his service in the Senate liaison office , McCain was awarded a second instance of the Legion of Merit . Jack McCain died on March 22 , 1981 . On March 27 , 1981 , McCain attended his father 's funeral at Arlington National Cemetery , wearing his uniform for the last time before signing his discharge papers , and later that day flew to Phoenix with his wife Cindy to begin his new life .
= = Awards and decorations = =
John McCain received the following medals and decorations :
|
= Independent Women 's Forum =
The Independent Women 's Forum ( IWF ) is a politically conservative American non @-@ profit organization focused on policy issues of concern to women . The IWF was founded by activist Rosalie Silberman to promote a " conservative alternative to feminist tenets " following the controversial Supreme Court nomination of Clarence Thomas in 1992 .
The group advocates " equity feminism , " a term first used by IWF author Christina Hoff Sommers to distinguish " traditional , classically liberal , humanistic feminism " from " gender feminism " , which she claims opposes gender roles as well as patriarchy . According to Sommers , the gender feminist view is " the prevailing ideology among contemporary feminist philosophers and leaders " and " thrives on the myth that American women are the oppressed ' second sex . ' " Sommers ' equity feminism has been described as anti @-@ feminist by critics .
In the 2012 U.S. presidential election , Independent Women ’ s Voice ran an advertisement comparing President Obama to a dishonest boyfriend .
= = Origin and history = =
Founded in 1992 by Rosalie Silberman , Anita K. Blair , and Barbara Olson , the IWF grew out of the ad hoc group " Women for Judge Thomas , " created to defend Clarence Thomas against allegations of sexual harassment and other improprieties . By 1996 the organization had some 700 dues @-@ paying members who met regularly at luncheons to network and share ideas . Silberman was the IWF 's first president ; subsequent leaders have included Nancy Pfotenhauer and Anita Blair . The current executive director of the organization is Sabrina Schaeffer . The IWF has been described as " a virtual ' Who 's Who ' of Washington 's Republican establishment . " In 2006 , the organization had 20 @,@ 337 members and a budget of $ 1 @.@ 05 million .
= = Opposition to other feminist ideas = =
The IWF opposes many mainstream feminist positions , describing them as " radical feminism " . IWF @-@ affiliated writers have argued that the gender gap in income exists because of women 's greater demand for flexibility , fewer hours , and less travel in their careers , rather than because of sexism . In an article for the Dallas Morning News , IWF Vice @-@ President Carrie Lukas attributed gender disparities in income to " women 's own choices " , writing that women " tend to place a higher priority on flexibility and personal fulfillment than do men , who focus more on pay . Women tend to avoid jobs that require travel or relocation , and they take more time off and spend fewer hours in the office than men do . Men disproportionately take on the most dirty , dangerous and depressing jobs . "
Conservative commentators have praised the IWF ; Linda Chavez credited Women 's Figures : An Illustrated Guide to the Economic Progress of Women in America , a 1999 book published in part by the IWF , with " debunk [ ing ] much of the feminists ' voodoo economics . " Writing in Capitalist Magazine , John Stossel cited Michelle Bernard 's 2007 book Women 's Progress as evidence that " American women have never enjoyed more options or such a high quality of life . "
Some writers have asserted that feminist rhetoric is used by the IWF for anti @-@ feminist ends . A New York Times editorial described the IWF as " a right @-@ wing public policy group that provides pseudofeminist support for extreme positions that are in fact dangerous to women . "
= = Domestic policy and programs = =
= = = United States healthcare policy = = =
In 2009 , IWF produced a political advertisement run on YouTube and in eight states arguing that " 300 @,@ 000 American women with breast cancer might have died " if U.S. healthcare included a government @-@ funded option . FactCheck.org labeled the IWF ad false and manipulative of women 's fears , finding that the IWF ad relied on " old statistics , faulty logic and false insinuations . "
= = = Education policy and campus programs = = =
The Forum is active in education policy discussions and focuses on a number of different issues both in primary / secondary education and higher education .
= = = = Title IX enforcement = = = =
Since shortly after the organization 's inception , the IWF has joined with groups like the National Wrestling Coaches Association in opposing the manner in which the United States Department of Education 's Office for Civil Rights has enforced Title IX gender equality legislation . The 1972 Title IX law that states : " No person in the United States shall , on the basis of sex , be excluded from participation in , be denied the benefits of , or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance . " According to IWF senior fellow Christine Stolba , the law has resulted in a number of negative , unintended consequences . Elaborating on the group 's position , Stolba asserts ,
The ( women 's forum ) is often accused of opposing Title IX . But we don 't oppose Title IX .... What we 're opposing is the way the Office for Civil Rights chooses to enforce Title IX . Given their regulations , colleges are enforcing statistical proportionality .... Common sense and poll data suggest that men are more interested in playing sports than women . But there are more female students than male . It becomes a numbers game , where the number of athletes has to be proportional . The easiest way to do that is to cut men 's teams .
In support of the group 's claims that absent current Title IX enforcement , men are more likely to enroll in collegiate athletic programs than women , the IWF conducted a 1998 survey that examined the percentage of students at all @-@ women 's schools participating in athletics compared to the percentage of female students participating in similar programs at undergraduate schools generally . The survey found that female students at co @-@ educational schools are far more likely to be student athletes . Jeremy Rabkin cited the survey in an April 1999 article in the American Spectator , asking , " If ' discrimination ' keeps down the proportion of women athletes at co @-@ ed schools , what accounts for overall participation rates that are half of the national women 's average at Bryn Mawr , Mount Holyoke , Wellesley , and Smith ? "
In a January 2012 article remarking on the 40th anniversary of Title IX , IWF executive director Sabrina Schaeffer described her " hope [ that ] feminists will begin to accept that men and women — no matter how balanced the circumstances — maintain different strengths and preferences . Because what is very clear is that legislation in the name of " gender equality " does not actually make men and women the same . "
= = = = Advocacy for school choice = = = =
In response to falling test scores in American public elementary , middle , and high schools , particularly among young boys , IWF created its Women For School Choice project . The effort targets in part what the organization describes as the negative results of the Women 's Educational Equity Act . According to researcher Krista Kafer , whose report was published by the IWF ,
WEEA is a solution without a problem . The program wastes money that would be better spent on actual crises — boys ' literacy for example — or returned to taxpayers .... Girls are more engaged and ambitious in school , while boys are more likely to suffer academic and behavioral problems .
The creation of this project was also largely a reaction to the National Organization for Women 's vocal opposition to single @-@ sex schools , which decried such arrangements as unacceptable modern examples of segregation .
= = = = 2006 Duke University lacrosse case = = = =
After rape accusations against Duke University lacrosse players surfaced in March 2006 , the IWF was quick to call attention to the fact that the parties involved in the case were receiving much attention in the press , something that would be harmful to their reputations regardless of the ultimate legal outcome . In April 2006 , Carrie Lukas of the IWF said ,
At Duke , a woman has accused three men of raping her . Two have been indicted . We know the names of the accused ; we 've seen their pictures ; their lives will never be the same .... Perhaps the evidence will show they ... committed the heinous crime of rape . If so , they will be and they should be severely punished . Yet the media so quick to sensationalize the accuser 's account and condemn the lacrosse players now is revealing facts suggesting that the accused might be innocent of this crime .
Columnist Michael Gaynor , writing for Alan Keyes ' organization Renew America , noted IWF 's early criticism of the school 's and the district attorney 's mishandling of the case , saying , " The Independent Women 's Forum 's Charlotte Allen figured out early that the real scandal was the way the players were mistreated and her posts during April 2006 on the IWF website showed a commendable concern with due process and evidence instead of rushing to an erroneous misjudgment . "
= = = = Campus programs = = = =
The organization emphasizes traditional family roles and cultural norms as essential for civil society . In particular , IWF encourages young women to embrace what it presents as a healthy attitude towards dating , courtship , and marriage . This emphasis is reflected by high @-@ profile , sometimes controversial work on college campuses where IWF sponsors advertising campaigns and literature distribution to promote its views . One such effort included the running of advertisements with provocative headings such as " The Ten Most Common Feminist Myths . " IWF also offers internships and sponsors an annual essay contest open to full @-@ time female undergraduate students .
As a reaction to reports of growing promiscuity on college campuses and the V @-@ Day movement founded by Eve Ensler , IWF created its " Take Back the Date " campus program to " reclaim Valentine 's Day from radical feminists on campus who use a day of love and romance to promote vulgar and promiscuous behavior through activities like The Vagina Monologues . " Specifically addressing the controversial play , IWF 's " Take Back the Date " release states that , " although the play raises money for a good cause , the hyper @-@ sexualized play counteracts the positive contributions of the feminist movement and degrades women . "
In an article in The Guardian , Jessica Valenti wrote that the program was merely " [ r ] evamping outdated notions of femininity and positioning them as cutting edge . "
= = = Right to keep and bear arms = = =
Individuals affiliated with IWF have advocated for the right of members of the public to keep and bear arms . Allison Kasic , director of the Forum 's R. Gaull Silberman Center for Collegiate Studies , wrote an article for Townhall.com praising Antonin Scalia 's District of Columbia v. Heller decision , in which the Supreme Court of the United States held that the Second Amendment to the U.S. Constitution recognized an individual right to keep and bear arms . Kasic described her enthusiasm for the manner in which the court resolved the case by noting , " as Justice Scalia pointed out in his opinion , ' the American people have considered the handgun to be the quintessential self @-@ defense weapon . ' All citizens of D.C. should rejoice at their new found freedom . But for women especially , guns are the ultimate equalizer in self @-@ defense . " In January 2012 , Anna Rittgers , an IWF senior fellow writing in support of federal legislation that would guarantee interstate reciprocity for concealed handgun permitholders , asserted that this issue is of particular importance to women because ,
In many cases , women lack the physical ability to defend themselves against or outrun would @-@ be assailants . Intangible factors that make women vulnerable are heightened when traveling because of a tourist ’ s lack of familiarity with her surroundings and local trends in crime . Taking away a woman ’ s access to effective means of self @-@ defense makes her an even more attractive target .
= = International programs = =
Since its founding , IWF has sponsored numerous conferences , panels , and other programs designed to promote its message to an international audience . These primarily include activities and events discussing or taking place in the countries of Iraq and Afghanistan , and focus on promoting female participation in democracy .
In October 2004 , the Feminist Majority Foundation objected to the U.S. Department of State 's decision to award part of a grant to IWF . IWF 's work in Iraq is in concert with that of the American Islamic Conference and the Foundation for the Defense of Democracies , a neo @-@ conservative think tank .
= = Funding = =
Donors to IWF have included Donors Trust , the John William Pope Foundation , the Lynde and Harry Bradley Foundation , the Scaife Foundations and the Randolph Foundation .
= = Board members = =
The board is chaired by businesswoman Heather Higgins with other members Elizabeth Biar , Yvonne Boice , Kellyanne Conway , Giovanna Cugnasca , Lisa Gable and Nan Hayworth . Directors emeritae of the organization include former Second Lady of the United States Lynne V. Cheney , writer Midge Decter , Kimberly O. Dennis , economist Wendy Lee Gramm , Elizabeth Lurie , journalist Kate O 'Beirne , Nancy Pfotenhauer and Louise V. Oliver .
|
= Early life of Fidel Castro =
The early life of Cuban revolutionary and politician Fidel Castro , born Lina Castro , spans the first 26 years of his life , from 1926 to 1952 . Born in Birán , Oriente Province , Castro was the illegitimate son of Ángel Castro y Argiz , a wealthy farmer and landowner , and his mistress Lina Ruz González . First educated by a tutor in Santiago de Cuba , Fidel Castro then attended two boarding schools before being sent to El Colegio de Belén , a school run by Jesuits in Havana . In 1945 he began studying law at the University of Havana , where he first became politically conscious , becoming a staunch anti @-@ imperialist and critic of United States involvement in the Caribbean . Involved in student politics , he was affiliated to Eduardo Chibás and his Partido Ortodoxo , achieving publicity as a vocal critic of the pro @-@ U.S. administration of President Ramón Grau and his Partido Auténtico .
Immersed in the university 's violent gang culture , in 1947 he took part in a quashed attempt to invade the Dominican Republic and overthrow the military junta of Rafael Trujillo . Returning to student politics , Castro was involved with violent demonstrations in which protesters clashed with riot police , at which he became increasingly left @-@ wing in his views . Traveling to Bogotá , Colombia , he fought for the Liberals in the Bogotazo before returning to Havana , where he embraced Marxism . In 1948 he married the wealthy Mirta Díaz Balart , and in September 1949 their son Fidelito was born . Obtaining his Doctorate of Law in September 1950 , he co @-@ opened an unsuccessful law firm before entering parliamentary politics as a Partido Ortodoxo candidate . When General Fulgencio Batista launched a coup and overthrew the elected presidency , Castro brought legal challenges against him , but as this proved ineffective , he began to think of other ways to oust Batista .
= = Childhood and education : 1926 – 1945 = =
Castro 's father , Ángel Castro y Argiz ( 1875 – 1956 ) , was born to a poor peasant family in Galicia , a province in northwest Spain . A farm laborer , in 1895 he was conscripted into the Spanish Army to fight in the Cuban War of Independence and the ensuing Spanish – American War of 1898 , in which the U.S. seized control of Cuba . In 1902 , the Republic of Cuba was proclaimed ; however it remained economically and politically dominated by the U.S. For a time , Cuba enjoyed economic growth , and Ángel migrated there in search of employment . After various jobs , he set up a business growing sugar cane at Las Manacas farm in Birán , near Mayarí , Oriente Province . Ángel took a wife in 1911 , María Luisa Argota Reyes , with whom he had five children before separating . He then began a relationship with Lina Ruz González ( 1903 – 1963 ) , a household servant of Canarian descent who was twenty @-@ seven years his junior ; she bore him three sons and four daughters , legally marrying in 1943 .
Castro was Lina 's third child , born out of wedlock at Ángel 's farm on August 13 , 1926 . Because of the stigma of illegitimacy , he was given his mother 's surname of Ruz rather than his father 's name . Although Ángel 's business ventures prospered , he ensured that Fidel grew up alongside the children of the farm 's workforce , many of whom were Haitian economic migrants of African descent . This experience , Castro later related , prevented him from absorbing " bourgeois culture " at an early age .
Aged six , Castro , along with his elder siblings Ramón and Angela , was sent to live with their teacher in Santiago de Cuba , dwelling in cramped conditions and relative poverty , often failing to have enough to eat because of their tutor 's poor economic situation . Aged eight , Castro was baptized into the Roman Catholic Church , although later became an atheist . Being baptized enabled Castro to attend the La Salle boarding school in Santiago , where he regularly misbehaved , and so was sent to the privately funded , Jesuit @-@ run Dolores School in Santiago . In 1945 he transferred to the more prestigious Jesuit @-@ run El Colegio de Belén in Havana . Although Castro took an interest in history , geography and debating at Belén , he did not excel academically , instead devoting much of his time to playing sport .
= = University and early political activism : 1945 – 1947 = =
In late 1945 , Castro began studying law at the University of Havana . Admitting he was " politically illiterate " , he became embroiled in the student protest movement : under the regimes of Cuban Presidents Gerardo Machado , Fulgencio Batista and Ramón Grau there had been a crackdown on protest , with student leaders being killed or terrorized by gangs . This led to a form of gangsterismo culture within the university , dominated by armed student groups who spent much of their time fighting and running criminal enterprises . Passionate about anti @-@ imperialism and opposed to U.S. intervention in the Caribbean , Castro joined the University Committee for the Independence of Puerto Rico and the Committee for Democracy in the Dominican Republic . During an unsuccessful campaign for the presidency of the Federation of University Students ( Federación Estudiantil Universitaria - FEU ) , he put forward a platform of " honesty , decency and justice " and emphasized his opposition to corruption , which he associated with U.S. involvement in Cuba .
Castro became critical of the corruption and violence of Grau 's regime , delivering a public speech on the subject in November 1946 that earned him a place on the front page of several newspapers . In contact with members of student leftist groups – including the Popular Socialist Party ( Partido Socialista Popular – PSP ) , the Socialist Revolutionary Movement ( Movimiento Socialista Revolucionaria – MSR ) and the Insurrectional Revolutionary Union ( Unión Insurrecional Revolucionaria – UIR ) – he grew close to the UIR , although biographers are unsure whether he became a member . In 1947 , Castro joined a new socialist group , the Party of the Cuban People ( Partido Ortodoxo ) , founded by veteran politician Eduardo Chibás ( 1907 – 1951 ) . A charismatic figure , Chibás advocated social justice , honest government , and political freedom , while his party exposed corruption and demanded reform . Though Chibás lost the election , Castro remained committed to working on his behalf . Student violence escalated after Grau employed gang leaders as police officers , and Castro soon received a death threat urging him to leave the university ; he refused and began carrying a gun and surrounding himself with armed friends . In later years Castro was accused of attempting gang @-@ related assassinations during this period , including that of UIR member Lionel Gómez , MSR leader Manolo Castro and university policeman Oscar Fernandez , but these charges remain unproven .
= = Latin American rebellions : 1947 – 1948 = =
In June 1947 , Castro learned of a planned international expedition to invade the Dominican Republic and overthrow its right @-@ wing president , Rafael Trujillo , a military general and U.S. ally . Widely seen as a dictator , Trujillo utilized a violent secret police which routinely murdered and tortured opponents . Becoming president of the University Committee for Democracy in the Dominican Republic , Castro decided to join the expedition , led by Dominican exile General Juan Rodríguez . Launched from Cuba , the invasion began on July 29 , 1947 ; it consisted of around 1 @,@ 200 men , most of whom were exiled Dominicans or Cubans . However , the Dominican and U.S. governments were prepared , and soon quashed the rebellion . Grau ’ s government arrested many of those involved before they set sail , but Castro escaped arrest by jumping off of his naval frigate and swimming to shore at night .
The botched mission furthered Castro ’ s opposition to the Grau administration , and returning to Havana , he took a leading role in the student protests against the killing of a high school pupil by government bodyguards . The protests , accompanied by a U.S.-imposed crackdown on those considered communists , led to violent clashes between protesters and police in February 1948 , in which Castro was badly beaten . At this point his public speeches took on a distinctively leftist slant , condemning the social and economic inequalities of Cuba , something in contrast to his former public criticisms , which had centered on condemning corruption and U.S. imperialism .
After a quick visit to Venezuela and Panama , in April 1948 Castro traveled to the city of Bogotá , Colombia , with a Cuban student group sponsored by the government of Argentine President Juan Perón , whose anti @-@ imperialist politics impressed Castro . There , the assassination of popular leftist leader Jorge Eliécer Gaitán Ayala led to widespread rioting that came to be known as the Bogotazo . Leaving 3000 dead , the riots revolved around clashes between the governing Conservatives – backed by the army – and leftist Liberals with support from socialists . Along with his fellow Cuban visitors , Castro joined the Liberal cause by stealing guns from a police station , but subsequent police investigations concluded that neither Castro nor any of the other Cubans had been involved in the killings .
= = Marriage and Marxism : 1948 – 1950 = =
Returning to Cuba , Castro became a prominent figure in protests against the government ’ s attempts to raise bus fares , a mode of transport used mostly by students and workers . That year , Castro married Mirta Díaz Balart , a student from a wealthy family through whom he was exposed to the lifestyle of the Cuban elite . The relationship was a love match , disapproved of by both families . Mirta ’ s father gave them tens of thousands of dollars to spend in a three @-@ month honeymoon in New York City , and the couple also received a U.S. $ 1 @,@ 000 wedding gift from the military general and former president Fulgencio Batista , a friend of Mirta ’ s family . That same year , Grau decided not to stand for re @-@ election , which was instead won by his Partido Auténtico 's new candidate , Carlos Prío Socarrás . Prío faced widespread protests when members of the MSR , now allied to the police force , assassinated Justo Fuentes , a self @-@ educated black Cuban who was a prominent UIR member and friend of Castro 's . In response , Prío agreed to quell the gangs , but found them too powerful to control .
Castro had moved further left in his politics , influenced by the writings of Marxist communists like Karl Marx , Friedrich Engels and Vladimir Lenin . He came to interpret Cuba 's problems as an integral part of capitalist society , or the " dictatorship of the bourgeoisie " , rather than the failings of corrupt politicians . Adopting the Marxist idea that meaningful political change could only be brought about by a proletariat revolution , Castro visited Havana ’ s poorest neighborhoods , witnessing the nation ’ s social and racial inequalities , and became active in the University Committee for the Struggle against Racial Discrimination .
In September 1949 , Mirta gave birth to a son , Fidelito , so the couple moved to a larger Havana flat . Castro continued to put himself at risk , staying active in the city 's politics and joining the September 30 Movement , which contained within it both communists and members of the Partido Ortodoxo . The group 's purpose was to oppose the influence of the violent gangs within the university ; despite his promises , Prío had failed to control the situation , instead offering many of their senior members jobs in government ministries . Castro volunteered to deliver a speech for the Movement on November 13 , exposing the government 's secret deals with the gangs and identifying key members . Attracting the attention of the national press , the speech angered the gangs , and Castro fled into hiding , first in the countryside and then in the U.S. Returning to Havana several weeks later , Castro lay low and focused on his university studies , graduating as a Doctor of Law in September 1950 .
= = Career in law and politics : 1950 – 1952 = =
Castro founded a legal partnership with two fellow leftists , Jorge Azpiazu and Rafael Resende , focusing on helping poor Cubans assert their rights . A financial failure , its main client was a timber merchant who paid them in timber to furnish their office . Caring little for money or material goods , Castro failed to pay his bills ; his furniture was repossessed and electricity cut off , distressing his wife . He took part in a high @-@ school protest in Cienfuegos in November 1950 , fighting a four @-@ hour battle with police in protest at the Education Ministry ’ s ban on the founding of student associations . Arrested and charged for violent conduct , the magistrate dismissed the charges . He also became an active member of the Cuban Peace Committee , campaigning against western involvement in the Korean War . His hopes for Cuba still centered on Eduardo Chibás and the Partido Ortodoxo ; however Chibás had made a mistake when he accused Education Minister Aureliano Sánchez of purchasing a Guatemalan ranch with misappropriated funds , but was unable to substantiate his allegations . The government accused Chibás of being a liar , and in 1951 he shot himself during a radio broadcast , issuing a " last wake @-@ up call " to the Cuban people . Castro was present and accompanied him to the hospital where he died .
Seeing himself as the heir to Chibás , Castro wanted to run for Congress in the June 1952 elections . Senior Ortodoxo members feared his radical reputation and refused to nominate him ; instead he was nominated as a candidate for the House of Representatives by party members in Havana 's poorest districts , and began campaigning . The Ortodoxo gained a considerable level of support and was predicted to do well in the election .
During his campaign , Castro met with General Fulgencio Batista , the former president who had returned to politics with the Unitary Action Party ; although both opposed Prío ’ s administration , their meeting never got beyond " polite generalities " . In March 1952 , Batista seized power in a military coup , with Prío fleeing to Mexico . Declaring himself president , Batista cancelled the planned presidential elections , describing his new system as " disciplined democracy " ; Castro , like many others , considered it a one @-@ man dictatorship . Batista moved to the right , solidifying ties with both the wealthy elite and the United States , severing diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union , suppressing trade unions and persecuting Cuban socialist groups . Intent on opposing Batista ’ s administration , Castro brought several legal cases against them , arguing that Batista had committed sufficient criminal acts to warrant imprisonment and accusing various ministers of breaching labor laws . His lawsuits coming to nothing , Castro began thinking of alternate ways to oust the new government .
|
= Jaguar XJ220 =
The Jaguar XJ220 is a two @-@ seater supercar produced by British luxury car manufacturer Jaguar from 1992 until 1994 , in collaboration with the specialist automotive and race engineering company Tom Walkinshaw Racing . Recording a top speed of 212 @.@ 3 mph ( 342 km / h ) in 1992 the XJ220 could keep up with the fastest production car since 1987 , the Ruf CTR which also had reached 342 km / h at Nardo before being superseded by the McLaren F1 in 1993 when it recorded a top speed of 231 mph ( 372 km / h ) . The Jaguar held the Nürburgring production car lap record between 1992 and 2000 with a time of 7 : 46 @.@ 36 .
The XJ220 was developed from a V12 @-@ engined 4 @-@ wheel drive concept car designed by an informal group of Jaguar employees working in their spare time . The group wished to create a modern version of the successful Jaguar 24 Hours of Le Mans racing cars of the 1950s and ' 60s that could be entered into FIA Group B competitions . The XJ220 made use of engineering work undertaken for Jaguar 's then current racing car family .
The initial XJ220 concept car was unveiled to the public at the 1988 British International Motor Show , held in Birmingham , England . Its positive reception prompted Jaguar to put the car into production ; some 1500 deposits of £ 50 @,@ 000 each were taken , and deliveries were planned for 1992 .
Engineering requirements resulted in significant changes to the specification of the XJ220 , most notably replacement of the Jaguar V12 engine by a turbocharged V6 engine . The changes to the specification and a collapse in the price of collectible cars brought about by the early 1990s recession resulted in many buyers choosing not to exercise their purchase options . A total of just 271 cars were produced by the time production ended , each with a retail price of £ 470 @,@ 000 in 1992 .
= = Conception = =
Jaguar were approached by racing team owner Tom Walkinshaw and encouraged to enter the Jaguar XJS into the 1981 European Touring Car Championship ; they succeeded in winning the competition in 1984 . Jaguar had started to provide factory support to racing team Group 44 Racing , who were using the Jaguar @-@ engined XJR @-@ 5 in the IMSA GT Championship , supplying V12 engines from 1983 onwards and supporting a Le Mans entry in 1984 . Tom Walkinshaw and Jaguar agreed to entering the FIA Group C World Sportscar Championship and developed the XJR @-@ 6 , which was powered by the Jaguar V12 engine ; the car was launched during the 1985 season .
TWR took over the IMSA GT Championship operation in 1988 and one model – Jaguar XJR @-@ 9 – was launched to compete in both series . The XJR @-@ 9 , which retained the Jaguar V12 engine , went on to win the 1988 24 Hours of Le Mans and World Sportscar Championship in the same year . The poor fuel consumption of the Jaguar V12 combined with new rules restricting refueling during races forced the replacement of the V12 engine in the XJR @-@ 9s successors , the XJR @-@ 10 and XJR @-@ 11 . The normally @-@ aspirated Austin Rover V64V engine , designed for the MG Metro 6R4 had recently been made redundant thanks to the Group B rally ban in 1987 , and the design rights were for sale . The compact , lightweight and fuel efficient nature of the small @-@ displacement , turbocharged engine was investigated by TWR , who considered it an ideal basis for a new engine to power the XJR @-@ 10 and purchased the design rights from Austin Rover Group .
Jaguar and their Director of Engineering , Jim Randle , felt these racing cars were too far removed from the product available to the general public , especially with the rule changes that mandated the replacement of the Jaguar V12 engine in the forthcoming XJR @-@ 10 and XJR @-@ 11 racing cars . Therefore , a project was initiated to design and build a car capable of winning Le Mans " in house " , just as the Jaguar C @-@ Type and D @-@ Type had done . The groundwork for the project was undertaken by Randle over Christmas 1987 , when he produced a 1 : 4 scale cardboard model of a potential Group B racing car .
The cardboard model was taken into the Jaguar styling studio and two mock @-@ ups were produced . One was said to be reminiscent of the Porsche 956 , the other took elements of the then current Jaguar XJ41 project and Malcolm Sayer 's work on the stillborn Jaguar XJ13 racing car . The second design , by Keith Helfet , was chosen as it was " more obviously Jaguar in its look " .
The project still had no official support , leaving Randle no option but to put together a team of volunteers to work evenings and weekends in their own time . The team came to be known as " The Saturday Club " , and consisted of twelve volunteers . To justify the resources consumed by the project , the XJ220 needed to provide meaningful data to the engineers on handling , aerodynamics – particularly at high speeds – and aluminium structures . These requirements , together with FIA racing regulations and various government regulations governing car design and safety influenced the overall design and engineering direction of the car .
= = Concept car = =
The FIA Group B regulations steered the concept towards a mid @-@ engine , all @-@ wheel @-@ drive layout , with a Jaguar V12 engine as the power source . The concept car was designed and built at very little cost to Jaguar , as Randle called in favours from component suppliers and engineering companies he and Jaguar had worked with in the past . In return he offered public recognition for their assistance and dangled the possibility of future contracts from Jaguar .
The name XJ220 was chosen as a continuation of the naming of the Jaguar XK120 , which referred to the top speed of the model in miles per hour . The concept car had a targeted top speed of 220 mph ( 350 km / h ) so became the XJ220 . The XK120 , like the XJ220 , was an aluminium @-@ bodied sports car , and when launched was the fastest production car in the world .
= = = Engine and transmission = = =
Jaguar and engine designer Walter Hassan had previously created a 48 @-@ valve variant of their V12 engine specifically for motorsport use . It featured a double overhead camshaft layout with four valves per cylinder , compared with the single overhead camshaft and two valves per cylinder of the production engine , which was used in the Jaguar XJ and Jaguar XJS models at the time .
TWR had manufactured a number of these racing V12 engines during the 1980s and they had been raced competitively , with a 7 @-@ litre version of this engine featuring in the Le Mans winning Silk Cut Jaguar XJR @-@ 9 . Five of these engines still existed , all of which were fitted with dry sump lubrication . These engines were chosen and considered to be especially useful as the dry sump would lower the vehicle 's centre of gravity . The displacement of the V12 was set at 6 @.@ 2 litres ( 6222 cc ) for the XJ220 . The engine fitted to the XJ220 concept had titanium connecting rods .
Jaguar had little experience with four @-@ wheel drive systems at the time , having previously only produced rear @-@ wheel drive cars . Randle approached Tony Rolt 's company , FF Developments to design the transmission and four @-@ wheel drive system for the XJ220 , with Rolt 's son Stuart running the project . Tony Rolt was the Technical Director of Ferguson Research , where he was heavily involved in the design of the four @-@ wheel drive system used in the Jensen FF , the first sports car to be fitted with such a transmission . Tony Rolt also had a long involvement with Jaguar , winning the 1953 24 Hours of Le Mans with the factory works team driving the Jaguar C @-@ Type .
The mid @-@ engine complicated the design of the four @-@ wheel drive system , and an innovative solution was needed to get drive from the rear of the engine to the front wheels . The chosen design took the front @-@ wheel drive from the central differential on the rear transaxle and sent it through the V in the centre of the engine using a quill drive , before joining an inverted differential . The clutch was a twin @-@ plate unit designed by AP Racing .
= = = Bodywork and interior = = =
The design brief for the exterior restricted the use of aerodynamic aids , and aimed for a stylish yet functional body similar to the Jaguar D @-@ Type . Drag and lift were limited at the envisioned ground clearance for road use , but the design allowed for additional downforce when the car was set up for racing ; the body produced around 3 @,@ 000 lb ( 1 @,@ 400 kg ) of downforce at 200 mph ( 320 km / h ) . The design was also intended to have a variable rear wing that folded into the bodywork at lower speeds . Aerodynamic work was undertaken at the Motor Industry Research Association wind tunnel using a 1 : 4 scale model , as the project was unable to budget for a full @-@ scale mock @-@ up .
The bodywork for the concept car displayed in 1988 was hand built from aluminium by Park Sheet Metal , a specialist automotive engineering company that manufactures concept cars and low @-@ volume , niche models for various manufacturers , including Bentley . QCR Coatings undertook final painting of the bodyshell in silver . The concept also featured electrically operated scissor doors and a transparent engine cover to show off the V12 engine .
The concept car had a Connolly Leather @-@ trimmed interior produced by Callow & Maddox , and was fitted with front and rear heated windscreens , electric windows , air conditioning , heated electrically adjustable seats with an Alpine CD player . The dashboard was supplied by Veglia .
= = = Chassis = = =
The chassis was manufactured from aluminium using Alcan 's bonded aluminium structure vehicle technology ( ASVT ) , and had a wheelbase of 2845 mm . The design for the chassis featured rear wheel steering and packaged the fuel tank behind the centre bulkhead . Suspension design largely focused on road use , but a good compromise for racing use was achieved and the suspension height was adjustable . The concept car was fitted with a four @-@ channel anti @-@ lock braking system .
The concept car was larger than the production model at 5 @,@ 140 mm ( 202 in ) in length and 2 @,@ 000 mm ( 79 in ) wide . It weighed 1 @,@ 560 kg ( 3 @,@ 440 lb ) .
= = = Launch = = =
The concept car was completed in the early hours of 18 October 1988 , the day it was due to be unveiled at the British International Motor Show , being held at the National Exhibition Centre , Birmingham . The vehicle was completed at 03 : 00 GMT , moved to Jaguar 's stand at 06 : 00 GMT and unveiled at 11 : 00 GMT .
Jaguar 's marketing department had allocated space on their stand at the motor show for the XJ220 , but had not seen the vehicle until its arrival . Jaguar chairman John Egan and Roger Putnam , who was in charge of Jaguar 's racing activities , were shown the vehicle the week before the motor show and signed off on the concept , allowing its unveiling . The car received an overwhelmingly positive reception by public and press , and a number of wealthy Jaguar enthusiasts handed over blank cheques to secure a purchase option should the XJ220 concept go into production . Ferrari 's display of their F40 model at the same event was overshadowed ; an estimated 90 @,@ 000 additional visitors came to see the Jaguar XJ220 .
The XJ220 was not initially intended to be a production car , but , following the reception of the concept and financial interest from serious buyers , a feasibility study was carried out by teams from TWR and Jaguar . Its conclusion was that such a car would be technically feasible ( subject to engineering changes ) , and that it would be financially viable . The announcement of a limited production run of 220 to 350 cars came on 20 December 1989 . The list price on 1 January 1990 was £ 290 @,@ 000 exclusive of value added tax , options and delivery charges , but by 1992 that had increased considerably owing to indexation of contracts . The offer was four times oversubscribed , and deposits of £ 50 @,@ 000 exclusive of Value Added Tax ( VAT ) were taken from around 1400 customers ; first deliveries were planned for mid @-@ 1992 .
= = Production version = =
Jaguar were unable to develop the XJ220 in house as their engineering resources were committed to working on the Jaguar XJ and Jaguar XJS models ; the re @-@ engineered and facelifted XJS was launched in May 1991 .
Jaguar and TWR had an existing joint venture , JaguarSport Ltd , formed in 1987 to produce racing cars . Jaguar 's board made the decision that subject to contractual agreement , TWR and JaguarSport would be responsible for the XJ220 . JaguarSport formed a new company , Project XJ220 Ltd , specifically to develop and build the XJ220 .
The team that should determine the necessary engineering work and assess the car 's financial viability was put in place during mid @-@ 1989 , working from the TWR workshops . Mike Moreton headed the team , joining TWR to run the XJ220 project . Moreton came from Ford Motorsports where he led the team responsible for the Ford Sierra RS500 Cosworth , and was a project manager for the Ford RS200 Group B rally car program . Richard Owen was appointed chief designer , and the remainder of the team was made up of Jaguar and TWR staff , including Pete Dodd , the only member of the group of twelve responsible for the XJ220 concept . The exterior and interior designers who had worked on the XJ220 prototype , Keith Helfet and Nick Hull , rejoined the project when it became clear that more design work would be needed .
= = = Development = = =
The development team looked at the two principal competitors , the Ferrari F40 and the Porsche 959 . These were powered by compact , lightweight engines ; both the Ferrari and the Porsche used forced induction to obtain high power outputs from small @-@ displacement engines . Ferrari used a 2 @.@ 9 @-@ litre twin turbo V8 that produced 478 PS ( 352 kW ; 471 hp ) whilst Porsche used a 2 @.@ 9 @-@ litre twin @-@ turbo flat six producing 450 PS ( 330 kW ; 440 hp ) , resulting in cars that were significantly lighter and smaller than the XJ220 concept : the Ferrari was lighter by 600 kg and 710 mm shorter , whilst the Porsche was 250 kg lighter and 870 mm shorter . The Porsche 's specifications were closer to the Jaguar 's , with four @-@ wheel drive and a luxurious interior . By comparison the rear @-@ wheel driven Ferrari had a very basic interior , with no carpets , door handles or a stereo .
= = = Engine = = =
The production XJ220 used a 3 @.@ 5 @-@ litre ( 3498 cc ) twin turbocharged engine , which was given the designation Jaguar / TWR JV6 . This engine , which replaced the Jaguar V12 engine featured in the concept car , was a heavily redesigned and significantly altered version of the Austin Rover V64V V6 engine . The decision to change the engine was based on engine weight and dimensions , as well as to environmental emission considerations . Use of the shorter V6 engine design allowed the wheelbase of the XJ220 to be shortened and its weight to be reduced ; the V12 engine was definitively ruled out when it was determined it would have difficulty in meeting emissions legislation whilst producing the required power and torque .
TWR purchased the rights to the V64V engine from Austin Rover in 1989 and developed a completely new turbocharged engine , codenamed JV6 , under the auspices of Allan Scott , with proportions roughly similar to the V64V , and suitable for Sportcar racing . TWR redesigned all parts of the engine , increasing the displacement to 3 @.@ 5 litres , and adding two Garrett TO3 turbochargers . The JV6 engine would first be used in the JaguarSport XJR @-@ 10 and XJR @-@ 11 racing cars ; its compact dimensions and low weight made it an ideal candidate for the XJ220 . The engine had a 90 ° bank angle , four valves per cylinder and belt @-@ driven double overhead camshafts . It shares a number of design features with the Cosworth DFV Formula One engine .
The V64V engine chosen had a short but successful career as a purpose @-@ designed racing car engine . It was designed by Cosworth engine designer David Wood for Austin Rover Group 's Metro derived Group B rally car , the MG Metro 6R4 . The redesign work necessary to create the Jaguar / TWR JV6 engine was undertaken by Andrew Barnes , TWR 's Powertrain Manager , and also involved Swiss engine builder Max Heidegger who had designed and built the race engines used in the XJR @-@ 10 and XJR @-@ 11 racing cars .
The XJ220 's engine had a bore and stroke of 94 mm × 84 mm ( 3 @.@ 70 by 3 @.@ 31 inches ) , dry sump lubrication , Zytek multi point fuel injection with dual injectors and Zytek electronic engine management . The engine was manufactured with an aluminium cylinder block , aluminium cylinder heads with steel connecting rods and crankshaft , and in the standard state of tune , it produced a maximum power of 550 PS ( 400 kW ; 540 hp ) at 7200 rpm and torque of 475 lb · ft ( 644 N · m ) at 4500 rpm . The XJ220 can accelerate from 0 – 60 miles per hour in 3 @.@ 6 seconds and reach a top speed of 213 miles per hour .
The exhaust system is equipped with two catalytic converters , which reduced the power output of the engine . During testing at the Nardò Ring in Italy the XJ220 , driven by 1990 Le Mans Winner Martin Brundle could achieve a top speed of 217 @.@ 1 miles per hour when these catalytic converters were removed and the rev limiter was increased to 7,900rpm ; owing to the circular nature of the track , a speed of 217 mph ( 349 km / h ) is equivalent to 223 mph ( 359 km / h ) on a straight , level road . The V64V engine had the additional benefit of being very economical for such a powerful petrol engine , it was capable of achieving 32 mpg @-@ imp ( 8 @.@ 8 L / 100 km ; 27 mpg @-@ US ) , in contrast , the smallest @-@ engined Jaguar saloon of the time , the Jaguar XJ6 4 @.@ 0 could only achieve around 24 mpg @-@ imp ( 12 L / 100 km ; 20 mpg @-@ US ) .
= = = Transmission = = =
Four @-@ wheel drive was decided against early in the development process , for a number of reasons . It was thought rear @-@ wheel drive would be adequate in the majority of situations , that the additional complexity of the four @-@ wheel drive system would hinder the development process and potentially be problematic for the customer . FF Developments were contracted to provide the gearbox / transaxle assembly , modifying their four @-@ wheel drive transaxle assembly from the XJ220 concept into a pure rear @-@ wheel drive design for the production car . A five @-@ speed gearbox is fitted ; a six @-@ speed gearbox was considered but deemed unnecessary , as the torque characteristics of the engine made a sixth gear redundant . The transaxle featured a viscous coupling limited slip differential to improve traction .
The transmission system featured triple @-@ cone synchromeshing on first and second gears to handle rapid starts , whilst remaining relatively easy for the driver to engage and providing positive feel .
AP Racing provided an 8 @.@ 5 in ( 22 cm ) diameter clutch .
= = = Exterior = = =
The exterior retained the aluminium body panels of the XJ220 concept , but for the production vehicles , Abbey Panels of Coventry were contracted to provide the exterior panels . The scissor doors were dropped for the production model , and significant redesign work was carried out on the design when the wheelbase and overall length of the car was altered . Geoff Lawson , Design Director at Jaguar took a greater interest in the car and insisted the design had to be seen to be a Jaguar if it was to be successful in promoting the company . Keith Helfet returned to undertake the necessary redesign work mandated by the change in the wheelbase , which was reduced by 200 mm . The turbocharged engine required larger air intakes to feed the two intercoolers . Situated between the doors and the rear wheels , the air intakes were larger on the production version of the XJ220 than on the concept car . A number of small design changes for the body were tested in the wind tunnel ; the final version had a drag coefficient of 0 @.@ 36 with downforce of 3 @,@ 000 lb ( 1 @,@ 400 kg ) at 200 mph ( 320 km / h ) . The XJ220 was one of the first production cars to intentionally use underbody airflow and the venturi effect to generate downforce .
The rear lights used on the production XJ220 were taken from the Rover 200 .
= = = Chassis = = =
The production model utilised the same Alcan bonded honeycomb aluminium structure vehicle technology ( ASVT ) as the concept car for the chassis . The chassis design featured two box section rails which acted as the suspension mounting points and would provide an energy absorbing structure in the event of a frontal impact , these were successfully tested at speeds up to 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) , an integral roll cage formed part of the chassis and monocoque , providing additional structural rigidity for the car and allowing the XJ220 to easily pass stringent crash testing .
The rear @-@ wheel steering was dropped from the production car to save weight and reduce complexity , as was the height adjustable suspension and active aerodynamic technology . The suspension fitted to the production model consisted of front and rear independent suspension , double unequal length wishbones , inboard coil springs and anti @-@ roll bars , with Bilstein gas @-@ filled dampers . The suspension was designed in accordance with the FIA Group C specifications .
The braking system was designed by AP Racing and featured ventilated and cross @-@ drilled discs of 13 in ( 33 cm ) diameter at the front and 11 @.@ 8 in ( 30 cm ) diameter at the rear . The calipers are four pot aluminium units . JaguarSport designed the handbrake , which are separate calipers acting on the rear brake discs . Feedback from enthusiasts and racing drivers resulted in the decision to drop the anti @-@ lock braking system from the production car . The braking system was installed without a servo , but a number of owners found the brakes to be difficult to judge when cold and subsequently requested a servo to be fitted .
Rack and pinion steering was fitted , with 2 @.@ 5 turns lock to lock ; no power assistance was fitted . The Bridgestone Expedia S.01 asymmetric uni @-@ directional tyres were specially developed for the XJ220 and had to be rateable to a top speed in excess of 220 miles per hour ( 350 km / h ) , carry a doubling of load with the exceptionally high downforce at speed and maintain a compliant and comfortable ride . Rally alloy wheel specialists Speedline Corse designed the alloy wheels , these are both wider and have a larger diameter on the rear wheels ; 17 inches ( 43 cm ) wheels are fitted to the front and 18 inches ( 46 cm ) are fitted at the rear , with 255 / 55 ZR17 tyres at the front and 345 / 35 ZR18 tyres at the rear .
= = = Interior = = =
The interior was designed for two passengers and trimmed in leather . Leather trimmed sports seats are fitted together with electric windows and electrically adjustable heated mirrors . The dashboard unusually curves round and carries onto the drivers door , with a secondary instrument binnacle containing four analogue gauges , including a clock and voltmeter fitted on the front of the drivers door . Air conditioning and green tinted glazing was also fitted .
The luggage space consists of a small boot directly behind and above the rear portion of the engine , also trimmed in leather .
= = = Production = = =
The car was assembled in a purpose @-@ built factory at Wykham Mill , Bloxham near Banbury in Oxfordshire . HRH The Princess of Wales officially opened the factory and unveiled the first production XJ220 in October 1991 .
The JV6 engines used in the Jaguar racing cars were produced by Swiss engineer Max Heidegger , but delivering the number of engines required for the XJ220 program was considered beyond his capacity . TWR formed a division , TWR Road Engines , to manage the design , development , construction and testing of the engines for the production cars . The JV6 engine used in the XJ220 featured little commonality with the engines Heidegger built for use in the XJR racing cars , being specifically engineered to meet performance and in particular , the European emissions requirements , which the race engines didn 't have to meet .
FF Developments , in addition to their design work on the gearbox and rear axle assembly were given responsibility for their manufacture . The aluminium chassis components and body panels were manufactured and assembled at Abbey Panels factory in Coventry , before the body in white was delivered to the assembly plant at Bloxham . The car , including chassis and body components , consists of approximately 3000 unique parts .
The first customer delivery occurred in June 1992 , and production rates averaged one car per day . The last XJ220 rolled off the production line in April 1994 ; the factory was then transferred to Aston Martin and used for the assembly of the Aston Martin DB7 until 2004 .
= = Reception = =
Press coverage of the concept XJ220 in 1988 was overwhelmingly positive and contributed to the decision in 1989 to put the XJ220 into limited production . The production version of the car was first shown to the public in October 1991 , at the Tokyo Motor Show . The first car was released for press review in autumn 1991 .
Autocar reviewer Andrew Frankel was the first journalist to road @-@ test the car and reported : " Savage acceleration really is a given here . What 's really incredible about the XJ220 is its ability to provide such performance in a way that never , ever intimidates . " He was particularly impressed with the throttle response , the driver 's ability to control the performance of the car very precisely , and the way in which the engine delivers its power progressively rather than in one short burst .
Performance Car reviewer John Barker was also impressed with the performance as well as the ride and stability of the car , writing " The V6 has a rumbly , loping note which , in league with a remarkably supple ride , belies the speed we are travelling at . I glance to the speedo and have trouble believing that it is indicating 170 mph . " Barker was also impressed with the engineering , saying " this car is catalysed , fully homologated and has passed the same tests that a Volvo needs before going on sale , " going on to discuss how the vehicle looked at home on the racetrack thanks to the design . Autocar 's verdict was " Right now , the XJ220 gives us a standard by which all other fast cars can be compared . For the few who will actually own and , hopefully , use their XJ220s , the fact that they are in command of the most accomplished supercar ever made should suffice . "
Critics of the car consider it underwhelming for such an expensive , powerful and high performance machine . Motoring journalists have been critical of the interior and the car itself for being too comfortable and lacking the sense of occasion present with other supercars . Commentators who approve of the interior have criticised the luggage space as being " largely useless " . Journalists and other commentators often bemoaned the lack of the Jaguar V12 engine and other technical components fitted to the concept car . Contemporary reviews pondered on whether the sales performance and residual values would have been improved by sticking more closely to the specification of the concept car .
Sales performance was disappointing . Jaguar had intended to produce up to 350 cars , but production ceased in 1994 with 275 production cars produced , not all of which had been sold ; some left @-@ hand drive examples were still available in 1997 . The recession left many of those who placed a deposit unable to complete the purchase . The index linking of contracts exacerbated the issue , and added almost £ 200 @,@ 000 to the purchase price between early 1990 and mid @-@ 1992 . The McLaren F1 suffered from similarly poor sales performance , with just 71 cars sold against McLaren 's target of 300 . McLaren 's F1 program eventually turned a small profit thanks to the sale and servicing of the 28 GTR racing variants produced .
The price of collectible cars collapsed as a result of the recession over the six @-@ year period from 1989 – 94 ; for example , a highly collectible Ferrari 250 GTO sold for just $ 3 @.@ 5 million in 1994 , an $ 11 @.@ 1 million loss from its sale price in 1989 . The Jaguar XJ220 had attracted a significant number of speculators who hoped the scarcity of the XJ220 and enthusiasm for the Jaguar marque would push up prices overnight , allowing large profits to be made over a short period of time .
The market for supercars was growing when the production XJ220 was announced , with comparable cars immediately reselling after delivery for three and four times the list price . The Ferrari F40 had been selling for more than £ 800 @,@ 000 in 1990 , but like the XJ220 it was adversely affected by the recession , and by 1992 prices had dropped to between £ 100 @,@ 000 to £ 150 @,@ 000 .
Further complicating the sales situation was the announcement by JaguarSport of a road @-@ going version of the Jaguar XJR @-@ 9 , the last of the racing cars to feature the Jaguar V12 engine . The Jaguar XJR @-@ 15 was developed by TWR and styled by Peter Stevens whilst the XJ220 was being developed at Jaguar , and featured the V12 engine and a host of other technologies not adopted for the XJ220 , including carbon fibre construction and the option of a six @-@ speed racing gearbox . It was considerably rarer and more expensive than the XJ220 when it went on sale ; only 50 were built , each with a list price of £ 600 @,@ 000 ( $ 1 million ) in 1990 . It was designed primarily for racing but could be specified as a road @-@ legal vehicle . About half were built as road @-@ going variants , which added £ 55 @,@ 000 to the list price .
Jaguar customers attempting to withdraw from their contracted purchases were given the option to buy themselves out of their contracts , but by 1995 , the issue had resulted in legal action as buyers claimed the specification changes rendered any contracts void . Jaguar produced evidence clearly demonstrating that the vehicle specification shown in the contract matched the vehicle that was delivered , and the presiding judge , John Donaldson , quickly ruled in Jaguar 's favour . The last of the unsold XJ220s were sold for £ 127 @,@ 550 plus VAT in 1997 . While never officially approved for sale in the United States , the XJ220 was approved under the Show and Display exemption by 2001 .
The XJ220 remains popular with the contemporary motoring press ; Evo journalist David Vivian , writing a head @-@ to @-@ head test between the XJ220 and the Lamborghini Murcielago in 2009 , commented that " going ludicrously fast seems trivially easy " , and acknowledged that the decision to change the V12 engine for a turbocharged V6 engine has more recently become acceptable . Vivian was impressed by the car 's ride , handling and grip .
= = Racing = =
A racing version was introduced at the 1993 Autosport International motor show ; given the model name XJ220 @-@ C , it was built to compete in FISA GT racing . The XJ220 @-@ C driven by Win Percy won its first race , a round of the BRDC National Sports GT Challenge at Silverstone .
Three works XJ220 @-@ Cs were entered in the 1993 24 Hours of Le Mans race , in the newly created Grand Touring Class . John Nielsen , David Brabham and David Coulthard won the GT class , beating Porsche by two laps ; the other two cars retired , both through engine failure . However , the class win was revoked when the Jaguar XJ220 @-@ C was controversially disqualified for failing to run with catalytic converters . The Jaguars had passed scrutiny and completed the first day of qualifying when senior steward Alain Bertaut complained that Jaguar were not running catalytic converters . The cars had been entered under the IMSA GT category and Bertaut claimed that they needed to run with catalysts . The cars ran in the race under appeal . International Motor Sports Association ( IMSA ) officials wrote to the Automobile Club de l 'Ouest ( ACO ) ( English : Automobile Club of the West ) , organisers of the 24 Hours of Le Mans , confirming that the XJ220s had complied with IMSA rules . Jaguar won their appeal ( supported by the FIA ) but were nevertheless disqualified , as the ACO confirmed that the appeal had not been lodged in time .
Four cars were entered in the GT1 class for the 1995 24 Hours of Le Mans , two by PC Automotive Jaguar and two by Chamberlain Engineering , though the latter did not run their cars . Neither team had Jaguar or TWR backing ; both of PC Automotive 's cars were outpaced by the new McLaren F1 GTR . Richard Piper , Tiff Needell and James Weaver were holding fourth position until an engine failure during the night , ending their race , whilst the second XJ220 retired after leaving the road .
An XJ220 was also used in the Italian GT Championship , although without factory support ; it raced in Martini livery . The XJ220C was promoted in the United States in the @-@ made @-@ for @-@ TV " Fast Masters " racing series at Indianapolis Raceway Park , airing on ESPN in the summer of 1993 and featuring invited drivers over 50 years old in an elimination format .
TWR developed a further six XJ220 @-@ S road cars , featuring one @-@ piece carbon @-@ fiber @-@ reinforced polymer front and rear bodywork ; the engine was tuned to 700 PS ( 510 kW ; 690 hp ) . The XJ220 @-@ S models did away with the hidden headlamps of the original and instead opted for perspex covered lights . The S models were essentially road @-@ going versions of the XJ220 @-@ C racer , and as a result featured a much simpler race @-@ orientated interior with kevlar seats and the removal of the leather trim . Colin Goodwin , a writer for Autocar , tested an XJ220 @-@ S in June 1995 at Millbrook Proving Ground and set the lap record at an average speed of 180 @.@ 4 mph ( 290 @.@ 3 km / h ) .
= = Jaguar XJ220 Pininfarina = =
The Jaguar XJ220 Pininfarina is a special XJ220 built in 1995 for the Sultan of Brunei and his brother Prince Jefri , who commissioned a number of rare and one @-@ off heavily modified cars based on expensive luxury cars . This car was modified by Pininfarina , with modifications including fixed headlights , new rear lights with a redesigned double @-@ vane rear wing , and a new interior package . The car also comes with dark green exterior paint .
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.